Cea BEE Principles of Timber Framed Construction Bac MU UC eae elecPrinciples of Timber Framed Construction A Guide to the Use of Swedish and Finnish Redwood and Whitewood in Timber Framed Dwellings ‘The Swedish Finnish Timber Council 21/25 Carolgate Retford, Notts. DN22 6BZ Retford (0777) 706616 ‘The Council takes cate to give information and advice from reliable sources which is accurate atthe time ‘of publishing but without responsibilty on the pert of the Councilor its steffForeword ‘Timber framed houses have over the past two to three decades played an important role in meeting the demand for housing in the U.K. ‘This amazing development in the use of timber frme con- struction in the U.K. reflects a world-wide preference for this method of buiiding. There are more timber frame assembling i.e, about 1 house per day. If studs can be cut for stock or alternatively bought-in pre-cut, then one cross cut saw is probably all that is required unless very high outputs are required. There are modern numerically controlled saws available which are ideally suited for use where a catalogue of repeated standard house types are produced. 4.2.2. The Assembly Process Where repeated operations are being carried out, as in the case of a stud frame, and where a fair degree of accuracy is required some form of assembly jig, is essential. ‘Aig can be very simply made or very sophisticated In the early stages of production the assembly jig may consist of a flat table with a plywood or T & G boarding top on timber bearers and timber or metal. legs. The table should be large enough to accom- ‘modate the largest panel to be made (usually about 2.4m high and up to 3.6m wide). (See Fig. 4/1). ‘The location in the jig can be achieved by prefixing stops on one edge and one side, these stops will usually be hardwood blocks or metal cleats secured to the top. (See Fig. 4/1) Various types of clamp can be used to clamp up the frame. In the early stages ordinary wedges may be driven in. Later on these may be exchanged for mechanical or pneumatic quick release clamps. ‘The assembled frame is usually removed from the jig and slid to another position for fixing the sheathing board. Normall not be necessary to tum over ‘the panel at this stage unless insulation, windows etc. are to be fixed in the factory. Described is a fairly simple principle which by and large is used by many timber framed house manu- facturers although jigs may vary in sophistication depending upon throughput. A development from this is a digitally controlled cutting and assembly machine. ‘The pre-cut members are fed to two men who feed them into predetermined places on a moving con- veyor system. Nailing of studs and plywood is carried out by pre-set pneumatic nailing equipment. All ‘operations are controlled by a punch card. The cost ‘of such equipment is high and clearly a very high output is necessary to justify such an investment. Fined stops a. Height of panel determined by stu langth sig marked to show stud ' positions or permanent |estops may be ftedy ba aR a of nado oar ana tne T [ecres to tp 1 a oe o fecha nating Lt window head Position marked ‘Cramping or wedging pressure Fig. 4/1 164.2.3 Connections Even with expensive jigs the most common type of connection is two nails usually 90mm (3%") x 8 gauge as shown in Fig. 4/2. These are driven by hammers or pneumatic nailing guns. Nailing guns are Available for hand operation or for mounting directly onto the jig. Fig. 4/2 All joints in members will be butt joints. Rigidity will be given to the panel once the sheathing has been fixed. Where panels, such as party walls and parti- tions will not be lined until they are fixed on the site it is advisable to fix a temporary diagonal brace to ensure rigidity and squareness during transit. Large panels with door openings in them are basically unstable during handling and it is advisable to leave the bottom plate continuous so that it may be cut ‘ut once the panel has been fixed in position (see Fig. 4/3). Removed on site Fig. 4/3 Plywood or other sheathing material will normally be nailed or stapled to the studs. Since in most cases this sheathing performs a structural function it is important that the designer's instructions for nail or staple size and centres are followed carefully. If ulty is experienced with maintaining nail centres, a simple yardstick can be produced which will pre- mark the centres of fixing (see Fig. 4/4). Experience ‘shows that in a very short time the operator will be able to reproduce @ nailing pattern by eye to a fair degree of accuracy. Yarcitick Proposed ral position Sheathing > ‘Stud frame Fig. 4/4 4.2.4 Tolerances Panels are normally made with a minus tolerance. With panels of up to 2.4m high and up to 3.6 metres long it should be quite possible to manufacture withi a tolerance of plus 0 minus 3mm in both directions. 4.2.8 Handling and Transport Panels are seldom very heavy and can be handled manually or moved on gravity conveyors or hand operated pallet trucks etc. It would be unusual to require overhead conveyors or gantry cranes unless undertaking whols house fabrication. For transporting to store or loading bay a fork lift truck might be used. The fork lift might also handle raw material to and from the machines. Marking of panels and order of despatch is all important at this stage. Panels must be marked clearly with their code number or other reference so that site staff know their intended position. ‘Components should be despatched in complete house sets. There is no merit in sending all panels of one type to a site, it may simplify manufacture but it makes progress on site almost impossible. It will help if treated sole plates for the complete scheme can be sent in advance of the house shells or at least with the first available consignment. Delivery will almost certainly be by lorry and there are certain restrictions which should be noted to ensure that panels or loads will not be too large or extremely expensive to transport. Details of these restrictions are given in the Swedish Finnish Timber Council Brown ‘Cover publication, ‘Timber Stud falls" 4.3. Preservation of Components Many decades of experience throughout North ‘America, Scandinavia and indeed the U.K. would indicate that there is no technical justification for the preservation of the structural timber framework of 7a timber framed house. In all the countries where timber framed construction is commonplace it is ‘acknowledged that those members in ground contact or in direct contact with masonry should be ade- quately protected but that any preservation beyond those essential elements can only be regarded as insurance against possible construction defects. Nevertheless, accepting that in matters such as preservation decisions can be taken on emoti rather than technical grounds the NHBC in their Practice Note 5 require preservation of all members comprising the extemal shell of a house. For houses built under the NHBC warranty scheme the following is a summary of their requirements. 4.3.1 NHBC Requirements for Timber Framing External wall framing rated less than moderately durable (Princes Risborough Laboratory — Technical Note 40) or containing sapwood must be preserva- ively treated in accordance with Table 4/1. This, ‘means in effect that all timbers currently in common use for timber framed house framing must be pres- ervatively treated. Figure 4/5 identifies the specific members which require treatment and the level of treatment required. At present there is no requirement for the preserative ‘treatment of sheathing materials. eee Opie save peemwaies | Notes to Table 4/1 baer a eb voor Camponee specs Vicar | Frese | it Far] 1+ Any timber cut after Ota | T2Aber | vam | Posse | vacmen treatment shall be satin | tne | “tne | “aoe | ar | bar given two liberal seengh | iimes | ites | in) | isa! | ies applications of a 7 suitable colour tinted remot | 2 | 20 | 0 Josun | om | onc preservative. Foxzom poinaes |unitenood | 3 | 30 | 90 form | sar | az ma forng oxo |e on 2. Organic solvent aco thee ane | 3) oxi | as | 08320) treatments can be TTiinberincoiser [Redwood | 3] 90 0 Tosser] 18 —] 0.720 rendered ineffective betwee heating snd ‘when timber is in ese cng direct contact with sale pinesr boron |ntenood | 3 | 60 | 180. | oxrti | s40) | cz) goncrete or masonry ras we hy at | 0 on hence the restriction se ptes rte 3) ess | 15) | 0830) shown in category 3 See a catego 3 on of Table 4/1 etna i a) 3. The two Schedal ress = e . The two Schedules lee ee eee ‘ shown for Whitewood Sle pts set tow |itonood | 3 | 60 | 100 perises ereentonal eect ere cater alternatives. Se ot 2 lenge) (Gua. 4 Table 4/1. Preservative Treatment for foo! members No preseevation requirement Preservation Category (see Table 4/1) Category 1 Screed in direct Contact with Sete nia on Fig. 4/5 NHBC Practice Note 5 Requirements 18 = Category 2 EN Category 3 Where Sheathing carried over floor zone there ign requirement to preserve any flooring timbers. In the absence of sheathing @ ted to Cotegory 1 ‘ray be used. Alternatively joist ends, Blockings and docking within the external wall zone must De preservatwvely tested Bottom plate of sole plate fixed through d.p.c. into owerflosted sieb5: Methods of Erection ‘Timber framed houses can be erected either by man- handling or by the use of mechanical equipment and it is absolutely essential to decide upon the method to be employed at the design stage. Panels designed for man-handling can sometimes be bolted together to make machine loads but in general itis necessary to decide the size of gang or size and type of machine to be used and then design every component which is to be handled to the appropriate size and weight. 5.1 Manual Erection ‘At the design stage care should be taken to avoid complicated or time consuming operations in an otherwise straight-forward series of tasks. For example, itis advisable that sole plates are fixed and levelled on the sub-structure before the wall panels arrive on site. This ensures the rapid completion and weathering of the timber shell once erection starts. 5.2. Erection by Machine Table 5/1 gives approximate weights of timber framed wall panels. It should be borne in mind that one man alone or as part of a team would have difficulty in lifting more than 40kg. Therefore, a two man team would, for gxample, have cifficulty in carying and iting panel ‘The erection team is generally restricted to three or four men (three men is generally an economical team which can be organised without one or more being occasionally redundant). The team may comprise two carpenters and one labourer. Table 5/1 Approximate weights of timber framed wall panels Assuming: Nom: 100 x 50mm studs 8mm plywood sheathing 2.4m standard panel height. Crane erection does not suffer from the same limi- ns on weight, most machines carrying weights of 1 tonne with ease. However, with timber framed houses up to 3 storeys itis difficult to draw any clear conclusions about the relative economics of manual and crane erection, It is probably true to say that when amachine is used for erection there is a comparatively large and inflex- ible cost element which can only be made economic when the planned output is attained. With the manual erection there is more flexibility of cost, gangs can be reduced or augmented or switched to ather work, when materials fail to ative or organi- sation breaks down. Approximate weight of panels (kg) for varying widths (m) stud cone 0.6 12 18 24 3.0 3.6 4.2 48 5.4 400 29 45 67 83 105121 1430-159 181 600 23 39 58 n 86 102 «118134150 19With timber frames, actual fixing time, i.e. the time during which the crane is simply holding the material, is low and it is possible to attain a large number of lifts per hour. It is not, however, usual to have lifts anywhere near the weight capacity of the machine so that utilisation in terms of tonnes lifted per hour tends to be low compared with, for example, heavy concrete systems. The economics are improved by such devices as using prefabricated floor panels which are loaded, as pallets, with baths, plasterboard, doors etc. Cranes can be at a severe disadvantage when houses are built on steeply sloping or high density sites since machine access becomes very difficult. If crane erection is chosen then designers should ensure that wall panels incorporate lifting eyes or special hooks. Panels may have to be braced in order Fig. 5/1 20 5.3. Scaffolding In this country generally various forms of steel scaffolding are used. Ideally scaffolding should be designed with the building to give necessary access, speed of erection and removal. Attachments to the building should not make cladding or other external On large schemes where a scaffold is used during shall erection the shells can progress so rapidly that it is necessary to dismantle the scaffold in order to erect more shells only to find that it has to be re- erected at a later date for tiling and cladding. Some companies attempt to avoid using a scaffold during shell erection in order to avoid this expensive double handling, as shown in Fig. 5/1. However, be pointed out that the current requirements of the Health and Safety Executive demand the use of a ‘scaffold for edge protection at the stage immediately after the first floor deck is leid. However the shell is erected a scaffold will most certainly have to be erected for plumbers and the roof tilers. Since this operation will almost certainly precede the cladding or bricklaying care must be taken to employ a scaffold which does not obstruct the bricklayer. A scaffold with cantilever brackets provides the ideal solution.Fig. 5/2 Fig. 5/2 shows a site constructed cantilever scaffold but there are now many types of proprietary canti- lever scaffolds available. Also available are a number of types of patented eaves scaffold which hang from the eaves plate and are intended to be used for tiling purposes. Care must be taken to ensure that the walls are stayed from the inside. Probably the most popular form of scaffold in use today is the proprietary self-supporting type. When using such scaffolding it is wise to ensure that the drains are laid early in the construction sequence so that the scaffold can be erected on a clean and level 5.4 Methods of Fixing and Tolerances The simplest method of jointing timber to timber is nailing and it is the only method whereby compon- ents can be temporarily fixed or stitched to allow for later adjustment of an assembly. Other fixings need only be adopted to meet the calculated stresses beyond the capabilities of nails. This has to be quali- fied by saying that complicated nailing patterns may have to be compared with bolts and other fixings for cost and effect on the sequence of operations. Details of normal nailing requirements are given in Section 14 of this book. Fixing sole plates to foundations is most easily done by ballistic nailing. A little extra care taken to ensure that the sole plate is fixed true and level (see Section 6.2) will be rewarded at later stages in the erection sequence. Panel tolerance should not be a problem on site. Most manufacturers supply wall panels to +0 ~ 3mm and, therefore, a build up of plus tolerance is most unlikely Panels are simply butted one to another and any ‘excess or deficiency of total length is accommodated in the gap at party walls or by an adjustable packing piece. Many manufacturers will send off-cuts of ply- wood etc. to the site for the purpose of providing packing pieces. 5.5. Safety During Erection ‘Timber framed houses may be structurally unstable during erection until the shell is completed and the floor joists and roof trusses fixed and decking and bracing installed. In some cases the shell may not be safe against maximum wind pressures until the roof covering is complete and windows glazed. This is obviously a risk during the erection of any structure but many of the problems may be avoided by fixing permanent horizontal wind bracing at an early stage and temporary diagonal braces to vertical panels. Floor decking provides a great deal of stiffness to the building and this is normally laid in the sequence of ‘erection. If it is not, for example with some types of compartment floor, some temporary diagonal bre cing should be laid horizontally, particularly during windy spells. Timber floors are designed for everyday domestic loads, storage of building materials on them during the course of eraction can, however, be carried out 's0 long as itis within reason, For example, one pallet load of plasterboard placed on spreaders for a short while will probably’be perfectly safe, whereas three pallet loads loaded on top of each other will almost certainly have a permanent if not disastrous effect. Site staff must remember that timber framed houses are lightweight constructions and loads imposed during erection should be distributed evenly. ‘As mentioned later in this book, timber framed houses rely to a large extent on lining materials for their fire safety. Once all the linings are fitted the dwellings moet all the necessary mandatory fire tandards. However, during the course of erection it is quite possible for long terraces of timber shells to stand without the protection of linings, fire stops etc. Fires can start accidentally on building sites and the evidence is that there is no shortage of vandals willing to lend a helping hand possibly resulting in considerable losses in materials and labour. Care should also be exercised by sub-contractors, such as plumbers, using blow lamps in partially erected structures. The problem can be minimised by fixing plasterboard or other linings as soon as possible, particularly long terrace blocks, to minimise fire spread. Indic tions are that priority should be given to external and party walls at ground floor level to reduce loss from deliberate arson. This should be followed by protec- tion of upper storeys as soon as possible. 