Chapter11-TheContinuityofLife:CellularReproduction

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I.

II.

III.

Whataretheessentialfeaturesofcelldivision?
A. Lifecycle-sequenceofeventsthatoccurfromonegenerationtothenext
B. HereditaryinformationofallcellsiscarriedinDNA
1. Genes-unitsofinheritancethatcarrygeneticinformationtoproducespecifictraits;
segmentsofDNA
2. Chromosomes-thread-likestructuresvisibleduringcelldivision
3. Chromatin-materialinsidenucleus
C. CellscopytheirDNAsodaughtercellscanreceiveacompleteset
D. Cellsmusttransmittotheiroffspring
1. Hereditaryinformationthatdirectslifesprocesses
2. Materialsincytoplasmthatnewcellsneedtosurviveandutilizetheirhereditaryinformation

Whataretheeventsoftheprokaryoticcellcycle?
A. TheDNAofaprokaryoticcelliscontainedwithinasingle,circularchromosome
1. Prokaryoticcellslacknucleisotheirchromosomeisinthecytoplasm
2. Onepointofthechromosomeisattachedtotheplasmamembrane
B. Celldivisioninprokaryoticcellsiscalledbinaryfission
1. Binaryfission=splittingintwo
2. Rapidcellcycle(canhaveacellcycleof30minutesorless)
3. Onepointofthechromosomeisattachedtotheplasma
membrane>DNAreplication>resultingpairofidentical
chromosomesattachtotheplasmamembraneatnearbybut
differentpoints>newplasmamembraneaddedbetween
attachmentpoints,pushingthemapart>plasmamembrane
aroundthemiddleofthecellgrowsinward(splittingthecell)>
twodaughtercellsformed

Whatisthestructureoftheeukaryoticchromosome?
A. Theeukaryoticchromosomeconsistsofalong,double-helixmoleculeofDNAwithproteins
(histones)thatsupportit
1. Notdividing-chromosomeuncondensed/extendedsoDNAcanbeusedandreplicated
(invisibleundermicroscope)
2. Dividing-chromosomescondensedforeasyorganizingandtransportation(visibleunder
microscope)
3. SMC(structuralmaintenanceofchromosomes)proteins
a) Cohesin-proteinringsthatlinksisterchromatidsafterDNA
replication;openedduringanaphasebyenzymatic
cleavage(cutting)
b) Condensin-requiredforchromosomecondensation
B. Locus-whereageneisonachromosome
C. Telomere-endsofchromosomesconsistingof
repeatednucleotidesequences;protectstheendofthe
chromosome
D. Centromere-middlebodyofchromosome(althoughnotnecessarilyalwaysatthecenter)
E. Unduplicatedchromosome-twoarmsextendingfromcentromere
F. Duplicatedchromosome-geneticallyidenticalsisterchromatidsattachedatcentromere
G. Humanshave46chromosomesarrangedin23pairs
1. Chromosomepairs1to22(autosomes)arearrangedfromlargesttosmallest
2. Chromosomepair23isthesexchromosomes(XXforfemales;XYformales)
3. Pairsarehomologous

H. Eukaryoticchromosomesusuallyoccurinpairswithsimilargeneticinformation
1. Homologouschromosomes(homologues)-apairofchromosomes(onematernalandone
paternal)thathavethesamelengthandsamestainingpatternalthoughtheirgenetic
informationisonlysimilar,notidentical(nottobeconfusedwithsisterchromatids,whichare
identicalandjoinedatcentromere)
2. Karyotype-pictureofstainedchromosomes
3. Diploidcells-cellswithhomologouschromosomes(twocopiesof
eachtypeofchromosome)
4. Haploidcells-cellswithonlyonecopyofeachtypeofchromosome
a) Gametes(sexcells)arethehaploidcellsinanimals
5. Haploidnumber-thenumberoftypesofchromosomesinaspecies;designatedn
a) Diploidcellshaveatotalof2nchromosomesbecausetheyhavetwocopiesofeachtype
ofchromosome(homologouschromosomes)

