Laura Vandyke

ENVL 3311
Dr. Dan
Spring 2015

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Over the last 100 years the United States population has increased by nearly 220 million people
(US Census, 2015). With such an increase in population, an increase in transformed farmlands, wetlands,
forests, deserts, and barren landscapes into human settlements and urban landscapes has followed. This
rapid pace of growth and development had caused devastating environmental impacts on the planet.
Effects of current sprawling development patterns are destroying natural landscapes, increasing the need
of municipal infrastructures, fragmenting wildlife habitats, and increasing pollution of natural resources.
By replacing current construction and development practices with more sustainable ones, such as
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design for Neighborhood Development, LEED-ND, the
environmental impacts of construction can be reduced. The LEED rating system for Neighborhood
Development was established in an effort to go beyond green buildings and create entire neighborhoods
made up of LEED certified residential and commercial developments (Talen, 2013). Through the use of
three main planning elements, LEED-ND creates more sustainable and environmentally conscious
communities. It provides guidelines for development; creating incentives for smart location,
improvement of current planning design strategies, and advances the construction of residential,
commercial, and mixed-use developments. Neighborhood developments, predominantly LEED certified
buildings, are a viable approach to combat the degrading environmental impacts of urban sprawl.
Sprawl is generally defined as a process of human populations migrating away from central urban
areas into more remote rural areas. The landscape that sprawl creates has four main urban forms;
scattered development, commercial strip development, expanses of low-density development, and
expanses of single-use development (Hamidi, 2015).
In America, urban sprawl was first noticed in the early 1900s. As immigrants could afford to
move out of densely populated inner cities to more rural areas, land use trends began to change. By the
end of the 1920s, majority of families in the United States lived in single family suburban homes
(Breugmann, 2005). In the mid- 20th century post- World War II housing shortages led to additional
development outside of cities. Also contributing to sprawl development was the passing of the 1956
Federal-Aid Highway Act. With this Act the interstate system was expanded by 41,000 miles, creating a
heavy reliance on automobiles and allowing development to expand further away from city centers. In
1950 approximately 65% of urbanized populations lived in central cities, with the remaining 35% living
in suburbs. Percentages flipped in 1990 when central city populations dropped to just 35% of people
within urbanized areas. By 2000, 79% of all Americans lived in areas designated as urban by the
Census Bureau (Nechyba, 2004). Due to the lack of comprehensive planning land use patterns of sprawl
continued to expand across the nation, leading to less open space and more development.

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LEED for Neighborhood Development is a rating system that integrates the principles of smart
growth, new urbanism, and green building techniques by applying them to the development of entire
neighborhoods. The goal of LEED-ND is to improve and protect the natural environment of our
communities through well-placed and designed development (USGBC, 2014). LEED Neighborhood
Development was developed during 2005-2009 by the USGBC in partnership with the Congress for the
New Urbanism and the Natural Resources Defense Council.
The system was created in an effort to extend the certification of
sustainable green buildings to entire neighborhoods through
integrated land-use, transportation, and infrastructure planning
(Talen, 2013).
There are two main ways the LEED-ND rating system can be
used. The first, and most common, is through the development
of individual LEED certified buildings. This method relies on
the individual property owners or developers to determine the
location and eligibility of a site (Talen, 2013). The second use
of the LEED-ND rating system is to identify eligible locations
for an entire community (Talen, 2013). The LEED-ND rating system is composed of three main
categories; smart location and linkage, neighborhood pattern and design, and green infrastructure and
buildings.
The smart location and linkage category contains five locational prerequisites, if the project does
not satisfy these five components it is ineligible for consideration under the rating system (Talen, 2013).
The first and most critical prerequisite is Smart Location meaning that the project site must be either an
infill location, immediately adjacent to previous development, or within walking distance of high
frequency transit service or diverse commercial and community uses. The intent of smart location
(prerequisite one) is to encourage development within or near existing communities and public transit
infrastructure. By encouraging the redevelopment of existing cities, suburbs, and towns using LEED-ND
smart location and linkage, the projects overall ecological footprint would be significantly decreased
compared to common development practices (USGBC, 2014). The second prerequisite is intended to
conserve imperiled species and ecological communities. This is done through reducing habitat
fragmentation and utilizing building practices that will not cause harm to the overall ecosystem. The third
prerequisite is to preserve water quality, natural hydrology, habitat, and biodiversity through the
conservation of wetlands and water bodies. Additionally, the third perquisite helps to reduce development
pollution and runoff from entering local waterways and protects the essential benefits wetlands provide.