216: Foundations, D.P.C’s etc. 6.1. Foundations Like any other buildings timber framed houses must be built on sound foundations, although the timber framed house is likely to be considerably lighter than the same size of traditional house. For the most part little advantage is taken of this, reduction in foundation loads and builders tend to build the same sort of foundations whatever the form of construction. This is not surprising since the most ‘common form of foundation in use today is the strip foundation. The width of the strip is normally NHBC Practice Note 5 = requires ventilation ‘auivalent of open L_ arpend every 3 frewes onde |} must be orained ot L feast 150mm below DPC — 5 oh F | { FL drain TY __ tk i | i 5 ]] | I) ; H i i) é il Nv TAI with ‘pressure but usually around 700mm Fig. 6/1 Strip Foundation governed by the practical consideration of the minimum space in which a bricklayer can work. Consequently, the practical minimum width of around 700mm has been adopted. For most normal soil conditions or even well compacted fill material this width would be sufficient to carry most heavily loaded two storey walls, (see Fig. 6/1). Even when single skin claddings are used instead of brick veneer the strip must remain the same width ‘even though the load on the foundation may be a half that of a traditional house, (see Fig. 6/2). ‘The obvious progression from the strip foundation is the narrow strip foundation or ‘trench fill founda- tion which was designed specifically for use on stiff clay sites but with the lower loads of timber frame could be used on soils of lower bearing pressure. Trench fill foundations minimise the volume of Previous page is blank a ‘Timber framed wall a ucang > ore SH sured | TWh — Stee ~ “4 3 ‘OPM a _* Hardcore i Foundation sip |_- With varios with bearing tL K pressure but Sound Sr Fig. 6/2 Foundation for Single Skin Wall excavation and replace the cost and labour of foun- dation brickwork with cheaper concrete. Trenches are cut by a mechanical excavator and then filled with mass concrete, the width of trench being gov- erned in this case by the size of bucket available on the excavator, still usually about 400mm, although narrower buckets are available, (see Fig. 6/3). el] — rimber framed wal orc. See Fig. 6/1 Fig. 6/3 Trench Fill Foundation =H 23Experience around the world has shown that timber framed houses are less susceptible to distortion due to differential settlement than most other forms of construction. Even in the U.K. timber framed houses are being given preference in areas which are sub- ject to mining subsidence or where permissible bearing pressures are low. In such areas the raft foundation provides bending stiffness to reduce the distortion of superstructures_ due to differential settlement, (see Fig. 6/4). Specialist advice on foundation details should be sought. ppc Soe Fig. 6/1 oe 7] iM reinforcement Fig. 6/4 Raft Foundation One of the problems of foundations in use today is that they cannot be produced fast enough to keep pace with the erection time of the timber framed house. Because superstructures are typically erected in two days and up to 14 units per week is not un- ‘common, itis generally uneconomic to start erection until roads are in and foundations are well advanced. ‘On larger sites a period of up to six months may be required before superstructure erection begins to censure that site works are sufficiently advanced and this has tended to inhibit the search for foundation methods which can capitalise on the lightness of the house. (On most well run contracts this site works period is ut to good use and is the time when components are manufactured, other materials are ordered and delivered according to the programme. Careful plan- ning at this stage ensures a smooth and uninterrupted shell erection. ‘Special purpose foundations have been designed and tried in order to optimise the loading requirement for timber framed house footings and at the same time speed up the sub-structure operation. Although some of these methods have proved to be very suc- Cessful in practice, there is no evidence thet they are in anything but isolated use. A typical example is shown in Fig. 6/6. 24 Pc — oon See Fig, 6/1 o__<} 4 <> Reinforced concrete || around beam | | | Ih ae =~ | i tl lh ne Lei Fig. 6/5. Pile and Beam Foundation 6.2. Sole plate and Sole plate fixings Sole plates are not essential to the successful con- ‘struction of a timber framed house. Some designers panels directly to the sub-structure, however, although this can work perfectly well, it does intro duce an extra element of care and precision. Where used, the sole plates simplifies the sub-structure/ superstructure connections for several reasons: a). It provides a level, square and accurate horizontal ‘jig’ upon which all subsequent components will be erected. b) It provides a nailable fixing point which ensures rapid erection of the timber shell cc} It secures and protects the damp proof course at an early stage. d) It should transmit to the foundation, by acting in tension or shear, stress arising from wind Pressure on the finished structure. e} It transmits the vertical loads of the building to the foundation, Clearly a little extra care taken to ensure the correct position and level of the sole justified later on in the erection programme. With components manufactured to accurate limits it makes sense to ensure that the sole plate is Positioned correctly or any inaccuracies may be ‘compounded throughout the structure. It is, there- fore, particularly important that the foundations themselves be constructed as straight and level as, possible since there is a limit to how much inaccu- racy can be adjusted at sole plate level.Since the sole plate is the lowermost timber member it should under all circumstances be pressure impreg- nated with a preservative (see item 4.3). Adjustment in level of the sole plate may be carried out using shims of some fairly inert material at the fixing positions. After the fixings are complete any gap beneath the sole plate may be grouted with sand and ‘cement, as shown in Fig. 6/6. NHBC Practice Note 5 limits’ such bedding to a maximum of 20mm. Fig. 6/7 shows some alternative ways of fixing sole plates. Preservativly treated [sole plate — When necessary sole plate levelled local by shims then grouted to ensure that sole plate is continuously bedded Fig. 6/6 Shot fire pin inserted by smut explosive charge using purpose ‘made hammer toot agholt. Either routed in before ‘erection of sole plate or pocket left in concrete 20 allow raghalt te be postioned withthe sole plate (or panel and then grouted Te Expanding bolts Fig. 6/7 6.3 Damp Proof Courses There are many types of damp proof course layers in use and it is not the purpose of this book to differentiate between them. More of concern in this book is the method of attaching the sole plate to the foundation and its effect on the integrity of the damp proof course. ‘The most practical sole plate fixings, ie. nails or bolts must perforate the damp proof course. The question is, how significant is this perforation and how can its effects be minimised? ‘The fact is that through decades of use both here and overseas there has been no evidence of signifi cant by-passing of the damp proof course due to the reasonable perforation by nails or bolts. Probably, the biggest area of risk is where cast in bolts are used and the d.p.c. is fixed over them before the sole plate is secured. However carefully the holes in the d.p.c. 0 formed, are made they are bound to be somewhat larger than the bolt diameter. If concern is expressed about this detail then any doubts may be removed by using a compressible grommet. A bitumenised felt washer similar to that used on drive screws for corrugated iron is one suggestion but a bead of gunned or strip mastic will do equally well. (See Fig. 6/8.) Fig. 6/8 As stated in other parts of this book the sole plate itself should, without question, be impregnated with a preservative treatment (see item 4.3). No special attention will be necessary so far as nail fixings are concerned, particularly ballistic or pneu- matically driven. The very action of driving one of these nails creates a collar around the nail which will resist the passage of moisture (as shown in Fig. 6/9).. ‘The problem can also be put into perspective by 25examining the likely area of perforation in relation to the area of d.p.c. For example, a ballistic nail may be 4mm diameter and usually’ spaced at 600mm centres: Area of d.p.c.! 600mm length = 600 x 100 = 60 000mm? Area of perforation = 1» .2? = 12.5mm? % perforation = 0.2%. This calculation assumes that the actually withdrawn from the hole. In practice itis likely that the worst case will be a clearance around the nail of about 0. Imm. In this case the percentage perfor- ation will be 0.002%. Clearly, the area of perforation is minute and pro- vided the sole plate is proservatively treated there will be no harmful effects. If for some reason bolt or nail fixings are not desirable then there are any numb i which may be used. ii i ii Collar formed around masonry ral ie 6/9 267: Ground Floor Construction ‘The majority of timber framed houses built in the U.K. have been built with concrete ground floors of | various types. It has been estimated that of all ground floors constructed in all house types throughout Great Britain, in recent years, only about 14% have been of suspended timber construction. Bearing in mind thet a lege number of houses bull in Scotland have suspended timber floors the propor- | n in England and Wales is very low indeed. ore ‘Timber framed wall seo ig. 6 S0 far as timber framed construction is concemed, either form of ground floor construction may be used Gu 4 equally well. In many ways the suspended timber | ground floor makes a good deal of sense in a timber Framed house, Not only does it provide a want fel = heveoe to the floor but i enebles very nigh standards ot Insulation to be very easy incorporated nto the I mA i i l \ | i it i | | | | | round fgorInmaecnry Rovees around 26% ofthe | | | MN | i ground floor. The total heat loss from a timber framed house generally is much smaller because of | the high insulation values of walls and roof. The I suspended timber ground floor gives the opportunity i ‘to ensure even higher standards of thermal insulation. | | Root lose trom the external envelopes through the | For some years now building authorities have been requiring higher levels of steel reinforcement in concrete sub-structures. NHBC insist upon reinforce- ment to concrete slabs where fill exceeds 600mm. As problems with concrete slabs increase these restrictions are likely to become greater. Fig. 7/1 The use of the varying types of timber suspended ground floor is well worthy of consideration. 7.1. The Ground Floors in Use ‘There are many ground floor details but sketched in Figures 7/1~7/5 are the principal variations. ‘Screed (sol pate thickross) DPC — fermen See Fig. 6/1] “> Lightweight } lading —+ Sole plate {preservatvely estes) pc ‘tm sree a4 Ee 1 ou Frazee [INIT a \ {| — MCA ii Wa Fig. 7/2 Fig. 7/3 27ot Fig. 7/4 The Building Regulations 1985 Approved Document ‘suspended timber floor i \ | i A Ventiation ot | 300mm" per | 2 metres run ot wall pec bo {1 F J 7 done Rardcore [otic |__hot applied bitumen WE Fig. 7/5 The Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations 1981 ‘deemed to satisfy’ 28 7.21 Fire There are basically no fire requirements for a floor next to the ground and although the requirements for cavity barriers do not apply to ground floors consideration should be given ta the case where a timber framed separating wall is constructed on top of a timber ground floor. A cavity barrier should be provided so that the fire resistance of the separating wall cannot be prejudiced by an under floor void, as shown in Fig. 7/6. Header joist cavity bari PFA There are no requirements for the sound insulation of ground floors, but as in the case of fire resistance ‘care must be taken to ensure sound does not by-pass 2 party wall by travelling through voids in the floor construction supporting the base of the party wall. Fig. 7/6 7.2.2 Thermal Insulation There are currently no mandatory requirements for the thermal insulation of ground floors, although at the date of this book proposals are in hand to intro- duce a mandatory U value in the England and Wales Regulations. ‘The pressure to conserve energy is beginning to be felt and, so far as new buildings are concerned, the ‘ground floor is one area of the building where an early design decision on whether or not to insulate is required. Itis not so easy to add insulation at a later date, particularly to a concrete floor. ‘Timber ground floors offer the most practical solution for thermal insulation of ground floors. Methods for calculating the heat losses through solid and suspen- ded ground floors are described in Building Research Station Digest 145, ‘Heat losses through ground floors’ and CIBS Guide A3. 7.2.3. Moisture Control ‘The wording of the various Regulations is different but the requirements are the same. a) The floor shall be constructed so as to prevent the passage of moisture to its upper surface. b) The floor shall be so constructed that it is not adversely affected by moisture from the ground. Acceptable constructions are given in the Regula- tions, (some of which are illustrated in Figs. 7/1-7/5).It must be remembered that acceptable construc- tions are optional and not mandatory. Other forms of constructions may be used provided they meet criteria a) and b). 7.3 New Developments in Suspended Timber Ground Floors One of the major obstacles to the greater use of timber ground floors has been the requirement for concrete oversites in the England and Wales Regul- ations. In Scotland, where regulations permit a more practical solution, timber ground floors are used in larger numbers. ‘The purpose and efficiency of concrete oversites is far from clear, for whilst they provide ready support for sleeper walls they certainly cannot be considered to be a moisture barrier. The use of concrete over- sites has made the construction of suspended timber ground floors more costly than is necessary. The cost of preparing and laying a concrete oversite has made many builders feel that they might just 2s well make the concrete oversit into a finished floor. On sloping sites the cost of levelling and back filling for the oversite can be prohibitive. In North America and Scandinavia it has long been the practice to use a polythene moisture barrier in place of concrete or asphalt under suspended timber ground floors. In the U.K. TRADA has for some years been trying ‘to encourage the adoption of more sensible ground floor details based upon the experience gained over- seas. Building authorities are at last beginning to take ‘these suggestions seriously and there is a great deal of support for low cost suspended timber ground floors. Fig. 7/7 shows the general principles of the TRADA proposals. Ventilation Polythene weighed down with 50mm of weak FET WANA ‘The form of construction shown in Fig. 7/7 is accepted by Approved Document C4 and by the NHBC for use in England and Wales and is described in detail in their Practice Note 12. This practice note also approves the use of the Scottish Solum treat- ment (as shown in Fig. 7/5) for use in England and Wales. a Top soil removed and sub-soil topped with Suitable fine materiel ‘such a sand and ‘covered by 2 10003 polythene OPM Fig. 7/7 298: External Walls 8.1. Construction ‘The basic construction of the timber frame element of external walls of timber framed houses, covered by this book, is shown in Fig. 8/1 8.1.1 Head binder and sole plate In Figure 8/1 the wall panel is shown bounded by a head binder and sole plate. In Scandinavia this dupli- cation of horizontal members is relatively uncommon whereas in the U.K. it is common. There are good reasons why this is so although not all companies in the UK use them. Head binder External wall ane! Head plate Inside ting Sheathing and bulting paper (breather type) a Insulation ——— Sole plate \preservatvely weated) Damp proof course Fig. 8/1 Cladding not shown. ‘The bulk of the U.K. industry is based upon, off site, small panel prefabrication. The resulting time and effort involved in positioning, levelling and fixing down each individual panel during shell erection can be prohibitive. It is normal to pre-fix a sole plate which can be levelled and squered-up in advance, ‘thus ensuring the minimum of delay once the panels arrive and, assuming the panels to be accurately produced, ‘making any further adjustment in levels almost unnecessary. The subject of fixing levelling of sole plates is dealt with in more detail in Section 6 of this book. Itis necessary, common practice, and indeed a re- auirement of the National House Building Council that the bottom plates in timber framed dwellings be preservatively treated by an impregnation process (see Item 4.3), Previous page is blank With small panel production a head binder is normally introduced to tie all the panels together and to keep them in line ready for the erection of the floor or roof. Details for nailing of panels and head binders are given in Section 14. 8.1.2 The Framework The external wall framework of the house performs a multiple function. Firstly whatever the cladding, the timber frame carries all the vertical loads from roots and floors. Secondly, the sheathing ormally provides all the resistance to lateral forces. due to wind pressure on the whole building. In addi- tion the framework forms the backbone of the dwel- ling permitting fixing of decorative and fire resistant internal linings. The size of studs forming the external wall panels may vary but the most commonly used is 38 x 89 (although some manufacturers may use 100mm x 38mm or even 75mm x 50mm). Stud centres are normally dictated by the sizes of sheet materials which are to be fixed to them, commonly 400mm ‘or 600mm centres to suit 1260mm sheet widths. ‘Where localised concentrated loads occur itis usual to employ multiple studs of the basic size rather than increase the wall thickness to accommodate, perhaps, just one larger stud. External sheathing may be a variety of sheet materials ‘most popular of which has been plywood. In recent years other sheet materials such as fibreboard have been used increasingly. For houses constructed un Practice Note 6 requires the timber framework of the external walls to be preservatively treated. Details Of suitable methods of treatment are given in ftern 4.3, ‘the NHBC warranty 8.1.3. Vapour Check Membrane ‘A vapour check should be fixed on the inside face of the studs and on the ‘warm’ side of the insulation. The vapour check is intended to minimise the amount of water vapour, generated within the house, from ee oan a a aoe _ co : cone Ps CO OF OH £46 tenon Vepourbarier——| 1 cet Se Breather paper la | 4% | ma. 31permeating the internal lining and increasing the risk of condensation within the wall (see Fig. 8/2). Vapour checks may be of polythene sheets (500 gauge) or vapour check plasterboard. It is virtually impossible to obtain a vapour tight seal inside the house, however, every effort should be made to minimise the number of perforations in the mem- brane. Where they are essential they should be as ‘small as possible and be sealed with tape. Polythene sheets should be generously lapped, preferably over studs. Inevitably, some vapour will permeate through the membrane and it is, therefore, very important that, the outside covering of the external wall is vapour permeable so that vapour can ‘breathe’ to the outside air. Typical U.K. constructions have been proved to work in practice. 