IV.
Whataretheeventsoftheeukaryoticcellcycle?
A. Interphase
1. G
-gap/growthphase1
1
a) AftercelldivisionandbeforeDNAsynthesis
b) Cellacquiresnutrients,carriesoutspecializedfunction,andgrows
2. G
-nondividingstate
0
3. S-synthesisphase;DNAreplicationandduplicationchromosomesoccurs
4. G
-gap/growthphase2
2
a) AfterDNAsynthesisandbeforecelldivision
b) Cellsynthesizesmolecules(notDNA)neededfordivision
B. Mitoticcelldivision
1. Mitosis-nucleardivision;preservesthediploidnumberofchromosomesineukaryoticcells
2. Cytokinesis-cytoplasmicdivision;providesdaughtercellswithmaterialsneededtomaintain
life,grow,andreproduce
3. Daughtercellsproducesaregeneticallyidenticaltoeachotherandtheparentcell
4. Mitosisandcytokinesisareindependentprocessesbutusuallyhappentogether
5. Differentiation-processbywhichcellsassumetheirspecializedstructuresandfunctions
C. Checkpointsregulateprogressthroughthecellcycle
1. G
/S-IsthecellsDNAsuitableforreplication?(IstheDNAdamaged?)
1
2. G
/M-HastheDNAbeencompletelyandaccuratelyreplicated?
2
3. M-Arethechromosomesattachedandalignedproperlyatthemetaphaseplate?
D. Theactivitiesofspecificenzymesdrivethecellcycle
1. Cyclin-dependentkinases(cdk)helpregulatethecellcycle
a) Kinase-enzymethatphosphorylates(adds
phosphategroupto)otherproteins,
stimulating/inhibitingtheactivityofthetarget
protein
b) Cyclin-dependent-activeonlywhenboundto
anotherprotein,cyclin(dependsoncyclin)
2. CellsinG
phasearestimulatedbyhormone-like
1
growthfactorsbindingtosurfacereceptors>cyclin
proteinsaresynthesizedandbindtocdk>cdk
stimulatesthesynthesisandactivityofproteins
requiredforDNAsynthesis,etc

V.
Whatarethephasesofmitosis?
A. Prophase-thestagebefore
1. Threemajorevents:chromosomescondense,spindlefibersform,spindlefibersattachto
chromosomes
2

VI.

VII.

2. Duringprophase,chromosomescoilupandcondenseandthenucleolusdisappears
3. Attheendofprophase,afterchromosomesarecondensed,spindlefibers(microtubulesthat
guidethemovementofchromosomes)form,originatingfromapairofmicrotubule-containing
centrioles(presentinanimalsonly)
a) Centriolepairisduplicatedduringinterphase(totaltwopairs)andonepairmigratesto
eachpoleduringprophase,formingthespindlepole
4. Afterspindlefibersarefullyformed,thenuclearenvelopedisintegrates(markingthe
beginningofprometaphase)
a) Thekinetochoreofeachsisterchromatid(attachmentsiteforspindlefiberslocatedat
centromere)capturesspindlefibers
5. Notallspindlefibersattachtochromosomesbutwillbeusedtopushspindlepolesapartlater
B. Metaphase-themiddlestage
1. Spindlefiberspullchromosomesbylengthening/shorteninguntiltheyarelinedupalongthe
equatorofthecell
C. Anaphase
1. Sisterchromatidsarepulledapart,separatingintotwoindependentdaughterchromosomes
2. Proteinmotorsinkinetochorepullthechromosomepolewardwhilethespindlefibers
disassembleinsidethekinetochoreandshorten
3. Freespindlefibers(notattachedtochromosomes)lengthenandpushthepolesapart,forcing
thecellintoanovalshape
D. Telophase-theendstage
1. Spindlefibersdisintegrateandnuclearenvelopesformaroundbothgroupsofchromosomes
2. Chromosomesextendandnucleolireappear
3. Cytokinesisoccursduringtelophase,enclosingeachdaughternucleusintoseparatecells

Whataretheeventsofcytokinesis?
A. Inanimals,microfilamentsattachedtothe
plasmamembraneformaringaroundthe
equator(cleavagefurrow)>ringcontractsdown
tonothing>celldividesintotwodaughtercells
B. Inplants,thegolgicomplexbudsoffvesiclesthat
lineupalongtheequator>vesiclesfuse,
producingthecellplate(whichis
shapedlikeaflatsac,surroundedby
plasmamembraneandfilledwith
stickycarbohydrates)>edgesofthe
cellplatemergewiththeplasma
membraneandbecomepartofit;
carbohydratesinsidethevesicles
becomepartofthecellwall

