ACI MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE PART 4—2001 Part 4 contains current committee reports and standards concemed with: Bridges, Substructures, Sanitary, and Other Special Structures. Structural Propertios New editions of each part of the AC/ Manual of Concrete Practice are issued annually and include the latest ACI standards and committee reports. G american concrete institute P.O. Box 9094 international’ Farmington Hills, MI 48333-9094ACI Certification Programs ‘The final quality ofa concrete structure depends on qualified people to construct ACI cartiication programs identity craftsmen, technicians, and inspectors whe have demonstrated ther qualifeaions. Te following programs are administered by ACI tulle growing demand inte indsstry ‘or cettted workers: Concrete FlatuorkFinisherechnician Concrete Feld Testing Tecinictan—Grade ! 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Inquires concerning revisions or additonal material mn @ subject area ae welcome and should. be directed to Institute headquarters Most standards and committee reports containax supplied on request ‘The American Concrete Institute publishes material on al phases of concrete technol ‘or background information on the reports and standards in tis volume. A catalog ks aval Participation by Federal agency representatives in the work of the American Concrete institute and in the development of Insitute Standards does not constitute endorsement of ACI or the standards that t develops, Printed in the United States of America ISSN 0065-7875 this volume are also available as separate booklets trom ACI headquarters, Prices ‘Much of the material can provide additional Editorial & Production Staff ‘Manager Associate Ectors Grephie Designer Production Editor Eattorlal Secretary Rebecca A. Hartford Joel Barson ‘Andrea M. Worthing Jane D. Carrol ‘Annette D. Polington Carl R. Bischot ‘Amy K. Cloud Melissa L. O'Bryan ‘Amanda E. StrommContents—Part 4 Bridges, Substructures, Sanitary, and Other Special Structures Structural Properties 104 116 17 117 209 215 224 224 224 303 303 307 307 313 313 315 336 336 336 Preparation of Notation for Concrete (ACI 104-71) (Revised 1982) (Reapproved 1997) Cement and Concrete Terminology—SP-19(00)/ACI 116R-00 (Synopsis only; full report in Parts 1 and 2) ‘Standard Specifications for Tolerances for Concrete Construction and Materials {ACI 117-90) (Synopsis only; full report in Parts 2 and §) ..... : ‘Commentary on Standard Specifications for Tolerances for Concrete Construction and Materials. {ACI 117-90}—ACI 117R-90 (Synopsis only; full report in Parts 2and5) .........., - Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Etfects in Concrete Structures— ACI 209-92 (Reapproved 1997) (Synopsis only; full report in Part 1) Considerations for Design of Concrete Structures Subjected to Fatigue Loading— ACI 215R-74 (Revised 1992) (Reapproved 1997) (Synopsis only; full report in Part 1). Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures—ACI 224R-90 (Synopsis only; full report in Part 3)... .. Causes, Evaluation and Repair of Cracks in Concrete Structures—ACI 224.1R-93 (Reaperoved +906) (Synopsis only; full report in Part 3) . Joints in Concrete Construction—ACI 224.3R-95 (Synopsis only; full report in Part 3) Guide to Cast-in-Place Architectural Concrete Practice—AC! 303R-91.... ‘Standard Specification for Cast-in-Place Architectural Concrete (A039 303.1-97) (Synopsis only; full report in Part 3) : Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Chimneys (ACI 307-98) ..... Commentary on Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Chimneys (ACI 307-98)—ACI 307R-98 Standard Practice for Design and Construction of Concrete Silos and Stacking Tu ‘Tubes for Storing Granular Materials—ACI 313-97........ Commentary on Standard Practice for Design and Construction of Concrete Silos and Stacking ‘Tubes for Storing Granular Materials (ACI 313-97)—ACI 313R-97 : ACI Detailing Manual—SP-66(24) (Synopsis only)... ADNAN See better Concrete Shell Structures—Practice and Commentary—ACI 334.1R-92 (Reapproved 1997) ..... Reference Specification for the Construction of Drilled Piers (ors 336.1) and Commentary (AC! 336.1R-98) ‘Suggested Analysis and Design Procedures for Combined ed Footings and Mate— ACI 336.2R-86 (Reapproved 1993) ............. on Design and Construction of Drilled Piers—AC! 336.3R-93 (Reapproved 1998). .....341 343. 345 345, 345 349 349 349 349 349 360 350 961 352 352 357 357 357 368 359 ‘ACI Design Handbook—Design of Structural Reinforced Concrete Elements in Accordance with the Strength Design Method of ACI 318-95—SP-17(97)/340R-97 (Synopsis only) . . . Seismic Analysis and Design of Concrete Bridge Systems—ACI 341.2R-97. Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures—ACI 343R-95 . Guide for Concrete Highway Bridge Deck Construction—AC! 345R-91 (Reapproved 1997) (Synopsis only; full report in Part 2) ...... : Routine Maintenance of Concrete BridgesACI 345.1F-92 (Reapproved 1997) (Synopsis only; full report in Part 2)...... cee cee Guide for Widening Highway Bridges—AC! 345.2R-98 (Synopsis only; full report in Part 2). Code Requirements for Nuciear Safety Related Concrete Structures (ACI 349-97) . ‘Commentary on Code Requirements for Nuclear Safely lated Conorete Structures (ACI 349-97)—ACI 349-97. . Reinforced Concrete Design for Thermal Effects on Nuclear Power Plan! Stuctures—ACI 349.1891 (Reapproved 2000).......... : cots . sees Embedment Design Examples—ACI 349.2R-97 00... erecuees Evaluation of Existing Nuclear Safety-Related Concrete Structures—ACI 349.9R-96 Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures—ACI 350R-89 . Testing Reinforced Conerete Structures for Watertightness—ACI 950.1R-S/AWWA 400-93 Concrete Structures for Containment of Hazardous Materials—ACI 350.2R-97 ........ Grouting between Foundations and Bases for Support of Equipment and Machinery—ACI 351.19-99 Foundations for Static Equipment—ACI 351.2R-94 (Reapproved 1999) Recommendations for Design of Beam-Column Joints in Monolithic Reinforced Concrete Structures— ACI 352R-91 (Reapproved 1997) (Synopsis only; full report in Part 3) Recommendations for Design of Slab-Column Connections in Monolithic Reinforced Concrete Structures—AC! 352.1R-89 (Synopsis only; full report in Part 3) Guide for the Design and Construction of Fixed Offshore Concrete Structures— ACI 3578-84 (Reapproved 1997). - feces State-of-the-Art Report on Offshore Concrete Structures for the Arctio— ACI 357.1R-91 (Reapproved 1997) (Abstract) ...... State-of-the-Art Report on Barge-Like Concrete Structures— ACI 357.2R-88 (Reapproved 1997) (Abstract). : Analysis and Design of Reinforced and Prestressed-Concrete Guideway Structures—ACI 358.1R-92 ... Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and Containments (AC! 359-92) (Synopsis only)362 avi 372 373 423 423 435 435 440 448 543, 546 546 S41 S71 Guide for the Design of Durable Parking Structures—ACI 362.1R-97 . Guide for Structural Maintenance of Parking Structures—ACI 362.2R-00 . Guide for the Analysis, Design, and Construction of Concrete-Pedestal Water Towers—ACI 371R-98. Design and Construction of Circular We- and Strand Wrapped Prestressed Concrete Stucturee— ACI372R-00. - viene Design and Construction of Circular Prestressed Concrete Structures with Circumferential Tendons— ACI 3738-97... cece see a : Recommendations for Concrete Members Prestressed with Unbonded Tendons— ACI 423.3R-96 (Synopsis only; full report in Part 3). are Gomrosion and Repair of Unbonde Sing Stand Tendone—AC! 4284-08 (Synopsis only; full report in Part 3) . : Control of Detiection in Concrete Structures—ACI 435R-95 (Reapproved 2000) State-of-the-Art Report on Temperature-Induced Deflections of Reinforced Concrete Members— ACI 435.7R-85 (Reapproved 1997) (Synopsis only; full report in Part 3)............0c0eeee eee State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures— ACI 440R-96 (Synopsis only; full report in Part 5) cee wee Fracture Mechanics of Concrete: Concepts, Models, and Determination of Material Properties— ACI 446.1R-81 (Reapproved 1999) (Abstract) ..............- we eee ree eee eee BB Finite Element Analysis of Fracture in Concrete Structures: State-of-the-Art—ACI 446,3R-97 Design, Manufacture, and Installation of Concrete Piles—ACI 543R-00 (Synopsis only; full report in Part 5) . ee Concrete Repair Guide—ACI 546R-96. . Guide for Repair of Conorete Bridge Superstructures—ACI 546.1R-80 (Reapproved 1997) Guide to Underwater Repair of Concrete—ACI 546.2R-98 2.2... eee eee eeeeeeeeeeeees Index Conversion Factors: Inch-Pound to SI Metric‘ACI 350R-89 Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures Reported by ACI Committee 350 Frank Kiele Rober Lite ‘Anand B. Gogate Chairman Chaieman, editorial subcommittee Secretary “sues P. Archibald ‘Ashok K. Dhingra Gerard B, Hasselwander Predrag L. Popovic on B. Ardahl Donald R. Dresler Dov Kamineraky ‘Satish K, Sachdev Paul A, Beckmann, Jr Donald L.. Dube David A. Kieveter Harold N. Sehneder Reginald H. Benton Anthony L. Felder Nicholas A. Legatos Sudhakar P. Verma Parick J.Crecgen ‘Timothy 1. Fowler? Glenn E. Noble Roger H. Wood This report presents recommendetions for structural design, male- ‘ale, and consiraction of concree tanks, reservoirs, ond othe siruc- ures commonly used in water containment, industrial