8.1.4 ‘Breather’ Building Paper It is normal to cover the external sheathing with a waterproof building paper or felt in order that the timber framed shell may be ‘weathered’ as soon as possible after erection. Its secondary function is to act as a waterproof back-up to the external cladding to protect the timber shell against wind driven rain which may penetrate the external cladding. It also acts as a draught proofer, sealing any gaps which may exist at panel junctions. Clearly, any type of waterproof membrane would fulfil these two functions, however, care must be taken to ensure that the membrane is not a vapour barrier. The wall panels themselves may have been wetted during construction and in the completed house vapour may pass the internal vapour check. It Is essential that this. moisture is allowed to permeate to the outside air. ‘Breather’ papers are lightweight building papers specially designed to be waterproof but at the same time vapour permeable. NHBC Practice Note 5 de- fines suitable breather paper as: ‘having a vapour resistance less than 0.6 MNs/g. When calculated from the results of tests carried out in accordance with BS3177 at 26°C and 75% relative humidity’. overlap 2 Staples driven through p.v.c. stip Fig. 8/3 32 ‘Some companies pre-fix the breather felt to their panels in the factory, especially when the sheathing is one which is susceptible to weather damage during transit and storage on site. More commonly the felt is fixed on site (which has the benefit of draught sealing the panel joints). Breather felt is normally purchased in 1000mm roll, widths, although much wider rolls are now available for factory fixing, and is fixed in horizontal widths around the house. Generous horizontal laps should bbe made with the upper layers overlapping the lower. Fixing is usually by nails or by stainless steel staples and a considerable amount of damage, associated with high winds pulling the felt over nail heads, can bbe avoided by tacking the felt through a P.V.C. strip. (See Fig. 8/3.) ‘Some sheathing materials, in common use in Scan- dinavia and to a lesser extent in the U.K., such as bitumen impregnated insulation board are in tham- selves waterproof and vapour permeable and breather felt is not usually necessary. It may be necessary, however, to tape the joints between sheets where ‘wall panels join in order to draught proof the con: struction and special measures may be necessary to protect bottom members (see NHBC PNG item 4.4b). 8.1.5 Insulation The insulation is fixed on the outside of the vapour check membrane. The insulation normally takes the form of glass or mineral wool quilt fixed in strips between the studs. Insulation quilts are obtainable in various densities and forms, some paper faced for extra rigidity and sometimes this paper face is extended so that it provides the fixing to the studs (see Fig. 8/4). However, the greater thickness of quilt more com- monly in use these days makes the need for paper reinforcement unnecessary. The NHBC require the Paper to be on the warm side. Fig. 8/4 In general the minimum thickness of ordinary glass (or mineral wool which is available for insulating external walls is 80mm. Thinner quilts ere obtainable from some specialist suppliers but these are seldom used in this application. Details of calculations of thermal insulation standard ‘to meet building regulations are given in paragraph 8.2 of this section. 8.1.6 Internal Linings. ‘The majority of timber framed houses built in the ULK. are lined internally with plasterboard. Modern dry lining techniques ensure smooth joints between sheets of plasterboard which are practically unde- tectable, In Scandinavia plasterboard is used but so are sheet ‘materials such as chipboard and fibreboard. Timberand timber based sheet materials suitably treated with flame retardants (see para 8.3.3) may be used in this country. The Building Regulations in England, Wales, N. Ireland and Scotland lay down identical requirements for the thermal insulation performance of dwellings. For external walls the thermal transmittance coeffi- it (U value} should not exceed 0.6 Wim?K. ‘At the time of publishing this book the England and Wales Regulations are subject to proposals for higher U values for walls. 8.2.1. Definitions Thermal transmittance coefficient 1 Sum of the thermal resistance of the external and internal surfaces plus those of the materials and cavities. ‘Thermal Conductivity (2) ‘2. is the measure of a material's abil heat and is measured in WimK. to transmit It is the quantity of heat in joules which will flow ‘through one square metre of the material one metre thick in one second when there is one degree Celsius difference in temperature between its surfaces (one watt is equivalent to one joule per second). NOTE The “' value is the figure given in most tables of thermal performances of materials. (The ‘smaller the value the greater is the resistance to the passage of heat.) In some tables ‘is given as ‘k’ ‘Thermal Resistivity (+) Thermal resistivity ris simply the reciprocal of con- ductivity A expressed in mK/W. Like conductivity, the resistivity is a material prop- erty based upon a 1 metre thickness of a material. ‘Thermal Resistance (R) ‘The thermal resistance of a material (or cavity} is the resistance to heat flow through a specific thickness of the material of unit area expressed in m? K/W. 'R’ is usod directly in the calculations of ‘U’ values and is the product of resistivity, 1, and the material thickness. €.9. A value given for timber = 0.14 Wimk thon ematy 7 14mkiw R for 25mm thickness = 7.14. x 1880 = 0.18m7K/W 8.2.2 Example of Calculating U value of External wall Given below is one example of how to calculate the U value of an external wall (as shown in Fig. 8/5) taking into account the effect of the studs where these occur. The figures are largely based upon the information given in CIBS Guide A3 : 1980. 4 4] 2.5mm plywood Pkt comm glass fire < Stude 100 x Oem at 600 centres 127mm plasterboard Fig. 8/5 ‘Through plane of insulati Inner and outer surace resistence =0.18 12:7mm plasterboard (9°27) =0.08 Air space {within stud panel) =0.18 2.5mm plywood (2,9988) =0.07 80mm glass fibre quitt (3982) =2.00 2.51m7K/W ‘Through plane of stud (see Fig. 8/6"). Inner and outer surece resirtance =0.18 12.7mm plesterooors (29132) =0.08 toomm sus (9192) 0.77 2.5mm plywood (20995) 0.07 Ms OmeKeW 0 we 2.4m “Note that under Scottish Regulations the ‘effect of studs may be Ignored. Fig. 8/6 33Average U value for panel in Fig. 8/6, 2.3 x 0.55 .05 x 3.5 [B88 x zr] a [392238 48:8 « rho. | = 035 + 011 U= 0.46Wim? K This excludes any contribution from the cladding which may be added, 0.9, Brick veneer, 0.13 Cavity, R 0.18 Average for wall, R 2.17 (Vos) Total R= 2,48m? KW Therefore average U for brick clad wall yore = rhe = 0.d0Wim? x ‘The U-value of this typical timber framed wall is well within the mandatory upper limit of 0.6 Wim? K required by Building Regulations, even when the contribution of external cladding is ignored. 8.2.3 Special Provisions of the Building Regulations ‘As explained in the introduction to this section, the Scottish Regulations set down specific U-value Fequirements for certain elements of dwellings. For external walls the U-value should not exceed 0.6 Wim? K and for roofs 0.35 Wim? K (see also Section 12). However, there is an additional provision in the Scottish Regulations which is not in the England and Wales Regulations. The U-value of any part of the wall or roof of the dwelling may exceed the stipu- lated value provided the total rate of heat loss does not exceed that which would have occurred had those elements been insulated to the Regulation values. In practical terms this means that a part of a wall may exceed the 0.6 W/m?°K U-value pro- vided other parts of the wall or roof are better than required. To avoid the problems of cold bridging there is an upper limit to U-value of 1.2 Wim? K for any part of an element. (This does not apply to windows.) 8.2.4 Limitations on Window Size The method of determining the permitted area of windows in a wall is one topic where the England and Wales Regulations and the Scottish Regulations disagree. Essentially the results are similar in that each would limit the area of glazing to about the ‘same extent but the Regulations are framed in such a way that compliance with one set of rules would ot necessarily confer compliance with the other. ‘The Building Regulations 1985 Pormitted area of Form of | windows expressed as glazing _| % of perimeter walling* Single 12% Double 24% Table 8/1 |_Triple 36% 34 “Where the external walls have a U-value lower than the stipulated 0.8 Wim? K window areas may be increased to a point where the calculated rate of heat loss is not greater than would have occurred had the walls and windows been designed in accordance with the stipulated values. (For the purpose of this calculation the U-values for windows should be taken as follows: Single glazed ~ 5.7, double glazed~2.8 and triple glazed— 2.0 Wim? K.) ‘The Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations 1981 (First Amendment) Permitted area of windows expressed as % of perimeter walling Single glazing ee Table 8/2 The Regulations do make provision for increasing window areas for double and triple-glazing but not in the same specific way as in England and Wales. ‘Window areas may be increased provided the resul- ting heat loss is not greater than would have been obtained had Table 8/2 been followed. Given the U- values for single, double and triple glazing as 5.7, 2.8 and 2.0 Wim? K respectively it is a simple matter to calculate the permitted percentages provided that all windows are either single, double or triple glazed. ‘These calculated values are given in Table 8/3. Permitted area of Form of | windows expressed as glazing _| % of perimeter walling Single 15% Double 30.5% Table 8/3 |_ Triple 42.75% | ‘The Regulations also limit the area of rooflights and concede that where there are no rooflights the per- mitted area of 2% of the roof area may be added to the permitted area of openings. There is no concession in the Scottish Regulations to permit increased window areas where wall U- Values are lower than the stipulated value of 0.6 im? K. 8.3. Fire Protection ‘The Building Regulations throughout the U.K. permit the use of timber stud external walls in dwellings. However, there are general rules for the wall itself and its coverings which are laid down to ensure the integrity of the wall in a fire situation. 8.3.1 Fire Resistance The fire resistance requirements for external walls of houses, flats or maisonettes up to 3 storeys in height are’as follows: Houses up to 3 storeys and flats or ‘maisonettes of 2 storeys — % hour Flats or maisonettes of 3 storeys — 1 hour‘These periods of fire resistance are determined by testing in accordance with BS476: Part 8. For a wall situated 1 metre or more from the boundary (see 8.3.2) the fire resistance is required only from the inside of the building. The fire resistance of a timber framed external wall is derived from three basic properties. The first contribution to the fire resistance of a stud wall is from the ining material. Itis not until this lining has been penetrated that the timber framework is exposed. ‘The second contribition comes from the studs them- selves. It is known that in fire, timber builds up a layer of protective charcoal which ensures the integrity of the residual cross section. The rate of charring can be predicted with some accuracy, so it is possible to determine how long a stud may be exposed to fire and stil carry the intended design Fite penetration of the panel as a whole will be resisted by the insulation ‘it itis resistant to high temperatures) and the external sheathing. Finally, the cladding will probably have some resistance t6 fre peneation. The insulation wil also protect he studs ‘Much testing by organisations like TRADA and the Fire Research Station has made it possible to predict the performance of many different linings in combin- ation with studs etc. At the time of writing this publication a British’ Standard Code of Practice (6S5268: Part 4: Section 4.2) giving a method of predictive assessment for timber stud walls is due for imminent publication. So far as external walls are concerned practical constructions have developed over the years and have generally been found to be capable of meeting the fire resistance requirements of the Regulations. Two of these are shown in Fig. 8/8. ‘8mm plywood 12.7rm plasterboaa Joints taped and files ‘80mm insulation quit 1 HOUR EXTERNAL WALL partment floor ly = 8mm plywood TE tomm insuiation quilt | 2 tayers of 12.7mm plasterboard | Joints taped and filed 3 1 HOUR EXTERNAL WALL Fig. 8/8 Many more examples are given in the SFTC publica- tion “Performance in Fire’. ‘TRADA is able to provide experience of other combi- nations of materials. 8.3.2 Proximity of Boundaries In England, Wales and Northern Ireland combustible materials are permitted in the external walls of houses and flats up to three storeys in height when they are closer than 1 metre to a boundary. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, where timber framed walls are permitted within 1 metre of a boundary, there are some extra requirements for the wall. The wall must be capable of resisting fire for the required period from both sides and the ex- ternal cladding must have Class O characteristics. Generally the more common type of external wali with cladding such as brickwork, tile hanging or rendering meets this requirement with ease. Other materials such as asbestos cement cladding can also meet the requirements and modern flame retardant treatments could soon make it possible for timber cladding to meet this requirement. In Scotland timber framed walls are permitted closer than 1 metre to the boundary in the specific case of houses up to 3 storeys in height but they must have 1 hour fire resistance from either side, the internal surface must be Class 1 and the external cladding must have a non-combustible surface. (Class Rolax- ation No. 75 published by the Scottish Development Department now extends this also to 3 storey flats and maisonettes) permitted within 1 metre of the boundary there are also rules which limit the proximity of external walls to the boundary on the basis of the area of windows, doors or combustible cladding over Imm thick. ‘Such areas are known as ‘Unprotected Areas’ and tules are laid down which enable the designer to determine how far a wall must be from a boundary if the unprotected area represents varying propor- tions of the area of a rectangle enclosing the whole of the unprotected area. Rules for calculation are given in: 36— Appendix J to AD B/2/3/4 of England and Wales Regulations. = 18 (6) of Scottish Regulations. Schedule 7 of Northern Ireland Regulations. A simplified example is shown below of how to determine the permitted distance from a boundary on the basis of the rules laid down in Appendix J to AD B/2/3/4, (Fig. 8/9 refers.) Timber lading Window 1.2m > 1.2m aon x 2.4 vera Brickwork Window i 1.8m 301.2 | Door 0.9m x 2.1m Fig. 8/9 Where part of an external wall is an unprotected area only because it has combustible material fixed to it as cladding, the area of such cladding may be re- garded as half its actual area for the purpose of t calculation. Diagram J2 of AD B/2/3/4. Schedule 7 Rule 2(a) Northern Ireland Regulations. Schedule 8 Rule 6(c) Scottish Regulations). ‘Area of cladding = % (ld x 2.4)=(1.2 x 1.2)) = ‘Area of openings 1.2% 1.2)4(1.8 x 1.2) +(0.9 x 2.1) = 08m? 49m? 9.57m? ‘Smallest enclosing rectangle is 6m x 6m= 36m? 9,57 x 100 27% Percentage of unprotected area 6m wide enclosing rectangle not exceeding 30% unprotected area. Min. distance from boundary must be 1.5 metres reference to the Schedul 8.3.3. Surface Spread of Flame All U.K. Building Regulations set down minimum standards for the surface spread of flame category which must be met by the internal surfaces of walls and ceilings. The surface of doors, door frame: windows and frames, fireplace surround, mantl shelves, fitted furniture and trim is excluded from this requirement. ‘The method of testing and of classifying the surface spread of flame properties of materials is detailed in 8S476: Part 7: 1971, ‘Surface Spread of Flame Test for Materials’. Untreated plywood, chipboard, hardboard or timber with a density of at least 400 kg/m? have a Class 3 rating. Surface treatments and impregnation treat. ments are available which will upgrade them to Class 1 or Class 0. Most manufacturers of board materials state the surface spread of flame classification for ‘their products. 36 ‘The Regulations require room surfaces in houses and flats to be not lower than: Houses up to 2 storeys— Ct Class 1 19 Class 3— Wall 3 storey houses and flats ~ Celing Class 1 Wal 3 storey houses and all flats ~ Circulation spaces and protected shafts to have ceilings and walls of Ciass 0. In the majority of timber framed houses the require- ‘ments are met by using plasterboard which satisfies both Class 0 and Class 1. Certain small areas of room walls are exempt from the Class 1 requirement and may be not lower than Class 3 provided that they are not larger than half the floor area of the room or 20m whichever isthe lesser.9: Intermediate Floors ‘There are basically two types of intermediate floor which are covered by the scope of this book, the house fioor and the compartment floor between flats. Compartment floors have special requirements for fire resistance and sound insulation and consequently are dealt with in detail in Section 11. This Section deals primarily with intermediate floors within houses but ‘some of the information on the construction of floors will obviously be common to both types. 