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The fourth prerequisite is intended to preserve agricultural resources through the protection of prime and
unique soils on farm and forestlands. The fifth and final prerequisite of the smart location and linkage
category is floodplain avoidance, a requirement intended to protect life and property, promote open space
and habitat conservation, while also enhancing water quality and the natural hydrological system
(USGBC, 2014). By implementing these five prerequisites, LEED-ND can improve land-use and prevent
land-use change over time while protecting the surrounding environment.
The neighborhood pattern and design element of the LEED-ND rating system requires three
prerequisites. The first is walkable streets used to promote transportation efficiency, and reduce vehicle
distance traveled. Creating walkable streets provides a safe, appealing, and comfortable street
environments. The second prerequisite is compact development, primarily used to conserve land while
also promoting livability. The third and final prerequisite for LEED-ND pattern and design is a connected
and open community, providing a high level of internal connectivity in communities (USGBC, 2014).
Neighborhood design contributes to mixed-use neighborhood centers, transportation management,
neighborhood schools, local food production, and creates recreational facilities. The design of
neighborhoods is an important factor in combating sprawl development.
The green construction and technology component consists of four prerequisites to improve
efficiency and reduce pollution of current construction practices. The building is required to be certified
green in order to encourage the design, construction, and retrofitting of buildings to utilize cleaner
building practices. It must meet energy efficient standards during design and construction, intended to
reduce air, water and land pollution. To reduce effects on natural water resources and reduce use of
community water supply and wastewater systems prerequisite three requires minimum building water
efficiency. The fourth prerequisite for the green construction and technology element is intended to
reduce pollution from construction practices by controlling soil erosion, waterway sedimentation, and
airborne dust generation (USGBC, 2014).
Through the use of this element site disturbance
is minimized, on-site renewable energy sources
are promoted, and management of storm and
waste waters are improved.
The main environmental concerns related
to construction activities are climate change,
ozone depletion, soil erosion, desertification,
eutrophication, loss of biodiversity, dispersion of
toxic substances, and excessive consumption of resources (Ofori-Boadu, 2012). Currently construction

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and building maintenance consumes 40% of the worlds energy, 65% of all electricity, and 40% of raw
materials. In the United States building-related activities produce 30% of the countrys carbon dioxide
emissions, 40% of its ozone pollution, and 35% of municipal solid waste (Abair, 2008). LEED certified
projects are believed to significantly reduce these impacts by using less energy resulting in the reduction
of fossil fuel emissions over the life of the project from siting and design, to construction, through
occupation, renovation, and deconstruction (Ofori-Boadu, 2012). LEED-certified buildings are
constructed through the complex integration of green materials, products, processes, systems, and
technologies (Ofori-Boadu, 2012). Some examples of green elements in LEED certified buildings are,
the use of alternative materials containing low levels of volatile organic compounds, the use of reclaimed
materials from demolished buildings, the implementation of green roofs, and the use of alternative
sources of energy (on-site) to power the facilities (Gambatese, 2012). Present-day society considers
"sustainable development" as the most efficient way to address these interrelated problems, not only for
the sake of current and future generations, but for the future integrity of the planet (Ofori-Boadu, 2012).
Green building is the practice of creating structures that
are environmentally responsible and remain resource efficient
throughout the buildings life cycle from siting and design, to
construction, operation maintenance, renovation, and
deconstruction (EPA, 2015). One of the most important attempts
to reduce the environmental impacts of the built environment is to
increase the construction of green buildings (Cidell, 2009). Due
to the severity of environmental impacts caused by construction,
governments are engaging in an effort to enact environmentallyfriendly green building laws to help prevent long-term consequences of current development practices
(Abair, 2008). When it comes to green construction lawmakers typically use one of three approaches.
The first requires that all public construction projects meet a particular LEED certification level. Another
approach is creating incentives for the developers of private projects to build green. The last and most
stringent method of regulation is that all new construction projects exceed a certain square footage, both
private and public, must meet a specific LEED standard (Allen, 2008). As environmental concerns rise
and the idea of sustainable development becomes more mainstream, the cost of green building materials
has dropped significantly. This decrease in cost allows for more developers, architects, planners, and
government officials to implement green building techniques (Abair, 2008). By taking part in the green
movement and requiring development projects to obtain LEED certification cities can make a powerful
statement and reduce the environmental impacts of development practices in the future (Abair, 2008).

