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How it works?
220kV Tabert
Substation
110kV Clahane
Substation
CCGT
High Efficiency
Cogeneration
Transmission Network
Lower Impact
Higher Impact
Power Losses
Heat Market
Required
Not Required
Fuel consumption
-33%
+33%
CO2 Emission
-67%
+67%
Water Consumption
-30%
+30%
630
1200
Grid Constraints
Capacity of the transmission lines
Small Infrastructures of the High Voltage Lines
Distance from Energy Load Centres (West Coast)
High Cost of Design and planning permission for Shallow
Connection, significantly for OHL 220kV
Planning Restrictions regarding OHL Construction
Cost
210000000
4420000
220kV OHL
710000/km (12km)
110kV OHL
320000/km (15km)
2150000/km
Total Cost
227740000
10
11
12
Principles of Operation
Open Cycle
Also referred to as simple cycle)
13
14
Thermodynamic Fundamentals
15
16
Principles of Operation
Compressor
As air flows into the compressor, energy is transferred from its
rotating blades to the air. Pressure and temperature of the air
increase.
Most compressors operate in the range of 75% to 85%
efficiency.
Combustor
The purpose of the combustor is to increase the energy stored
in the compressor exhaust by raising its temperature.
Turbine
The turbine acts like the compressor in reverse with respect to
energy transformation.
Most turbines operate in the range of 80% to 90% efficiency.
17
Principles of Operation
Overall Energy Transformations (Thermal Efficiency)
Useful Work = Energy released in turbine minus energy
absorbed by compressor.
The compressor requires typically approximately 50% of
the energy released by the turbine.
Overall Thermal Efficiency =
Useful Work/Fuel Chemical Energy *100
Typical overall thermal efficiencies of a combustion
turbine are 20% - 40%.
18
COMBUSTOR
COMPRESSOR
INLET AIR
TURBINE
GENERATOR
EXHAUST GAS
19
20
21
1X GE 6581B
149.2 p
684 T
Fogger
4.717 m
143.2 p
2072 T
2 X GT
73.85 %N2
13.53 %O2
3.233 %CO2+SO2
8.497 %H2O
0.8894 %Ar
12.93 p
1034 T
1934.6 M
33781 kW
12.39 p
68 T
948.7 m
30813 kW
Natural gas 18.58 m
LHV 369671 kBTU/h
77 T
122 T
292.6 M
122 T
850 p
950 T
248.6 M
96 T
1.694 p
120 T
222.1 M
17.19 p
220 T
292.6 M
29.65 M
29.58 M
0.1296 M
26.36 M
6.89 M
V8
195.8 p 597 T
V4
183 p 375 T 70 M
879.8 p 954 T
120 T
6.89 M
FW
LPB
IPE2
IPB
HPE2
IPS1
HPE3
IPS2
HPB1
HPS3
268 T
1934.6 M
1031 T
1934.6 M
17.19 p
220 T
29.65 M
268
203.6 p
373 T
292.6 M
326
203.6 p 924.2 p
383 T 472 T
36.75 M 251.1 M
419
481
534
199.7 p 910.5 p
460 T 523 T
36.75 M 251.1 M
538
568
195.8 p 910.5 p
500 T 533 T
36.75 M 248.6 M
569
879.8 p
954 T
248.6 M
897
1031
Natural gas
0M
22
23
Turbine
Multiple Shaft, Single
Shaft
Number of Stages
Material and
Manufacturing
Processes
Exhaust
System
Generator
Open-Air cooled
TEWAC
Hydrogen Cooled
Starting
Systems
Diesel
Motor
Static
24
Nonconventional Fuels
Crude Oil
Refinery Gas
Propane
Synthetic Fuels
Chemical Process
Physical Process
25
26
27
Air Inlet
Compressor
Combustion System
Turbine
Exhaust
Support Systems
28
29
30
31
32
33
6B Gas Turbine
34
35
36
Frame 5 GT
37
Compressor
Compressor
Turbine
Section
Power
Turbine
Section
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
Switchgear / MCC
GSU
Generator
Starting Engine
Fire Protection
48
Disadvantages
High fuel costs
Uncertain long term fuel source
Output dependent on ambient temperature
49
50
51
52
53
54
Altitude Correction
55
Humidity Correction
56
Cogeneration Plant
A Cogeneration Plant
Power generation facility that also provides thermal
energy (steam) to a thermal host.
Typical thermal hosts
paper mills,
chemical plants,
refineries, etc
potentially any user that uses large quantities of steam
on a continuous basis.