91 9.1.1 Construction of Floors Basis for Design The economic design of timber intermediate floors is largely a matter of getting a favourable balance between joist spans, spacings, depths, breadths, grades of timber and size and thickness of floor decking. In timber framed construction, especially platform frame, other controlling factors come into play which may dictate the eventual solution. ‘One of the problems of sizing floor joists for modern houses is that about half the floor area has to be designed for large open areas whilst the remainder of the floor, although broken up into smaller spans, often has to have joists of at least equal depth, In Platform Frame construction the depth of the floor zone controls the overall finished storey height of the house (see Fig. 9/1). Clearly, it is impracticable to vary the depth of the floor zone within a house. loot zone Fig. 9/1 Many manufacturers, particularly those with high production rates, find that the necessary variation in ground and first floor panel heights, to cope with the possible changes in floor zone from one building to another is disruptive. They, therefore, tend to have settled on a fixed floor joist depth dimension which is only ever varied if a large quantity of similar houses are required. (On the other hand a small manufacturer may be quite happy to vary sizes from house to house if it is ‘economical to do so. ‘The centres of joists will normally be dictated by the ize of sheets of decking and ceiling board which are available. Since most sheets are available in 2400 200mm sizes then the convenient centres for joists are 600mm, 400mm or 300mm. Generally speaking the most economical solution will be found if the majority of joists can be spaced at 600mm centres, although it may be prudent to re- duce them to 400mm centres over limited, long span ateas if, for the same size of joist, the majority of joists can be spaced at 600mm centres. ‘The manufacturers who are committed to a constant depth of floor zone will vary centres to suit various design conditions, attempting to use 600mm centres wherever possible but dropping even as low as 300mm centres when a particular design dictates. Alternatively, thicker joists up to 75mm may be used over the longer spans to maintain the floor zone thickness. Experience seems to show that, by this method, most housing designs can be met with a constant joist depth of 200mm (basic size). ‘The majority of timber framed houses produced are constructed using a straightforward site erected joist and boarded floor, which fits in well with the concept ‘of manual erection without the need for mechanical plant. If, however, a contractor is building houses Using large panel construction erected with the aid of acrane then it makes sense to consider the possi- bility of prefabricated floor panels. Floor panels may simply be conventional joist and deck components prefabricated in crane handleable sections for rapid erection. Alternatively, the designer may decide to take full advantage of controlled factory prefabrication and Produce the components as stressed skin panels. Stressed skin panels are simply joisted panels where ‘the upper deck (and sometimes the lower) is struc- turally fixed, usually glued, to the joists so that it gontbutes tothe performance of the joists (see Fig. [> Deck glued to floor joists i ‘Wood based pane! ceilings may aso be glued to underside Fig. 9/2 37Stressed skin panels can certainly justity smaller joist sizes for given spans, or alternatively longer spans. However, the economics of such panels are far from clear. The use of stressed skin panels will almost certainly entail the use of a crane for erection. In most modern houses up to 50% of spans are much shorter than the maximum span thus minimising the effectiveness of such components. The trimming around staircases etc. often has stili to be done by conventional means. The cost of special gluing techniques and the duplication of edge joists also adds to the overall cost. 9.1.2 Trimmer Joists Trimmer joists will be required within timber floors of all types of house construction. If the full advan- tages of speedy shell erection and lightweight struc- ture are to be realized then a little thought should be given to the design of floor trimmers in timber framed Rouses. It is undesirable to hold up shell erection whilst a steel beam is obtained, lifted into place and connections mad ‘The construction will be simpler and more practical if trimmer beams can be produced in timber, either as solid rectangular sections or as built-up beams. ‘There are basically two principal requirements for trimmers which are firstly to trim around an opening in the floor (e.g. a staircase) and secondly to reduce {he span of florists overlong open spans (ee Fig. Timmer 8 Trimmer A Trimmer © Fig. 9/3 ‘Trimmers A and B (around openings) (Fig. 9/3) ‘Trimming round openings can usually be achieved by one or two joists joined together to form a trimmer beam as shown in Fig. 9/4. Trimmer beams around may often have to support non-load bear- ions on the floor above and these should If double joists are not able to support the load then itis often practical to consider a treble joist, or even larger multiples, rather than go for a specially pre- fabricated beam. This is particularly so, if it is undesirable to have a downstand beam around stair- ‘case openings. 38 Double trimmer nad together swath 75mm long nails at 300 Fig. 9/4 Nailing of built-up trimmers will usually be sufficient to ensure that the individual members act together ‘once the floor decking is in position. Care must be taken to ensure that the top and bottom edges are level (see Fig. 9/6). ‘me long nails at 200 centres staggered uit wp wimmer Fig. 9/5 Trimmer C (Fig. 9/3) ‘The design of trimmer beams supporting large areas of floor joist should be considered carefully. The deflection of a trimmer in position C will increase the apparent deflection of the main floor joists and should, therefore, be kept to a minimum (see Fi 9/6). [Actual detection of jst Datiection of Detected form ofjost and immer (Exaggerated for clay) Apparent deflection | Fig. 9/6 For short spans, say up to 2 metres, it should be possible to use a trimmer comprising double or even treble floor joists. In the main, spans will be longer than this and other means will have to be found to trim the main floor joists. The most straightforward solution is to use a built-up beam such as a plywood box beam or Glulam of a depth which does not require too great a downstand (see Fig. 9/7). Ply box beam or ilulem besm —Prasterboard Fig. 9/7In some cases it may be possible to up-stand the beam where there is a partition above without a door opening in it (see Fig. 9/8). — Stud pariton (no openings! Pasterboard taken down ‘over box beam Hangers faxed to stitfeners in ply ‘ox beam On some occasions, it is not convenient to have a down-stand in the iower ceiling line and it is not possible to have an up-stand. For reasonable trimmer spans it is worth considering the use of a steel flitched beam on these occasions. A steel flitched beam is a continuous steel plate sandwiched bet- ween two floor joists and the whole lot bolted together (see Fig. 9/9). Flitched beams can be relatively expensive and heavy but they have the advantage of fitting in well with the timber framed housing method and permitting trimming within the joist depth 10mm bolts with foes ea Floor jist mater round washers Under had and, «| , nt staggered B a 600mm contes 6.0 10mm hick st 1 ten pte, Tom oes {7 in depth than timber joists J Fig. 9/9 It must be realized that with all trimmers the perfor- mance should be checked by a competent designer, particularly the built-up beams and steel flitched beams. ‘The use of built-up beams to carry greater loads results in higher concentrations of load at their bearing points. it will often be necessary to support such beams on additional multiple studs, double, treble or even more. These requirements should also be checked by the house designer. 9.1.3 Supporting Partitions It is inevitable that floor joists will be required to support the load of partitions above. Some partitions are loadbearing but many are there simply for space separation. In two storey houses and flats loadbearing partitions ‘on the upper floor are most unusual since modern ‘trussed rafter roofs ensure that roof loads are trans- ferred directly to the front and rear walls. (Indeed, partitions under trussed rafter roofs should not be installed until after the roof has been erected. In addition space should be left to permit deflection of ‘the roof truss ceiling tie to prevent load from the roof being transferred to the floor beneath via the partition.) ‘When loadbearing partitions do occur on upper floors (more usual in 3 storey houses and flats) they should be arranged so that partitions line through to the foundations as shown in Fig. 9/10. Loacbeating partition i | Blockings or extra joist within floor space Fig. 910 _~ ——“ If walls cannot be in line then some local stiffening of the floor may be required and it is essential that this is referred to the house designer in all cases. Non-loadbearing partitions Although, by definition, non-Joadbearing partitions do not carry any load they do impose load on the floor joists beneath them by virtue of their own self weight. Itis not often realized that even a lightweight plasterboard lined stud partition spanning parallel to Joists imposes as much load on ajoist as itis designed ‘to carry in floor design load. In other words, a joist under non-loadbearing stud partition may be carry- ing twice as much load as it was designed for. On the other hand, a joist which for practical reasons is only spanning a fraction of its maximum permis- sible span may be able to cope quite easily with the extra weight of a partition. House designers will check individual cases but the simple rule illustrated in Fig. 9/11 at (a) and (b) usually proves to be satisfactory. Double joist formed when partition coincides with joist module Fig. 9/11 (a) 39xva joist under partition when between jist module Fig. 9/11 (b) This simple rule should be applied to cases where the supporting joists span over 50% of their maximum permissible span. Bolow 50% extra joists are not needed, but noggings between joists may be required (as shown in Fig. 9/12) NNogaings support Joists at 609% or loss Of their maximum permissible span Fig. 9/12 Where non-loadbearing partitions span perpendicular to floor joists, again the building designer should be consulted. A point load from a partition at the mid- span of a joist at its maximum span can and will have a significant effect. For the purposes of initial design non-loadbearing partitions may run over any part of, a joist provided the actual span of the joist is not in ‘excess of 90% of its maximum permissible span (see Fig. 9/13). Other cases may depend upon individual design circumstances. lightweight ——>] | partion CF sagim © Perttion may bein ay position provided actual span isnot greater ‘than 90% of pormisibie span of joist ly L Permissibe clear span Acta cla pan ' — Fig. 9/13, 40 @..g..If from standard tables the maximum span of a particular joist is 4.00 metres then a non- loadbearing timber stud partition may run per- pendicular to the joists anywhere in the span provided that the actual span does not exceed: 40x9% = Note Span tables for joists, and load span tables ate available free of charge from the Swedish Finnish Timber Coun 3.6 metres 9.1.4 Floor Decks ‘There are basically three major materials in use for floor decks: Tongued and Grooved Softwood Plywood Chipboard. Plywood and chipboard decks are available in a variety of types, square edged, tongued and grooved ete. Each type of deck has its devotees and each has its, advantages and disadvantages. Softwood tongued and grooved boarding has not been favoured among the existing timber framed house manufacturers. It is generally regarded as being a desirable floor finish but the cost of laying ‘and more importantly the delay in shell erection has minimised its use. Softwood boarding is very much the choice of the householder as it is a lot easier to carry out any maintenance within the floor zone, Above all, itis much more resistant to the occasional wetting during erection than some of the other sheet materials. The use of packs under the external wall Panels (as shown in Fig. 9/15) would take the boar- ding out of the critical path of shell erection and make Its use much more logical Plywood and chipboard are about equal in popularity among timber framed house manufacturers. Chip- board is generally less expensive but is rather more susceptible to the occasional soaking during erection and so it is imperative that the floor is protected immediately after laying. Decking fixed under Fig. 9/14Plywood (and chipboard) is normally obtained sheets of 2400 x 1200mm and careful planning essential if excessive wastage of material is to be avoided. Access into floor zones after completion can be very difficult with larger sheets of decking In normal ‘platform frame’ timber framed construction the deck is taken through to the outside face of the external walls (see Fig. 9/14). However this clearly ‘causes problems should the deck be damaged during ‘erection or should a section of it need to be lifted or replaced after completion. An alternative to this detail is to curtail the decking at the inside face of the external wall (see Fig. 9/15). This method also permits the erection of the upper walls and roof without the floor decking necessarily being completed. Pack replaces decking {or upper panels Jneranced in height) ig. 9/15 ‘The floor deck in a timber framed house acts as a horizontal diaphragm distributing lateral forces to the outside walls, therefore, itis most important that the deck is securely fixed around its edges. 9.1.5 Strutting Cross strutting of floor joists is a subject upon which there is some diversity of opinion. Traditionally herring-bone strutting of floors was carried out and was felt to be a good thing to do. 8S5268: Part 2 lays down the minimum structural requirements for cross strutting in the form of a table ‘of maximum depth to breadth ratios for various degrees of lateral support including bridging between joists. In addition there is a body of opinion which suggests that cross strutting in excess of the lateral bracing requirements of 855268 increases the stiffness of timber floors. This is a practical notion rather than scientific one, indeed, work carried out in Sweden shows that herring-bone strutting of a standard which can reasonably be expected on building sites is ineffective in providing transverse stiffness. However, many building authorities still hold deeply ‘entrenched views on this subject and, for example, NHBC Practice Note 5 lays down specific require ments for strutting. Since many of the timber framed houses currently being built are covered by the NHBC warranty scheme the requirements for strutting are reproduced in full below: Clause 7.8 from NHBC Practice Note 5 a) Ensure that floors are strutted in accordance with NHBC Handbook Clause Ca12. Cat2 Strutting (from Registered House — Builders Handbook) a) This clause shall apply to every floor, inclu- ding those designed in accordance with RaS. (RqG relates to designs carried out in accor- dance with CP112: Part 2.) b) Intermediate strutting shall be provided as follows:- Joist span (m) Rows of strutting Up to 2.5 None 2.5 0 4.5 1 Over 4.5 2 c) Where necessary, a row of strutting shall be provided adjacent to bearings on steelwork and the like. d) Herring-bone strutting shall be at least ‘38mm x 38mm and shall be located clear of the top and bottom edges of joists. ©) Solid strutting shall be at least 38mm thick. f)_ The depth of solid strutting shall be at least three-quarters of the depth of joists. 9) Strutting shall be blocked to walls at ends. b) Block between ends of joists on external walls. ©) Ensure that multiple joists are securely fixed together as specified by the engineer. 9.2 Thermal Insulation Requirements of Intermediate Floors ‘There are no mandatory requirements for intermediate floors in houses or flats. The only occasions when insulation may be required in floors is when they extend to form a roof of a lower storey or where they may span over a walkway between dwelling units (see Fig. 9/16). u=0.35 Floor extended t0 form roof of storey beiow Fig. 9/16 Wakway between dwelings 9.3. Fire Protection The fire resistance requirements for floors between flats are dealt with in Section 11 of this book. The fire resistance requirements for intermediate floors in houses, up to 3 storeys in height, fall into two categories. a) Houses of two storeys ~ modified half hour resistance, b)_ Houses of three storeys —full half hour resistance. aLike any other fire test to BS476 Part 8 there are three criteria of performance which have to be met — Stability ~ Integrity — Insulation. When a floor is re- quired to have a full half hour performance then it must be able to satisfy all three categories for the full half hour period. In the case of a modified half hour performance the standards for integrity and insulation are relaxed to only 15 minutes each whilst the floor under test must satisfy the stability criterion for a full 30 minutes. ‘What this means in real terms is that the conventional timber framed house floor, comprising 12.7mm plasterboard taped and filled, floor joists and timber decking (as shown in Fig. 9/17) meets the require- ‘ment for a modified half hour resistance but not the full half hour requirement. T&G floor decking atest 16mm thick 12.7mm plasterboard taped and files If joists ot max. 400 centres 8.5mm plasterboard may be used, Fig. 9/17 Since in 3 storey houses it is necessary that the two termediate floors must each provide a full half hour resistance then the construction of floors must be upgraded. There are a number of ways in which this can be achieved and some of the more common are shown 9/18. 12.7 Plasterboard 12.7mm Plasterboard + 10mm ‘5mm Piaster 0F 12.7mm plasterboard 12°F Plasterboard ‘Arex’ Plastic caling finish Fig. 9/18 ‘There are no requirements for surface spread of flame characteristics for floor decks but there are for the ceilings beneath them, which ere as follows: a) Houses of two storeys —Class 3 b) Houses of three storeys —Class 1 Since plasterboard is capable of providing a Class 0 oF Class 1 category there is no restriction on its use. Timber ceilings may be used for houses up to two storeys without any further treatment and in 3 storey houses if treated with a flame retardant to impart @ Class 1 surface. 42 British Standard BS5268: Part 4.1, ‘Fire Resistance of Timber Structures’, also lays down specific requirements for joist ‘hangers used in floors in general. These are: ‘Joist hangers formed from 1mm steel of the strap or shoe type’ ‘For floor construction up to and including half hour fire resistance this type may be used with a ceiling construction which affords 20 minutes protection e.g. 12mm plasterboard. ‘Joist hangers formed from at least 3mm steel of the substantial shoe type with gusset or strap bracing’ ‘For floor construction up to and including half hour fire resistance this type may be used without pro- tection. For 1 hour fire resisting floors a ceiling must be used affording at least 45 minutes protection e.g, 31mm plasterboard” In short, the light steel hangers may be used in floors of houses up to 3 storeys and flats up to 2 storeys. In 3 storey flats the heavy duty hangers described are needed. ‘The whole subject of fire behaviour of timber building elements is covered in greater detail in Swedish Finnish Timber Council publication ‘Performance in Fire’.10: Timber Separating Walls ‘As far back as 1964 the Timber Research and Development Association in conjunction with a major house builder pioneered the first twin leaf separating walls in the U.K. These first separating walls of timber construction had a high fire and sound resis- tance and were extensively tested by what was then the Building Reseach Station, That successful con- struction, with only slight modifications, is the one which is still in use today. The principle of the twin leaf separating wall is shown in Fig. 10/1 and further details are shown in Appendix A. 10.1. Requirements for Separating Walls in the U.K. In England and Wales ‘The Building Regulations, 1985" permit timber to be incorporated in the con” struction of separating walls between houses up to three storeys in height. Between flats vertical separation is regarded as a compartment wall but similarly is permitted in up to 3 storey flats. In Northern Ireland the requirements are the same as for England and Wales. ‘The Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations 1981 permit the incorporation of combustible materials in Separating walls of houses up to 3 storeys. Class Relaxation No. 75 published by the Scottish Develop- ‘ment Department extends the use of timber separ- ating walls to flats and maisonettes of up to 3 storeys. The specific performance requirements for such separating walls are basically similar whether in England, Wales, Northern Ireland or Scotland. Separating walls between houses and flats must have fire resistance, from either side, for a period of not less than 1 hour. Also, separating walls must be fire-stopped where they meet external walls and roofs, ‘The sound insulation performance of separating walls is subtly different in Scotland to the rest of the U.K. In Scotland a minimum sound insulation per- formance is laid down in the regulations in the form of a table of achievable results which must be satis- fied by test. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the regula- tions tequire the sound insulation performance of separating walls to be ‘reasonable’. In reality ‘rea- sonable’ is defined in the Approved Document E by the same rigorous test standard as in the Scottish regulations. in areas where testing is inappropriate ‘reasonable’ can mean of course ‘judged to be of a suitable standard’ e.g. small areas in flats between rooms and stairwells which cannot be tested by the method described in regulations. The regulations also state that any construction which has been tested may be used in assessing the performance of any ‘other wall similar to that tested and which is not likely to provide less resistance to the transmission of sound. ‘Asbestos insulation board frestop supporting mineral wool or mortar Asbestos insulation board oF ‘ited mineral woo cavity barrier i Header joist ‘321m plasterboard ining Restraining Ik comprising layers of ties q 18mm and 127mm 10 closer Fig. 10/1 10.2. Fire Resistance It is implicit in the Building Regulations that the requirement for a one hour fire resistance for a separating wall is intended to represent the total resistance through the overall thickness of the wall i.e, one habitable space to the other. Itis fortuitous ‘that in designing the timber framed separating wall for sound insulation purposes, the required thickness of plasterboard on each leaf is sufficient to provide a one hour fire resistance to the exposed leaf. Therefore, it is noticeable that, in all the fire tests which have been carried out on separating walls the one hour fire resistance has been provided by just one leaf. There is, thus, an additional margin of safety so far as the complete wall is concerned. 10.3. Sound Insulation Since the introduction of the test standard in the Building Regulations 1972 many twin leaf timber separating walls have been tested and surpassed the minimum implied standards. The Building Research Establishment has, since 1970, carried out a survey of performance of separating walls and they have found that timber framed separating walls constructed 43on the twin leaf principle, as shown in Fig. 10.1, have consistently surpassed the minimum standards laid down in Building Regulations. Further they project on a statistical basis that more than 99% of ‘such walls, constructed as shown, will satisfy the performance standard. These findings are somewhat contrary to the impres- sion often held where mass is assumed to be the most effective barrier to the passage of sound. On that basis it would follow that low mass would result poor sound insulation. Obviously there are other considerations such as the structural separation of the two timber framed leaves. Table 10/1 opposite enables a comparison to be made between masonry and timber framed separating walls. els goneraly appreciated thet the essocated con, structions affect the performance of any separati wall and this is reflected by the wording of all U-K- Building Regulations. Test data has indicated that the clear air space between the leaves of the timber framed elements is important to the sound performance of the whole wall and as a guide the open space, back to back of plasterboard (ignoring any acoustic insulation) should not be less than 250mm where the plaster- board linings are each 32mm thick and 220mm where ‘38mm plasterboard linings are used. (See Fig. 10.2). 410. 19mm & no. 27mm IF 200.250 Stab — 2.90, 19mm 119, 19mm = 20, 8.5mm 3 no, 12.7mm | sab — Fig. 10/2 44 ‘The 32mm plasterboard will normally comprise one layer of 12.7mm plasterboard fixed with joints staggered on top of a layer of 19mm plasterboard {in Scotland it is sometimes more common to have 3 layers comprising 12.7mm and two 9.5mm layers). The 38mm alternative will normally comprise three 12.7mm thicknesses. In future two layers of 15mm plasterboard may be used to meet the requirements.Table 10/1 Item Approximate ‘Sound transmission loss in dB. (See notes Separating wall Mass/unit area at frequencies in Hz below) construction kg/m? 125 250 500 1000 2000 Average (100) (200) 1. Solid brick or 464 Cee ye (Ee Gy 1) block plastered both sides 2. Cavity brick or 420 38 48 «688777 5B block-plastered both sides 50mm (2”) cavity (min.) 3. Cavity brick or 269 38 430«63 59 5950.4 block-plastered both sides. 75mm (3") cavity (min.) 4, Separated timber 66 44 83 66 62 62 55.4 frames lined with 32mm (1%") plasterboard 300mm (12") ‘cavity width and incorporating eral wool. 5. Separated timber 76 46 53 57 64 66 57.2 frames lined with 38mm (1%") plasterboard and 225mm 9" cavity (Plus mineral wool) Notes Construction 3 had concrete front and rear elevations and concrete plank and beam floors whilst the timber framed constructions incorporated a 2 storey height brick veneered timber framed external wall in the case of 5 and ground floor brick veneer to the timber frame with board and batten to the upper floor of 4. Both timber framed separating walls were associated with timber intermediate floors and 4 in addition, had a suspended timber ground floor. In the case of 4, placing windows in the elevations right up to the separating wall did not impair the successful results. (This table is reproduced by kind permission of TRADA). 4511. Timber Compartment Floors Compartment floors are floors which separate one flat or maisonette from another (as shown Wi) Comparment Floors Fig. 11/1 and under the regulations for England, Wales, Scot- land and Northern Ireland are required to have a stipulated fire and sound performance. All U.K. national Building Regulations permit the use of timber compartment floors for flats or maisonettes up to four storeys in height. 11.1, Sound Insulation Requirements Despite differences in the wording of all three sets of U.K. Building Regulations, their aim is the same, to provide a horizontal barrier between flats or maisonetes capable of providing a reduction in impact and airborne sound transmission to an accep- table level. Each set of Regulations lays down a table of results which are the minimum expected if a floor is tested in accordance with BS2750. A tolerance (adverse deviation) is permitted in these results which basically describe what used to be known as the Grade 1 floor. Building Regulations also describe ‘deemed to satisfy’ constructions for timber floors which are largely based upon use in traditional masonry dwellings. ‘Some floors which have been developed specifically for use in timber framed houses are described inter 11.2 Fire Resistance Requirements The fire resistance requirements are fairly straight- forward for compartment floors in flats or maisonettes: ire resistance. Scotland). resistance. ‘Two storeys in height — % hour (1 hour Three and four storeys~1 hour fi It should be noted that the floor constructions developed for use in timber framed flats usually depend upon heavy ceilings to provide sound insula- tion and frequently result in 1 hour fire resisting floors, even in two storey flats. This point should, however, be checked in all cases. Previous page is blank 11.3. Methods of Construction ‘There are many ways of constructing timber com- partment floors that have been tried over the years, and many of these are referred to in a leaflet pub- lished by the Timber Research and Development Association entitled ‘Party floors of timber con- struction in residential buildings’, Probably, the most widely used and widely tested timber frame compartment floor is the one illustrated in Fig. 11/2. This construction has been tested and shown to consistently meet the sound test require- ments of the Building Regulations when constructed properly. Tests also show the fire resistance rating for this floor to be 1 hour. Joie — T "8m chipboard or pywooe 13mm plasterboard on battens 25mm quilt |_| Tamm + 12.7 plasterboard bonded — Fig. 11/2 NOTE The performance of this floor relies very considerably on a high standard of construction and site supervision. Omission of a layer of plasterboard, for example will have a very significant effect on the performance of the floor, as will spiking the ‘floating’ battens to the floor joists when laying the plaster- board pugging or the upper floor deck. In recent years TRADA have been developing what is a basically new concept in timber compartment floors for timber framed houses. The principle is that, the structural discontinuity is provided at the ceiling level rather than as is more normal by isolating the Main loor joists mounted on resibent pads Foor deck See eed Tndepandsat ceiing bearers Insulation quit” notched over head binders 19mm + 12.7mm plesterboard ig. 11/3, 47Figure 11/3 shows the general principle of the con- struction but the success of the floor may depend upon the associated details and construction. The important advantage of this new concept is the rigid upper floor deck which simplifies the fixing of parti- tions (the nailing of sole plates through the floating deck shown in Fig. 11/2 is a common cause of reduc- fons in acoustic performance). This form of construction has been employed suc- cessfully in Scandinavia for many years. Further information on this form of construction can be obtained from the Timber Research and Develop: ment Association, 4812: Roofs Within the context of this booklet, roofs will normally be of trussed rafter construction although some flat roofs may be required from time to time. ‘Trussed rafters are eminently suited to timber framed construction because their close centres usually co- incide with the centres of wall studs. Because of the close centres and light weight, heavy concentrated loads are not generated. Their lightness and general ease of handling fits in very well with the methods of erection employed in the modern timber framed house, The basic requirements for trussed rafter roofs are as follows:- 12.1. Fire Requirements Building Regulations do not require roofs to have fire resistance but it is implicit that the roof should be constructed so as not to impair the fire performance of elements which do provide fire resistance. Ceilings under roofs must have a surface spread of flame category of Class 3 in houses up to two storeys and Class 1 in 3 storey houses and all flats. The normal ceiling of plasterboard will satisty the Class 1 requirement. Timber boarding will satisfy the Class 3 category and can be treated in order to attain Class 1. Diagonal braces Ladder trame Diagonal braces under raters Longitudinal binders Fig. 12/1 12.2. Structural Requirements Most trussed rafter manufacturers nowadays offer ‘@ complete design service and, therefore, compliance with the Codes of Practice BS5268: Parts 2 and 3 will normally be established for the timber framed house designer. ‘Trussed rafter roofs require wind bracing (generally as illustrated in Fig. 12/1) and this will be the respon- sibility of the house designer. Recommendations on roof bracing, tank supports etc are given in BS5268: Part 3, “Code of Practice for Trussed Rafter Roofs”. 12.3 Thermal Insulation Building Regulations require roofs of houses, flats and maisonettes to provide a thermal transmittance coefficient (U-value) of 0.35 Wim? K (see Fig 12/2). U Value 0.35 Wim? K sl eeeneee Fig. 12/2 ‘The requirements of the Regulations may be met by individual calculations or by use of a specified insu- lation thickness given in Section A of AD/L. So far as pitched, tiled roofs are concerned the Regulations for England and Wales offer one solution shown in Fig. 12/3, |Linsulation of: 89mm mineral fibre Fig. 12/3, 49The solutions provided by the Scottish Regulations are described in Fig. 12/4. Ties on bottens and countet boettens, rooting felt and | cating Ventiaton 93mm Minera fre but, mat of openings Toose fil (glass or rock) 1mm Mineral fre slab Simm Expanded polystyrene 581m Polyurethane nsting board Fig. 12/4 12.4 Durobility So far as trussed rafters in roofs of timber framed dwellings are concerned the risk of deterioration is slight, however, preservation if used may be re ‘garded at best as an insurance policy against the cost Of possible future remedial treatment. ‘The Building Regulations 1985 do, however, stipu- late certain areas of the country where treatment is mandatory because of the known incidence of house longhorn beetle attack. The areas are confined to the South East of England and are covered by the following local authorities:- The District of Bracknell The Borough of Elmbridge The District of Runnymede ‘The Borough of Spelthorne ‘The Borough of Surrey Heath The Borough of Woking ‘The Borough of Guildford (other than the area of the former Borough of Guildford) ‘The District of Hart (other than the area of the former Urban District of Fleet) In the Borough of Rushmoor, the area of the former Urban District of Famborough ‘The District of Waverley (other than the Parishes of Godalming and Haslemere) In the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead, the Parishes of Old Windsor, Sunningdale and ‘Sunninghill 12.5 Condensation There is nothing to suggest that timber framed houses are any more likely to experience condensa- tion in the roof space than any other form of construction. However, there is a need in all cases to consider propor ventiiation nd the use of vapour BS5250, ‘The control of condensation in dwellings’ ‘suggests the following: 50 “Where pitched roofs provide a good volume of air space, water vapour may usually be dispersed by ventilation. For roofs above about 15° pitch, venti- lation openings equivalent to a continuous opening of 10mm should be provided along two opposite sides of the roof. For roofs below about 15° pitch, the ventilation should be increased to the equivalent ‘of 25mm continuous openings. It may also be pos- sible to use gable ventilators. Sufficient thermal insulation should be included in, orimmediately above, ceilings to ensure that ceiling temperature is maintained above dewpoint. Care should be taken to ensure that such insulation does not block ventilation openings. Where roofs are covered with slates or tiles some fortuitous ventilation occurs. This helps to disperse any moisture vapour which might otherwise be trapped above underlining materials, but it is inad- visable for materials inthis position to be impervious to water vapour. The material should be permeable t0 water vapour (e.g. appropriate types of felt com- plying with the requirements of 8S747) or be laid to allow vapour transfer through joints. Although penetration of ceilings by services or by access ways to the roof space usually makes a com- plete vapour barrier at celling level impracticable, any vapour check is advantageous. Above bathrooms and kitchens and for all areas beneath low pitched toofs ceilings should include @ substantial vapour check, e.g, not less than 60 micron Polyethylene with seaied joints’. The Building Regulations 1985 make a specific requirement to ventilate pitched roofs with perma- rent vents along each side of a pitched roof with an area equivalent to the area of: a) a 10mm gap continuously along each side of a roof over 15° pitch. b)_@ 25mm gap continuously along each side of a roof under 15° pitch. Alternatively, roofs may be designed in accordance with the detailed recommendations of BS5250, ‘The Scottish Regulations have introduced a manda- tory requirement to consider interstitial condensation in roofs but offer no specific solutions. Compliance with BS5250 should satisfy this new requirement. NHBC Practice Note 5 recommends that vapour checks are not installed at ceilings under roofs unless alternative means for water vapour to escape have been provided.13: Internal Partitions ‘The timber stud partition is the most common form of internal space separation used in timber framed houses. Not only is it light, inexpensive and easy to erect but the same basic unit is capable of carrying all the loads required of a partition in dwelling houses. ‘Some timber framed developments do use very lightweight, non-loadbearing partitions for space separation on uppermost floors but generally the timber stud partition fits in so well with the form of construction that it tends to predominate. There are basically two types of partition used in a timber framed house, loadbearing and non-load bearing. Apart from compartment walls which may be non-lodbearing, only loadbearing partitions are required to have fire resistance, although frequently nnon-loadbearing partitions by virtue of their con- struction have an intrinsic fire resistance. Load- bearing partitions will often be designed to carry the imposed load of a floor whereas non-loadbearing partitions will not be designed for any loads other than their own self weight. Sometimes a building designer will use internal partitions to provide ‘racking’ stability to the house and these pertitions may or may not be loadbearing in the normal sense. 