end domestic water, and wastewater Ireament works, where dense, Impermesble conerete with high ressionce 0 chemicel attack i required. Special ‘oiphasts spaced oma structural design that mimes the possbl- iy of cracking and eccommodates vibrating equipment end other special loads. Design and spacing of Joints are considered. Propor- Toning af concrete, placement, curing, and protection against chem- ‘color so described. Information om seismic design i included. ‘iseeed:ndmures aggregates; cements hemi atk; comings: com ‘rcs eonmractons conzte roby concrete ishing ret cone co {tees raking (Vractaring); crack with and spacings curing defection Srenqene reaien svacarr earronmentel eegaeriag ibs Naor former (onstruction); foundations; jit seals joints Gunetions, hve ‘outs, ms proportioning: patching: permeability, placing: potetve owing [ety contrat mfreed concrete rsevoce, salary tering: Me Srcksow, tse; sacral eign; anh (Cntr) temperature; ore ‘piston, volume change: wastewater Westen; walercemet Ft: Malet py vats reatment CONTENTS ‘Chapter 1 — Special requirements for ‘ervironmental engineering concrete structures, 9 350R-1 1.1 ~ Introduction 12 — Design and analysis 13 — Waterighiness, 14— Derabiity Chapter 2 — Structural design considerations, P.350R-3 2.1 — Introduction 2.2 — Principal types of structures 23 — Load conditions 2.4 — Types of foundations 2.5 — structural considerations 26— Structural detign 2.7 — Reinforcement spices 28 soins 2.9— Impact, vibration, torque, and seismic Loads AGT Canpie Re Gas Se Pac Co sla ingu pane nga. ogc Semen Acne tattooed escape coe ean og i Rien a pal Ste pad Ce a ec crm ee pier soe Malo horny ever ante wing et econ oan alt ee ae sete hs dsr a gn ho Ache {pmlc Ss ey ulead na betes ie eacag Chapter 3 — Materials, mixture proportioning, and testing, p. 350R-15 ‘Cementitious materials 32 — Admintres 33 — Water 34 — Aggregates 3.5 — Mix proportioning 116 — Evaluation and acceptance Chapter 4 — Construction, p. 350R-17 Concrete 42— Placement of coverete 43 — Joins 44 Formwork 45 — Finises for exposed surfaces 46 — Curing — Leakage testing Chapter § — Protection against chemicats, . 350R-20 5.1 — Resistance of conree and reinforcing ste! 53.2 — Need for protection 533 — Types of protection 54 — Recommended comings 5.5 — Selection of protection sytem 5.6 — Safety precautions 5.7 — Chemicals ved in testment plats Chapter 6 — References, p. 350R-21 6.1 — Recommended references 62 — Cited references 63 — Additions references CHAPTER 1 — SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING CONCRETE ‘STRUCTURES, 1.4 — Introduction Environmental engineering concrete structures pose some problems uncommon in other uses of concrete. In eee ereuecr son Races Shapes ti oe el SB aes Set i tw aera antgita Seanget at edy oed Silene nese eemidaes aieatee we Siemaet sarita ores 360R-1350R-2 all structures, strength and stability are of paramount importance. In environmental engineering concrete structures, serviceability, in terms of limited deflections and cracking, durability, and low permeability demand, equal consideration. In these structures, concrete that will be in contact with water or wastewater should: a. Be extremely dense and impermeable to minimize contamination of water supplies or the environment. b. Provide maximum resistance to natural or pro- cessing chemicals. ¢. Provide smooth surfaces to minimize flow resi tance. Conerete is particularly suited to environmental en- gineering structures. it will not warp or undergo signi- ant dimensional change under service conditions and, when properly designed and placed, is nearly imperme- able and extremely resistant to corrosion, Because of the stringent service requirements of en- vironmental engineering concrete structures, they should be designed and constructed with great care. ‘The quality of concrete is of great importance, and close quality control should be performed during con- struction to obtain impervious concrete. 1.1.1 Scope — This report is concerned with conven- tionally reinforced environmental engineering concrete structures. The recommendations apply to cast-in-place and precast concrete construction of tanks, reservoirs, cast-in-place sewers, manholes, wet-wells, flumes, junction chambers, pump stations, and other similar Structures and appurtenances. The purpose of this re- port is to recommend methods of design and construc- tion permitting the production of structural concrete that will satisfy not only the usual structural require- ments but also those mentioned in Section 1.1(a), (b) and (c). Emphasis is given to the special steps necessary to maximize corrosion resistance and imperviousness