Learning Unit 2:

Evaluation of
Communication
Strategy
CCOM7311
2015

Learning
Unit
Purpose

We have looked at HOW to develop a

communication strategy NOW we need to
consider how to evaluate a communication
strategy
That is the focus of this LU
Why
is
it
important
communication strategy?

to

evaluate

6 Learning Objectives

1. Discuss the planning cycle of research and evaluation

in corporate communication

6 Learning
Objectives

2. Provide details of the levels and stages of evaluation in

CC and how it impacts on an organisations
communication strategy
3. Discuss and apply a communication evaluation guide
4. Select research methods and tools that can be used to
evaluate a communication strategy and policy, making
use of case studies
5. Discuss the role of a communication policy in the
context of communication strategy development by
making use of relevant examples
6. Outline the importance of an e-communication policy

Research
and
evaluation
(Cornelissen
, 2014,
pp.128-129)

Communication
practioners
use
research
throughout the (1) planning, (2) execution and (3)
evaluation stages of a campaign
Research provides important benchmarks for
future measurement
This can be
performance

used

to

improve

on

past

In addition, it provides much needed credibility

with the corporate side of the organisation
Through research, senior management is able to
gage
how
corporate
communication
is
contributing to the organisations bottom-line

 At its most basic level research is used to

collect information

Research
and
evaluation
(Cornelissen
, 2014,
pp.128-129)

This can be done through informal

research:
Such
as
casual
interactions
with
stakeholders or experts to define issues
and get a better understanding of any
problems with a communication strategy or
programme
Disadvantage: it is not representative of all
stakeholders and can therefore, be bias
Or formal research:
Makes use of systematic data collection
methods to find specific information to
specific issues
This method includes: focus groups,

Learning
Objectiv

LO1: Discuss
the planning
cycle of
research and
evaluation in
corporate
communication
(Cornelissen, 2014,
Section 7.2 and Figure
7.1, pp.128-133)

Research and evaluation is such an integral part of

the corporate communication planning process
The entire planning process should be seen as a
cycle (a sequence)
At the heart of the cycle we find research and
evaluation
This cycle is broken into 5 (interrelated)stages:
1. Audit
2. Objectives
3. Planning and execution
4. Measurement and evaluation
5. Results

Figure 7.1:
Planning
Cycle
(p.129)

 This stage consists of taking stock and analysing

existing data
Research is used to IDENTIFY issues

1. Audit

As well as create benchmarks (standards/points

of reference) for future use
This stage is also called formative research
Here you will gather data from primary sources
such as stakeholder groups or experts and any
available secondary research
We use the data obtained form formative research
to build strategies, programmes or campaigns

 This stage involves setting objectives

that stem from the audit
The objectives need to be inline with the
corporate objectives

2. Objectives

Objectives are broken down by (1)

stakeholder audience, (2) timescale and (3)
measureable terms

Objectives are specified in terms of any

changes in awareness, attitude and
behaviour of stakeholders

 This stage involves deciding on the design and

execution of the campaign
Communication practioners may employ pre-testing
of messages and communication tactics

3. Planning
and
execution

This will help gage the appropriateness of

messages and the way in which messages are
presented
Execution
is
associated
with
continuous
measurement and evaluation of the outputs in
terms of (1) the amount of media coverage or (2)
number of stakeholders who received/attended the
message activity (step 4)
This will result in real-time adjustments to the
programme

 This stage can include various types of

campaign measurement implemented at
different times or continuous measurement

4.
Measuremen
t and
evaluation

Because of measurement and evaluation a

communication practioners can ask whether
they are getting the desired results and
what needs to be adjusted
This step involves monitoring the execution
of the communication programme
As well as taking stock of the initial results
achieved

 The final stage involves the assessment

of the overall post-campaign results
Of interest is the outcomes of the
campaign in terms of change of
awareness, attitude and behaviour

5. Results

The results will help identify and

potential issues or learning points that
may inform the audit stage and a new
cycle of activity
A great example of this cycle with
research and measurement providing
valuable
input
into
communication
campaigns is Case example 7.1: FedEx

FedEx:
identify the
5 stages in
the case
study and
how were
they used?