13.4 13.1.1 Construction Fabrication Basically, internal partitions are constructed on ex- actly the same basis as external wall panels except that structural sheathing, such as plywood, will not be pre-fixed to the components. Since, even in the case of loadbearing partitions, the loading on the studs is much less than in external wall panels, it is not unusual to see smaller studs used for internal partitions. For example if the ex- ternal wall studs are basically 89 or 100mm wide then it would not be unusual to see 63 or 75mm wide studs used for internal partitions. Studs below 63 or 75mm wide are not recommended since this is a practical minimum, due to the wall stiffness, which should not be reduced unless of special design e.g. stiffened sandwich panol. The first decision for the designer is whether to pre- fabricate his components in the factory, in the same way as the external wall components or on the site. ‘Some contractors like to produce the partitions insitu since the basic construction is very easy and it gives them the opportunity to make any final internal modifications. The difficulty of site fabrication is, of course, that unless the loadbearing partitions are made in advance of the shell erection then the whole erection operation is held up because the joists cannot be placed until loadbearing partitions are complete. Clearly, so far as partitions are concerned, at least the loadbearing ones should be pre-fabricated at the same time as the other wall panels. Non-loadbearing partitions may be pre-fabricated or constructed insitu, pethaps from pre-cut members. ince pre-fabricated stud partitions will not be lined Until they are on site and lifted into position in the house, they tend to be a little unstable during handling. It is a sensible idea to provide temporary diagonal braces across the face of the studs to keep Horiaontal noggings Diagonal brace rq | Fig. 13/1 panels square. Panels with mid-height noggings tend to be a little more rigid and have the added advantage of limiting any tendency of twist in the long, unres- trained studs (see Fig. 13/1). Openings in loadbearing partitions for doors etc. ‘must be reinforced with a lintel in the same way as external walls. Openings are usually not very wide and the size of lintels is usually fairly modest. The design of this lintel and the method of support should be checked by the house designer but Fig. 13/2 shows a few options for treating openings in parti- tions with various forms of fabrication. Cripple studs Loscbearng aperture ‘0 internal partion FE Removes on site ‘Non lossbearing aperture 51Aperture in prefabricated panels Crile studs fxod t0 prefabricated panels \Loadbearing aperture to internal parition formed on site between Completed paritions Fig. 13/2 (continued) 13.1.2 Erection Having decided where the partitions are to be fat cated it then has to be decided at which stage of the erection sequence they will be fixed. If all partitions are to be fixed in position as the shell erection pro- ‘gresses then there should be no difficulties. However, it is quite common for contractors to fix only those partitions which are essential to the shell erection, leaving the non-loadbearing partitions until alless critical time. If this is the case then there are ‘one or two points which must be considered. © Anexact room height pre-fabricated component cannot be fitted into position once the ceiling lining is in place. It is normal in these cases to produce a component up to 50mm undersize which can be rotated into position and wedged (see Fig. 13/3). ‘At ground floor level partitions may be fixed in exactly the same manner as external wall panels. Sole plates fixed in advance and levelled will make the final erection much easier. (Some examples are shown in Fig. 13/4.) iy Panel DP. aroung sole plate Sole pate pre || fixed and veld OPM, — _ = served Slob | Partin component fixed [Th arectiy to concrete siab Dec. —— Partition nailed through flooring Full height partition cannot be ited into place Folding wedges unger Fig. 13/3 Clearly, this problem does not apply if the stud frames'are actually constructed in the ope available. © Itmay not be possible to get large pre-fabricated components into the building, or upstairs once the shell erection is complete. Ensure that large components are stored within the dwelling at each stage of erection or limit the size of compo- nent to that which can be taken through door ‘openings or up staircases. Provision must be made within the floor and wall construction for 82 || ena jist Under 4 Acttona support at ight anges or parallel ‘oot sepportinglesdbearing pasion |. 13/4 Where partitions run parallel to the span of joists or roof trusses and do not coincide with an actual joist fr truss then noggings should be provided between adjacent joists to form a head fixing for the partition as shown in Fig. 13/5J Main joist i The bottom fixing of partitions to upper floors will normally be made directly into floor joists (see item 9.1.3 and Fig. 13/6). Noggings between main joists Head of partion naledto nogaing Fig. 13/5 LL Pertion runing peat! to joists Perition running at ight ‘anges to ots Fig. 13/6 Where joists span on to the top of a loadbearing partition care must be taken to ensure that loads are ot imposed over the centre of span of the head plate. Wherever possible there should be studs directly Under the bearing ends of joists but small deviations. of up to 150mm from the nearest stud position should not cause problems (see Fig. 13/7). Extra studs should not be necessary where partitions incorporate a head binder unless there are very heavy concen- trated loads, e.g. the bearing end of a trimmer beam. Where trimmed or other heavily loaded beams span on to partitions there must always be at least one stud beneath the bearing end. In some cases multiple studs may be required. It is quite normal for timber framed house designers, ‘to nominate certain of the internal ground floor parti- tions to help provide stability to the house as a whole. Such partitions may have special fixing details or just dense nailing requirements. They may even be lined | fSlonaty no oa stud needed if {extra Stud Now stud mode 2 [Wo Fig. 13/7 ‘on one side or both with a structural sheathing mem- brane. When such partitions are shown itis essential that these are erected during the main shell erection and the fixing instructions followed carefully. 13.2 Sound Insulation of Partitions ‘There are no mandatory requirements for sound insu- lation of internal partitions within houses or flats. ‘The National House Building Council have a require- ment for a 35dB sound reduction for partitions sep- arating w.c’s from habitable rooms. Given in Fig. 13/8 are a number of methods of constructing internal partitions with an indication of ‘their likely sound reduction performance. The figures quoted are extracted from a British Gypsum Informa- tion Bulletin but the thicknesses of insulation have been amended now to suit the minimum thicknesses. available. ql Studs at 400 - 30 68 zane! [Sone es 127mm € plasterboard || +} exch side || | i 75 x 50 stu © 680 centres < 2n0. 12.7mm||-<~—_| plasterboard tech side Fig. 13/8 53iste plasterboard 75 x 50 studs tach se |@ 300 centres 4 n0. 12.7 staggered plasterboard 2mm glass a) aun 20. 127mm Plasterboard a eeas Fig. 13/8 (continued) 13.3. Fire Resistance Only internal partitions which are loadbearing require fire resistance and they should have a fire resistance rating from each side equivelent to the rating of the structure which they support. n other words 8 ground floor loadbearing partition must have at least the same resistance to fire as the intermediate floor which it supports. For houses and flats up to 3 storeys in height the requirements of loadbearing partitions are summarised as follows: Houses up to three storeys — half hour Flats of two storeys = half hour Flats of three storeys = Thour. In general, the requirements for half hour fire resis tance in houses and two storey flats is met by the normal partition construction: 1 HOUR PARTITION 127mm plasterboard Min. 75 x 60 studs Each side taped and ited 1 600 canes Fig. 13/9 For 1 hour construction in three storey flats the con- struction shown in Fig. 13/9 may be up-rated by the addition of an extra layer of 12.7mm plasterboard each side (see Fig. 13/10). This extra layer should be fixed so that the vertical joints are staggered and joints in the external sheets should be taped and filled. Mineral wool insulation may also be required in the cavity to achieve 1 hour rating. Vertieat joints staggered __1 HOUR PARTITION e/g Surace joints 2 {2.7mm plasterboard taped and fils tach side Fig. 13/10 5414: Nailing and other Fastenings There are no hard and fast rules for the type and size of fastenings in timber framed houses. What suits ‘one manufacturer or contractor may not suit another. For example, some contractors prefer to bolt panels ‘together because they feel it simplifies their erection sequence. Many manufacturers now use pneumatic nailing equipment which tends to use nails of equi- valent length but smaller gauge than ordinary round wire nails. The use of pneumatic nailing equipment on site is 0 far unexploited in this country. In North America site nailing using pneumatic guns is very popular and ‘may see wider use in the U.K. in the future, The major criterion is that the fastenings are ade- quate for their intended purpose. Clearly this type of construction relies heavily on the inter connection between components. The simplest method of jointing timber to timber by nailing and the bulk of the experience which Now available on timber framed housing relates to all nailed construction. Other fastening methods should be judged on the basis of this established successful performance. ‘Some nailed joints are critical and should only ever be varied with the approval of the building designer e.g. the density and size of nails which connect piywood to a stud frame which has been designed to resist racking forces. Other joints, such as stud to plate joints in panels which are to be subsequently sheathed with plywood, are non-critical and may often be varied, subject to practical limitations. Given below are suggestions for some of the most, common types of connections in a timber framed house. All the information given is based upon ordinary round wire nails (unless otherwise stated). The sizes have been extracted from the catalogue of a nationwide builders supply merchant chain to ensure that they are types which are readily available The suggestions given may be regarded as a minimum standard and may be used to assess the performance of alternative fastenings. For example, annular ring or helically threaded nalis may show some advan- tages in certain situations. Pneumatic nails tend to be smaller in gauge than ordinary round wire nails, but if there is sufficient practical advantage in using them, then any shortcomings may often be overcome by the simple expedient of putting in a few extra nails, Pneumatically driven staples are now quite common {or fixing plywood or other sheathing to stud frames. It must be stressed, however, that manufacturers should not convert a nailing specification to staples without the knowledge and consent of the building designer, Most major timber framed house suppliers will pro- vide their own nailing schedule and this should always be followed when available. The following Suggestions are intended as a guide to building designers and specifiers. NOTE Reference to 75mm and 90mm long nails means 75 x 3.35mm (3” x 10g) and 90 x 4mm (3% x Bg) respectively. 14.1 Nailing During Manufacture (see Fig. 14/1) ‘8 300 centres, Staggered 76mm long tipple stud to main stud ‘5mm long at 600mm centres staggered 2 no, sections of timber nailed '2t 20 cenives. Staggered 7mm | tong Lint to main stud 40. 76mm long ‘Sheathing to stud frame. These fixings will {depend upon the sheathing being used and the degree of rigidity required. Sizes and centres will normally be specified by the building ‘designer and these should not be v Fig. 14/1 For plywood only the following nail sizes are sug- gested for various thicknesses of plywood. Nails, around the perimeter of sheet may be at 150, 100 ‘or 75mm centres depending upon racking require- ments. Intermediate fixings will normally be at 300mm centres. 8mm plywood — 60 x 3mm (2" x 119) 10mm plywood — 65 x 3.35mm (2%" x 10) 12.7mm plywood ~ 75 x 3.35mm (3” x 10g) Subject to approval by the building designer. ‘Staples may be substituted for nails when fixing ply ‘wood sheathing, Care must be taken to prevent over driving. For similar racking performances staples should be placed at half the centres prescribed for nails and of roughly the following proportions. 8mm plywood 32mm x 16g (10mm crown) 10mm plywood — 38mm x 16g (10mm crown) 12.7mm plywood — 45mm x 16g (10mm crown) Note that NHBC Practice Note 5 requires staples used for fixing sheathing to be from austenitic stainless steel 5514.2. Nailing During Erection For details see Figs. 14/2 and 14/3, ;- Head binder to panels J 7810ng at 600mm centres ca Double trimmer (nailed together! 75mm long 2 300mm contes staggered | Comer panel/panei/post 7mm long at 60mm centres staggered A) Trimmed joists to tummer MS framing anchor nailed (single tmmor iy! “eiemer to main joist, MS faring anchor or shoe Joists to header joist Zino. 75m long end nae ‘Header joist to head binder 75mm tong st 00mm canes Skew nailed Main joist to head binder 2no. 76mm long skew nailed Pana to sole plate (through bottom plate) Tiong st ‘00mm centres Panel to panel (through SS stud) Pbme Fong at 600 cen Trae te 0 mono Fig, 14/2 ieee “roe pr rg co Upper panels to joist header. 75 tong at 300 centres Fig. 14/3 5615: Fire Stops and Cavity Barriers The specific Building Regulations requirement for sub-dividing cavities to restrict the spread of smoke and flame is the same in all three sets of U.K. Buil- ding Regulations. 15.1. Definitions The rules for stopping cavities in the respective regulations are fairly complicated. However, if one extracts those parts relating to timber framed ‘dwellings up to 3 storeys in height then the rules are ‘somewhat more simple. Basically the Regulations have now re-defined the use of a fire stop and what was earlier referred to in the Regulations as a fire stop is now by definition, referred to as a cavity barrier. In other words, a cavity barrier is a device placed within the external cavity between the timber frame and a brick veneer, for example, or connecting ele- ments of structure to limit the area of the cavity through which flame and smoke may spread and is typifed by Fig. 15/1 A fire stop is now defined as a non-combustible material provided to seal any imperfections of fit between building elements or where openings are made through structural elements for services (see Fig. 15/14). cavity baie | $0 Fig. 15/1 15.1.1 Cavity Barriers So far as cavity barriers in timber framed dwellings are concerned they may be constructed of any one of the following materials: 8) asbestos insuletion board at least mm thick b) plasterboard at least 12.5mm thick ©) sheet steel at least 3mm thick 4) timber at least 38mm thick e) wire reinforced mineral wool blanket at least ‘50mm thick cement mortar, plaster or other non-combustible material at least 25mm thick 9) any other construction capable of providing fire resistance of at least half an hour. {In order to avoid repeating rules which are laid down in the Regulations the sketches (Fig, 15/2 15/10), ‘summarise the requirements as they apply to timber framed dwellings of up to three storeys. Cavity barter ‘round perimeter of opening Note: this mension ‘28mm min. 2 Separate cavity barrier is not requied Fig. 15/2 cavity barver Cavity barter (normally provided by Hoo joist n or header) (Canty barter FRONT AND REAR WALLS Fig. 15/3 ‘The sketches (15/2 ~ 15/4) show the obligatory posi- tions of cavity barriers in the cavity formed between a timber framed wall and a masonry veneer. {In addition there are rules covering the maximum size of cavity which are summarised in Fig. 15/5. 87Cavity barrier TT Hill [cavity barrier (normaty provided by oor eit or heacer) |— cavity barter GABLE WALLS. Fig. 15/4 ‘am max u ‘8m max “aaa Party wat No cavity 10 exceed on in length Fig. 15/5 Cavity size limitations The requirements for cavity barriers in party walls are basically the same as for gable walls and are shown in Fig. 15/6. “This ig afr stop and ust be contracted io sccordance with 15.12. a {- cavity barr Tt cavity barrier (usualy or joists) Cavity barriers may also be required within the timber framed structure itself at the junction of structural elements (~ cavities within structural elements must not be allowed to interconnect} (see Fig. 18/7). This junction must have a cavity barter (usually prowded by header jot) Cavity bares may be required within the floorspace i the ‘open’ span exceeds 8m Fig. 15/7 ‘Most other junctions are automatically ‘stopped’ by nature of the timber framework but the Regulations require that any cavity passing the end of a fire resisting element or door shall be provided with a cavity barrier (see Fig. 15/8) L Panttion requiring fire resistance Cavity barrier peeeeee _—— Cavity barror Fig. 15/8 This requirement for barriers in cavities passing over or around fire resisting elements also applies gen- erally to floors and roofs. However, the way that intermediate domestic floors are constructed usually exempts them from this requirement, ‘Suspended timber ground floors are also exempt as, are roofs in single occupancy private dwelling houses except in the special case of roofs over stairway enclosures in houses having three or more storeys.In this case the celling over the enclosure must have half an hour fire resistance or the roof void must be provided with barriers around the perimeter of the enclosure (as shown in Fig. 15/9) Root space | Cavity aries Unless colting over J| staircase enclosure has hr fire — Position of staircase enclosure Fig. 15/9 The sub-division of roofs within flats is required if the roof spans over a fire resisting element (see Fig. 15/10) Fig. 15/10 Any such barriers in the roofs of flats are likely to be difficult and expensive to install. Although in the majority of flats this situation is unlikely to occur, when it does itis likely to be cheaper to install a half hour plasterboard ceiling throughout the compart- ment and claim exemption under Ble) of AD 82/3/4. {14 (4) (b) in Scotland). 16.1.2. Fire Stops ‘The Regulations are a little confusing insofar as the definition and actual use of fire stops is concerned. A fire stop Is intended to seal an imperfection of fi between building components, for example where @ separating wall meets an external wall and they are not bonded together. Non combustible fre stop Fig. 15/11 PLAN However, separating walls of ti struction are still required by Appendix to be ‘fire stopped’ at the junction with external walls even though the cavity thus formed is not an imperfection of fit but a pre-determined cavity. Perhaps ‘cavity barrier’ would have been a more suitable description, but the Regulations are quite specific and this means that the junction of the separating wall and the external wall must be ‘fire stopped’ Using a non-combustible material (see Fig, 18/11). 