of concrete and to the special loading conditions of envi- ronmental engineering concrete structures. Recommendations for prestressed concrete are be- yond the scope of this report. Specific recommenda- tions for circular prestressed concrete tanks are con- tained in ACI 344R 4.2 — Design and analysis Design loads on environmental engineering concrete structures are determined from the depth and unit weight ofthe retained liquid and/or solids, the external soil pressure, and the equipment to be installed. Com- pared to the accurately known liguid and dead loads, the superimposed design live loads in tanks and reser” voirs generally are small. As discussed in Section 2.9, special care is required when designing for impact and dynamic loads caused by mechanical equipment. De- sign analysis must be accurate to obtain a true picture of the distribution of stresses in the structure and to re- sist cracking in areas of maximum stress. Soil bearing strength and consolidation information is of great im- portance to minimize differential settlements that could cause cracking. MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE Environmental engineering concrete structures should be designed to minimize leakage. Accordingly, a design method should be used that will eliminate wide cracks and other potential sources of leakage. Design methods may be based on strength or working stress theories. In environmental engineering concrete structures, service load performance is of paramount importance. Many current design aids are based on the strength design method. For strength design of environmental ‘engineering concrete structures, this report includes the concept of environmental durability coefficients. These coefficients provide conservative service load stresses using Grade 40 and Grade 60 steel and crack control similar to that historically obtained with working stress design. 1.3 — Watertightness Environmental engineering concrete structures for the containment, treatment, or transmission of water, wastewater, or other fluids should be designed and constructed to be essentially watertight, with minimal loss of contained volume under normal service condi tions (see Section 4.7 of this report for leakage testing). In many industrial applications the United States Environmental Protection Agency will require contain- ‘ment and leak detection systems. 1.3.1 The ability of a structure to retain liquids will be reasonably assured if: a, The concrete mixture is well proportioned and the conerete is well consolidated without segregation b. Crack width is minimized. «©. Joints are properly spaced, sized, designed, and constructed. 4, Impervious protective coatings or barriers are used where required. €. Adequate reinforcing ste! is provided. Usually it is more economical and dependable to re- sist liquid permeation through the use of quality con- crete, proper design of joint details, and adequate re- inforcement rather than by means of an impervious protective barrier or coating. Minimum permeability of the concrete will be ob- tained by using water-cement ratios as low as possible consistent with satisfactory workability and good com- paction. Impermeabilty increases with the age of con- crete and is improved by extended periods of moist curing. Surface treatment is important, and surface troweling and use of smooth forms give good im- permeability, Air entrainment reduces segregation and bleeding, increases workability, and provides resistance to the effects of freeze-thaw cycles. Because of this, use of an air-entraining agent results in better compacted concrete and permits use of a lower water-cement ra- tio. Other admixtures, such as water reducing agents, and pozzolans are useful when they lead (o increased workability and compaction with lower water-cement fatios. Pozzolans also reduce permeability. Cracking can be kept to a minimum by proper de- n, reinforcement distribution, and spacing of joints Cracking caused by drying shrinkage can also be mini-ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES mized by the proper use of shrinkage-compensati ‘concrete, but for the design fo be successful, the engi ‘eer must recognize the characteristics and properties of shrinkage-compensating concrete as described in ACI 223. Some shrinkage will always occur in normal con- crete, and joints and reinforcement should be designed to control the effects of shrinkage. Joint design should also consider movement resulting from thermal dimen- sionat changes and differential settlements. Joints per- mitting movement along predetermined control planes that should form a barrier to the passage of fluids should include