2.

4 Cells
Biology NCEA L2
2008

Unit Topics
Topic
Introduction

Main Area of study

Organisation of life, Protists, biological
drawing, microscopes

Cell Structure

Scale of size, cell types, organelle structure

and function, cell differentiation

Cell transport

Cell membrane function, active and passive

transport, diffusion, osmosis

Enzymes

Structure, function and activity, coenzymes, poisons, lock and key model and
induced fit.

Organic Molecules

Protein, carbohydrate and lipid structure

Cell respiration

Glycolysis, krebs cycle and respiratory

chain

Cell photosynthesis

Processes, photolysis and Calvin cycle

Cell Division

DNA replication, mitosis

Cellular
Applications

Cloning, fermentation and food production

Introduction

Cells

All living organisms are made up

of cells, the smallest structural
and functional unit.
Organisms can be Unicellular
consist of one independent cell, or
be multicellular organised
networks of cells with
differentiated function and
structure; humans have 100
trillion cells.
Organisms are divided into two
groups by their cell type;
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.

Introduction

Life functions

Biologists have decided that an object is living if it carries out the

following 8 functions:
Movement: all or part of the living object can move
Respiration: living things obtain energy from food during respiration
Sense the environment: living things respond to changes in their environment
Cells all living things consist of one or more of these structures
Growth: living things grow
Reproduction: living things produce new offspring
Excretion: living things are able to get rid of waste products from their bodies
Nutrition: living things can make their own food or obtain it by eating other living or once-living (dead) things.
Mrs C. Gren

Introduction

Five kingdoms of life

Traditional
classification of
organisms into 5
kingdoms was based
on differences in
morphology (body
structure).
After the
development of
microscopes,
scientists discovered
there was more
differences at cellular
level within the
Monera Kingdom
than between all the
other 4 kingdoms put
together.

Introduction

The Three Domains of Life

Recent advancements in
Science have lead
biologists to develop a
new classification
system, grouping
organisms into
domains.
The Prokaryotes are
divided into Bacteria
and the more primitive
Archaea. These were
once combined as the
Monera kingdom.
The Eukaryotes share
similar cell structure
with organelles and a
nucleus. These were
once divided into the
Fungi, Protist, Plant and

Introduction

Diversity of Life
The wheel of life
is based on
molecular level
diversity.

Eukaryotes

The further apart

the species are,
the more
differences they
have from each
other.

Archaea

The Animal
kingdom
occupies a small
part of the
Eukaryotes.

Bacteria

Differences
between a
human and a
sponge are less

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Introduction

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

>lack cell nucleus

>DNA/RNA material stored
in a single loop in an area
called the nucleoid
>have no membrane bound
organelles.
>reproduce asexually by
binary fission

>have membrane bound

nucleus containing genetic
material
>DNA stored on
Chromosomes >has
membrane bound organelles
(mitrochondria respiration,
Chloroplasts
photosynthesis)
>usually reproduce sexually
by meiosis

Unicellular and Multicellular

Introduction

Unicellular

Multicellular

>fully functioning (MRS C

GREN) independent cell
unit
>can be grouped into
colonies (eg algae) but are
still able to separate and
survive
>most kingdoms have
examples of unicellular
Paramecium - Protist
organism

>cells within an organism are

specialised to perform a life function (or
part of one)
>single cells cannot live independently
>all cells co-ordinate into one organism
to collectively perform all the functions
of life.
>generally Plant and Animal kingdoms
Human - Animal
are multicellular

Introduction

Microscopes

Optical
microscopes
p261 - 262
Most cells are to small
to be clearly seen by
eye and require a
microscope to view.
Magnification: the
number of times the
image is enlarged
Resolution: the clarity
and ability to see detail
in the image
The branch of biology
relating to preparation
and viewing tissue
under a microscope is
known as Histology.

Cell membrane

0.1nm
1nm
10nm
100n
m
10
m
100m
1m
m

Leaf

Leaf cross-section

Plant Cell

1m

Animal cell

Nucleus

Mitochondria

Ribosome

DNA
Cell
Structure

Scale of size

10mm

Cell
Structure

Microscope development and cell theory

Light microscopes were developed

in the late 1600s. Yet, until the midseventeenth century, scientists
were unaware that cells even
existed.
In 1665 biologist Robert Hooke
observed through his microscope
that plant tissues were made of tiny
blocks, which he termed "cellulae"
or cells. Even though he could
observe their structure, however,
he did not understand their
function.
In 1839, German botanist Matthias
Jakob Schleiden and German
zoologist Theodor Schwann
discovered the major differences
between plant and animal cells.
They proposed that all living things
are made up of cells, the theory

Cell
Structure

Evolution of the cell - Theories

Theories for formation of

cellular building blocks
Primordial soup: substances
vented into the air by volcanic
eruptions were bombarded by
lightning and ultraviolet
radiation, producing larger,
more stable molecules such as
amino acids and nucleic acids.
Rain carried these molecules to
the Earth's surface where they
formed a primordial soup of
cellular building blocks.
Deep sea vents: cellular
building blocks were formed in
deep-water sulphide
hydrothermal vents rather than
in water on the Earth's surface.
Life from Space: vital
chemicals fell to earth on

Cell
Structure

Evolution of the cell - Theories

In the laboratory,
lipid (fat) molecules
join to form spheres
that are similar to a
cell's plasma
membrane and
organic molecules
can form into simple
nucleic acids. Over
millions of years,
perhaps it is
inevitable that
random collisions of
lipid spheres with
simple nucleic acids,
such as RNA, would
result in the first
primitive cells
capable of selfreplication.

Cell Types

Cell
Structure

Animal

Plant

Bacteria

Virus

enclosed by
a plasma
membrane
and
containing a
membranebound
nucleus and
organelles.
>small
vacuoles, no
chloroplasts,
no cell wall.

similar to the animal

cell, but
>does not
have centrioles,
lysosomes, cilia, or
flagella (except some
photosynthetic
protists).
>It does have a rigid
cell wall, central
vacuole,
plasmodesmata, and
chloroplasts.

Does not
have
nucleus or
organelles
(except
ribosomes)
.

Not considered
living or
consisting of
cells but
contains
genetic
material
(RNA/DNA)
similar to all
other living
things.

Cell
Structure

Cell Structure - Prokaryotes

Absence of nucleus

No organelles in
cytoplasm (except
ribosomes)

Cell
Structure

Cell Wall
Gives the cell
rigidity and a more
angular
appearance.
Chloroplasts
The site of
photosynthesis,
gives the cell its
characteristic
green colour
Vacuole
Assists with
storage and
structure
SJ Gaz
e

Cell Structure - PLant

Cell
Structure

SJ Gaz
e

Cell Structure - PLant

Cell
Structure

Cell membrane
Surrounds cell
and controls
passage of
nutrients and
chemicals.
Flexible and
allows cell to
change shape.
Centrioles
Assist in
Mitosis,
separating
chromosomes.

SJ Gaz
e

Cell Structure - Animal

Animal cells
p266

Cell
Structure

SJ Gaz
e

Cell Structure - Animal

Cell
Structure

Organelles Origin and function

The latest theory on the
origin of organelles
present in the
eukaryotes (such as
mitochondria) indicates
that they were most
likely simple bacteria
ingested (but not killed)
by other bacteria now
living in a permanent
endosymbiotic
relationship.
Residual DNA
possessed by these
organelles, which is
separate from that
found in the cells
nucleus and is very
similar to other
bacterial DNA, is

Cell
Structure

Cell Wall

Location:

The rigid, outermost covering of plant and some protist cells.

