Electron-Cyclotron-Resonance Plasma Thruster Research:

This paper was written by F. E. C. Culick and Joel C. Sercel from the California Institute of Technology and
submitted to the United States Air Force. The report summarizes the results of a three year program
devoted to theoretical and experimental research on plasma acceleration by Electron-Cyclotron
Resonance (ECR).
It is important to note that the authors had access to the JPL facility providing 18,000
liters/second of vacuum system pumping and a 20-kW of S-band microwave power.
Objectives:
The objective of the program was to develop a quantitative scientific understanding of ECR plasma
acceleration as it occurs in the plasma thruster. My objective in reading this is to understand more
about ECR plasmas, and what can be applicable to my project.
What I got from the text:
In the first stages of theoretical work, the authors were developing models to predict the plasma flow
field of the ECR accelerator. Using a magnetic nozzle, the flow field is predicted as such:

The model used collisionless, steady-state, cold plasma to calculate the flow. It is important to note that
the energy associated with electron Larmor motion perpendicular to magnetic field lines is treated in
the model and constitutes an important effect of the plasmas thermal energy. The forces from this
magnetic nozzle are the Lorentz force associated with azimuthal currents and the diamagnetic body
force. However, because the azimuthal component of these forces is zero, (lies along an axis with
symmetry) the plasma can only be accelerated radially and axially. *The authors used 8 first order
differential equations to predict the details of the flow field.*

Figure 1 shows a significant plasma divergence, and that the most occurs two to five meters from the
accelerator. The conclusion is thus: the plasma completely separates from the field of the magnetic
nozzle.

From both of these graphs, it is suggested that the radial and axial components of the plasma velocities
effectively approach a constant value in a time period of less than about 10 -3 seconds. This also means
that the particles after this period of time are no longer affected by the magnetic field.
Efficiency: Coils with larger radii can be expected to produce less divergent plasma beams. For a fixed
coil radius, plasma which originates near the center line of the accelerator tends to separate from the
magnetic field with minimal divergence, while plasma which originates at a larger radial position tends
to diverge strongly.
Final thoughts:
This paper was published quite early in the ECR research process. Many more papers and studies have
been conducted since, each building off their predecessors. Albeit, where this paper covered more
about magnetic nozzles than it did electro cyclotron resonance, the findings regarding acceleration
through this process are very appealing. Having a propulsive loss of 2%, compared to some other
methods is significant, yet quite efficient. The paper also brought up the concept of plasma lenses. That
sounds like another research endeavor not quite associated with an ignition system.

Plume Characteristics of an ECR Plasma Thruster:

The paper is written by D. A. Kaufman and D.G. Goodwin from the California Institute of Technology.
Published in 1993, the paper discusses the concept and the experimental results of an ECR thruster in a
vacuum tank using a 2.12 GHz microwave beam.
My objective: to understand more of how electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) works and gain another
perspective on how to ionize and cause ECR heating.
What I got from the text:

For the device, a microwave beam is used to ionize and energize a gas in a magnetic nozzle. Compared
to ion cyclotron resonance, where the mass for ions is magnitudes larger than electrons, the magnetic
field strength is chosen such that electron cyclotron frequency equals the microwave frequency. Using
the equation = /, this can be solved. For more on how ECR works, The circularly-polarized
microwave beam heats the free electrons in the plasma, transferring energy to the electrons gyrating
motion around the magnetic field lines. The electrons are then accelerated axially by the dipole moment
force, creating an electric field that accelerates the ions and produces thrust. The authors still praise
ECR thrusters due to the lack of electrodes in contact with the plasma.
The research device looks as such below:

The authors also used multiple devices to measure the electron temperature, and the plasma potential.
The current collected by the probe as a function of the probe potential is given by the equation

= 0 exp (
)

Where J is the electron current collected, 0 is the electron saturation current, is the probe
potential, and is the electron temperature.
Results: Power and potential are independent from one another. As flow rate increases, electron
temperature decreases. Performance of the thruster improves as the vacuum improves. Thus, greatest
performance is in a pure vacuum.
Final thoughts:
Albeit, this paper provided, in my opinion, 1 incredible quote to use for describing ECR. Although
the paper focused more on the thrust caused by the diamagnetic forces, some of the devices reminded
me of some potential devices I can use. The Langmuir probe reminded me of low-pass and high-pass and
band filters. The current equation can be of use, but it likely will not be used in my project.

