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Motivation

The term motivation has been derived from the word ‘motive’ which means
anything that initiates or sustains activity. It is an inner state that energises , activates and
that directs or channelise behaviour towards goals. Motivation is a psychological force
within an individual that sets him in motion for the achievement of certain goals or the
satisfaction of certain needs. It is through motivation that managers attempt to inspire the
employees to work for the organization & in different workplace.

Motivation is the activation or energization of goal-oriented behavior. Motivation

may be internal or external. The term is generally used for humans but, theoretically, it
can also be used to describe the causes for animal behaviour as well. According to
various theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain
and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a
desired object, hobby, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent
reasons such as altruism, morality, or avoiding mortality.

According to Likert, “Motivation is the core of management.” By motivating

the work-force, management creates ‘will to work’ which is necessary for the
achievement of organizational goals. Motivation involves getting the members of the
group to pull weight effectively, to give their loyalty to the group, to carry out properly
the tasks assigned & to play an effective role in contributing towards the purpose the
organization has undertaken.

Motivation is something that moves a person to action, & continues him in the
course of action already initiated. It refers to the way a person is enthused at work to
intensify his desire & willingness to use his potentialities for the achievement of
organizational objectives. It is something that moves a person into action & continues
him in the course of action enthusiastically. The role of motivation is to develop &
intensify the desire in every member of the organization to work effectively & efficiently
in his position.
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Motivation Concepts

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation comes from rewards inherent to a task or activity itself - the
enjoyment of a puzzle or the love of playing. This form of motivation has been studied by
social and educational psychologists since the early 1970s. Research has found that it is
usually associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by students.
Intrinsic motivation has been explained by Fritz Heider's attribution theory, Bandura's
work on self-efficacy, and Ryan and Deci's cognitive evaluation theory. Students are
likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

• attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the
amount of effort they put in),
• believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are
not determined by luck),
• are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good
grades.

Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. Money is the most
obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also common extrinsic
motivations.

In sports, the crowd may cheer on the performer, which may motivate him or her
to do well. Trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Competition is in general extrinsic
because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic
rewards of the activity.

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to
overjustification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation.
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Employee Motivation: Theory &

Practice

The job of a manager in the workplace is to get things done through employees.
To do this the manager should be able to motivate employees. Motivation practice and
theory are difficult subjects, touching on several disciplines.

In spite of enormous research, basic as well as applied, the subject of motivation

is not clearly understood and more often than not poorly practiced. To understand
motivation one must understand human nature itself.

Human nature can be very simple, yet very complex too. An understanding and
appreciation of this is a prerequisite to effective employee motivation in the workplace
and therefore effective management and leadership.

These articles on motivation theory and practice concentrate on various theories

regarding human nature in general and motivation in particular. Included are articles on
the practical aspects of motivation in the workplace and the research that has been
undertaken in this field, notably by Douglas McGregor (theory y), Frederick Herzberg
(two factor motivation hygiene theory,) Abraham Maslow (theory z, hierarchy of needs),
Elton Mayo (Hawthorne Experiments) Chris Argyris Rensis Likert and David
McClelland (achievement motivation.)

Motivation is the key to performance improvement

There is an old saying you can take a horse to the water but you cannot force it to
drink; it will drink only if it's thirsty - so with people. They will do what they want to do
or otherwise motivated to do. Whether it is to excel on the workshop floor or in the 'ivory
tower' they must be motivated or driven to it, either by themselves or through external
stimulus.

Are they born with the self-motivation or drive? Yes and no. If no, they can be
motivated, for motivation is a skill which can and must be learnt. This is essential for any
business to survive and succeed.
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Maslow's Theory of Motivation -

Hierarchy of Needs

One of the first behavioural scientists to make management aware of the complexity
of human needs & their effect on motivation was Abraham Maslow. When
formulating his theory of motivation during the 1940s, Maslow acknowledged that
people really have many needs. For adequate workplace motivation, it is important
that leadership understands the active needs active for individual employee
motivation. In this manner, Maslow's model indicates that fundamental, lower-order
needs like safety and physiological requirements have to be satisfied in order
to pursue higher-level motivators along the lines of self-fulfillment.

Maslow felt that mankind’s diverse needs could be condensed within 5

basic categories, as depicted in the following hierarchical diagram,
sometimes called 'Maslow's Needs Pyramid' or 'Maslow's Needs
Triangle'
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Self-Actualization

Self-actualization is the summit of Maslow's motivation theory. It is about the

quest of reaching one's full potential as a person. Unlike lower level needs, this need is
never fully satisfied; as one grows psychologically there are always new opportunities to
continue to grow.

Self-actualized people tend to have motivators such as:

• Truth
• Justice
• Wisdom
• Meaning

Self-actualized persons have frequent occurrences of peak experiences, which are

energized moments of profound happiness and harmony. According to Maslow, only a
small percentage of the population reaches the level of self-actualization.

Esteem Needs

After a person feels that they "belong", the urge to attain a degree of importance
emerges. Esteem needs can be categorized as external motivators and internal motivators.

Internally motivating esteem needs are those such as self-esteem, accomplishment, and
self respect. External esteem needs are those such as reputation and recognition.

Some examples of esteem needs are:

• Recognition (external motivator)

• Attention (external motivator)
• Social Status (external motivator)
• Accomplishment (internal motivator)
• Self-respect (internal motivator)

Maslow later improved his model to add a layer in between self-actualization and esteem
needs: the need for aesthetics and knowledge.

