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ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2014-2015)

E.H.I.-2
India: Earliest Times to 8th Century A.D.
Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of the Questions given in
the Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private Teacher/Tutors/Auhtors for the help
and Guidance of the student to get an idea of how he/she can answer the Questions of the Assignments. We do
not claim 100% Accuracy of these sample Answers as these are based on the knowledge and cabability of Private
Teacher/Tutor. Sample answers may be seen as the Guide/Help Book for the reference to prepare the answers of
the Question given in the assignment. As these solutions and answers are prepared by the private teacher/tutor so
the chances of error or mistake cannot be denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though every care
has been taken while preparing these Sample Answers/Solutions. Please consult your own Teacher/Tutor before
you prepare a Particular Answer & for uptodate and exact information, data and solution. Student should must
read and refer the official study material provided by the university.

SECTION-I

Q. 1. Examine the various theories regarding the decline of Harappan civilization.

Ans. The Harappan Civilization flourished till 1900 BC. The period following this is marked by the
beginning of the post-urban phase or (Late Harappan Phase). This phase was characterised by a gradual
disappearance of the major traits such as town-planning, art of writing, uniformity in weights and measures,
homogeneity in pottery designs, etc. The regression covered a period from 1900 BC-1400 BC. There was
also the shrinkage in the settlement area. For instance, Mohenjodaro was reduced to a small settlement of
three hectares from the original eighty five hectares towards the end of the late phase. The population
appears to have shifted to other areas. It is indicated by the large number of new settlements in the outlying
areas of Gujarat, East Punjab, Haryana and Upper Doab during the later Harappan period.
Now, question arises that how the Harappan Civilization came to an end? Scholars put forward many
theories in this regard.
(i) It is suggested by some scholars that natural calamities such as floods and earthquakes might have
caused the decline of the civilization. It is believed that earthquakes might have raised the level of the flood
plains of the lower course of Indus river. It blocked the passage of the river water to the sea and resulted in
the floods which might have swallowed the city of Mohenjodaro. However, this only explains the decline of
Mohenjodaro and not of the whole civilization.
(ii) Increased aridity and drying up of the river Ghaggar-Harka on account of the changes in river
courses, according to some scholars, might have contributed to the decline. This theory states that there was
an increase in arid conditions by around 2000 BC. This might have affected agricultural production, and led to
the decline.
(iii) Aryan invasion theory is also put forward as a cause for the decline. According to this, the Harappan
civilization was destroyed by the Aryans who came to India from north-west around 1500 BC. However, on
the basis of closer and critical analysis of data, this view is completely negated today.
Thus, there is no single cause that can explain the decline of the civilization in totality. At the maximum
these can explain the decay of certain sites or areas only. Hence, each theory has met with criticism.

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Nevertheless, the archaeological evidence indicates that the Harappan civilization did not collapse all of a
sudden, but declined gradually and ultimately merged with other local cultures.
There is no unanimity among historian on the exact reason of the decline of this urban civilization.
Different theories of decline have been put forward by different scholars.
The following table gives the important theories and their profounders as regards decline of the Indus
culture:
The Decline of Indus Valley: Theorists and Theories
1.

Theorists

Reasons of Decline

Gorden Childe,

External aggression

Stuart Piggot
2.

H.T. Lambrick

Unstable river systems

3.

K.U.R. Kenedy

Natural calamity

4.

Orell Stein and

A.N. Ghosh

Climate change

5.

R. Mortimer Wheeler

Aryan invasion

6.

Robert Raikes

Earthquake

7.

Sood and Aggarwal

Dryness of river

8.