Good applications for combined cycle plants
Require both steam and electrical power
57
58
59
GE D11
60
P r im a r y
E n e rg y
Losses
Losses
T r a n s fo r m a tio n
T r a n s p o r ta tio n
D is tr ib u tio n
U tiliz a tio n
D e v ic e o r
S y s te m
S e c o n d a ry
E n e rg y
F in a l
U s e fu l
E n e rg y
Outline
Electricity Basics
Electricity from Fossil Fuels
Co-generation and Tri-generation
Economics
Electricity Basics
Electricity can be either direct current (DC) or alternating current
(AC)
In AC current, the voltage and current fluctuate up and down 60
times per second in North America and 50 times per second in the
rest of the world
The power (W) in a DC current is equal to current (amps) x voltage
(volts):
P=VI
The power in an AC current is equal to the product of the root mean
square (RMS) of the fluctuating current and voltage if the current
and voltage are exactly in phase (exactly tracking each other):
P=Vrms x Irms
The standard electricity distribution system consists of 3 wires with
the current in each wire offset by 1/3 of a cycle from the others, as
shown in the next figure
Source: EWEA
s te a m
H ig h - P r e s s u r e B o ile r
e le c tr ic ity o u t
fo s s il fu e l in
S te a m
T u r b in e
a ir ( O 2 )
CO
to c o o lin g t o w e r
o r c o ld riv e r w a te r
w a te r
c o n d e n s a te
CO
a n d /o r
c o g e n e r a tio n
u p th e s ta c k
s e q u e s te r e d C O
out
C ondenser
P um p
c o o lin g w a t e r r e t u r n f lo w
Integrated Gasification
Combined Cycle (IGCC)
This is an alternative advanced coal power
plant concept
Rather than burning pulverized solid coal,
the coal is heated to 1000C or so at high
pressure in (ideally) pure oxygen
This turns the coal into a gas that is then
used in a gas turbine, with heat in the
turbine exhaust used to make steam that is
then used in a steam turbine
Efficiencies of ~ 50% are expected, but are
much lower at present
Simple-cycle turbine
Has a compressor, combustor, and
turbine proper
Because hot gases rather than steam
are produced, it is not restricted in
temperature by the rapid increase in
steam pressure with temperature
Thus, the operating temperature is
around 1200C
SHAFT
E L E C T R I C IT Y
G EN ERATO R
CO M PRESSO R
T U R B IN E
IN T A K E A IR
Source: Williams (1989, Electricity: Efficient End-Use and New Generation Technologies and Their Planning Implications, Lund University Press)
C O ND EN S ER
EX H AU ST
E L E C T R I C IT Y
W ATER
P U M P
S T E A M T U R B IN E
STEA M
FU EL
H EAT RE CO V ERY
STEA M G E NE RATO R
CO M BUSTO R
SH A FT
E L E C T R I C IT Y
G EN ER ATO R
C O M PR ES SO R
T U R B IN E
IN T A K E A IR
Source: Williams (1989, Electricity: Efficient End-Use and New Generation Technologies and
Their Planning Implications, Lund University Press)
Simple-cycle cogeneration
EXHAUST
W ATER
PU M P
PR O CESS STEA M
FUEL
H EAT RECO VERY
STEAM G ENERATO R
C O M B U STO R
SHAFT
E L E C T R I C IT Y
G EN ERATO R
CO M PRESSO R
T U R B IN E
IN T A K E A IR
Source: Williams (1989, Electricity: Efficient End-Use and New Generation Technologies and
Their Planning Implications, Lund University Press)
Combined-cycle cogeneration
C O O L IN G T O W E R
PR O C ES S S TEA M
EX H A U ST
C O N D EN S ER
E L E C T R I C IT Y
S T E A M T U R B IN E
W ATER
P U M P
ST EA M
FU EL
H EAT R E C O V ER Y
ST EA M G E N E R ATO R
C O M B U STO R
SH A FT
E L E C T R I C IT Y
G EN E R ATO R
C O M PR ES SO R
T U R B IN E
IN T A K E A IR
Source: Williams (1989, Electricity: Efficient End-Use and New Generation Technologies and
Their Planning Implications, Lund University Press)
FU E L
G A S
T U R B IN E
G E N E R ATO R
S T E A M
E X H A U S T G A S
H E AT
R E C O V E R Y
S T E A M
G E N E R ATO R
H E AT
E X C H A N G E R
E X H A U S T G A S
H O T W AT E R
Reciprocating engines
These have pistons that go back and
forth (reciprocate)
Normally they use diesel fuel so these
are the diesel generators normally used
for backup or emergency purposes
However, they can also be fuelled with
natural gas, with efficiencies as high as
45%
Fuel cells
These are electrochemical devices they
generate electricity through chemical
reactions at two metal plates an anode
and a cathode
Thus, they are not limited to the Carnot
efficiency
Operating temperatures range from 120C
to 1000C, depending on the type of fuel
cell
All fuel cells require a hydrogen-rich gas as
input, which can be made by processing
natural gas or (in the case of hightemperature fuel cells) coal inside the fuel
cells
F u e l (H 2 )
A ir (M o s tly
N 2 + O 2)
D C P ow er
Cross section of
a single fuel cell.