1 | 7 cavity varior LLL asbestos or other non ‘combustibe mineral fibre board 1 Tp cavity bare Wired mineral woot } ff weed minerat woot acting as cavity barter and fre stop Fig. 15/12 ‘Some specific solutions for fire stopping separating and compartment walls (as they are known in flats in England and Wales) are shown in Fig. 15/12. Asbestos insulation board fre ston supporting mineral ‘wool or mortar Packing between te battens SECTION THROUGH ROOF Fig. 15/13 A fire stop is also required at the junction of the ‘separating wall with the roof, This can be achieved in a number of ways but it is customary to use a mineral based insulation board since this provides a base for the non-combustible infill required between tiling battens (see Fig. 15/13). Imperfection of tit Intermediate tloor TE inert woo! wire Fig. 15/14 59Fire stops will additionally be required where open- ings are made in structural elements for pipes or cables etc. This is of importance where services pass through floors, external or internal loadbearing walls (as shown in Fig. 15/14). Roofs of dwellings are not regarded as structural elements and do not require fire stopping for pipes etc. ‘Some materials which are suitable as fire stops are: = Cement mortar = Gypsum based plaster — Cement or gypsum based vermiculite/pentite mixes — Glass, crushed rock, blast furnace slag or ceramic based products — Intumescent mastics By definition any other non-combustible material will qualify as a fire stop but care should be taken to ensure that any material is suited for the position in which it is to be fixed. 6016: Installation of Services One of the many advantages of timber framed con- struction is the simplicity of installing services. The space formed between the framing members in the wall panels, floors and roofs provides a safe and ‘economical location to conceal the greater part of the heating, plumbing and electrical distribution systems, With thought at the design stage the majority of plumbing pipes and electrical wiring can be arranged to run parallel to the main framing members, thus avoiding cutting and drilling. Where it is necessary to run pipes or wires at right angles to joist or stud runs the members may be notched or drilled provi- ding reasonable care is taken in the positioning of openings. 16.1 Notching and Drilling of Joi is and Studs The notching and drilling of joists and studs is a subject where there appears to be a good deal of conflicting advice. It is certain that joists and studs will be notched and drilled by the plumber or electrician and simple rules should be generally available. The maximum size of notch or hole depends largely upon the design condition of the member through which it passes. Clearly, a joist which spans only half its permitted distance will tolerate a larger opening than one on its maximum design span. Similarly, the stud in a gable wall of a conventional house is likely to be a good deel less heavily loaded than one in the front or rear wall. In this case, the gable wall stud will permit larger drilled holes than the heavily loaded stud. From a structural point of view it is better to drill holes than to notch and to keep holes as near to the centre of depth of the member as possible. It is also, advisable to keep them away from the natural defects in the timber (such as knots) unless actually drilling through the centre of knots. The size of drilled holes should normally be checked by the system designer, but in the absence of any more definite rules the g 16/1 may be used. Holes may be dried on the neutral axis in this ares ‘with a diameter not exceeding a Holes need to be not less than three iameters (centre to centre) apart soiet | =]. Notching of joists for plumbing is inevitable and unless specially designed should follow the rules given in BS5268: Part 2: 1984 as shown in Fig, 16/2. Centre line 0.07 x span | — { sony —— t Sab xsan Notch of up to 1/8 h im ether top or bottom Fig. 16/2 Notching of studs should be avoided wherever poss- ible, however, from time to time notches will have tobe made. These should be made as small as poss- ible and placed towards the ends of the stud. Very heavily loaded studs may be reinforced by nailing an extra piece of stud material on the side of the notched stud and extending 600mm in each direc tion past the notch (see Fig. 16/3). This may not be necessary if checked by the building designer. Fig. 16/3, 16.2 Plumbing Services The installation of the plumbing system usually begins after the wall frames are completely erected. First fix plumbing includes all the drains and the hot and cold water supplies and tails to radiators where applicable. The fixing of plumbing accessories 61normally left until after the wall lining is complete and, therefore, consideration must be given to the fixing of studs and noggings within the panels to accept wash hand basins etc. Care must be exercised in the positioning and direc tion of soil pipes since joists may have to be trimmed where they pass through the floor zone. Since first fix plumbing is invariably carried out before all the protective quilts and linings have been completed, plumbers should be made aware of the implications of the careless use of blow torches used in soldering joints. 16.3. Electrical Wiring Like the plumbing, electrical wiring may start as soon as the house has been closed in. First fix wiring usually entails placing all the necessary cable runs and boxes for power points and switches. Appliances and fittings are usually left until the internal linings, are complete and decorated. Electrical wiring in all houses is governed by the |.E.E. Regulations which are carefully followed and tested by the local Electricity Board's inspector. Usually wiring is installed at first floor level with drops and risers to the appropriate socket outlets and switches. Where possible, outlets should be avoided in timber framed party walls (NHBC (Scotland) demand that all services are kept out of the separating wall zone.) Careful detailing can ensure that power points are surface mounted fed by cables hidden behind skirting ducts (see Fig. 16/4). HL, Power point Cables behind Fig. 16/4 Outside Scotland restrictions are not quite so rigid land cables may be run through party walls provided that reasonable care is taken. It is unlikely that single outlets (requiring only a 50mm square opening) will have any significant effect on the performance of the party wall, however is a wise precaution to ensure that the party wall insulation is well wrapped around them (S98 Fig 62 Mineral woo! + behind conduit box | oo fos — Nogaings: . | Fig. 16/5 Larger outlets should be provided with an extra thickness of plasterboard behind in the form of a duct (see Fig. 16/6) Tibor nogsing | Dotweon studs uct formad from 19mm pasterboa Large outer ern * (e.g. cooker | point - Mineral woot Fig. 16/6 16.4. Central Heating Systems It is possible to install almost any kind of heating appliance within a timber framed house, from an ‘open fire to a ducted warm air system. The rules for the positioning of appliances and flues are given within the national Building Regulations and tend to be fairly diverse. Within the scope of this book it not possible to cover every aspect of the Regulations and designers are commended to read Approved Documents J1/2/3 to the Building Regulations 1985, Parts L and M of the Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) 1977 or Part F of The Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations 1981 ‘The majority of modern houses are built with a heating system comprising an enclosed, free stan- ding boiler unit suitable for heating radiators or a ducted warm air system. This section of this book is confined to such appliances and how they (and flues) should be situated in order to meet the Building Regulations.In view of the detailed diversity of the three sets of Regulations, the following notes are based upon the requirements of AD/J in England and Wales. So far as domestic dwellings are usually concerned there are basically two categories of appliance which may be installed and each has a separate set of rules. ® Solid fuel or oil boi not exceeding 45kw. 's having an output rating © Gas fired boiler having an input rating not exceeding 60kw. In order to put these ratings into perspective, a ‘typical traditionally built 3 bedroom detached house of 90m? would require an appliance of approxi mately 18kw output rating. (A timber framed house would of course require a much lower rating.) Since the rules governing the installation of appli- ‘ances and flues are different for solid fuel/oil and gas appliances they are dealt with separately below. SOLID FUEL/OIL APPLIANCES a) Proximity of walls (Fig. 16/7). Ay % ‘0 hearth Se tes than 150 then: Fig. 16/7 b) Hearths (Fig. 16/8) At least 128mm nor-combustib = Hearth _ fe | +1 hearth extends 19 wal then ‘may be less than 180 H constructed asin Fig. 1617 PLAN 16/8 ¢) Chimneys and Flues Flue pipes to solid fuel/oil appliances may not pass. through floors, roof spaces or internal partitions, however a chimney may pass through these areas and the flue pipe from the appliance should discharge vertically into the bottom of the chimney (as shown, in Fig. 16/9) — chimney Fie pine Appliance Fig. 16/9 Flue pipes are permitted to pass through external walls provided that they are carefully trimmed (as shown in Fig. 16/10). 63Note: If non-combustible sleeve and packing ore ‘omitted: no part of the five pipe may be closer then 3x dto any ‘combustible materia, Non combustible ‘packing 25mm min of thermal insulating material, ‘Metal or Asbestos coment sleeve ‘Sleeve must extend 150 beyond any combustible material Fig. 16/10 There is also a limitation on how close flue pipes may pass to walls and ceilings. Generally, a flue pipe should not pass within 3d of any combustible material except that it may be closer if protected as shown in Fig. 16/11. 12.5mm, air gap betweom plasterboard fand non combustible shield Shield of non: combustible material ——— Fue pipe Fig. 16/11 64. No combustible material should be closer than 200mm to a flue of a solid fuel/oil Appliance (see Fig, 16/12) Fig. 16/12 There are also rules governing the positions of outlets of chimneys at roof level as shown in Fig. 16/13 and Fig. 16/14. er E over oon 0 mat oe es — Sreding al wasn a ? i £3 roof pitch _,, = Fig. 16/13Any opening window or ventiatar within 2.3m of 8 chimney fue pipe must be 16/14 GAS APPLIANCES The following section is intended to reflect the principal requirements of the various Building Regula- tions but installers, architects, designers and builders are recommended to obtain a copy of ‘Guide for Gas Installations in Timber Framed Housing published by ritish Gas, a) Proximity of Walls ‘The back, top and sides of the appliance must be separated from combustible material in adjoining walls by an air space of at least 75mm or by a shield of non-combustible material not less than 25mm thick (see Fig. 16/15) unless appliance complies with BS5268 or BS5386. 25m =X 5mm Fromm PLAN H 25mm non-combustible ‘material, then hearth should extend 75mm each side of appliance Min. 75mm ait gap oF min, 25men non-combvetible materi (e.g. 2 layers 12.7 plasterboard) ud wat ig. 16/15 b) Hearths The appliance must stand on a hearth of non-com- bustible material at least 12.5mm thick arranged as shown in Fig. 16/16. Appliance — Hearth kay S12 measured to flame unless it extends to 2 wal (see Fig. 16/15) Note: ‘A hearth is not required if the appliance burners fare more than 228mm above the ground iT the appliance has boon tested to mest the requirements of 855258 or BSE366 Fig. 16/16 c} Flues Unlike flues for solid fuel/oil appliances, flue pipes may pass through floors, walls and roof spaces provided that they are separated from any combust- ible material by a non-combustible sleeve enclosing an air space of at least 26mm (see Fig. 16/17) Special rules apply to flue pipes penetrating com: partment walls or floors. ‘Sleeve mast be long fenough to ensure ts Cension eat leat, 0mm a 25mm ait space Fig. 16/17 Flue pipe In previous editions of the Regulations, a flue pipe was required to be encased in a non-combustible ‘duct whenever it passes through an accessible space within a room other than the room in which the appliance is filled. This requirement seems now to have been removed, however, common sense still suggests that it is a good idea and the proposal is illustrated in Fig. 16/18. ‘non-combustible duct ‘on-combustible — ‘material within duct Fe pipe Fig. 16/18 | 65The outlets of flues to gas appliances should be fitted with a terminal designed to allow free discharge, minimise down draft and prevent entry of any matter which might restrict the flue. The flue must be situated to ensure that a current of air passes freely actoss it. The outlet of the flue is to be no less than 800mm from any ventilator, opening windows or skylight. ©) Balanced Flues (for Room Sealed Appliances) Balanced Flues are permitted to solid fuel, oil and gas appliances and may be taken through the external walls of timber framed houses. Although no specific rules are given for shielding balanced flues in the regulations, recommendations are given in British Standard BS5440 Part |: 1978 and these are incorporated in the following Fig. 16/19. tess than 75mm ait) {999 then 25mm ining locally behind (eee Fig. Non-combustible 16/15) | sleeve e.g. plaster board § —— BALANCE APPLIANCE L —Govy bare 25mm airgap orittod win Fig. 16/19 66 Minimum 300mm to any Window or ventilator for | gas appliance, 600mm tor Solid fuelol appliances Balanced ‘hue outer Outlet must be protected by a guard if could come inta contact with people or subject to damage cs Fig. 16/20 The balanced flue should be provided with a terminal which permits free intake and discharge whilst pre- venting the access of any matter which could restrict the inlet or outlet. The outlet should be placed in relation to openings or ventilators as illustrated in Fig. 16/20. INSULATED METAL CHIMNEYS FOR ‘SOLID FUEL/OIL OR GAS APPLIANCES Insulated metal chimneys are permitted under the Building Regulations (AD J/1/2/3 ~ Clause 1.16 of the Building Regulations 1985 and F21 of the Scottish Regulations). The rules concerning the use of insulated metal chimneys tend to depend upon the properties of individual systems and should be checked with the manufacturer. In addition there are a number of proprietary concrete block flues now available designed specifically for solid fuel appliances.17: Claddings The shell of the timber framed house, once it has been erected and suitably braced, is structurally stable in its own right. The sheathing and building Paper ensure that the structure has short term weather resistance before the outer skin is added. The exterior cladding is required principally for architectural and long term durability purposes. In ‘most cases it will be superficial. Consequently, the freedom of choice is large, the only criterion being what is visually acceptable and whether it is suffi- ciently durable. By far the greatest proportion of timber framed houses built in the U.K. to date have been enveloped in a decorative brick veneer built independently around the timber house shell. Brick is stil a popular cladding but more and more large areas of brickwork are being relieved with contrasting claddings such as tile hanging, rendering or weatherboarding. The factors which affect the choice of cladding are primarily aesthetics, cost and long term performance, but clearly factors such as maintenance costs and other technical limitations have to be considered, Appendix ‘A’ of this book sets down a number of ‘typical details for the arrangement of various clad- dings at junctions, the following paragraphs deal with a number of specific claddings and their method There are two basic rules for the use of claddings on all houses: 2) The cladding must in itself be capable of per- forming its function throughout the lifetime of the building. If not it must be capable of being maintained or if necessary replaced. b) Whatever the cladding, it is a sensible rule to ensure that itis ventilated on both sides, which requires an adequate air space behind. Table 17/1 17.1 Timber cladding The subject of timber cladding is dealt with in considerable detail in the Swedish Finnish Timber Council publication ‘Exterior Cladding of Redwood and Whitewood’. The following chapter covers some of the principal points. One of the most logical claddings to use on a timber framed house is timber weatherboarding on battens. Changes to the 1985 Building Regulations in England and Wales brought them in line with those in Scotland and specific requirements for preservation treatment or cladding were removed. In England, Wales and Scotland preservative treatment is unnec- essary if the cladding is accessible for maintenance or repair. Nevertheless, there is still a good deal of sense in treating the boarding so that if properly fixed it will provide a long life, low maintenance cladding. Preservative treatments for timber ‘Type of preservative (1) 1. Coal tar oil to BS144: 1973 Method of application (2) In accordance with BS913: 1973 2. Coal tar oil to BS3051: 1972 a). In accordance with 85913: 1973; or (b) in the case of redwood (European) or Scots pink steeping for not less than one hour 3. Copperichrome/arsenic composition to BS4072: In accordance with BS4072: 1974 4. Copper naphthenate Type 1 to BS5056: 1974 5. Pentachlorophenol: a solution containing not less than 5% in a suitable organic solvent 6. Tri-butyl-tin-oxide: a solution containing not less than 1.0% in a suitable organic solvent. (a) Vacuum impregnation; or (b) in the case of redwood (European) or Scots pine, steeping for not less than one hour 6717.1.1. Preservation Treatment Where softwood claddings are preservatively treated, one of the standards described in Table 17/1 should be used. Minimum thicknesses of cladding boards are recom- mended in Fig. 17/1 Fhe ek FLAT BOARDS ae Ak FEATHER EDGED BOARDS Fig. 17/1 Where boarding is treated then it makes sense to treat the battens to which it is fixed. The NHBC do require battens used for fixing any cladding to be preservatively treated. 17.1.2, The Profiles Available ‘The most common profiles of moulded timber clad- ding available in preservatively treated softwoods from most merchants are as shown in Fig. 17/2. [iii «som 1 SHPLAP sow nen > we WEATHERBOARD {featheredge! MATCHBOARD (TG & Vi 18x 100mm 18x 125mm 19% 100mm 19 115mm 19% 150mm Fig. 17/2 (Basic dimensions shown). {In addition other profiles may be obtained from U.K. suppliers to order. A number of special profiles are produced in Sweden and Finland and these may be available by special order through timber merchants. (Examples are given in Fig. 1773). Some U-K. suppliers may be able to provide these profiles ex-stock but it is not recom- mended that they are specified unless it is known that they are definitely available. 68 fepont (T © G, sawn face) __—Panelbeéda 2 (Cladding board sown ece No.2) (emirates o— Enkaltasspont (single sided V jointed T&G sawn tacel ‘(_ <