Relative
size:

Much thicker than the cell membrane, varies with position on plant.

Made up of:

It is formed of cellulose fibers embedded in a polysaccharide (long chained

sugars)-protein matrix. Can contain lignin for strength.

Function:

Protects the intracellular contents, gives rigidity to the plant, provides a

porous medium for the circulation and distribution of water, minerals, and
other nutrients, and contains molecules that regulate growth and protect
the plant from disease.

Cell
Structure

Cell Membrane

Location:

Surrounding the cytoplasm of all cells (between cell wall and cytoplasm in
plants)

Relative size:

Very thin layer only a few molecules in width. Approx 1nm (1mm = million
nm)

Made up of:

a double layer of phospolipids, water attracting head facing out, water

repelling tail in. Embedded with proteins

Function:

Regulates transport of specific molecules and nutrients and other essential

elements to enter the cell and waste materials to leave the cell. Small
molecules, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water, are able to pass
freely across the membrane

Cell
Structure

Cytoplasm

Location:

Contained within the cell membrane, organelles located within it.

Relative
size:

Dependant on cell size and number and size of vacuoles within it.

Made up of:

The jelly-like matrix containing dissolved nutrients and salts. Contains

microtubules and the cytoskeleton, made from protein.

Function:

Contains the organelles of the cell as well as the sugars, amino acids, and
proteins that the cell uses for growth and reproduction. Assists the
movement of materials around the cell and the cell itself. Gives the cell its
shape. Interconnects other organelles.

Cell
Structure

Nucleus

Location

Often found in the central area of the cell within the cytoplasm. (only
present in Eukaryote cells)

Relative size

Large enough to be seen with a light microscope, often the most visible
structure in the cell. Takes up to 10% of cells volume. About 1micrometer

Construction

Surrounded by a double-layered membrane with pores and containing

chromosomes and nucleoli (producing ribosomes).

Function

It stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's
activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism, protein
synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).

Cell
Structure

Nuclear membrane
Location:

Surrounding the outside of the

nucleus

Relative
size:

Thin layer

Made up of:

Similar to cell membrane, with lipid

layers the outer membrane forms
part of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.

Function:

The membrane is perforated with tiny

holes called nuclear pores. These
pores regulate the passage of
molecules between the nucleus and
cytoplasm, permitting some to pass
through the membrane, but not
others. RNA travels through the pores
after transcription to reach the
ribosomes for translation.

Cell
Structure

Chromosomes
Location:

Contained within the

nucleus

Relative
size:

Depends on species,
can be seen with a
light microscope

Made up
of:

DNA (nucleic acids

a phosphate, sugar
and base) with
various binding
proteins holding it
together

Function
:

Containing genetic
information to enable
an organism to
manufacture all the
proteins required to
develop and maintain
an organism when
necessary.

Cell
Structure

Mitochondria
Location:

Spread within the cytoplasm

of plant and animal cells. May
be one to thousands (red
muscle) depending on tissue
type and need for energy

Relative
size:

Can be seen with a light

microscope, about 100
nanometers

Made up
of:

Double lipid membrane with

protein inserted throughout. A
nutrient rich matrix liquid fills
the centre.

Function:

Site of cellular respiration

(aerobic component)
converting (1) pyruvic acid
(from glucose) into CO2 (2)
and eventually O2 into H2O to
produce ATP (3) to provide
energy for the organism

Cell
Structure

Chloroplast
Location:

Spread within the cytoplasm of

plant cells (and some
photosynthetic protists) only. Most
found in palisade cells in plant
leaves.

Relative
size:

Can be seen with a light

microscope, about 10
micrometers.

Made up
of:

Double lipid membrane with

protein inserted throughout. Stacks
of thylakoids ( called granum) sit in
a nutrient rich stroma liquid.

Function
:

Site of photosynthesis converting

(1) sunlight into electrons (and
water into O2) in the granum then
consequently (2) ATP and
eventually (3) CO2 into glucose in
the stroma, to provide stored
energy for the organism.

Cell
Structure

Centriol
Location:

Found only in animal cells, these

paired organelles are usually
located together near the nucleus
in the centrosome.

Relative
size:

Small, Can just be seen with a light

microscope, 1 10 micrometers.

Made up
of:

Each centriole is made of nine

bundles of microtubules (three per
bundle) arranged in a ring. The
microtubules are constructed from
protein.

Function
:

The centrioles divide during cell

division, going to opposite ends of
the cell. They create fibres that
connect to the doubled
chromosomes during mitosis, to
assist with pulling them apart
correctly.

Cell
Structure

Cilia

Location:

Around outside of animal and protist cells (not plant cells)

Relative size:

Thin, about width of ribosome 10nm, but varying length

Made up of:

Protein microtubules surrounded by membrane layer

Function:

To move a cell or group of cells or to help transport fluid or

materials past them. The respiratory tract in humans is lined
with cilia that keep inhaled dust, smog, and potentially harmful
microorganisms from entering the lungs. Cilia also generate
water currents to carry food and oxygen past the gills of
shellfish and transport food through the digestive systems of
snails.

Cell
Structure

Flagellum

Location:

Around outside of animal and protist cells (not plant cells),

usually at the rear of the cell.

Relative size:

Thin and long but usually bigger than cilia

Made up of:

Protein microtubules surrounded by membrane layer

Function:

Flagella are found primarily on gametes, to provide a means of

movement, but create the water currents necessary for
respiration and circulation in sponges and some worms as well.
Usually only one or two compared to numerous cilia.

Cell
Structure

Vacuole
Location:

Found within the cytoplasm of a

cell

Relative
size:

Can take up most of the cell in

plants but tend to be much
smaller in animal cells

Made up
of:

Single membrane lined sack

filled with liquid and nutrients.
The contents differ from that
found in the cytoplasm.

Function:

In plants: important in providing

structural support, as well as
serving functions such as
storage, waste disposal,
protection, and growth.
In animals: temporarily store
materials or to transport
substances.

Cell
Structure

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Location:

Found around the nucleus, connected by shared membranes. Smooth

and rough ER found in plant and animal cells.

Relative size:

Large organelle, number in cell depends upon requirements for protein.

Made up of:

A network of flattened sacs and branching tubules, made up of one

continuous membrane. Connected to the nuclear membrane

Function:

Rough ER: production and processing of proteins that will be exported, or

secreted, from the cell.
Smooth ER: production of lipids (fats), building blocks for carbohydrate
metabolism, and the detoxification of drugs and poisons. Storage of
calcium and involvement in calcium metabolism.

Cell
Structure

Ribosomes

Location:

Many bound to ER although can be free floating in the

cytoplasm as well. Also found within other organelles like
mitochondria and chloroplasts.

Relative size:

Much smaller than other organelles. Need to view through

electron microscope.

Made up of:

60% RNA and 40% protein, has no membrane like other

organelles

Function:

The ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis. mRNA brings a

copy of information from the DNA in the nucleus to give the
order of amino acids needed, and tRNA brings the appropriate
amino acid to construct the protein.

Cell
Structure

Lysosome

Location:

Found within the cytoplasm of a cell. Most concentrated in disease fighting

white blood cells.

Relative
size:

Smallish organelles that have budded off endoplasmic reticulum or golgi

bodies.

Made up
of:

A single layer lipid membrane embedded with transport proteins. Within the
lysome are digestive enzymes in solution.