E e le c tr o n flo w
N e g a tiv e io n s
or
P o s itiv e io n s
F uel
d is tr ib u tio n
p la te
N itr o g e n
Source: www.utcfuelcells.com
Air
o
25 C
25 C
FC
AC
236 C
847 C
GT-2
o
1079 C
GT-1
301 C
HE-1
738 C
o
448 C
526 C
HE-2
SOFC
985 C CB
M
468 C
Turbine
Exhaust
Pump
440 C
HRSG
o
509 C
1290 C
HE-3
224 C
o
25 C
To heat load
From heat load
Cogeneration
Technical issues
Impact of withdrawing useful heat on the
production of electricity
Ratio of electricity to heat production
Temperature at which heat is supplied
Electrical, thermal and overall efficiencies
Marginal efficiency of electricity generation
Source: Bolland and Undrum (1999, Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, 125-130, Elsevier
Science, New York)
Key points
For a given thermal efficiency, the
effective electrical efficiency is higher the
higher the direct electrical efficiency
However, very high effective electrical
efficiencies can be achieved even with
low direct electrical efficiencies if the
thermal efficiency is high that is, if we
can make use of most of the waste heat
To get a high thermal efficiency requires
being able to make use of lowtemperature heat (at 50-60C), as well as
making use of higher temperature heat
Electricity:heat ratio
Cost of Electricity
Water requirements
Most thermal power plants use water to cool
the condenser of a steam turbine and for
other, minor, purposes
There are two approaches:
a once-through cooling system
a recirculating system in a cooling tower
Water use by power generation represents the
largest or second largest use of water in most
countries (with irrigation sometimes being a
larger use)
Bottom line:
More efficient power plants, such as
natural gas combined cycle power
plants, use less water per kWh of
generated electricity than less efficient
power plants
The water requirements can be a
constraining factor in arid regions
It is possible to use air rather than water
to cool the condenser, but then the
efficiency drops
Overview
Hero Reaction Turbine 120 B.C.
First Practical Turbine 1884, C. Parsons
First Power Plant 7.5 kw 1890
Reaction, Impulse and Velocity-Compounded
Reheat Steam 1930s
Last 100 years Turbine is the key element in
generating electricity
Turbines run Generators, Pumps, Fans, etc.
Today up to 1,500 MW
126
127
Energy Transfer
Coal, Natural Gas,
Nuclear, Biofuel,
Waste Fuel
128
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Reaction Turbines
Newtons third law of motion For every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Narrowing
Steam Path
Narrowing
Steam Path
129
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Impulse Turbines
Steam / Gas Flow
Fixed Vanes
Moving Blades
130
131
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Velocity-Compounded Turbine
Velocity compounding is a form of staging which
by dividing the work load over several stages
results in improved efficiency and a smaller
diameter for the blade wheels due to a reduction
in Ideal blade speed per stage.
Inlet Pressure
1
P=
V
Inlet
Velocity
132
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Turbine Components - Blades
Impulse
Reaction
133
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Turbine Diaphragms
134
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Steam Turbine Casing
135
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Turbine Rotor
136
137
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Turbine Types
Straight HP
Tandem HP
Tandem LP
138
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Turbine Multiple Sets
139
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.2 Steam Turbine Design
Overview
Classification by;
Type Reaction or Impulse
Steam Temperature and Pressure
Configuration Compound, Tandem
Compound, Cross Compound
Reheat
Output MW
Structural Elements
140
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.2 Steam Turbine Design
Turbine Design - Basics
141
Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.2 Steam Turbine Design
Materials
Blades
Stainless Steel 403 & 422 (+Cr)
17-4 PH steel (+ Ti)
Super Alloys
Rotor
High Chrome Moley Steel Cr-Mo-V
Low Ni Chrome Steel Ni-Cr-Mo-V
142
147
PRESSURE-VELOCITY DIAGRAM
FOR A TURBINE NOZZLE
PRESSURE
ENTRANCE
HIGH THERMAL ENERGY
HIGH PRESSURE
LOW VELOCITY
STEAM INLET
EXIT
LOW THERMAL ENERGY
LOW PRESSURE
HIGH VELOCITY
STEAM EXHAUST
VELOCITY
NOZZLE
STEAM
CHEST
155
REPRESENTS MOVING
IMPULSE BLADES
PRESSURE
VELOCITY
TURBINE
SHAFT
ENTRANCE
HIGH VELOCITY
STEAM INLET
EXIT
LOW VELOCITY
STEAM EXHAUST
Reaction Turbine
In this type of turbine, there is a gradual pressure drop
and takes place continuously over the fixed and moving
blades. The rotation of the shaft and drum, which carrying
the blades is the result of both impulse and reactive force
in the steam. The reaction turbine consist of a row of
stationary blades and the following row of moving blades.