Social Needs

Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher
level motivators awaken. The first level of higher level needs are social needs. Social
needs are those related to interaction with others and may include:

• Friendship
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• Belonging to a group
• Giving and receiving love

Safety Needs

Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety and security in order to
be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by:

• Living in a safe area

• Medical insurance
• Job security
• Financial reserves

According to the Maslow hierarchy, if a person feels threatened, needs further up the
pyramid will not receive attention until that need has been resolved.

Physiological Needs

Physiological needs are those required to sustain life, such as:

• Air
• Water
• Food
• Sleep

According to this theory, if these fundamental needs are not satisfied then one will surely
be motivated to satisfy them. Higher needs such as social needs and esteem are not
recognized until one satisfies the needs basic to existence.

Applying Maslow's Needs Hierarchy - Business Management

Implications

If Maslow's theory is true, there are some very important leadership implications
to enhance workplace motivation. There are staff motivation opportunities by motivating
each employee through their style of management, compensation plans, role definition,
and company activities.

• Physiological Motivation: Provide ample breaks for lunch and recuperation and
pay salaries that allow workers to buy life's essentials.
• Safety Needs: Provide a working environment which is safe, relative job security,
and freedom from threats.
• Social Needs: Generate a feeling of acceptance, belonging, and community by
reinforcing team dynamics.
• Esteem Motivators: Recognize achievements, assign important projects, and
provide status to make employees feel valued and appreciated.
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• Self-Actualization: Offer challenging and meaningful work assignments which

enable innovation, creativity, and progress according to long-term goals.

Herzberg’s Two-Factors Theory

Two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory) was
developed by Frederick Herzberg, a psychologist who found that job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction acted independently of each other. Two Factor Theory states that there are
certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors
cause dissatisfaction

Two-factor theory distinguishes between:

• Motivators (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as
recognition, achievement, or personal growth, and

• Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) which do not
give positive satisfaction, although dissatisfaction results from their absence.
These are extrinsic to the work itself, and include aspects such as company
policies, supervisory practices, or wages/salary.

Implications for management

If the motivation-hygiene theory holds, management not only must provide

hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction, but also must provide factors intrinsic
to the work itself in order for employees to be satisfied with their jobs.

Herzberg argued that job enrichment is required for intrinsic motivation, and that
it is a continuous management process. According to Herzberg:

• The job should have sufficient challenge to utilize the full ability of the employee.
• Employees who demonstrate increasing levels of ability should be given
increasing levels of responsibility.
• If a job cannot be designed to use an employee's full abilities, then the firm should
consider automating the task or replacing the employee with one who has a lower
level of skill. If a person cannot be fully utilized, then there will be a motivation
problem.
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Vroom's Expectancy Theory

This theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among the
alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Together with
Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Victor Vroom suggested that the relationship between
people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first imagined by
other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individuals
factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. The theory
suggests that although individuals may have different sets of goals, they can be motivated
if they believe that:

• There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,

• Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,
• The rewardwill satisfy an important need,
• The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile.

The theory is based upon the following beliefs:

Valence

Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes
[rewards]. The depth of the want of an employee for extrinsic [money, promotion, time-
off, benefits] or intrinsic [satisfaction] rewards. Management must discover what
employees value.

Expectancy

Employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are
capable of doing. Management must discover what resources, training, or supervision
employees need.

Instrumentality

The perception of employees as to whether they will actually get what they desire even if
it has been promised by a manager. Management must ensure that promises of rewards
are fulfilled and that employees are aware of that.
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Vroom suggests that an employee's beliefs about Expectancy, Instrumentality, and

Valence interact psychologically to create a motivational force such that the employee
acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoid pain.

Motivational Force (M) = Expectancy (E) X Instrumentality (I) X Valence (V)

M=EXIXV

Adam’s Equity Theory

Equity Theory attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions

of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships. Equity theory
is considered as one of the justice theories. It was first developed in 1962 by John Stacey
Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist, who asserted that employees seek to
maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they
receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others (Adams, 1965). The
belief is that people value fair treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the
fairness maintained within the relationships of their co-workers and the organization. The
structure of equity in the workplace is based on the ratio of inputs to outcomes. Inputs are
the contributions made by the employee for the organization; this includes the work done
by the employees and the behavior brought by the employee as well as their skills and
other useful experiences the employee may contribute for the good of the company.

Definition of equity

An individual will consider that he is treated fairly if he perceives the ratio of his inputs
to his outcomes to be equivalent to those around him. Thus, all else being equal, it would
be acceptable for a more senior colleague to receive higher compensation, since the value
of his experience (an input) is higher. The way people base their experience with
satisfaction for their job is to make comparisons with themselves to the people they work
with. If an employee notices that another person is getting more recognition and rewards
for their contributions, even when both have done the same amount and quality of work,
it would persuade the employee to be dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction would result in the
employee feeling underappreciated and perhaps worthless. This is in direct contrast with
the idea of equity theory, the idea is to have the rewards (outcomes) be directly related
with the quality and quantity of the employees contributions (inputs). If both employees
were perhaps rewarded the same, it would help the workforce realize that the
organization is fair, observant, and appreciative.
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This can be illustrated by the following equation: