CHAPTER 1 What Is Practical Intelligence? Todo well in any everday endeavor, whether the endeavor pertains to schoo, work ox pay reies practic intelgeace. Although ine gence as canventinaly dened may be wefan everyday, prac ‘ea ntligence indispensable eis the abit toadaptt, shape, and select everyday eqvzenments Praca! neligence, Hee ort siti, fan be viewed a a form of developing expertise (tember, 19%). Individuals who have developed the Krowledge kil and abs ‘osc io rucned ns particular domain general re characteriza at experts Therefore, understanding expertise at haw I develops peo ‘ides method of eight into pacts intligence ‘So how do we come ta characterize practic intelgene a orm cof developing experts? We bain with «dtnetion between viewing ‘Silos a relatively stable altrbutes and viewing them a developing cxperise ‘CONCEPTIONS OF INTELLIGENCE ‘Tae conrenonal view of itligence that itis some wativey stable atte of individ which develope stance Deaern ferity and coviormest (Stenberg Grigor, 1978). Conventional ist of intligence and slid abies eanire lore (Anatase Uns 1997) Tes such as owe of vocabulary, ‘Rang compel, etal alga atime problem song Sd the kee in part al tert actevement Eve bt et ing tse mea ecvener nv ding with geomet eyo vlc sells taugt in Wem cho (Labora of Contre men Copuon, 182itl n repay Le ‘An altematve vow is that of intligence as deeoping expertise and intelligence tets as rvssuring ar aspect typely Ute Sepect, of developing experi (Stenberg, 1998, in pres) Developing experts fs defined here asthe ongoing proces ofthe scyubtion and consolidation of aot of sls needed fora high level ‘of mastery in one or more domains of fe performance We beliere ‘thatthe problem separdng the eaditionl Model Ib ot in te ‘ment af corelation between ability teste andl other forms of aceve- ‘ment but in ite propor ofa causal relason wherdby de tots eee ‘oarstruct ha somehow’ causal of ater than merely temporally ‘antecedent to later stccese The developing expertise view inno way ‘les ont the contribution of genetic fstors ata source of individ Aierencs in the ability to develop a given emoust of expertise Many human attributes, inching intelligence, efit the covariation ‘nd interaction of genetic and environmental factors However, he cntrbution of genes to an individual's intelligence cannot be “ect messured or even directly estimated: rather, wha fe mn sured Ina portion of what is exprened, namely, manifestations of Aeveloping expen ‘According (0 this view, ncasues of inteligence should be come Ine ith ater sucess, hecse both menses of intelligence and vat tou means of suena reuie developing expertise of elated pm. For example, performance both on test of neligence and on indices ‘of saccnt Spialy rogue hat tener (1985) has referred #38 relazomponens of thinking: recognition of problems, defiion of problems, formulation of strategies to solve problems, representation ‘finfonnation, allocation of amare, and monitoring an evalation (of pooblem eoations, Tae els develop aarti of generico nent covariation and interaction we consider Use sls to eft Intligence, then we shoul egniz that what we are caling itl ences = fom of developing expertise ‘The developing experie pln of vew presented ere integrate the seadyofinteligence and rated silos (tember, 19%, 1943, rm) wth he tay of expense (Chi, laser, & Fare, 1988 Ericson, 1996; Ensson Smit 1981 Hotiman 1982). Thase tudes, typical viewed as itinc, hore are viewed ae ultimately involved with the tame pocholopeal techasiana, We review here trie ly some ofthe porpoctves and thaovies on expertise and its development. Thea We {ises how the developing expertise view provides 3 framework fot ‘understanding the rol practi inline in everyday Wt Prati elie? 3 Resenrcher hve conceptualized experts n cllerent ways Serer, 19a, 1098). One consption i knowledge basd, ding an exper ssomenne who knows lot about agen ane of andento. Tt seams ely thet knowledge I a nacearary condion for expertise; ne one would want ogo tm doctor Iwyer, oe poycesherapists who lacked Thowledge offer els Another conception is hat expersse not Just the possesion of knowledge, but the Bebe appliation ofthe nowradge base “The application of knowledge depends on analytical ceative and practical skls (Sternberg, 194s), Experts new 0 analyze prblems that ae presented to them, Dots ale reports of symptoms and themselves look for diagrowe sigs of various nase, Musicians wd to sala the planes they Pay in der to meat the tcc ‘eaulreents ofthese pieces Most Kinds of expertise aso requ the {pplication of sme ki of eeative sil Laver devi ceatve legal ‘stoi fo ret clients rom legal oops Scents cate new ‘heonte and experiments to curt the unknown. Fall, exprie requis praca sill The sscessal doctor nods patie! Sl, at {says to each ott patents, comfort then an vase ther hat ‘hoy te ging cre in which thy ean have conadence. Laveyers nee fo convince ther cents o tll hem the trath 2p tht hey ear ade (gately represent hove ents, Scent nee to connec quently ‘Skeptical publ, ecentiic or otherwise, tat thle Koas are not just ome are bined concoction of act and ction but rather good ep ‘eentton of een cts Musicians an ars ned to each out fo ‘Potential audiens so tat these audience il pay letin to thet reformances ora works. Peaperioe muy be viewed as an abut at us fa person bt of the way the parson le pensive by other persons — a8 a interaction ‘beeen operon and a situation. this as, experi can be een at inpartlabling phenome whereby some group of pepe dacars 1 peso an expert (Stmerg, 1964), Without that decaraton, the person aay have difty in earssng expertise. For example, an Individual tained in medicine cannot practice without a Leese; an individual tained inthe lw extnot represent lets without ang passed the bar scientist can engage a snce without acdemic c= Eentals but my have dif etaning an sede job o esearch fending without those cedentas In ches, experi i fen recogA ‘ Prt Indigo Eery Efe ‘ized in terms of person's rumercal rating sccoding to. system of| valuation at how well person plays ches Becoming abled ea a expert may require practi sil inthe wenee tht others need fo be ‘Sinced of ne’ sexpert a Theor of Expertise Theos of expertise focus primarily on eer the mental proesss underlying perlormance or the knowledge raulting fom those ‘Process an is organization. Thee factors are stud In yng ‘lug nine with more fom those with les expert, Ve shal now buely characterize thse theories, which have been reviewed by Brcson and South (191), Sterbng & Ben Zee (i ‘rst and Shermer, Grigor, and Petar (in pres) TimOWIES FOCUSING ON MENTAL ROCKSSES Some teore fexpec thse emphasion the role of planning problem solving and reasoning processes (Charnes, 181, 1951; Chamess, Krampe & Maye, 193) Other theories emphasize information prosessing(Lasold eal, E85, Pel & Groen, 1991 Steer, 1989). Sleberg letfed metacom| poneatal proses, such a planing, monitoring. and ersuating ‘ones problem solving and decslon making, as distinguishing exper ‘Eom novi. Expats and novices reprntt information éifereny tnd experts engage in mere sophie srleges and pecformance ‘monitoring than do nove. Experts so spend relatively moze time than do nove inl pln- ring or steno planning aving a problem a whole. Novices in| Conta, are mor ly oben problem slo elatiyquckiybt| ‘ets he el tat tron crn probe avin they ar more ely tohavew restart ther work Te dividend of more tine pert in loa lang ae eter paid ines ime that recs tobe dave fo i pn ‘ig the tactical planning hat nee tobe dane as one proteds hough {he tps of prblem solving nthe fg rn lel pling tel | drain mor tne fom the problem sling proce when global plane was incomplete or iadeguate Seenber, 18). Because experts can racogie the deep structure of the problem they are able to solve problems by working forward, wheres novice sre much mor lial to solve problems working backward. Ia other ‘Words experts ook a the tm ofthe problem snd ten proceed for ‘ward from the problem statement to concason. Novices ae nore ‘ely to stare with the own oF intended soln and hen to work WP! nega? backward to ty to gue ot how they could get fo the forms ofthe problem, given where hey are ying 30. “The persistent ciferece in representation of problems (Chi ot al, 1988) eal forundertanding an important aspet of tho difference tetveen experts and novices Although the apparest problem Heng solved by the expert and the novie the ae, the psychologial problem ela sored o at lst te presentation of ferent. ‘The problem that an expet piste as being abouts pine of Pisce might be sen ty «novice physica beng about mechani {x device, The problem s layperson might se as being abot! a per Son's mood swings might be sen by »payhinrist at beng about 2 tranic-deprosiva pesca. The ciferances in epesenttin show ow fal tis to separate knowledge rom information processing thewoprseiations that expert const pally woul ot be pose be without very extensive and well organized knowledge bases, nikon FoCUSINGON EKOWLEDGE. Theos focutng on there of the knowledge be and is organization often ies the lef stored tsformation i longterm memery a3 bey to understanding oxperte. These theories generally have eit erg inthe work of de Groot (0978) and of Chase and Sno (973). ‘De Groot (1578) asked chess payers of difring lvls of experts to think aloud while they contemplate tho nest moves they would ‘ake fromm scvral diferent presented chews pelons In most cases {rand masters and chee experts ot tthe land master level evalu ted moves sina. There was no difference in the nambec of moves onsidered by the groupe of fering levels of expertise, but grand ‘master sri tthe bostmove carer in hr conskeration of mores than did te more typical experts, De Gros oncace that te rand masters rely en me extensive Knowledge tase dn do the more {pple ches experts, They recgrized the presented poston as s= Inror ential tone they had ann before an hence were abet zar0 in sapidly onthe optinal move: Knowledge sequred trough exper ‘coe athe than an special Kind of ilormaton processing seemed to Beha distinguished the ches grand master fom the ter exper Chase and Sino (1973) suggeted thatthe grand masters simply say have better erodes than do th more common experts They tested ths hypothesis by prenening grand mastre and experts wih ‘hes configurations foe $s and then asking the two groups 0 seal them. They incuded bot contguraton of pses ro eal games an‘ Prt igo in ea ‘andor configarations of pices the grand masters simply had et ‘er memories or pews than te expert, recall shoul have been Ter for all chess board configurations, regardless of wether they were eal ornot Hower the level of chess eerie infaenced al ‘only of sensible (sal game) conigustion of chess pleas thd no Jnflence on rel or random chess postions In ether words, what Litnguished the experts fom the novices an the grand masters rm ‘he experts was not Overall sperior eal bites but rather he eet sel organization of hie know ase ‘Chase and Simon (1973) found also thatthe more expert players wore able wo use th knowledge base Lo etive lange amounts of information in each real of he pecs Simon snd Gilmartin (193) confirmed via computer simulation that chess experts draw on huge ovadge bases unavailable to noview in doing the chested task, Those Inovledge buses maybe ganized nt poe scheny, oc organized bodies of knowledge on which people can dea to help them represent and then solve a problem. Tho same base Reding regarding the ol ofthe knowledgo base has ‘ben replicated ina numberof ether domain, such ude ge of Go (cena, 1975, electronic cut dingrams (Egan & Schwere, 197), and bridge (Charms, 1979; Engle & Bust, 197). Tas avast ane ngnized knowledgebase and the problem schemas that corne with i seem to be of fordamenta Importance fo many differnt Kinds of fexpertise, Sich schemas and the information within them are not ‘apldlysoqured. Sunon and Chase (1973) estimated that would take tout 3000 hors of pay to become aches expert and 30,000 hou become chass master But how dec the scqusion of experise tke Fhe? The Acquisition of Eerie Arumbec cf theories havebean propos ofhow people may become expert, whether in asi athlete, rt whatever (Andersen, 1987, 1593, Newel 198, Sieber & Bn Zee, in pres) Wl consider tw primary approaches to understanding the sequin of expertise. One Spprooth adress the stages involved in aequiing experts and the oer considers the contributing actos in developing expert. ‘Hu Acro OF tL AcQLNTTION, Anderson's theory, Which is ‘embeded within his ACT" theory of eogation, represents slg ‘model (ACT stands fr “A Cagrtve Theory) Astording to Anderson ha Prac Intigre? 