____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________

FedEx:
identify the
5 stages in
the case
study and
how were
they used?

____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
________________________

The
advantage of
employing
research and
evaluation
throughout
the planning
process

The advantage of seeing research and

evaluation as part of a cycle of interrelated
activities means that with each cycle the
process becomes more effective
It also shows that employing research and
evaluation throughout the planning process
leads to continuous adjustments of the
campaign as you go
It also helps in future communication
efforts as the data is already available

Learning
Objectiv

LO2: Provide
details of the
levels and stages
of evaluation in
CC and how it
impacts on an
organisations
communication
strategy
(Cornelissen, 2014, Section 7.2
with specific focus on Figure 7.
2, pp.128-133)

The figure below illustrates the levels and

stages of evaluation (Cutlip, Center and
Broom, 2000)

 This stage evaluates the different levels of

preparation that has been undertaken during a
corporate strategy
There are 3 levels:
1. Adequacy of background
designing programme

1. Preparation

information

base

for

2. Appropriateness of message and activity content

3. Quality of message and activity presentation

If evaluation happens at each of the 3 levels of

preparation a communication strategy can be
adjusted with ease
It will also result in continuous measurement of
effectiveness

 This stage evaluates the different levels of

implementation
This stage is concerned with the outputs of the
communication strategy :
There are 4 levels:

2.
Implementation

1. Number of messages sent to media and activities

designed
2. Number
of
implemented

messages

placed

and

activities

3. Number who receive messages and activities

4. Number who attend to messages and activities
This will show whether the messages sent and activities
planned are wielding the desired output of the strategy

 This stage evaluates the different levels

of strategy impact
This level is concerned with the outcomes of
the communication strategy
There are 6 levels:

3. Impact

1. Number who learn message content

2. Number who change opinions
3. Number who change attitudes
4. Number who behave as desired
5. Number who repeat behaviour
6. Social and cultural change

3. Impact

At the impact level research focuses on the

number of people in the target audience who
have (1) seen the message, (2) digested its
contents, and (3) changed their views and
behaviours in favour of the organisation
By continuously carrying out research on the
overall
impact
will
provide
valuable
information on whether a programme of
campaign is effective
Adjustments can then be made based on the
outcomes

Now apply
the stages
and levels
of
evaluation
to the
FedEx case
study

____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________

Now apply
the stages
and levels
of
evaluation
to the
FedEx case
study

____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
________________________

 Prepare LU2 Objective 3, 4

and 5

For our next

lecture

4TH ICE due Friday 20 March:

Follow the following hyperlink
http://bit.ly/1tUPHdu AND read
it carefully. Consider its
implications for the
development of your
communication strategy
Also read through Sections 7.3

Remember --- the onus is on

you to come to class
prepared!!

Learning
Objectiv

LO3: Discuss
and apply a
communication
evaluation
guide
(Adapted from Asibey
Consulting, Are we there
yet?, 2008)

 We have already looked at the importance of

developing a communication strategy NOW it is
important to look at HOW to evaluate one

Purpose of
this
Learning
Objective

The Asibey Consulting guide presents you with a stepby-step process for developing an evaluation strategy
This guide helps you gather input at the beginning of
your activities to shape your communication
strategy
It also gives you the tools to monitor progress and
make corrections during implementation
The idea is to prepare up front and evaluate as you
go along, so that you may adjust your tactics to
ensure success

1. Evaluation improves the effectiveness of

your communications

Why
evaluate?

2. Evaluation can help you

engage with your audience

effectively

3. Situations change strategies

tactics may need to change as well

and

4. Evaluation helps you allocate resources

wisely

There are

9 steps:

1. Determine what you will evaluate

LO3: Discuss
and apply a
communication
evaluation
guide
(Asibey Consulting,
2008)

2. Define your goal

3. State your objective
4. Identify your audience
5. Establish a baseline
6. Pose your evaluation questions
7. Draft your measurements
8. Selection your evaluation techniques
9. Estimate your budget

Step 1:
Determine
What You
Will
Evaluate

 Here, you need to identify exactly WHAT you

plan to evaluate

Step 1:
Determine
What You
Will
Evaluate

It is very difficult to evaluate every aspect

of your communication strategy
If you have a comprehensive communication
strategy, select the elements that are most
critical to its success
Or evaluate a specific tactic or activity
You could also pick the area where you are
making
the
biggest
communication
investments

Step 2:
Define Your
Goal

 What is your long-term communication goals?