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi

• Wind Load Calculation

  

  Document105 pages

  Wind Load Calculation

  Madusha Galappaththi

  100% (2)
• The Essential Guide To Framing

  

  Document121 pages

  The Essential Guide To Framing

  pawkom

  100% (7)
• Wood Joints in Classical Japanese Architecture PDF

  

  Document69 pages

  Wood Joints in Classical Japanese Architecture PDF

  David Freire Cueva

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• • Magazines
  • Podcasts
  • Partition
• Connections

  

  Document17 pages

  Connections

  Alexandru Olaru

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Timber Frame Shed

  

  Document5 pages

  Timber Frame Shed

  pawkom

  100% (5)
• Truss Erecting and Bracing

  

  Document5 pages

  Truss Erecting and Bracing

  pawkom

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Turning Trees To Timber Manual

  

  Document47 pages

  Turning Trees To Timber Manual

  pawkom

  100% (1)
• Structural Bracing Manual

  

  Document20 pages

  Structural Bracing Manual

  Ken Wolf

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Composite Repair of Timber Structures (49pag)

  

  Document49 pages

  Composite Repair of Timber Structures (49pag)

  cristian_iv8787

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Bracing Manual

  

  Document101 pages

  Bracing Manual

  Errol Hobden

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Simpson Strong Tie Catalog 09

  

  Document196 pages

  Simpson Strong Tie Catalog 09

  Jeff Strickland

  100% (1)
• Structural Glued-Laminated Timber (40pag)

  

  Document40 pages

  Structural Glued-Laminated Timber (40pag)

  pawkom

  100% (1)
• Framing With Roofs

  

  Document5 pages

  Framing With Roofs

  greenelephant150

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Practical Approach of Modeling Wood Truss Roof Assemblies

  

  Document6 pages

  Practical Approach of Modeling Wood Truss Roof Assemblies

  pawkom

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Feynman Lectures On Physics Volume 3 Chapter 20

  

  Document17 pages

  Feynman Lectures On Physics Volume 3 Chapter 20

  pawkom

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 16 - Dependence of Amplitudes On Position

  

  Document16 pages

  Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 16 - Dependence of Amplitudes On Position

  sumalas

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Bolted Joints in Glulam and Structural Timber Composites (Davis+Claisse)

  

  Document11 pages

  Bolted Joints in Glulam and Structural Timber Composites (Davis+Claisse)

  pawkom

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Fixing Bracing Guidelines - Timber Roof Trusses

  

  Document20 pages

  Fixing Bracing Guidelines - Timber Roof Trusses

  jaffna

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Falk. .Laminating - Effects.in - Glued Laminated - Timber.beams

  

  Document7 pages

  Falk. .Laminating - Effects.in - Glued Laminated - Timber.beams

  pawkom

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 17 - Symmetry and Conservation Laws

  

  Document16 pages

  Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 17 - Symmetry and Conservation Laws

  sumalas

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 07 - The Dependence of Amplitude On Time

  

  Document13 pages

  Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 07 - The Dependence of Amplitude On Time

  sumalas

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 10 - Other Two State Systems

  

  Document17 pages

  Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 10 - Other Two State Systems

  sumalas

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 09 - The Amonia MASER

  

  Document15 pages

  Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 09 - The Amonia MASER

  sumalas

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 05 - Spin One

  

  Document17 pages

  Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 05 - Spin One

  sumalas

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 02 - Relation of Wave & Particle Viewpoints

  

  Document8 pages

  Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 02 - Relation of Wave & Particle Viewpoints

  sumalas

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Feynman Lectures On Physics Volume 3 Chapter 06 PDF

  

  Document11 pages

  Feynman Lectures On Physics Volume 3 Chapter 06 PDF

  pawkom

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 03 - Probability Amplitudes

  

  Document13 pages

  Feynmans Lectures - Vol 3 CH 03 - Probability Amplitudes

  sumalas

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Feynman Lectures On Physics Volume 3 Chapter 01 PDF

  

  Document16 pages

  Feynman Lectures On Physics Volume 3 Chapter 01 PDF

  pawkom

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• Buckling of Thin Metal Shells 300

  

  Document1 page

  Buckling of Thin Metal Shells 300

  pawkom

  Pas encore d'évaluation
• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  D'Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (5794)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  D'Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (400)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  D'Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (537)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  D'Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (895)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  D'Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (98)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  D'Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (271)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  D'Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (231)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  D'Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (838)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  D'Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (588)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  D'Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (74)
• Yes Please

  

  D'Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (1891)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  D'Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (474)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  D'Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (266)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  D'Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (45)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  D'Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (738)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  D'Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (234)
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  D'Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (599)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  D'Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (440)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  D'Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (2259)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  D'Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brene Brown

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (1090)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  D'Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (137)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  D'Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (344)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  D'Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (1015)
• Steve Jobs

  

  D'Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (806)
• John Adams

  

  D'Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (2409)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  D'Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (1712)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (1839)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (789)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  D'Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (121)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Toibin

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (1937)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  D'Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (2322)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (4609)
• Little Women

  

  D'Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (104)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (792)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (3811)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  D'Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (2102)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (4200)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  D'Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (1929)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (1103)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  D'Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (821)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (104)