7 (1987, 10), shat aston proce hough te main ges ‘hich prea ssi eae he Sevelopnet of epee Tht fe sage endo atten at eos al a he neti fr ning polenta nse ence o ca te novia, Uocly his dartve Lnovidge dries om cota ihe ee tet enn oe of pom anon an ho fc iv wel ocx ble soMing inate, nth og of event problen e [Re iretncl elo and ibernshe mae a ven posom departs ‘tena wa in whch solution wa age he rs te Fre to te pin tt vem min vel ser ay 0 inte tcond gs, rmldge come be peed prod rally inthe form of Pioneer onion-scton tte, at ‘Sr une pevormance of unk for eampe on sah o> Shon might iyo oes dot per nt ly tt te tat hom an puncte eon” Ih erage redactone ae conbned ino macesiy ser eaborted proluion oan or secede Site at canbe we ones camper oak ee ‘Ten Now prormanc ofthe a becomes mow hig suet teu at cco effet on tp ot al dng wot “Athough the ses may cache eveloment of epee toe tre ue dota dence ttre of to Proeron roughtbestage noir worls waren ly 0 ‘Suomi! thar We nwt conics ht cents Gis datncon ‘tt ROU oF DHIRERATE MACTICE AND INNATE ABILITIES. Opions ifr ranting whother expert Is a function of etberate practice, innate ables, or some combination of the two. We cortler 0 ‘lews, one emphasizing the roe of delbezate practice an the other “phasizng the on roles of delet practice an tlt. “One view of the devlopoent of expert i that roguies dele ate practice, Delete practice eno just a od prac, but ther prec in which the ak in at an spproprate val of cific forthe Individual, it provides informative feedback to the individual pro- wide opportunities for repetition, and # llws correction of ero (ison, 1996),* Pra Inline in Ere Ue Brison (9%) argos hades practic tnt just anecesry condition forthe devsopment of npr soulon conon Wel: Inthe words engugng in suet deers pace wll Ser norm ceitna, pre an expe Ensen and Ms cl league (Chase & Excnon 08 Edson, Krampe & Tech Romer 1985) have ponte to tis with musa and stents to upper ther dai Tay found for camp that top ilo spend ere ‘urn ler rats than dees expert coor Chase ac ekson (198 sbowes tht indus can develop exceponal mem cy tough extensive ting "Many tors beleve that eno inate ably, plays an pore tant fe inthe development of experts, nt tdi peice {Bom 985; Sin, 1996 Simeon 199 Seer 19; Wine 198,189) They aga tat although dlberate pace ke bea nensarycondon forthe develope of experts, shot ily tobe a auicen one Fit, borin gone stdin show role for genetic fcr in inteaeon with ewionmentl ones te developer’ uf Yaron Kinds of expertise (Plomin& Mie, 1983), Macy dfleret type of hls com to have at ost aoe hesiabe component aa sure of India dierencs, ad he Kind of expen stud by papel Sree ene pn, ‘Second aoc of ln pls practice psion ange hat he deberate practice view jut not plausible sone to belere at ay ‘one could bene Moca oly by puting inthe imc? Or tay xe old ch he vel ofl shown by Michael Jordans Inst working hand enough a Alghero one of Phunbilty eather a dat on fe et a snple mater ‘ute Many people have ted to reach the eceplnal leh accomplishes shown by the tp peopl in gen ld and mest Ive ven up in seppesninent. "Thr the avocses ofthe md postion anue tht the demon stations of detberte pric lack cml groups or cna ae trate ones They spelt tat other people ho do not become exper may pti the sue our of delete pre he enpets ‘but teerse these nonexpecsdsappear fom view thy nay ever mak t Into stad of experts, Fut, the advocate mined poston apue that deterte rate fa coneunded nase, repentng ton so wal Prcice How coud debente practice be» net of lel? Th a Pract inteligne? ° es (Strberg, 1986; Win, 1986) stony tho with high lev Cisof talent conve to put inthe deliberate practice takes © reach high levels of exper. The alent otras them to ty harder anc thus tack up mre hous of deliberate practic. Conder musi sons for example. Many millions of cdren over the yours ake music lesson, But many of tore quit Why? Pathap Bectse they discover that they nck the talent to Become proesionsl or even sled mus tlans So they sever put in many hore of pace over the course of theif There thatthe creation betiveen delberate prc tie and expertze sayin pt be aacte by lve talent Having considered some cf the aiferent views of expertise and how itis acquit we now dieu view of intelligence and in parca, practical intelligence au for of developing experi. Some intelignce theorists pot tothe stability ofthe alleged general factor of human intligence ae eidenc or the exlstece of some kine tof stable and overriding tract of human ineigence But the exir feoce ofp fair ay ref ile more than an interaction Been ‘watever latent (ed not dict menrarble) sities dividuals may fave and the kinds of expert tht are veloped in school With i ferent forms of acuoling, ¢ could be made eter snger oe weskee neat, este and related forms feo maya part ceatethe |e phenomenon by providing Kid of schooling that teaches in eon junction te various Kids of els measied By tests of ital Sites “Ths, conventional tests may unduly favor a small segment of the population by virtue ofthe azrow Kind of developing expertise they nsaure, Ws one menses a broader range a developing experts, ‘he rvs lok que diferent. Moreover, the broader range of exper tie incldes Kinds of sls that willbe important inte word of wok fd in the world ofthe family. "Anal cretve and practiclaiites, a2 measured by our test cor anyone els an be viewed as fom of developing expertoe (Gtembery, 19980), Al are wef in various binds of Me tasks However convertonal test may uni disadvantage hose students ‘who do not dowel in fay now range of kinds of experts. Byry Pri tienen Erp fe expanding the ange of developing expert thal we measure, we di ‘over hat many chen ot now tented ae able havea devele ‘oped important kinds of expertise. The abies that conventional esi ‘measur ar important for school and fe performanc, bat they ar nt ‘he only sbiltes tat a important, We have conducted stu in Which we have measured informal procedual Kao in cidren and aul Wie have foun is ‘es with business manages, collage profesor, elementary schools ent, alespeople caloge student snd general populations tat this Important aspect of practi intelgence pnecly eared with scademic ineligence as mestured by conventional texts (Sterbery, ‘Wagner Wiliams, Horvath, 15). Moreover the tests prec perfor ance aswell a o beter than do ts of inllgence quent The Tack of coeration beteen the to Kinds of wily ets sagests tht the best prediction of performance wil eral win both eademic and pci intelgene tests are une as predictors, Mast ely have develope ast of common sense forthe workplace (eg. ho handle onetitit aj interview) that prodict selt-ating of common ‘sans but not slrating of vais Kine of academic ables, ‘Both convetinal academic teste and our tet of practical intel ‘gence measure forms of developing expertise that mater in school nd on the job. The reason the corations are often nl Wa the Kinds of developing experts they mensute ace gute diferent The people who ar gow a abstr, aeademic Kinds of expertise ae often ‘opie who have not emphasized leaning practical, everyday Kinds of expertise and vce vers In this volume, we adds the practical kind of expertise that con- lebutes to suecenfl performance in school, work, and any fe eeloavor Inthe ft half ofthe book, we cade the diverse views on Inteligence and the ineeasingrecgriton noth esearch and proto: that paca abilites ae mmportant to sucess, Inthe second hal of the book, we describe program of seach tht seks to understand pe tia intelligence fom te perspective ofthe knowledge noid and used by experts (ie, succesful ndvidua) a given domain,