Goals represent the end aim of your effort and is
usually the desired outcome of a task

Step 2:
Define Your
Goal

Goals are long term five/ten years and should

reflect your organisations mission and theory of
change
You need to clearly define the goal that your
communication initiatives are supporting
This will help you determine your evaluation
approach
Evaluation is essential for the success of your
strategy as it aligns your outputs with your goal
You can adopt 2 types of goals: (1) Policy goals and
(2) Behaviour goals

 For evaluation you should focus on the goal

you hope to achieve in a five-to-ten year
period
Below are the different policy goals:
1. Awareness

Policy
Goals

Initial stage for most policy work is making

people aware of an issue and why it
matters
By raising awareness among key audiences,
you lay the groundwork for long-term
change
2. Champions/Supporters
Cultivating champions or supporters builds
awareness
The aim is to identify and convince key

3. Public Will
Public will gives an issue a sense
urgency and makes change happen

Policy
Goals

of

It also ensures that your issue grows in

importance and action is taken
4. Policy Change
To change a policy is the most difficult goal
to reach
It cannot be reached without the previous
3 steps

 Reflect desired changes in the way people act

Some of these changes may take a long time to
reflect

Behaviour
Goals

For your evaluation, choose the goal that best

describes what you expect to achieve in a five/ten
year period
Below are the different behavioural goals:
1. Awareness
Your aim is to make the audience aware of your
issue and why it matters
This is the 1st step in changing attitudes and
behaviour
Awareness is especially crucial when your audience
has never heard about your issue

2. Salience
Refers to increasing the weight of your
issue and creating a sense of urgency

Behaviour
Goals

3. Attitudes/Beliefs
Refers to changing the way your audience
thinks about an issue
4. Social Norms
Refers to the way a group thinks about
what is the right kind of behaviour

5. Behavioural Intention

Behaviour
Goals

This reflects the willingness or intention

to do things differently
6. Behaviour Change
When there is a change in behaviour you
have reached your goal

Step 3:
State Your
Objective

 The next step is to define your objective

Objectives are different from goals
Objectives are more specific and have a
shorter time frame

Step 3:
State Your
Objective

Objectives ARE the series of benchmarks on

the way to your goal
Well-defined objectives are crucial to
guiding your communications evaluation
Be clear about the results you want to
achieve with your objectives
Your short-term objectives lead to your
long-term goal

Is my Objective SMART?

Step 3:
State Your
Objective

A good objective should be

SMART
Establish your objectives and
ask: Does this pass at least
four of the five SMART criteria?
If not, it may be time to revise
your objective

 Your objective should address and be

inline with the corporate goal you are
pursuing

Step 3:
State Your
Objective

In addition, always think in terms of your

audience
In summary, your objectives should be
focused on the results you want to
achieve with your audience on the way to
your goal
For example, advancing an issue with
policymakers, changing peoples attitudes,
securing new funding streams from donors and
so on

Step 3:
State Your
Objective

Step 4:
Identify Your
Audience

 Now you need to pinpoint the audience(s) that will

be the focus of your evaluation
Getting feedback from the right source is crucial
for a good evaluation

Step 4:
Identify Your
Audience

Knowing which audiences to include in the

evaluation will depend on your goal and
objective
Generally the audience for your evaluation will likely
be the same audience that you are targeting
with your communication efforts
You might also evaluate additional audiences
(such as policy makers, or government and media
institutions)

 Be specific when identifying your

audience
Narrow your audience to a well-defined group
The more narrowly you define your audience,
the more effective your evaluation will be

Step 4:
Identify Your
Audience

Step 5:
Establish
Your
Baseline

 A baseline refers to the initial data that will

serve as your starting point
It is a must-have for a good evaluation

Step 5:
Establish
Your
Baseline

You will be able to compare the baseline with

new data gathered over time
You will be able to use this to assess progress,
make course corrections and measure success
If you already have a baseline
broadening it to include more data

consider

Below are some examples of the types of

information used to determine baselines:
1. Audience
knowledge/attitudes
organisation/issue

toward

your

2.