Whatarethefunctionsofmitoticcell
division?
A. Mitoticcelldivisionresultsingrowth,maintenance,andrepairofbodytissues
1. Allowsafertilizedeggtogrow
2. Replacescells(ex:skincells,redbloodcells,cellsofstomachlining)
B. Mitoticcelldivisionformsthebasisofasexualreproduction
1. Asexualreproductionproducesclones,offspringthataregeneticallyidenticaltotheparents
2. Budding-parentorganismdividesintotwounequalparts
a) Unicellularorganisms-cytokinesisisunevenunlikeinbinaryfission
b) Multicellularorganisms-buds(swellingofundifferentiatedcellscreatedbymitosis)will
developandbecomeindependentorganisms
3

VIII.

IX.

3. Sporulation(formationofspores)-reproductioninvolvingspecializedsinglecells(spores)
comingfromoneparent
a) Alternationofgenerations
b) Sporesusuallyhaveathickouterwallforprotection
c) Germinatetoformageneticallyidenticaloffspringtotheparentorganism(sprouting)
4. Regeneration-abilityofanorganismtoregrowlostbodyparts
5. Vegetativepropagation
a) Runner-abovegroundstemthatextendsfromtheparentorganism
(1) Bulbfromrunnertouchesthesoil,takesroot,anddevelopsanewplant(ex:
strawberries)
b) Tuber-enlargedpartofanundergroundstem,alongthesurfacearetinybulbscalled
eyes(ex:potatoes)
c) Rhizome-undergroundstemthatextendsfromtheparentorganism
(1) Alongtherhizomeareenlargedportionscallednodesthatproducebuds(ex:ferns,
waterlilies)

Whataretheadvantagesofsexualreproduction?
A. Sexualreproductionreshufflesgenesamongindividualstocreategeneticallyuniqueoffspring
B. MutationsinDNAaretheultimatesourceofgeneticvariability
1. Mutationsallowevolution
2. Alleles-alternateformsofageneformedbymutations(ex:eyecolor)
3. Reshufflinggenesmaycombineallelesinbeneficialways
C. Meioticcelldivisionproduceshaploidcellsthatcanmergetocombinegeneticmaterialfromtwo
parentsinadiploidoffspring
1. Haploid-singlecopyofeachtypeofchromosome;diploid-twocopiesofeachtype
(homologouschromosomes)
2. Homologouschromosomescanhavealleles
3. Twoeventsthatallowedsexualreproduction
a) Twohaploidcellsfused,formingatemporary,largediploidcell
b) Thisdiploidcellwentthroughmeioticcelldivision,formingtwohaploiddaughtercellsthat
couldcontainamixofchromosomesfromtheparentcells
4. Evolutionofdiploidy:temporarydiploidcelldelayedmeiosis>cellremainsdiploidlonger>
mitoticdivisionsproduceddiploidcells>multicellular,diploid,andsexuallyreproducing
organismsthatproducegametesbymeiosisevolved
5. Zygote-diploid,fertilizedegg;givesrisetonewmulticellularorganismbymitoticcelldivisions

Whataretheeventsofmeiosis?
A. Meiosis-productionofhaploidnucleiwithunpaired
chromosomesfromdiploidparentnuclei;reducesthe
numberofchromosomesbyhalf
B. Meioticcelldivision(meiosis+cytokinesis)giveseach
daughtercellonememberfromeachpairof
homologouschromosomes
1. Interphase-chromosomesareduplicated,
producingsisterchromosomes
2. MeiosisI-homologues(stillduplicated)separateinto
twodaughtercells(eachcellishaploidwithduplicated
chromosomes/sisterchromatidsintact)
3. MeiosisII-foreachcell,sisterchromatidsare
separatedintotwodaughtercells,producingfour
daughtercellsintotal(eachcellishaploidwith
unduplicatedchromosomes/independentdaughter
chromatids)
4

X.