The fixed blades act as a nozzle which are attached
inside the cylinder and the moving blades are fixed with
the rotor as shown in the figure.
STEAM CHEST
160
REPRESENTS MOVING
REACTION BLADES
PRESSURE
TURBINE
SHAFT
ENTRANCE
HIGH PRESSURE
HIGH VELOCITY
STEAM INLET
EXIT
LOW PRESSURE
LOW VELOCITY
STEAM EXHAUST
VELOCITY
162
Velocity Compounding:
There are a number of moving blades separated by rings
of fixed blades. All the moving blades are keyed on a
common shaft. When the steam passed through the
nozzles where it is expanded to condenser pressure, it's
Velocity becomes very high. This high velocity steam
then passes through a series of moving and fixed blades
When the steam passes over the moving blades it's
velocity decreases. The function of the fixed blades is to
re-direct the steam flow without altering it's velocity to the
following next row moving blades where a work is done
on them and steam leaves the turbine with a low velocity
as shown in diagram.
167
Pressure Compounding:
These are the rings of moving blades which are keyed on a
same shaft in series, are separated by the rings of fixed
nozzles.
The steam at boiler pressure enters the first set of nozzles and
expanded partially. The kinetic energy of the steam thus
obtained is absorbed by moving blades.
The steam is then expanded partially in second set of nozzles
where it's pressure again falls and the velocity increase the
kinetic energy so obtained is absorbed by second ring of
moving blades.
This process repeats again and again and at last, steam
leaves the turbine at low velocity and pressure. During entire
process, the pressure decrease continuously but the velocity
fluctuate as shown in diagram.
PRESSURE COMPOUNDED
TURBINE
170
PRESSURE-VELOCITY COMPOUNDED
IMPULSE TURBINE
CURTIS STAGE
NOZZLE, MOVING BLADE,
FIXED BLADE, AND MOVING BLADE
NOZZLE MOVING
BLADE
PRESSURE
VELOCITY
FIXED
BLADE
MOVING
BLADE
RATEAU STAGE
NOZZLE & MOVING
BLADE
NOZZLE MOVING
BLADE
173
Two-flow rotors
A two-flow turbine rotor. The steam enters in the middle of
the shaft, and exits at each end, balancing the axial force.
The moving steam imparts both a tangential and axial
thrust on the turbine shaft, but the axial thrust in a simple
turbine is unopposed. To maintain the correct rotor position
and balancing, this force must be counteracted by an
opposing force.
Either thrust bearings can be used for the shaft bearings,
or the rotor can be designed so that the steam enters in
the middle of the shaft and exits at both ends. The blades
in each half face opposite ways, so that the axial forces
negate each other but the tangential forces act together.
This design of rotor is called two-flow or double-exhaust.
178
Turbine efficiency
Schematic diagram outlining the difference between an
impulse and a reaction turbine
To maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, doing
work, in a number of stages. These stages are characterized
by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as
either impulse or reaction turbines.
Most steam turbines use a mixture of the reaction and
impulse designs: each stage behaves as either one or the
other, but the overall turbine uses both. Typically, higher
pressure sections are impulse type and lower pressure
stages are reaction type.
Impulse turbines
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow
into high speed jets. These jets contain significant kinetic
energy, which is converted into shaft rotation by the bucket-like
shaped rotor blades, as the steam jet changes direction.
A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with
a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam
flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to
the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more usually, the
condenser vacuum). Due to this high ratio of expansion of
steam, the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity.
The steam leaving the moving blades has a large portion of the
maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The
loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly
called the carry over velocity or leaving loss.
Reaction turbines
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are
arranged to form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine
makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam
accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor.
Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator.
It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of
the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its
speed relative to the speed of the blades.
A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor,
with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating
through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across
the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and
temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the
rotor.