Function:

To serve as digestion compartments for cellular materials that have exceeded

their lifetime or are otherwise no longer useful. The lysosomes recycle the
cell's organic material in a process known as autophagy.
Once the fats, proteins and carbohydrates have been broken down the
smaller molecules are released into the cytoplasm to be reused

Cell
Structure

Microfilaments additional information

Common to all eukaryotic cells, these
filaments are primarily structural in
function and are an important
component of the cytoskeleton, along
with microtubules and often the
intermediate filaments.
Microfilaments range from 5 to 9
nanometers in diameter and are
designed to bear large amounts of
tension. In association with myosin,
microfilaments help to generate the
forces used in cellular contraction
and basic cell movements. The
filaments also enable a dividing cell
to pinch off into two cells and are
involved in amoeboid movements of
certain types of cells.

Cell
Structure

MicroTubules additional information

These straight, hollow cylinders are
found throughout the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells (prokaryotes don't have
them) and carry out a variety of
functions, ranging from transport to
structural support. Microtubules, which
are about 25 nanometers in diameter,
form part of the cytoskeleton that
gives structure and shape to a cell, and
also serve as conveyor belts moving
other organelles throughout the
cytoplasm. In addition, microtubules
are the major components of cilia and
flagella, and participate in the formation
of spindle fibers during cell division
(mitosis). The length of microtubules in
the cell varies between 200
nanometers and 25 micrometers.

Cell
Structure

Golgi Body
Location:

Usually located near to nucleus in

cytoplasm of all cell types

Relative
size:

Large organelle, seen by light

microscope.

Made up
of:

Single membrane lined sack filled

with liquid and nutrients. The
contents differ from that found in
the cytoplasm.

Function:

Used in the distribution and

shipping of the cell's chemical
products. It modifies proteins and
lipids (fats) that have been built in
the endoplasmic reticulum and
prepares them for export outside of
the cell or for transport to other
locations in the cell. Small vesicles
arrive from the endoplasmic
reticulum and the contents are then
modified and sent onwards.

Differentiation
of cells
p273
The DNA packaged in chromosomes within every cell nucleus of a multi-cellular
organism contains all of the information for every single gene in the organism.
Not every gene is required by every cell, however. Cells tend to differentiate in
both function and structure in order to specialise. Differentiation is caused by
particular genes being turned on and others being turned off during the initial
development of an embryo. After a certain stage in embryo development cells
stop differentiating and like-cells will then only divide (by mitosis) to produce likecells. (there are exceptions in some species)
Cell
Structure

Cell differentiation in Multi-cellular organisms

Cell
Structure

Animal Cell differentiation

Blood cell

Nerve cell

Epithelial cell

Connective
cell

Germ cell

Sensory cell

Muscle cell

Secretory cell

Cell
Structure

Muscle Cell
Contractile cells that allow the
organs and body of an organism
to move
Special features
>myofibrils bundles of contractile
protein fibres that run the length of
the cell.
>The nuclei of muscle cells are
located at the edges of the cell , a
single muscle cell may have many
nuclei.
>Cytoplasm in muscle cells is called
sarcoplasm. It contains very many
mitochondria, which are the
energy-producing units.
>Sarcoplasmic reticulum is a
network of membrane-enclosed
tubules similar to smooth
endoplasmic reticulum. The function
of the sarcoplasmic reticulum is to
store calcium ions, which are
necessary for muscle contraction.
>Myoglobin is also present in the

Cell
Structure

Muscle Cell Microscope image

Cell
Structure

Retinal cells of the

eye

Membrane bound
photoreceptors

Sensory Cell
Cells of the ear canal
Taste bud Cells of the tongue

Motion detecting micro cilia

Cells that enable an organism to detect its environment ant send

information to the brain.
Special features
>retinal cells contain photoreceptors, that detect light energy and send
electrical impulses.
>auditory (hearing) cells contain have micro cilia, the movement of which cause
electrical impulses to be sent
>olfactory (taste and smell) cells have specialised cell membranes that allow
many chemicals / ions across and relay information about them via nerves to the

Cell
Structure

Sensory Cell Microscope image

Cross section of tongue showing placement of taste buds

germ Cell

Cell
Structure

Reproductive cells, carrying genetic

information required to create an
new organism when joined with
another
Special features
>Germ cells are also known as gametes
>All germ cells are haploid they have
only half a set of DNA and are formed
from Meiosis
>In most animals the male germ cell is
called sperm and the female germ cell is
called an egg.
Sperm
>cell is packed with mitochondria to
provide energy to the flagella for
movement.
>The head of the sperm contain
enzymes to break through the
membrane of the egg cell during
fertilisation
Egg cell

Egg

Cell
Structure

Nerve Cell (neurons)

Cells to relay and process information

Special features
>long extensions of the cell are called dendrites, which make connections with
other neurones.
>An axon is the main fiber like extension of a nerve cell. It is via the axon, that
the nerve cells sends information to other cells.
>End plate of an axon forms a synase with an effector (a muscle or a gland) or
another neuron.

Cell
Structure

Secretory Cell
Cells that secrete chemicals
needed for the organisms
metabolism.

Milk secretory cell

Special features
>The cell is very active in the
process of protein production in the
ribosomes, transport to the rough ER
then to the golgi body for secretion
out of the cell by exocytosis.
>lipids are produced in the smooth
ER and removed out of the cell by
exocytosis as well
>Types of secretory cells can be
found in the:
Brest milk
Stomach acid
Pancreas digestive enzymes
Mouth saliva
Pituitary gland - hormones

Cell
Structure

secretory Cell Microscope image

Secretory cells in the pancreas

Cell
Structure

Connective tissue Cell

The main function of these cell types is to give support and structure to
the organisms body.
Special features
>often have strengthening proteins contained within or around the cells
>Includes cell groups from Bone tissue, cartilage tissue, adipose (fat).
>Blood cells are considered a specialized form of connective tissue
SJ Gaz
e

Cell
Structure

Connective tissue Cell Microscope image

Cell
Structure

Blood Cell
Cells to transport O2 and CO2
around the body, as well as fight
and give immunity to pathogens.
Special features
Red blood cells
>haemoglobin red blood cells
contain this special protein, which is
able to store oxygen.
>The nucleus and many of the
organelles are not present in the
mature cell of mammals, possibly to
make more room for haemoglobin.
White blood cells
>contain large numbers of
lysosomes for killing / digesting
harmful pathogens
Platelets
Proteins which converge on ruptured
blood vessels and congeal to stop
flow.
Plasma
Low viscosity fluid surrounding blood

Cell
Structure

Blood Cell Microscope image

Red blood cells

White blood cells

Cell
Structure

Epithelial Cell
Lining and absorption
cells
Special features
>Flattened shape with
interlocking edges, cells
fitting closely together to
form a continuous lining.
>cells linked together
at points in their plasma
membrane
>some airway lining
epithelial cells are coated in
very tiny hair-like extensions
called cilia which move
rhythmically to remove
mucus, dust and germs.
> these cells assist the
transfer to the blood
vessels; of O2 and CO2 in the
lungs, nutrients in the small
intestine, water in the large
intestine, waste in the
kidneys.

Cell
Structure

Epithelial Cell Microscope image

Cell
Structure

guard cell

Plant Cell differentiation

Root hair cell

Epidermal cell

Stone cell

Germ cell

Phloem cell

Xylem cell

Palisade cell

Cell
Structure

Root hair Cell

Cells take in water
and mineral ions
from the soil
Special features
>Located the root
epidermis (outer layer of
cells) and in direct
contact with the soil.
>Wall nearest the soil
has a long extension
with very thin walls into
the soil.
>This projection
massively increased
surface area for more
efficient uptake of water
and ions.
>The thin cell walls
make up-take of water
easier.