Common misconceptions and misinformation about

your issue

3. Audience values that directly affect your issue

Step 5:
Establish
Your
Baseline

4. An analysis of organisations, issues or messages that

could compete for your audience and media attention
5. An analysis of how your issue has been presented or
framed in traditional/social media
6. A list of influentials who support and oppose your
issue
7. The information about your current communications
8. Ways in which to determine the conditions prior to
your communications in order to establish a
retroactive (backdated) baseline

Step 6: Pose
Your
Evaluation
Questions

 Now it is time to formulate the questions

that will guide your evaluation

Step 6: Pose
Your
Evaluation
Questions

The answers to these questions will reveal

strengths and weaknesses in your
communication strategy
This could include information about your
choice of audiences, messages or tactics
The more questions you ask, the more
work your evaluation will require and the
more it will cost
Pick questions that will help you determine
whether you are reaching your objectives
and long-term goal

Step 6: Pose
Your
Evaluation
Questions

The kinds of questions you pose will

depend on how far you have progressed in
your communication activities
Questions can be tailored according to the
stage your communication strategy is in:
1. Early stages
2. Mid-course
3. Advanced stages

1. Early
stages

2. MidCourse

3. Advanced
Stages

Step 6: Pose
Your
Evaluation
Questions

See which questions best apply to where you

currently are with your communication
initiative
Some questions may be easier to obtain
answers for than others
To find the answers to your questions, you may
need to use multiple sources of information
and/or use different evaluation techniques

Step 7: Draft
Your
Measuremen
ts

progress toward your objectives

Mark your milestones
Milestones are progress checkpoints that
take you from your baseline to your
objective

Step 7: Draft
Your
Measuremen
ts

You should aim to draft 3 milestones per

objective
How to develop meaningful milestones
1. With your baseline,
evaluation questions
yourself:

objective
in mind,

and
ask

What kind of intermediate results would

demonstrate progress from my baseline to my
objective?

2. Review the milestones by asking yourself:

Do they represent meaningful signs of progress?
Are they stated as results?

Step 7: Draft
Your
Measuremen
ts

Are they realistically measurable? How?

Can I assign a deadline by which they should be
reached?
Do they help me answer my evaluation questions?
3. Share your milestones with colleagues and
see whether they agree with your choices
This will help keep your milestones inline with
your objectives
As well as provide you valuable feedback

Step 7: Draft
Your
Measuremen
ts

How to measure your milestones

Look for simple measures that show whether you
are reaching your milestones
A measure can be quantitative or qualitative
Sometimes you may choose a combination of the
two
Identify 1 to 3 measures per milestone

How to develop sound measurements

1. Review each milestone

Step 7: Draft
Your
Measuremen
ts

2. Review the measures and eliminate the ones that are

least relevant to your milestone or impossible to
measure
2. Share your measures with colleagues and discuss
whether they agree with your choices

What if I am going in the wrong direction?

If the data shows positive results, you are on the right
track
If you have not reached a milestone or if your data is
not what you expected, you may need to adjust your
communication tactics, strategy or milestones

Step 8:
Select Your
Evaluation
Techniques

 Now it is time to choose the techniques you

will use to collect data to establish your
baseline and track your milestones

Step 8:
Select Your
Evaluation
Techniques

The techniques you pick will also impact

your evaluation costs
Choose techniques that are less costly or that
can help you monitor several milestones at
once
Some techniques may require working with
professional evaluators or training your
staff to ensure proper application and accurate
data interpretation

 Some common evaluation tools include:

1. Interviews

Step 8:
Select Your
Evaluation
Techniques

2. Focus groups
3. Surveys online and in-person
4. Observation
5. Quantitative data collection
6. Quantitative data analysis
7. Content analysis

 Consists of selecting a handful of individuals

who represent the base of your audience
The method includes asking targeted yet
open-ended questions

1. Interviews

This will allow you to receive better insight

or understanding into something
i.e. how people are responding
communication activities

to

your

planning

or

When to use
At
any
stage
implementation

of

 Focus groups are used to test new messages or have a

directed group discussion about your communications
Focus groups are moderated by a facilitator and allow
people to bounce ideas off one another
It provides a richer set of data