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In 2012, transportation accounted for about 28% of total greenhouse gas emissions in the United
States, an 18% increase since 1990 (EPA, 2014). Urban sprawl is one of the main factors contributing to
the increase in vehicle miles traveled. LEED-ND was developed, in part, to reduce vehicle trips and
miles traveled while supporting walking as a transportation choice (Ewing, 2013). By creating compact,
connected neighborhoods located near existing developed areas the need for driving is reduced. A recent
study found that LEED-ND projects have significantly lower vehicle miles travels per person than the
average of the region in which they are located (Talen, 2013). By implementing the smart location and
linkage element of LEED-ND automobile travel is significantly reduced, decreasing vehicle emissions
that contribute to climate change, smog, and particulate pollution which can be damaging to both the
environment and human health (USGBC, 2014).
LEED-ND emphasizes creating more compact, walkable, and mixed-use neighborhoods which
provides benefits for residents, employees, and the environment (USGBC, 2014). In 2007, the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) assembled a review panel of public health and land use experts
to review the LEED-ND rating system (CDC, 2009). They found that several of the LEED-ND rating
system features could contribute to health benefits of the residences. Some of the main health benefits
include reduced risk of obesity, heart disease, and hypertension. This is achieved through, creating streets
that are interconnected and easily accessible which promotes walking, placing a variety of open spaces
and parks close to home, and providing appealing and comfortable street environments (CDC, 2009). The
system encourages healthier diets through making fresh fruits and vegetables more accessible while
promoting community-based and local food production. LEED-ND also was seen to improve mental
health by reducing the amount of time spent commuting to work and increasing the amount of time
devoted to family, leisure and community activities (CDC, 2009). Through the Smart Location and
Linkage and Neighborhood Pattern and Design elements of the LEED-ND rating system, development of
healthy and active neighborhoods is promoted.
One particular case study examines the strengths and limitations of the LEED-ND rating system,
evaluating the effectiveness with which the rating system contributes to the sustainability of
neighborhood-scale projects (Garde, 2009). The study surveyed LEED-ND registered pilot projects in the
United States to examine and evaluate the rating system. Most of the smart location and linkage elements
emphasize location of the project, requiring that it be near already developed communities that contain
existing infrastructure. Results indicate that the smart location and linkage element contributed most
significantly to LEED-ND projects, with 95.5% of projects receiving points for this criteria (Garde,
2009). Results also show that projects aiming to achieve LEED-ND gold or platinum certifications were
more likely to incorporate green construction and technology elements, improving the efficiency of water

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and energy consumption compared to LEED-ND projects that are silver certified or lower (Garde, 2009).
Overall the case study found that when all three elements of the LEED-ND rating system were
implemented the project was successful in contributing to the sustainability of neighborhoods (Garde,
2009).
Although the LEED-ND system is well organized and can eliminate the negative environmental
consequences of sprawl there are a few weaknesses affiliated with it. Understanding LEED-ND can be an
overwhelming process of research and paperwork, leaving two options, spend weeks familiarizing oneself
with the many details, or spend money to hire a consultant to do it for you (Quirk, 2012). LEED certified
buildings are more energy efficient and save money on home expenses in the long-run, but the beginning
stages can be expensive. There are registration fees that range from $750 to $3,750 plus certification fees
from $1,500 to $7,500 (Quirk, 2012). Aside from these fees, there is a high construction cost associated
with sustainable materials and the energy saving systems implemented in these buildings. Another
weakness, is that LEED-ND embodies an intangible framework, while it is better than current methods of
development, it does not encourage design that goes beyond its categories (Quirk, 2012).
While the LEED-ND system does focus on smart location it does not focus on the general
region of location. For example, a LEED certified neighborhood development may be considered very
sustainable in a town such as Galloway, but if that same development was placed somewhere, say, the
Adirondacks, it may not be considered as sustainable. Looking at the bigger picture of smart location
may improve sustainability for different region and landscapes across the country. Another concern is the
high price of green building materials and fees associated with LEED-ND certification. The high price of
building green often deters people from choosing this option, even with the use of government incentives
it can still be very expensive. Not to mention, not all governments provide incentives for LEED certified
building projects. If more governments implemented incentives and put higher subsidies on green
building materials it would be more affordable to the middle and lower class to achieve LEED standards.
Lastly, the points awarded in the rating system of LEED-ND could be improved. Since projects are
accumulated through a point system, some LEED-ND projects are more sustainable than others. For
example, you can receive twelve points for having walkable streets (which is also a required
perquisite), yet receive only one point for minimizing site disturbance in the design and construction
process. If LEED-ND was to change the point based rating system to reward points for the amount
sustainable benefits they provide, it would have a greater impact on improving the environment.
LEED certified neighborhoods create an environmentally conscious, sustainable, and beneficial
environment while combating the negative effects of sprawl. The Green Construction and Technology
component of LEED-ND reduces the impact of construction, improve efficiency and conserve natural

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resources. Smart Location and Linkage focuses on the selection of sites that can minimize negative
environmental impacts and avoid contributing to sprawl development (USBGC, 2014). The
Neighborhood Pattern and Design element reduces the need to drive, manages and plans land-use,
provides a more social and healthier community. The structure of the rating system provides strict
guidelines for developers to implement throughout the entire process. Using the three key elements in the
rating system, the importance of smart location, improved neighborhood designs, and green building are
addressed while developing. The use of green building laws implemented by governments is an
innovative plan to improve current development planning. Although the cost of building green is high, as
it continues to become more mainstream, prices will go down allowing the environmental benefits of
LEED-ND to make a significant difference in development trends.

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References
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