Cell
Structure

Root hair Cell Microscope image

Cell
Structure

palisade Cell
main site of
photosynthesis in
the plant
Special features
>The cells are packed
with chloroplasts
containing the light
absorbing pigment
chlorophyll.
>Regular shaped,
closely packed cells
forming a continuous
layer for efficient
absorption of sunlight.
>membranes of
adjacent cells joined
with desmosomes for
cell contact.

Cell
Structure

Palisade Cell Microscope image

Palisade
cells

Cell
Structure

Guard Cell
Prevent water loss from
the stoma
Special features
>Surround pores (stoma)
in the outer layer of leaves.
>Mostly found on the lower
surface of the leaf to
reduce water loss.
>Cell wall closest to the
pore is thicker and less
flexible.
>Have chloroplasts and
carry out photosynthesis.
>Consequent changes in
glucose concentration and
osmotic potential allow
water to enter and leave.
>When turgid, guard cells
pull the thickened wall in,
opening the stoma.

Cell
Structure

Guard Cell Microscope image

Guard
cells

stoma

Cell
Structure

Xylem Cells
Transport water
around the plant
Special features
>Cells join into long and
tube-like hollow vessels.
>Cells have no end
walls, so form a
'pipeline' carrying water
from leaves to root.
>Spirals and rings of
lignin surrounding the
cells strengthen the
walls, to withstand
pressure of water.

Cell
Structure

Xylem Cell Microscope image

Cell
Structure

Phloem Cells
Tubes to carry
sugars, away from
the leaves for
storage
Special features
>Living cells with
perforated sieve-like
end walls.
>Have vertical
strands of cytoplasm
which carry glucose
and other sugars
dissolved in water to
growing and storage
areas of the plant.

Cell
Structure

Phloem Cell Microscope image

Cell
Structure

Pollen Cell
Tiny cell with half the
genetic information
having been formed by
meiosis.
Special features
>The cell has a hard
protective outer coat to
survive bad conditions.
>Shape and surface of outer
coat is adapted to method of
pollen dispersal
>grows a pollen tube when
reaching flower of same
species and sends down
nuclei to fuse with egg in
fertilisation.

Cell
Structure

Pollen Cell Microscope image

Cell
Structure

Stone Cell (sclereid)

Hardened cell
forming casing
of some seeds in
fruit and nuts,
and
strengthening in
plants
Special features
>reduced
cytoplasm area
with cell
membrane
projections
>adjoining cells
membranes
attached by canals
>thickened outer
cell wall
strenghtened with

Cell
Structure

Epidermal Cell

Flattened cells forming outer protective layer of plant

Special features
>Flattened shape with interlocking edges, cells fitting closely together
to form a continuous lining.
>cells linked together
at points in their plasma membrane by desmosomes

Cell
Structure

Epidermal Cell Microscope image

Onion epidermal cell

Cell
Transport

Cell transport

The living cell needs to exchange molecules and substances

with the outside environment in and out of the cell. This
process is called cell transport.
All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane, and this
organelle controls the passage of substances while retaining
homeostasis within the cell.

Cell
Transport

Cell membrane and Cell transport

>Membranes are fluid, with components that move, change,

and perform vital physiological roles as they allow cells to
communicate with each other and their environment.
>Membranes also are important for regulating ion and
molecular traffic flow between cells.
>Defects in membrane components lead to many significant
diseases.

Cell
Transport

Cell membrane PhosphoLipids

Phospholipids to form a bilayer. Phospholipids are

amphipathic, and have hydrophilic head exposed
to water on the outside and a hydrophobic fatty
acid tail inside the bilayer.
This basic structure makes the membrane a barrier to
hydrophilic molecules including sugars, proteins,
nucleic acids, charged ions and other polar
molecules.
Hydrogen (H)
Carbon (C)
Nitrogen (N)
Oxygen (O)
Phosphate
(P)

Cell
Transport

Cell membrane and Cell transport

>Membrane proteins determined the majority of the functions

of membranes, including transport, receptors, and adhesion of
substances
>peripheral proteins (associated with membrane lipids and
proteins) and integral proteins (embedded in or passing
through the lipids) float in the lipid bilayer.
>Transport of polar molecules through the cell membrane
usually requires channels made up of proteins that span the
lipid bilayer.

Cell
Transport

Passive verses Active transport

Passive transport requires no energy expenditure by

the cell and the substance moves from high
concentration to low concentration.
Active transport requires energy as it moves
molecules from low to high concentration

Cell
Transport

Passive verses Active transport

Cell
Transport

Kinetic particle theory

Small visible particles (e.g

dust in the air) move
randomly.
The molecules of air are in
constant motion, and when
they strike dust particle
they cause the random
motion we see.
This is called Brownian
Motion.

Cell
Transport

Diffusion

Diffusion means that the net movement of particles

(molecules) is from an area of high concentration to low
concentration.
Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide and water move across the cell
membrane by diffusion.

Cell
Transport

Simple Diffusion

If the particles can move through the lipid bilayer

by simple diffusion, then there is no limit to the
number that can fit through the membrane. The
rate of diffusion increases linearly as we add more
particles to one side of the membrane.

Cell
Transport

Facilitated Diffusion

Particles can only pass through protein channels.These

channels facilitate diffusion. The rate of diffusion is
determined by the number of channels as well as the
number of particles. Once the channels operate at their
maximum rate, a further increase in particle numbers no
longer increases the apparent rate of diffusion. At this
limited rate we describe the protein channel as being
saturated.

Cell
Transport

Diffusion

By employing facilitated diffusion a cell can limit

the upper rate of substances diffusing in. This is
important if the cell can only process or remove a
set amount at a time.

Cell
Transport

Osmosis

Osmosis is the diffusion of water only through a

semi-permeable membrane from where water is
in higher concentration to where it is in lower
concentration. (or where the solute is in higher
concentration)

Cell
Transport

Solution
type
that cell
is in

Animal
cell

Plant
cell

Osmosis
Isotonic
Concentrations are
the same on both
sides of the
membrane and
water moves
equally in both
directions

hypertonic
Concentration of
water is higher in
the cell and a net
movement of
water outside
causing the cell to
shrink.

hypotonic
Concentration of
water is higher
outside the cell and
a net movement of
water inside the cell
causes swelling or
breakage

Cell
Transport

Maintaining water Homeostasis - Plants

Plants solve the water problem by having a rigid cell

wall. The entering water moves through the cell wall
and the cell membrane. The water is stored in a
vacuole. The wall protects the cell against expansion,
and the resulting pressure makes the plant rigid, a
phenomena called turgor pressure. When the cell
membrane shrinks away from the cell wall this is called
plasmolysis.

Cell
Transport

Maintaining water Homeostasis - Animals

Animal cells lack a wall, and use active

transport systems (especially the Na+ K+
ATPase that moves three Na+ out for each two
K+ that move in) to move ions outside the cell,
reducing the osmotic pressure.