(2) Focus
groups

There are professionals who specialise in conducting

focus groups, designing the sessions and analysing
the results
When to use
During planning, early implementation or when
advancing to a new phase of your communication
efforts
Especially useful when you want
message, tactic or approach

to

test

specific

Lastly, you have two different creative approaches and are

not sure which one would better for your audience

 Consists of multiple-choice, open-ended and checkbox questions

Can be inexpensive
Surveys can be administered in person or online

(3) Surveysonline and in

person

There are several tactics for selecting participants for

surveys:
1. Pre-determined population
2. Sample from the general public (random)
3. Snowball sampling
4. Intercept survey
When to use
In the planning stages and during implementation
Are useful for categorising and comparing data
Very helpful in
progress

establishing

baselines

and

monitoring

 Observation is used for participatory

discussions, public forums and debates

(4)
Observation

i.e. observe individuals/groups to see how they

are responding to certain messages
When to use
During implementation

 Includes websites, blogs and other social networks

It allows you to collect useful data

(5)
Quantitative
Data
Collection

For instance, on a website, you can track the number of

daily or monthly visitors and page views
For blogs and social networks, you can track number of
subscribers and number of comments left by visitors
Additionally, you can refer to ratings to compare your
blog to others in your field
When to use
At any stage of planning or implementation
Especially if you want to measure how many people are
using your websites, blogs and so on

 You can use the data collected from web tracking

or media monitoring to conduct statistical
analysis

(6)
Quantitative
Data Analysis

i.e. of the possible relationships between your

communication activities and external changes
You can use this data analysis to inform your
results
When to use
During planning
implementation

and

at

any

stage

of

 This method can be used to assess the quality

and tone of your media coverage
Or to review
programming

(7) Content
Analysis

the

content

of

specific

This technique can provide powerful insights

However, the process is often time-consuming
and skill-intensive
When to use
Early stages and throughout implementation

Step 9:
Estimate
Your Budget

 Now it is time to consider your budget

Step 9:
Estimate
Your Budget

A rule of thumb is that the evaluation budget

should be at least 5 to 7 % of the total
budget of your communication programme
The main budget items to consider are:
1. Staff time
Full-time staff, interns and volunteers
Identify the evaluation
conducted internally

tasks

that

can

be

Estimate the time that will be required of each

individual

2. External consultant fees

Evaluation experts,
interviewers

Step 9:
Estimate
Your Budget

Explore the
evaluators

facilitators,

possibility

of

phone

working

and

with

field

trained

Ask them to provide an estimated budget

Consider contacting graduate students (inexpensive)
3. Cost of selected evaluation techniques
Some techniques are often available at no cost
However, if you plan to hire a professional firm to
conduct focus groups or surveys it might be costly
Budget for your evaluation techniques

Step 9:
Estimate
Your Budget

4. Travel and incidentals

Make sure to include travel costs for both your
staff and consultants
As well as any unplanned costs
5. Editing, design, production and
dissemination costs
Publish and share your evaluation findings (this
costs money)
This will help build the practice of communications
evaluation

Learning
Objectiv

LO4: Select
research methods
and tools that can
be used to
evaluate a
communication
strategy and
policy, making use
of case studies
(Apply Asibey Consulting,
2008 to LU1s case studies
and Xavier, Mehta, Gregory,
2006, and Meintjes, 2009,
pp.100-113)

According to Likely (2000, cited in Meintjies,

2009) 3 important measures are necessary in
any PR context:
1. Effectiveness
2. Efficiency
3. Cost-effectiveness

Each of the above elements can be measured

on 3 levels:
1. Product
2. Programme
3. Positioning

LO4: Select
research methods
and tools that can
be used to
evaluate a
communication
strategy and
policy, making use
of case studies
(Apply Asibey Consulting,
2008 to LU1s case studies
and Xavier, Mehta, Gregory,
2006, and Meintjes, 2009,
pp.100-109)

On each level (product, programme and position) each

of the 3 measures (effectiveness, efficiency and costeffectiveness) is possible and correspond to 3 major
roles:
1.
2.
3.