Walter Fairservis

Ecological imbalance

Of all the above theories, the Fairservis theory of environmental disaster appears to the most plausibly in
explaining the decline of the Indus civilization.
Q. 2. Explain the factors which led to the rise of Buddhism Give an account of its teaching and
development.
Ans. Buddhism was accepted by a large section of people because of its simple philosophy of Karma
and Nirvana. Karma laid emphasis of practising morality in day to day life and Nirvana offered a way of
ending human misery. Buddhist philosophy cut across caste and status lines and renounced all men equal.
Use of Pali which was the common language at that time also led to its spread. Many rulers adopted the
Buddhist religion thus giving it royal patronage. The Buddhist sanghas also acted as a nucleus to spread its
philosophy.
Over a period of time the vedic rituals and practices became cumbersome and unaffordable for some,
over and above the society had developed a liberal nature was ready to receive fresh ideas and thus the
teaching of Buddhism were readily adopted. They were very practical and easy to imbibe in day to day life.
The main teachings of Buddhism are entailed in the eight-fold path which is as follows :
(i) Right viewthe cause of sorrow is desire and the conquering of desire will liberate the soul.
(ii) Right aiminstead of indulging in luxury one should aim to give love and happiness to other.
(iii) Right speechalways speak the truth.

(iv) Right actionthese include unselfish acts.

(v) Right livelihoodearn your living by honest means.

(vi) Right effortIt means the mental effort required to overcome desire and attachment.

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(vii) Right-mindfulnessunderstanding that the body is impermanent and meditation will lead to removal
of inordinate evils.
(viii) Right concentrationobservation will lead to peace and meditation to the real truth.
Buddhism laid great emphasis on the philosophy of Karma which believes that the condition of a man
depends upon the actions of his past and present life. This theory explains how we are born again and again
to reap the fruits of our Karma, and if an individual has committed no since he is not born again. Buddhism
calls Nirvana the ultimate goal of human life, i.e., when we shed desire which is considered the root
obstacle Ahimsa is the spirit of love which Budha thought should be practicsed is a human life tree.
Buddhism was welcomed by the society because it was liberal and gave freedom from the regid caste
system. People now understood that they didnt have to depend upon a priest, rituals or ceremonies to reach
god. Soon people from all walks of life were embracing Buddhismbe it kings or the lower class, because it
used Pali as its language and this was the popular language. Buddhism also took upon itself to educate their
disciples and hence the non-brahmins also got access to education which they located in the Brahmanism.
Buddhism got a rapid boost to its spread where king Asoka adopted this religion and established many
monastries and also sent his son and daughter to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism.
With the expansion of economy trade also increased. Traders travelled far and wide both inland and
outside. They dealt in jewellery, silk, ivory and other expensive items. The inland trade route was well
demarcated with sravasti being the focal point. Sravasti was well connected to Rajagriha, Prathistana and
Taxila. The city of Kashi was connected to the ports on west coast. Broach was the main port on the west
coast and was connected to Sri Lanka. On the east coast Tamluk was connected to Burma and Sri Lanka.

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SECTION - II

Q. 3. Describe the main features of the central administration of the muryan.

Ans. The Mauryan empire was vast and had surplus production, thus to stream line collection and
distribution of revenue became a major task. This led to a form of complex administration to ensure the
economic, social and political activities could co-exist in cohesiveness. Broadly speaking, the Mauryan administration was organised and based centrally with sub-units to take care of various regions. Now we will
study various aspects of the Mauryan administration about which we learn from the Arthasastra.
King: The king was the supreme authority of the centralised political system. He could overside the
prevailing low. The king had these powers because he had to undergo rigorous training in the field of military,
economics, writing and develop a disciplined conduct in his day to day life. And thus it was the king who
would :
(i) appoint or remove ministers.
(ii) defend the treasury and his people.
(iii) punish the evil.
(iv) work for the progress and welfare of people.
(v) influence the people through his morality.
But not every man could be king, he had to possess certain basic qualities. i.e.
(i) birth in high family
(ii) capability to keep control over ministers and officer
(iii) sharp intellect and truthfulness
(iv) upholder of Dharma.

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The king was assisted by a council of ministers.