Cell
Transport

water Potential

The direction of water movement depends upon water

potential across the cell membrane.
Water potential is determined by water concentration +
pressure

Turgor pressure in plant cells increases water potential

and opposes further entry of water into the cell once it is
turgid (even though the water concentration inside the

Cell
Transport

water Potential

The water potential (symbol ) can be calculated using the

following equation
cell = solute potential + pressure potential
Pure water has a water potential of 0. Water molecules
diffuse, through osmosis, from a higher value to a lower
value.
Pressure
potential (p)
is created by a
restrictive cell
wall (in plants tugor) or a
tough
exoskeleton
(invertebrates
hydrostatic
pressure). This
prevents more

cell = 0

cell = -neg

Direction of net flow of

water molecules

solute potential
(s) is created by
the presence of
solute molecules
in the solvent
(water). The more
solute particles
present, the more
negative the
value. A partially
permeable
membrane stops
the diffusion of the

Cell
Transport

Active transport

Cells can pump some substances against a concentration

gradient using energy.
The process involves the use of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate ), the cells energy currency. ATP releases
energy when it breaks the bond of one phosphate and
becomes ADP. This process is recyclable. More ATP is
created by respiration.
The cell membrane contains specific carrier proteins that
carry across a particular molecule/ion.

Low
concentratio
n

High
concentratio
n

Cell
Transport

Active Transport Na+/ K+ ATPase

The best example of active

transport is the Na+/K+ATPase.
This membrane protein
transporter moves Na+ out of
the cell and K+ into the cell,
building up high Na+ outside
and high K+ inside the cells.
Nearly a third of the energy
we use each day drives this
transport system.
The transmission of signals
through our brain and the
control of water flow into and
out of cells requires the activity
of the Na+/K+ATPase.

Cell
Transport

Carrier Proteins

Carrier proteins are required for both facilitated passive and

active transport. They are highly sensitive to temperature
changes, lack of oxygen and respiratory inhibitors such as
cyanide. Maintaining optimum conditions for cell transport
to operate is crucial. Any slight changes are likely to cause
quick death of the organism.

Channel proteins do
not require energy for
molecules to move
through them, they just
provide a conduit
through the membrane
for particular
substances.

Cell
Transport

cytosis

The Material or molecules to be transported is enclosed in

sac-like vacuoles surrounded by a single membrane.
Endocytosis Cell
membrane encloses the
desired material out of
the cell and then pinched
off to form a filled
vacuole in the cell. This is
the feeding method of
many protists including
the Amoeba species.
Exocytosis the vacuole
fuses with the cell
membrane and the
contents are released
outside of the cell.

Cell Size limitations

Cell
Transport

As a cell gets larger the surface area to volume ratio gets

smaller. Diffusion and active transport become less effective
in supplying all that a cell requires. If an organism is to get
bigger it needs to become multi-cellular with a more complex
transport system while keeping its individual cells small.
Low surface area

Large
cell

High surface area

Small
cell

Tripling area for cell transport

Calculating cell diffusion rate

Cell
Transport

The rate at which diffusion occurs into and out of a cell will
increase as the surface area is greater in proportion to
volume (smaller cell). This ratio can be calculated using the
equation

SA
V

surface area
volume

SA/V = 2.5

SA/V = 5
SA/V = 10

Area that substances

havent diffused into

Area that substances

have diffused into

Enzymes

Cell metabolism consists

of reactions between
chemicals.
Chemical reactions
require an amount of
energy in order for them
to be successful. This
energy is called activation
energy.
Catalysts are substances
that lower the amount of
activation energy required
less energy is needed
for a reaction to be
successful. They are not
used up in the reaction
and do not form part of
the product. They can be
reused over and over.

Enzymes
With enzymes - Energy for
reaction (temperature) within body
survival zone reaction products
formed
enzymes

Without enzymes - Energy for

reaction (temperature) exceeds
body survival zone no reaction

Enzymes

Enzyme Structure

Enzymes are proteins with a specific 3-D shape, that binds

SUBSTRATE to its ACTIVE SITE. They provide a site for
reactions to occur. The active site is the specific region of
the enzyme which combines with the substrate.
Specific substrate molecules fit into specific enzymes. There
are thousands of different enzymes in cells. One type of
enzyme is a catalyst for one type of reaction.

Enzymes

Enzyme Function

Enzymes catalyze chemical

reactions by:

1
2

1) Binding the substrate

(or substrates) to the
active site on the
enzyme.
2)The binding of the
substrate to the enzyme
causes electron transfer
reactions in the chemical
bonds of the substrate
that lead to the formation
of products.
3)The products are released
from the enzyme surface
to regenerate the
enzyme for another
reaction cycle.

Enzymes

Lock & Key Model

One model for enzyme structure and function is called the

lock and key model. This is because an enzyme (the lock)
will only be able to fit a particular substrate (the key) into its
active site (the key hole)
The active site has a
unique geometric
shape that is
complementary to the
geometric shape of a
substrate molecule,
similar to the fit of
puzzle pieces. This
means that enzymes
specifically react with
only one or a very few
similar compounds.

Enzymes

Induced Fit Model

Another enzyme function model is called the induced fit.

The enzyme closes around the specific substrate and causes
the chemical reaction to occur either bonds breaking and/or
bonds forming.
active site
substrat
e

enzym
e

When glucose (red)

comes close to the
hexokinase active
site it induces a
conformational shift
in the enzyme to
better hold the
substrate glucose.

The induced-fit hypothesis assumes that the substrate plays a role

in determining the final shape of the enzyme and that the enzyme
is partially flexible. This explains why certain compounds can bind
to the enzyme but do not react because the enzyme has been
distorted too much. Other molecules may be too small to induce
the proper alignment and therefore cannot react. Only the proper
substrate is capable of inducing the proper alignment of the active
site.

Enzymes

Catabolic Enzyme

Catabolic enzymes break a substrate molecule down into

smaller molecules.
SJ Gaz
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The active site on the enzyme attaches to a substrate molecule.

While attached to the substrate, the enzyme causes a weakening of
certain chemical bonds in the substrate molecule, resulting in a
breakdown (hydrolysis) of the substrate into two smaller product
molecules. The enzyme is unaltered during the reaction and is free to
catalyze the breakdown of another substrate molecule. If the active
site on the enzyme is blocked by a poison molecule, this vital
hydrolysis reaction cannot occur.

Enzymes

Hydrolysis of Sucrose By catabolic enzymes

An enzyme is
required
(sucrase) to
break apart
sucrose
(common
sugar) into
glucose and
fructose.
Mitochondria
breaks down
glucose
through the
process of
respiration to
produce
energy (ATP)

Enzymes

Anabolic Enzymes

Anabolic enzymes join substrate molecule together

Autotrophs (plants and organisms that make their own food)

use anabolic enzymes during photosynthesis to manufacture
glucose (sugar) from CO2 and H2O. Heterotrophs (animals
and organism that need to consume organisms for food) also
use anabolic enzymes when synthesizing amino acids although some they must obtain some amino acids from
their diets.

Enzymes

Enzyme reactions and energy

Anabolic reactions are endothermic and require energy in

addition to the initial activation, normally in the form of ADP
ATP. The products contain more energy than the substrate
(reactants).
Catabolic reactions are exothermic and release energy, normally
in the form of ATP ADP

sugar

Enzymes

Factors affecting enzyme activity

Successful enzyme activity is dependant on the temperature

and pH of the environment. Enzymes will often only work
within a narrow range of both, and rapid death may result
due to any slight variation. The reaction rate is also effected
if the concentration of substrate or enzyme is limited.

temperature

pH

Enzyme activity

Substrate
concentration

Enzyme
concentration

Enzymes

Enzyme activity - Temperature

Heat disrupts the hydrogen bonds within the enzyme

molecule. This alters protein shape (denature) and
therefore the active site can no longer fit the appropriate
substrates.