C. MeiosisIseparateshomologouschromosomesintotwodaughternucleiandiscalledreduction
division(becauseitdividesthecellfromdiploidtohaploid)
1. ProphaseI
a) Occupiesmorethan90%ofthetimerequiredformeiosis
b) Homologouschromosomeslineup,exchangeDNAsegments,andcondense
(1) Homologouschromosomespairup,alignedgenebygene,formingatetrad(synapsis)
>endsofmaternalandpaternalchromosomesattachtothenuclearenvelope>
proteinstrandszipchromosomestogether>recombinationenzymesbindto
chromosomes>recombinationenzymessnipchromosomesapartthenreattachthem
>chiasmata(sitesofcrossingoverbetweenmaternalandpaternalchromosomes)
form>proteincomplexesdetachandzipperdisappearaschromosomecondenses>
chiasmataremain,connectingthehomologues
c) Tetrad-agroupoffourchromosomes
d) Chiasmatafunctions
(1) Crossingover-theprocessmaternalandpaternalchromosomes(nonsister
chromatids)swappingsegmentsofDNA,resultingingeneticrecombination(formation
ofdifferentcombinationsofdifferentallelesofeachgeneonachromosome)
(2) Holdshomologouschromosomestogether(importantforattachingtospindlefibers)
e) DuringprophaseI,spindlefibersform,nuclearmembranebreaksdown,andspindlefibers
attachtokinetochores
2. MetaphaseI
a) Pairedhomologouschromosomesheldtogetherbychiasmatamovetotheequatorofthe
cell(insteadofindividualchromosomesliningup,thehomologouspairslineup)
b) Whichmemberofapairfaceswhichpole(orientationofhomologues)israndom
(independentassortment)>geneticdiversity
3. AnaphaseI-homologouschromosomesseparate,chiasmatalost
4. TelophaseI
a) Twohaploidclustersofchromosomesareformed
b) Spindlefibersdisappear
c) Cytokinesisusuallyoccursbutnuclearenvelopdoesn'treappear
d) Chromosomesremaincondensed
D. MeiosisIIseparatessisterchromatidsandisidenticaltomitosisexceptthereislittleorno
interphasebetweenmeiosisIandIIandthereisnosecondreplicationofDNA

Whataretherolesofmitosisandmeiosisineukaryoticlifecycles?
A. Commonpatternsineukaryoticlifecycles
1. Twohaploidcellsfromparentsfuse,resultinginadiploidcellwithnewgenecombinations
2. Somepointinthelifecycle,meiosisrecreateshaploidcells
3. Somepointinthelifecycle,mitosisofdiploid/haploidcellsresultsingrowthofmulticellular
bodiesandsomeunicellularalgae
B. Haploidlifecycle-fungiandsomeunicellularalgae
1. Organismshavehaploidcells(onecopyofeachchromosome)
2. Specialized"sexual"haploidcellsproduced>twofuse,formingdiploidcell>meiosisproduces
haploidcells>haploidcellsundergomitosistoformnewadults
C. Diploidlifecycle-animals
1. Meiosisproducesgametes(spermandeggs)>gametesfusetoformdiploidzygote(fertilized
egg)>mitosisallowsgrowth
D. Alternationofgenerations-plants
1. Multicellularhaploidandmulticellulardiploid
2. Meiosisproduceshaploidspores>mitosisofsporescreatemulticellularhaploidadult
("haploidgeneration")>certainhaploidcellsdifferentiateintogametes>gametesfuseinto
diploidzygote>growthbymitosisintomulticellulardiploidadult("diploidgeneration")

XI.

Whataretherolesofmeiosisandsexualreproductioninproducinggeneticvariability?
A. Millionsofyears-mutationofDNAistheultimatesourceofgeneticvariability
B. Singlegeneration-independentassortment(shuffling/orientationofhomologouspairs),crossing
over,andfertilization(fusionofgametes)providethemostgeneticvariability
n
C. Thenumberofpossiblegeneticcombinationsduetoindependentassortment:2
3
1. Inacellwithahaploidnumber(n)of3,thereare2
=8possiblegeneticcombinations
23
2. Inahumancellwithahaploidnumber(n)of23,thereare2
possiblegeneticcombinations

CrossingOverAllelesinHomologues

Mitosis