Council of Ministers: A council of ministers was appointed by the king to facilitate the smooth running
of the state. It was their task to see that new administrative measures and laws were executed properly by
the different categories of officials. The powers of the council kept varying from time to time but its primary
role of an advisory body remained constant. There are inscriptions to say that is the absence of the king is the
council could discuss, suggest amendments and decide upon a policy which the king had left true yet an
immediate report had to be submitted before the king as soon as possible. There were a set of qualifications
for becoming a minister which were:
(i) Not to be lured by wealth.
(ii) Not to succumb to pressure.
There was also an elite group which was consulted for immediate issues.
City Administration: The main source of information concerning the city administration is via
Megasthense who gives us a clear description of the city administration which was very methodical. Here
the city was divided into six sub-committees each of these committees consisted of five members who's
tasks were :
(1) Supervising industry, crafts, fixing of wages etc.

(2) Arranging the food, security, stay of foreigners

(3) Registration of births and deaths

(4) Supervising trade and commerce and connected activities like inspection of weights and measures,
controlling the market etc.
(5) Inspected and organised the sale of manufactured goods

(6) Collected taxes on goods sold at the rate1/10. According to Arthsastra, the activities of city
administration are similar though termed different one factor is very pronounced that no one was
above the law.
Army: The army at this point was large and well organised. It had specialised branches: (1) Infantry,
(2) Cavalry, (3) Elephants, (4) Chariots, (5) Transport, (6) Admiral of the fleet. Each of the branches was
looked after by a committee of five members. Other facilities rendered to the army were medicine, arms and
amnunition, construction of chariots, maintenance of elephants. Thus, the army took up a major chunk of
state revenues.
Public Works: The Mauryan state took keen interest in public works like irrigation because it would
provide revenues and so money was spent on regulating water resources via dams, ponds, canals. Another
public work which took priority was building and repairing of roads. Over and above this the state took over
the responsibility of old people, orphans, sick by providing medicine. So it is understood that the state spent a
certain amount on public works.
Provincial Administration: Provincial administration was taken care of by a prince who was appointed
by the King. This prince was assisted by a group of ministers, these ministers acted as a restrain to the prince
since they were in direct contact with the King.
District and Village Administration: A district was formed of a number of villages, but these villages
had their own administration unit. There were officials appointed to survey and assess the land in a district,
tours and inspections revenue collection and maintaining law and order. At the village level the administration
was chosen and assisted by the local village people.

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JusticePunishmentEspionage: The Mauryan administration had its web of spices whos task
was to match ministers, govt. officials, foreign rulers and collect information from common citizens. Rules of
justice were laid out for marriage, divorce, murder. Court cases had to be registered properly with witnesses
and proofs. So we see an attention to detail in every aspect of administration.
Q. 4. Assess the mian features of sculptural art between 200 BC to 305 AD.
Ans. Initially works of art were common place i.e. they dealt with daily happenings of common man and
could be seen easily in rock paintings, terracotta figuracaes etc. But gradually art became more specialized
and artists who produced individualised pieces of art began to emerge. With that art was not limited exclusively to the state but could be patronised by different social groups. Art began flourishing within India and
beyond India, eventually there was a marked form of art from various schools of art. The two most important
schools being.
(1) Gandhara and Mathura art forms.
(2) Sarnath and Amaravati.
These art forms were dominated by Buddhist and Jain impressions and were depicted on rocks, cave
walls and interiors of Stupas. Due to frequent interaction with other cultures we find glimpses of non-Indian
elements in the art of this period specially so in the Gandhara region. Basically art was form of expressing
religion in the form of symbols, units, practices, images.

Sculpture was an important expression of art during this period and had developed tremendously in
figures of Buddha produced during this period are among the most impressve pieces of world works of art. A
unique feature found in the specimens of Mauryan art in stone form is the smooth polished finish given to the
sculptures that they are as glossy as glass. The Yakshini from Patna gives an intricate detail of hairstyle,
ornaments and dress of women during that period. Sculptures were enjoyed in all stratas of society because
there are evidences of terra cotta figurines which must have been the possessions of the not so rich. Other
forms of sculptures are found within the Malls of the Stupas which depict scenes observed in nature along
with religious ideas. Since image worship became popular, sculptures could be seen depicting various religions.
Sculptures could be seen on stone slabs pillars, railings and some giving a continuous narration from the
Jataka Tales. The sculptures follow the rise and fall of faiths, religions, kings and dynasties giving us a detail
picture to understand the past.
Q. 5. Write a note on the economy and society under the Gupta rulers.