Enzymes

Enzyme activity - pH

pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration. The lower the

pH (more acidic) , the higher the H+ ion concentration. Enzymes
require a narrow range of pH (hence [H+]) in order for them to
function correctly.
The excess or lack of H+ ions disrupts the bonds between the
amino acids in the protein that make up the enzyme. This alters
the shape of the active site and prevents the substrate from
attaching hence no reaction
Different
enzymes
work
optimally at
different
pHs.
This
depends on
the
environmen
t in which
the
enzymes

Enzymes

Enzyme activity - Substrate Concentration

Increasing the concentration of the substrate increases the

reaction rate (and formation of products). This increase will
continue until all the enzymes available are fully utilized and
then the reaction rate will remain stable. If there is a limited
amount of enzymes available, increasing the substrate
concentration may make no difference to the reaction rate.

Enzymes

Enzyme activity - Enzyme Concentration

Increased enzyme concentration will increase the

reaction rate until all the substrate is used up, then the
reaction rate will decrease. If there is insufficient
substrate available then increased concentration of
enzymes will have no effect on the reaction rate.
With no limit of substrate

Fixed concentration of substrate

Enzymes

Enzyme
function can be
effected by
inhibitors. Nonspecific
inhibitors work
on all present
enzymes and
can also include
poisons.
Specific
inhibitors target
a particular
enzyme.

Enzyme Inhibitors

Enzymes

enzyme Denaturation

Some factors will change shape of a protein [active site]and

can lead to denaturation. The enzyme will no longer work. This
factors can be temporary or permanent.

poisons inhibitors organochemicals that

phosphorous
bind to
compounds
enzyme &
(many
Enzyme
(active
site)
change its
insecticides)
shape
activity
bind to
[competitive/n
enzymes of
pH - changes
on- temperature
nervous
ionic charges
competitive]
increases
system & thus
= alters shape
kinetic motion,
kill
breaks H-

Enzymes

Enzyme inhibitors - Competitive

These inhibitors change the shape of the active site on

the enzyme and shut off activity

Competit
or
molecule
binds at
active
site,
prevents
substrate
from
binding.

Enzymes

Enzyme inhibitors Non-Competitive

These inhibitors act as an

on/off switch for the
function of an enzyme.
The end product
created from a reaction
binds at a allosteric
(different site), which
changes shape of the
active site. The
substrate can't bind
enzyme activity stops
Enzyme activators bind
to the allosteric sites
enzyme activity starts.
The presence of
activators are often in
response to the lack of
products i.e. self-

Enzyme

Enzyme and
substrate

Substrate

Inhibitor

Altered Enzyme and

inhibitor

Enzymes

Enzyme inhibitors poisons

Poisons block enzyme function. Some of the effects are

reversible, such as those caused by snake venom and are
reversed by taking a specific antidote. Other poisons are
not the effects of which are permanent and can be fatal.
Cyanide is a enzyme inhibitor
of cellular respiration. This
prevents the body from
using oxygen to produce
useful energy. Lactic acid
builds up then occurs as
a consequence of
anaerobic respiration.
Cells are not able to use
the oxygen in the blood.
Death normally follows
shortly after ingesting the
poison. Cyanide is
commonly used to control
possums.

Enzymes

Biochemical pathway

Several to many enzymes are placed side by side on

membranes within cells, each enzyme completing one of
the many steps to convert 1 substance into another.
("Assembly Line")

An example is glycolysis
that occurs in the cells
cytoplasm (glucose into
pyruvic acid as a precursor
to respiration that takes
place in the mitochondria)

Enzymes

Co-factors

A cofactor is a non-protein chemical that is attached to an

enzyme and is required for the enzyme assisted reaction to take
place.
They can be considered "helper molecules/ions" that assist in
biochemical transformations. Cofactors can be divided into two
broad groups: coenzymes and prosthetic groups.
substrate

substrate

cofactor

enzyme

enzyme

Products formed

Enzymes

CO-enzymes and prosthetic groups

If the cofactor is organic, then it is called a coenzyme.

Coenzymes are relatively small molecules compared to the
protein part of the enzyme. Many of the coenzymes are derived
from vitamins. Coenzymes carry chemical groups between
enzymes. These molecules are not bound tightly by enzymes and
are released as a normal part of the catalytic cycle.
Prosthetic groups form a permanent part of the protein
structure.

Coenzymes are
required for the
process of
respiration

Enzymes

Enzymes in Biotechnology

We have employed the use of

enzymes in scientific processes as
well as making use of their
properties by adding them to
products such as washing powder. In
many cases, the commercial
processes first exploited naturally
occurring enzymes.
Scientific research has improved
protein engineering methods and
many enzymes have now been
genetically modified to be more
effective at the desired
temperatures, pH, or under other
manufacturing conditions typically
inhibitory to enzyme activity (eg.
harsh chemicals). Naturally
occurring enzymes have now been
made them more suitable and
efficient for industrial or home
applications.

Enzymes

Enzymes in detergents

Enzymes have been used in

many kinds of detergents for
over 30 years including those
that degrade proteins
(proteases) causing stains,
such as those found in grass
stains, red wine and soil.
Lipases dissolve fat stains and
clean grease traps or other fatbased cleaning applications.
Recent scientific research is
being made into enzymes that
can tolerate, or even have
higher activities, in hot
(thermotolerant) and cold
(cryotolerant) temperatures.
They are also useful for
industrial processes where high
temperatures are required, or
for bioremediation under harsh
conditions (eg. in the arctic).

Enzymes

Enzymes Paper industry

Enzymes are used by the pulp

and paper industry for the
removal of stickies, the
glues, adhesives and coatings
during recycling of paper.
Stickies and glue clog the
paper mill machinery and
cost hours of downtime.
Chemical methods for
removal of stickies are not
completely successful.
Stickies are held together by
ester bonds. Esterases cut
the stickies into smaller, more
water soluble compounds,
facilitating their removal from
the pulp.

Enzymes

Enzymes in textiles

Enzymes are used to prepare the

fabrics of clothing, furniture and
other household items. Industries
now use enzymes instead of harsh
chemicals that were a cause of
pollution. Enzymes are used to
enhance the preparation of cotton
for weaving, reduce impurities,
minimize pulls in fabric, or as
pre-treatment before dying to
reduce rinsing time and improve
colour quality. All of these steps
not only make the process less
toxic and eco-friendly, they reduce
costs associated with the
production process, and
consumption of natural resources
(water, electricity, fuels), while
also improving the quality of the
final textile product.

Enzymes

Enzymes in food technology

Wine, beer, vinegar and cheese production

utilized the enzymes in the yeasts and
bacteria.
Biotechnology has made it possible to
modify the specific enzymes responsible
for these processes. This can improve the
flavour and quality of each product.
Enzymes can also be used to make the
process cheaper and more predictable, so
a quality product is ensured with every
batch brewed. Other enzymes reduce the
length of time required for aging, help
clarify or stabilize the product, or help
control alcohol and sugar contents.
Enzymes have also been used to turn
starch into sugar. Corn and wheat syrups
are used throughout the food industry as
sweeteners. Using enzyme technology, the
production of these sweeteners can be less
expensive than using sugarcane sugar.
Enzymes have been developed and

Enzymes

Enzymes in the leather industry

The process of tanning hides into useable leather has involved

the use of many harmful chemicals. Biotechnology has allowed
some of these chemicals to be replaced with enzymes. The
tanning process is made faster and more efficient. Enzymes can
be applied to the first steps of the process where fat and hair
are removed from the hides. Enzymes are also used during
cleaning, and keratin and pigment removal, and to enhance the
softness of the hide. They also help stabilize the leather during
the tanning process to prevent it from rotting.