Development of the Electrodeless Plasma Thruster at High Power: Investigations on the MicrowavePlasma Coupling
The paper is written by Gregory D. Emsellem from the Elwing Company. Published in 2007, the article
attempts to show the development process of the components of an 8-12kW plasma thruster.

My Objective:
Learn and gain insight on how to develop my own method of creating ECR.
What I got from the text:
Producing large amounts of thrust with electric propulsion devices requires the ability to accelerate
efficiently dense plasma beams. The use of ponderomotive forces allows, in theory, the efficiency of
the process not to be affected by plasma density. The author further confirms his predecessors that ECR
ionization and acceleration depends not only on the microwave field, but also the magnetic field
topology.
His rationale behind the electrodeless plasma thruster:
The idea is to accelerate the plasma by applying a strong and non-uniform EM field in an area of static
magnetic field decreasing along the thrust axis. The author also encounters three problems: 1. Efficiently
produce a cold dense plasma. 2. Produce a strong accelerating magnetized ponderomotive force. 3. The
structures need to be efficiently coupled so the plasma can flow smoothly between ionization and the
acceleration area.
Forces-wise, the ponderomotive field is composed of 3 added vector fields. First is grad B, which
depends only on the magnetic field. Another part requires a steep EM energy density gradient. The last
component is the accelerating force which is directed along the EM and magnetic fields gradients,
which should be aligned with the thrust axis to limit divergence. The overview of the fields topologies
is shown below:

The magnetic structure creates an axial magnetic field featuring a magnetic bottle and a diverging field
suitable for ponderomotive force. The resonators create the localized EM field with steep gradients
adapted to ponderomotive force acceleration.
In order to further enhance the ECR source efficiency, instead of applying a uniform magnetic field,
they could set the ECR area between two magnetic field maxima thus creating a leaking bottle, and
use a resonator as an applicator of the ECR EM field.
Some of the challenges the author faced:
Heat loads. These can be caused by surface currents in the microwave structure, high-energy plasma
particles impingement on the structure, and to a lesser extent, radiation from the plasma. The

radiation can be controlled by keeping the plasma cold prior to acceleration. While the microwave
applicators are not affected at all by the radiative heating, the magnetic assembly can easily be shielded
from it.
How did the author heat the propellant?
He used a quartz tube surrounding the thruster chamber.

The rest of the paper deals with different geometries of applicators. This, although is important, is too
far from the reach of my project and I do not have enough time to account for this extra research.
Final thoughts:
It was a well written paper. Did it suit/meet my objectives for reading it? Partially. The most
important aspect is that it solidified my understanding of the use of solenoids to generate the fine
magnetic field desired for the ECR, as well as a potential application of thrust. Something also intriguing
is the leaking magnetic bottle. This sounds like an opportunity for future research in maximizing ECR
efficiency.
Performance Comparison of an ECR Plasma Thruster using Argon and Xenon as Propellant Gas
The paper is written by Julien Jarrige, Paul-Quentin Elias, Felix Cannat, and Denis Packan, from ONERA
(French Aerospace Lab). Published in 2013, the article discusses the use of microwave power to ionize
and accelerate electrons and ions in a magnetic nozzle.
My Objectives: Understand ECR as an ignition source and their research device.
What I got from the text:
In a radially confined magnetized plasma, the electrons gyrate around the field lines at the frequency
defined by =

.
2

For their experiment, using a standard magnetron frequency of 2.45 GHz,

they needed a magnetic field of 875 Gauss. In the magnetic nozzle, the acceleration of the charged
species rests upon the magnetic mirror principle. The electron gyrokinetic energy is converted to the
longitudinal kinetic energy under the effect of the divergent magnetic field. This is illustrated by
conservation of electron energy E and the magnetic moment :

=
Where =

2

.
2

1
2 + ()
2

is the electron longitudinal velocity parallel to the magnetic field lines and

perpendicular is of course the opposite.

ECR source design:
The gas is injected radially, a dielectric material plate is used to insulate the back of the cavity from the
plasma, and the electric field generated by the MW power at 2.45 GHz is thus purely radial in the
cavity only TEM modes are allowed to propagate. The schematic of such is shown below:

Results: The highest mass utilization efficiency of 45% is obtained with a mass flow rate of .2 mg/s and
a power of 51 Watts.
The authors also had multiple methods of evaluating performance:
/2

Total ion current: = /2 () 2 sin()

D is distance between the probe and the thruster, and is the angle to the thruster axis. Thrust can be
estimated from the ion current density profile and the mean ion velocity = 2 / ( is the mean
ion energy determined from the IEDF) at centerline:
/2

= ()
/2

2 sin() cos()

Final thoughts:
Perhaps the most significant aspect of this paper is the efficiency, which the authors were able
to achieve 45%. Albeit, an ignition system may use current and current density, but based on my
current timeline, the devices required for measuring such quantities are difficult and expensive to get.
The equations are pretty, and the device is a novel idea, but this article failed to meet my objective of
understanding ECR as an ignition source.

An RF Plasma Thruster for Use in Small Satellites

Written by Dr. Lynn B. Olson of New England Space Works, Inc, and presented to the USU Conference on
Small Satellites, the article serves to discuss the advantages and how their thrust operates.
My Objectives: To establish the pros and cons of RF thrusters and gain insight on how to better orient
my ignition system.
What I got from the text:
A fairly appealing concept was that no voltages higher than 28 volts need be supplied to the thruster.
This is appealing simply because attaining that voltage is fairly easy, and that simplifies the device in
consequence. The specific impulse for the craft can be varied over a range of 1500-3000 seconds.
At the core principle, plasma in a magnetic field is heated with RF excitation and flows out axially
producing thrust. The electrons flow out much more rapidly than the ions due to high thermal velocity.
Thus, a potential is created which retards electrons and accelerates ions to maintain quasineutrality. All
of the ions flow out with a velocity set by the potential:
2
=

Where j is the ion current, is the electron density, phi is the plasma potential, and M is the ion mass.
It is important to note that only electrons have the energies greater than the plasma potential to
escape. The energy cost per ion is the ion energy, electron energy, and ionization and excitation losses.
The ion energy is the plasma potential, excitation and ionization losses are typically twice the first
ionization level for noble gases. The efficiency can thus be represented by:
=

2 + +

Where is the RF conversion frequency, is the ion energy, is the first ionization energy, and is
the ration of ion energy to the electron temperature.
Some of the advantages of an RF thruster:

Long Life
o No electrodes that come in contact with the plasma
Low contamination
o No metals to be sputtered off into the exhaust plume
Compactness
o Thrust density is not limited by space charge effects, and it can be higher than other ion
engines
Manufacturing Simplicity
o No close tolerances are requiredexpense reduced
Low voltage
o The space craft only needs RF transistors

Single Gas feed

o No separate hollow cathode is required. This means that the fraction of propellant lost
through the hollow cathode can be quite high.
High propellant utilization
o High density plasma leads to full ionization of the gas propellant doesnt escape as
neutrals.
Ability to use any propellant
o Can be anything which can be gasified.

Landau damping heats the electrons and does not develop a tail.
The main problem all electric propulsion thrusters have is the plume detachment.
Final thoughts:
This paper was an enjoyable easy read. It provided the necessary information in an easily
digestible format. The most helpful, albeit indirectly was the section regarding the advantages of RF
thrusters. That could be helpful in explaining to others why this is important. Something else that is also
intriguing, is the mentioning of Landau damping. For my idea of ECR heating, a problem proposed which
I had not considered is the electron tail. I am not sure if it applies as much to ignition as it does to
thrusters, but it is another consideration which may slow progress by requiring more research.