Ans. The main source of revenue of the state during Gupta period came from agricultural production,
other occupations in people were indulged for income were commerce, craft production, etc.
Some of the major development in the field of agriculture and trade, the two aspects of economy of
Gupta period are following.
Agriculture: Agriculture attracted the prime attention during Gupta period. Uncultivated land was constantly brought under cultivation. Land was clarified according to its soil fertility and utility. All the major
categories of crops like barley, wheat, paddy, various pulses, gram, vegetables, even cash crops like cotton
and sugarcane were also grown.
Several of the reservoirs previously made were repaired during Gupta period. Several new methods of
irrigation were deployed, like drawing water from the wells and supplying it to the fields by means of various
channels. Another method was to lie a chain with number of pots which was reached down to the water of
the hill. The chain and pots were continuously rotated. So that pots were filled and emptied with water.
Although farmers dependent mainly on rainfall for irrigation still there were several methods to fulfil the need.

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The practice of gifting land to religious classes became common. This lead to the emergence of a chain
of people who enjoyed high economic and social status. Peasant population was reduced to a low level.
Trade and Crafts Production: The production of various items like earthen pots, furniture, baskets,
metal tools, etc. came under the category of crafts production.
Some of the luxury items like jewellery of gold, silver and precious stones, ivory objects, silk and cotton
cloth etc. used to be either made available through trade or were produced locally. The trade linked with
Central, West and Sout-east Asia. Some organisations like Shreni' etc. were there to facilitate the functioning of both craftsmen and traders.
As far as the social system of the Gupta period is concerned, the ideal social order society divided in four
varmas was preserved during Gupta period. The Brahmans had substantial influence on the Gupta rulers.
There were major differences between the ways of life of the rich city dwellers and people living in
villages. The city dwellers were the urbanities who led a life of pleasure and refined culture.
The position of women was low. The Brahman scripts laid rulers for the women to follow and in the
family they were expected to function as ideal wife and ideal mother.
Q. 6. Briefly discuss the expansions of trade and urban centres in North India between 200
BC-305 AD.

Ans. The ancient history of peninsular (south) India revolves around the fortunes of three outstanding
and extensive kingdoms: that of the Pandyas, south of Kaveri river with its capital at Madurai; the Cheras
centred around Kerala, and the Cholas on the Coromandel (western) coast. However, there were several
other dynasties that co-existed with these prominent ones, though they were unable to reach the same acme
of power and glory.
Pandyas were a prominent dynasty in Southern India. Their kingdom, founded in the 6th century BC was
spread over the modern districts of Madurai and Tinnevelly. Their original capital was at Kolkoi (on the
Thambraparny river in Tinnevelly) and later at Madurai. The Ashokan edicts of 3rd century BC mention this
dynasty. The Kongu Ratta inscription of early 5th century AD bears description of the conflict between the
Pandyas and the Kongu Rattas. Very little is known about Pandyas before the 7th century AD. Around 940
AD, King Rajaraja of the Chola dynasty reduced the Pandyas to the condition of tributary dependence. This
situation continued for the next two centuries there is historical evidence that the Pandyas had trade as well
as maritime relations with countries like Egypt, Rome, China and Malaysia.
Variously known as the Andhras, Andhrabhrityas and Satakarnis, this dynasty ruled large portions of
Central and South India spanning modern day Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh.
The Satavahanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire of northern India, and declared
independence soon after the death of Ashoka (232 BC). They were the first native Indian rulers to issue their
own coins with portraits of their rulers, a practice probably borrowed from the Indo-Greek kings who occupied
the northwestern parts of the country. The Satavahana kings also made significant contributions to Buddhist
art and architecture. The great stupas in the Krishna river valley were built by them, the most famous among
them being the stupa at Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh. The Satavahana rulers used Prakrit as their official
language. The glory of the Satavahanas began to decline by the 3rd century AD and they were supplanted by
a number of not so well-known dynasties.
The earliest reference to the modern state of Kerala is to be found on a rock inscription ascribed to
Ashoka the Great. It was then an independent kingdom ruled by various kings belonging to the powerful

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Chera dynasty approximately between 900 BC and 198 AD. Infact theirs was the first known powerful
dynasty in the region. The Cheras ruled over the area extending from Alleppy to Calicut, in the present day
Kerala state with their capital at Vanchi (identified with either Karur or Kochi of modern times). During the
reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to Kerala, as spices, ivory, timber and gems were
exported to the countries of the Middle East and to southern Europe.
SECTION - III
Q. 7. (a) Disinteratrion of Gupta empire.
Ans. In the beginning of the fourth century A.D. North India was divided into several small kingdoms
and chiefdoms, which were generally indulged in fighting with each other. It was in such political situation that
the Gupta dynasty gained power and gradually established an empire.
Chandragupta-I was the first independent king. He entered into matrimorial alliance with the Lichchvis
and expanded his empire. The empire of Chandragupta included the parts of U.P, Bihar and Bengal. His son
Samudragupta took over the throne and it was during his tenure that the Gupta Kingdom grew into an empire.
Samudragupta followed an aggressive policy of warfare for the expansion and consolidation of the Gupta
power. Samudragupta carried various military campaigns such as campaigns in Aryavarta in south etc. Thus,
the credit of laying the military foundations of the Gupta empire goes to Samudragupta.

Chandragupta-II was the successor of Samudragupta. He took over at the time when Maurya empire
was going through a problemetic phase. He lead several military campaigns to regain Gupta supremacy. He
conquered the territories of Sakar. This victory lead to the tradition of Sakari-Vikramaditya. He extended
the Gupta empire till western, north-western and eastern India.
Kumargupta-I was succeeded by Chandragupta-II. Kumargupta-I ruled over Magadha and Bengal in
the east and Gujarat in the west. He was succeeded by his son Skandgupta, who was the last powerful king
of Gupta dynasty. He fought against Pusyamitra. Hunas also invaded the country during his period.
Thus, the Gupta remained a strong force till the time of Skandgupta but after him the process of the
downfall began various factors like foreign invasion dissention within the ruling family ressertion of power by
local chiefs administrative weakness etc. contributed towards the decline of Gupta dynasty.
(d) Taiml heroic poems.

Ans. As trade flourished in southern India it opened avenues for other activities as well. We see references to the arrival of immigrates and with that there was an interaction of languages and culture which gave
a big boost to language and literature. The initial literary sources of Tamil words used along with the local
adaptations of Sanskrit and Pali/Prakrit terms. These sources give us a glimpse of professions, places and
people of this period. There also a collection of Tamil heroic poems which is called the Sangam literature.
The Sangam Literature provides major evidence of the old Tamil literary tradition. These poems were
called Sangam literature because they were collected and classified by an academy of scholars called
Sangams. According to sources there were three Sangams out of them only the works of the last one
survived from which were gather our information. The poems were generally a product of the folk, they were
composed by bards or by scholarly poets who followed the bardic tradition these poems sang praisis of their
chiefs. These poems give us a peep into the common way of life, their stock phrases or expressions used by
the people of those times. Since the Sangam spans over a few centuries it follows and reflects the development
of the Tamil language and literature.

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The early Sangams are influenced by the Aryan culture and hence there are references to Yajnas and
Puranic deities biag equated to their camil courter parts, here on the poems began reflecting praisis of chiefs
further on we see a division is the compositions into Akam and Puram the Akram is further sub-divided
into five stages which describe love and affection in various phases the Puram describes deals with themes
of objectification like said or plunder. So we see that the poems cover all aspects of society. These poems
followed their own motion of musical instruments, subsistence pattern, deities and had to abide by the restrictions
associated with the variety of situations of behaviour. Thus, their confirm to a code of conduct in society.

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