Enzymes

Enzymes in biodegradable plastics

technology

Certain bacteria can produce

granules of plastic within their
cells. The genes for enzymes
involved in this process have
been cloned into plants which
can produce the granules in
their leaves.
Plastics manufactured by
traditional methods come from
non-renewable hydrocarbon
(petrochemical) resources. They
consist of long polymer
molecules that are tightly bound
to one another and cannot be
broken down easily by
decomposing microorganisms.
Biodegradable plastics can be
made using plant polymers from
wheat, corn or potatoes, and
consist of shorter, more easily
degraded polymers.

A biodegradable plastic
cup decomposing

Enzymes

Enzymes in biofuel technology

Bioethanol can be produced from starchy plant materials using

enzymes capable of efficiently making the conversion. At
present, corn is a widely used source of starch, however other
plants including wheat, bamboo, or other grasses are possible
sources of starch for bioethanol production.
Bioethanol may still produce as much greenhouse gases as
traditional fossil fuels but research and modification of enzymes
to make the process more efficient is currently being carried
out.

Organic
molecules

Organic Molecules

Organic molecules are a group of substances that have carbon

atoms as their main constituent. The carbon atoms are also
bonded to hydrogen and oxygen atoms, and a range of other
inorganic atoms.

Amino
acid

sugar
carbohydrates
sugar

Organic
molecules

Fats and oils

(lipids)

Lipid
molecule

Lipid
molecule

Protein
Amino
acid

Organic
molecules

Organic Building blocks

All organic molecules are comprised of hydrogen and

carbon. More complex organic molecules add other
types of atoms.

Organic
molecules

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are an organisms source of energy.

Carbohydrates are created by plants (autotrophs) through
photosynthesis. They are then ingested by heterotrophs.
Carbohydrates are composed of chains of sugar rings
(saccharides).
Many carbohydrates have the general empirical formula of
CH2O. The actual number of atoms (molecular formula) and the
way the atoms are arranged (structural formula) determine the
type of carbohydrate.

Photosynthesis by
autotrophs
SJ Gaz
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Refining
carbohydrates into
consumable food

Eaten by
humans

Organic
molecules

Monosaccharides

The simplest sugar is known as a monosaccharide (one sugars).

Some examples are glucose, arranged in a carbon ring with the
formula C6H12O6, fructose, found in fruits and also with the
formula C6H12O6 but it has a different structural formula, and
deoxyribose, found in DNA molecules.

Organic
molecules

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are
many of many
covalently bonded
monosaccharide sugars.
All of these
carbohydrate molecules
are insoluble in water
(because they are nonpolar) and often very
tough and strong (e.g.
cellulose and chitin)
because they have
strong hydrogen
bonding between
layered chains of sugars.
Plants store their sugar
from photosynthesis as
starch many millions
of monosaccharides
long.

Starc
h

Triglycerides

Organic
molecules

Solid triglycerides are known as fats and liquid

triglycerides are known as oils. Triglycerides consist
mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a few oxygen
atoms. Many plants can store their created energy as oils
and fats.
Triglycerides have a glycerol (tertiary alcohol ; 3 OH
units) backbone attached to 3 fatty acid chains (long
chain carboxylic acid ; CH3-CH2..CH2COOH).
GLYCEROL

propan,-1,2,3-triol

g
l
y
c
e
r
o
l

Fatty acid

Fatty acid

Fatty acid

Organic
molecules

Protein

Proteins are complex organic molecules made from Carbon, Nitrogen,

Oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Proteins are made from specifically
sequenced different amino acids joined together into a long chain
(this takes place in the ribosomes with mRNA - a copy from the DNA
and tRNA, called protein synthesis) then the long chains are folded in
specific ways with bonding holding it togeher.

Organic
molecules

Amino Acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. Each amino acid has
an amino end (so called because it contains a nitrogen atom) a chain
of carbons and an acid COOH end (because this end donates a
hydrogen proton).

Organic
molecules

Amino Acids Types

Humans and other mammals can produce all the many thousands of
types of protein needed from just 20 essential amino acids. Types of
amino acids vary due to the type of atom attached between the
amine and acid ends. This is called the R group.

Organic
molecules

DNA strands
separate and a
single strand
copy (mRNA) is
made
transcription.
mRNA travels to a
ribosome and a
polypepide chain
is formed
translation. The
codons (triplets of
bases) determine
the amino acid
attached to a
tRNA selected.

Protein synthesis

Organic
molecules

Polypeptide chains
(long peptide
bonded amino
acid chains) are
sent to the
endoplasmic
reticulum to be
further processed
and folded. Reusable chaperone
molecules assist
with correct
folding of each
different type.
Folded proteins
can then be
transported in
vesicles (formed
from the ER
membrane) to the
golgi apparatus for

Protein Folding

Protein Types

Organic
molecules

The combination of amino acids and the type of folding, as well as

the particular amino acids bonded to each other, determine the type
of protein

Fibrous
structural
proteins

Globular
proteins
Such as

Such as
Keratins
Collagens
elastins

Enzymes
Regulation
Hormones
Connective tissues
Cell transportation immunoglobulins
tendons
Messagers
Haemoglobin
bones
Immunity
Membrane proteins
muscle fibers
Blood system
Amino acids
Found in

Used for
SJ Gaz
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Organic
molecules

Organic molecule reactions

The smallest functional units of organic molecules are known as

monomers. Examples are the amino acids making up proteins,
fatty acids in lipids and the monosaccharides of carbohydrates.
Chains of these monomers joined together are known as polymers.
Biochemical reactions take place in the cell which join monomers
into polymers and separate polymers into monomers.
Monomers
Polymers
Glucose

Glucose

Glucose

Glucose

Glucose

starch
Amino Acid

Amino Acid Amino Acid Amino Acid Amino Acid

Protein

Fatty acid

Fatty acid

Fatty acid

Fatty acid
Fats and oils

Fatty acid

Condensation

Organic
molecules

The condensation reaction occurs when a monomer unit is joined

onto a chain. One water molecule is released per reaction. Enzymes
are required for this type of reaction to occur in the cell.
Starch - Polymer
Glucose

Glucose

Glucose

Glucose
Glucose
H

water

Hydrolysis

Organic
molecules

When one monomer unit is removed from the polymer chain this
reaction is called hydrolysis. One molecule of water is required for
every reaction. One Hydrogen atom and one Oxygen atom are
joined onto the site of the monomer that was originally joined to the
polymer, and the remaining Hydrogen atom is joined to the vacated
site on the remaining polymer.
Starch is a Polymer - long chain of glucose
monomers
Glucose

Glucose

Glucose

Glucose

Glucose

H H
Glucose is a monomer
water

Respiration

Respiration occurs
in the cell, initially
in the cytoplasm
and then in the
mitrochondria.
Glucose enters a
cell and is broken
apart in a series of
steps to release
energy. Each
reaction is
facilitated by
enzymes.
Respiration has
three main stages

1.Glycolysis
2.Krebs cycle
3.Respiratory chain

Cellular Respiration

Energy Storage ATP/ADP

Respiration

The cell stores its energy in the chemical bonds of the ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) molecule. When energy is required
one P (phosphate) atom is removed to form ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) and a large amount of energy is released.
Energy created from breaking apart glucose in respiration is
used to join the P and ADP back together into ATP, to be
released where and when it is required.

P adenosine P
P
Adenosine
triphosphate
diphosphate

adenosine P
Energy
released

P
Energy
From
respiration

Adenosine
diphosphate
triphosphate

Glycolysis

Respiration

Glycolysis is the first stage of respiration and takes place in the

cytoplasm of the cell. Glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid and 2
ATP (from 2 ADP + 2P) are released.
Without oxygen present, anaerobic respiration takes place. The
pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid in animals and CO 2 + alcohol
in plants and yeasts (generally).
With oxygen present aerobic respiration takes place, and the pyruvic
acid moves into the krebs cycle for further reactions.

ADP

ADP
ATP
ATP

Pyruvic
acid

glucose

Glucose
pyruvic acid +2ATP

Anaerobic Respiration

Respiration

Without oxygen present, anaerobic respiration takes place. The

pyruvic acid is further converted into lactic acid in animals and CO 2
+ alcohol in some plants and yeasts (generally).
yeast
ADP

ADP
ATP
ATP

Ethanol and
CO2

Pyruvic
acid

Lactic acid
Animals

glucose

Respiration

Krebs Cycle - 1

If oxygen is present the pyruvic acid formed from glycolysis moves

into the matrix of the mitochondria. The pyruvic acid is
systematically broken down into CO2 and H atoms and changing
ADP into ATP. NADH and FAD are co-factors and co-enzymes
assisting in hydrogen transportation.
Matrix
cristae

Respiration

Krebs Cycle 2

Pyruvic acid is converted into Acetyl co enzyme A (2 carbons) and

placed in the kreb cycle as acetyl. The CoEnzyme A separates and is
reused over again. The remaining carbon is released as CO2 in the
cycle. Oxaloacetate (a 4 carbon molecule) is the end product of the
cycle and is reused when joined with new Acetyl to form 6-carbon
citric acid.
Krebs cycle equation for 1 glucose
molecule (= 2 pyruvic acid
molecules)
2acetyl-CoA + 2oxaloacetate
4CO2 + 6NADH + 2FADH2 +
2ATP + 2oxaloacetate

Respiration

Respiratory Chain

The released hydrogen stored in the NAHD and FADH2 from the krebs
cycle moves into the cristae of the mitrochondria. Energy from the
electrons of the hydrogen power the protein pumps moving hydrogen
ions across the membrane against the concentration gradient. As the
hydrogen ions flow back the products of 1 glucose convert 32 ADP
molecules into 32 ATP. Oxygen bonds with the low energy hydrogen at
the end of the chain to form water.
H+ flow
back
across the
membran
e by
Energy
passive
from the
transport.
hydrogen
pump H+
into the
cristae.
This is
active
transport.

Photosynthesis

Cell Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the
process by where CO2
and H20 are combined
using light as the energy
source to produce
glucose and O2.
This take place in the
chloroplasts found in
cells of plants and
photosynthetic Bacteria
and Protists. All food is
produced by this
process.
Photosynthesis occurs in
two stages;
1. The light phase in the
grana (stacks of
thalakoids)
2. The dark phase

Photosynthesis

Processes

Light is only required during the light phase and is absorbed by a

pigment called chlorophyll in the grana. H2O is separated into O2
which is released, and H which is carried onto the Calvin cycle.
Energy released from the H2O powers the Calvin cycle (as ATP) where
CO2 and the H are combined to produce glucose. Enzymes are
involved in all of the reactions.

Photosynthesis

The light waves absorbed

by the chlorophyll pigment
are red and blue/violet.
The green light waves are
reflected or transmitted,
and therefore most plants
containing chorophyll
appear green.
The energy from the light
excites the electrons in
the chorophyll and causes
them to move into an
electron transport chain in
the thalakoid membrane
(a stack of thalakoids are
called granum). This is
similar to the respiratory
chain in respiration, as the
electrons are first pumped
against the concentration
gradiant then flow back

Light phase

Photosynthesis

Light phase and Photolysis

To
dark
phase

Photolysis is the
separating of H2O
by light energy to
provide H+ and e(to provide e- to
replenish the
electron transport
chain). The
energy depleted
e- at the end of
the chain
combine with the
H+ to form H
atoms and they
move onto the
dark phase.

H+ + e- H

eLight
energy
from sun

H+

H2O
photolysi
s

O2

Calvin Cycle

Photosynthesis

The dark phase or the calvin cycle takes place in the stroma (liquid
of the chloroplast) and using enzymes it fixes CO2 from the air with
the H from the light phase and also using the ATP produced. G-3-P
( glyceraldehye-3-phosphate) is first produced then further
processed into carbohydrates (glucose polymerisationsucrose),
fats and amino acids.
From the
air

polymerisati carbohydrates
on

CO2

glucose
Calvin cycle

H
ATP
From light
phase

Enzyme
reactions

G-3-P

Fatty acids

Fats and oils

(lipids)

Protein
Amino
acid

Protein synthesis

Cell Division

Cell Division

Cells divide for growth and/or repair called mitosis and for the
production of gametes called meiosis.
Mitosis creates 2 identical daughter cells from each parent cell. Each of
these cells maintains a full set of identical chromosomes (diploid).
These cells are called somatic cells.
Meiosis divides one parent cell into 4 gamete cells. Each gamete has
half the number of chromosome of the parent cell (haploid). A male
and a female gamete recombine during fertilisation to form a cell with
the complete set of chromosomes.

mitosis

46

46

meiosis

46

Chromosome
number

46

23

23

23

23

Cell Division

DNA Replication

Before cell division the DNA must replicate. Each single

chromosome becomes doubled and held together with a
centromere. DNA polymerase is the enzyme that allows this to
happen.
New strand

Original
strand

DNA
polymerase

Growth
DNA polymerase

Growth

Replication fork

Replication fork

New strand

Original
strand

DNA Replication

Cell Division

New DNA
strands

DNA
strands
normally
unwoun
d

cell

nucleus

centrome
re

DNA wind up
into
chromosome
s after
replication

DNA
replicated

Cell Division

Interphase

telophase

Mitosis
prophase

anaphase

prometaphase

metaphase

Mitosis

Cell Division

DNA replicates
into 2 double
strands
Interphase

telophase

Cells split by
cytokinesis into
two. Nuclear
membranes reform.

DNA coil into

chromosomes
prophase

anaphase

Chromatids
pulled apart to
opposite ends
of cell

Chromosomes line up.

Nuclear membrane
disapears
prometaphase

metaphase

Centrosomes
attach spindle
fibres to
chromatids

Cellular
applications

Food Production

We use the cell processes to create food

>Cheese Lactic acid produced by bacteria curds and flavours the
cheese.
>Brewing/winemaking yeast produce alcohol and CO2.
>Bread-making yeast produces CO2 to help bread rise. The
alcohol is evaporated away during cooking.
>Yoghurt lactic acid from bacteria curdles and flavour. It breaks
protein chains into peptides.

SJ Gaz
e

Fermentation

Cellular
applications

Fermentation is the process of anaerobic respiration by yeasts. The

products excreted are ethanol (alcohol) and CO2. Ethanol is a
poisonous waste product and will kill most yeasts over 12%. To further
increase the percentage of alcohol in drinks distillation is required.
The CO2 provides the bubbles in many drinks.
Yeast on the
grapes skin
ferments the
sugar during
respiration

Sugar
carbon dioxide

alcohol

C6H12O6
CH3CH2-OH
2CO
(+ 2ATP)

+
+

Cellular
applications

Cloning

This artificial technique takes the DNA from an adult somatic cell
(which has the full 46 chromosomes (23 pairs 2N) and inserts it
into a female gamete (egg cell) that has had its DNA removed. The
egg is the implanted into a female and the egg develops into an
embryo. The resulting off-spring will be identical to the donor of the
DNA not the egg donor or female gestating the baby.