Technician
Manager
Executive (strategist)

(Steyn and Puth, 2000)

According to Meintjies (2009) the effectiveness,

efficiency and cost-effectives of a PR activity or
programme is measured according to:
1. Outputs
2. Outtakes/outcomes
3. Outgrowths

At each of these levels different tools and techniques

are available for measurement

 Here technicians measure the PR products

produced, distributed, the reach of target groups
and the coverage (pick-up) that took place

1. Measuring
Outputs
(pp.102-104)

To measure outputs you can conduct:

1. Print media analysis
2. Internet media analysis
3. Weblogs media analysis
4. Radio media analysis
5. Surveys/questionnaires
6. Focus-groups
7. Pre-and post-tests
8. In-depth interviews

 Here
the
PR
manager
measure
the
attractiveness of the PR product, the attention
that was given to the product and the recall and
retention and response received from recipients

2. Measuring
outtakes/outco
mes (pp.104105)

To measure outtake/outcomes you can

employ:
1. Awareness
and
comprehension
measurement
2. Recall and retention measurement
To measure outcomes you can employ:
1. Attitude and preference measurements
2. Behaviour measurements

 Here the executive looks at strategic

management and positioning to be measured

3. Measuring
Outgrowths
(pp.105-107)

To measure outgrowths you can employ:

1. Benchmarking
2. Communication audit
3. Balanced scorecard
4. Network analysis
5. Environmental analysis

LO4: Select
research methods
and tools that can
be used to
evaluate a
communication
strategy and
policy, making use
of case studies
(Apply Asibey Consulting,
2008 to LU1s case studies
and Xavier, Mehta, Gregory,
2006, and Meintjes, 2009,
pp.100-113)

It addition to the above levels of

measurement the following can also be
measured:
1. Relationships
2. Corporate Reputation
3. Programmes and activities

 Measuring relationships focusses on (1) the

perceptions
and
(2)
predictions
about
relationships between an organisation and its
various publics

1. Measuring
relationships
(pp. 107-109)

The
following
measured:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

indicators

Trust
Control
Mutuality
Satisfaction
Commitment
Communal relationships
Exchange relationships

should

be

 The growing interest in corporate reputation has

resulted in the development of a variety of different
measures

2. Measuring
corporate
reputation
(pp.109-110)

Of concern is stakeholder expectation fulfilment, delivery

of high quality products, just treatment of employees and
delivering good financial performance
Some of the indicators of reputation include:
1. Quality of products
2. Commitment to protecting the environment
3. Corporate success
4. Treatment of employees
5. Customer orientation
6. Commitment to charitable and social issues
7. Value for money of products
8. Financial performance
9. Qualification of management
10. Credibility of advertising claims

Measuring PR programmes and activities can be

either:

3. Measuring
programmes
and activities
(pp.110-111)

1. Positive and proactive efforts to gain higher stock

price, sale of more product or services, preferred
ratings from financial institutions recruitment and
retention of the best employees
2. Protective, defensive, crisis management efforts
to minimise damage to an organisations reputation
and to built more progressive positive reputation
The following guidelines
effective measurement:

can

be

followed

for

Establish clear programmes, activities, objectives

and desired outputs, outtakes and outcomes

 Differentiate between measuring PR outputs,

PR outtakes and PR outcomes
Measuring media content is only one part
of the measurement process

3. Measuring
programmes
and activities
(pp.110-111)

There is no one, simple, all-encompassing

research tool, technique or methodology
to measure PR programmes or activities
effectiveness
Do not compare PR
advertising effectiveness

effectiveness

to

PR effectiveness is best measured when

messages, key target audiences and desired
channels are clearly identified and understood
in advance
PR measurement and evaluation should

NOW apply
your research
methods and
tools learnt to
evaluate a
communicati
on strategy
and policy

1. Toyota
2. Health and Social Care Board
3. Swellendam Municipality
4. Marquette University

 Prepare LU2 Objective 5

and 6

For our next

lecture

Also read through

Evaluation in use: the
practitioner view of
effective evaluation
Xavier, Mehta, Gregory,
2006, accessible from:
http://bit.ly/1D9QBth
Remember --- the onus is
on you to come to class
prepared!!