waterstops. Good placement opera- tions, adequate consolidation, and proper curing also are essential to control of cracking in environmental engineering concrete structures, Additional informa- tion on cracking is contained in ACI 224R. 1.4 — Durability Durability of concrete in an environmental engineer- ing concrete structure is the resistance of the structure to the deteriorating effects of its environment. In par- ticular, the conerete should be resistant to the action of chemicals, alternate wetting and drying, freezing and thawing cycles, and exposure to the elements. Air en trainment should be used in freezing and thawing ex- posures. Resistance to chemical attack can be improved by using good quality concrete with types of cement that improve chemical resistance and provide a smooth surface finish. Care should also be taken to provide adequate cover for the reinforcement and to use fit- tings and embedded items that do not corrode and cause damage to the concrete. The filling and patching of tie holes, as recommended in Section 4.5.4.1 of this report, is necessary to insure long-term durability of the conerete. Improved workability, lower water-cement ratios, corrosion resistance, and increased resistance to sulfate attack may be derived from the proper use of a ‘00d quality fly ash in the mix. The use of a moder- ately sulfate-tesistant cement such as Type II, or certain ‘Type K cements, as referred to in part 3.1.2, V Should also be considered when sulfate-esistant concrete is required Most environmental engineering concrete structures Will be exposed to the elements, and adequate provi- sions should be made to avoid damage due to floods, ‘ain, snow, and freezing and thawing. In some cases, adequate durability can be obtained only by use of spe- protective barriers (see Chapter 5). Structures sub- ject to movement of liquids should be resistant to er0- sion. Additional information on durability is contained in ACT 201.28. CHAPTER 2 — STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 2.1 — Introduction ‘The design of environmental engineering concrete Structures should be executed in four consecutive or overlapping phases as follows: 1, Functional design 2. Physical plant layout 3. Hydraulic design 4 Structural design 3503 Authoritative texts and several ASCE manuals of en- gineering practice"? will be helpful in the first three Dhases of design, most of which can be performed be- fore undertaking the fourth phase, However, structural advice should be provided during all phases of the de- sign and construction of the work. Except as otherwise indicated in this report, structural design should con- form with ACI 318, For the structural design of circular or rectangular reinforced concrete tanks, several helpful publi- cations“ of the Portland Cement Association are avai able. Circular prestressed tanks are addressed in ACI 344R. ‘The recommendations in the publications just cited may require adjustments to conform with ACI 318 and ‘his report, and with the applicable local building code. 2.2 — Principal types of structures Environmental engineering instal water or wastewater treatment facilities composed of a number of separate units as shown below: Water treatment plants Intake structures Filters ‘Screen chambers Filter pipe galleries Rapid mix chambers Clear wells Floceulating basins Pumping stations Settling tanks Service reservoirs Conduits Chemical storage Chlorination facilities Office building and Clarifiers laboratory Industrial and domestic wastewater treatment plants Grit chambers Pump and blower Primary settling tanks stations Final setling tanks Gas holders Digesters Sludge dewatering Thickeners Sludge disposal facilities Aeration basins Chemical storage ‘Sludge holding tanks Office building and Trickling filters laboratory Screening facilities Tertiary filters Chlorine contact chambers Composting facilities Channels and tunnels The previously listed structures generally may be classified as follows: Water or liquid-containing structures, tanks, and basins Conduits, interconnecting channels, and cast-in-place sewers ‘Machine and equipment foundations Protective housing, floors, storage rooms, walkways, and stairs 2.3 — Load conditions 2.3.1 Dead load — Many references are available for estimating dead loads. ANSI AS8.1 is a recommended reference for dead loads. 2.3.2 Live load — The following are conservative values for live loads that should be considered in structural design:350R4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE 1-63 Ib/ft (1010 kg/m?) No Ibe (0760 kg/m’) Digested sludge, aerobic........65 1b/ft (1040 kg/m) Digested sludge, anaerobic.....70 Ib/ft (1120 kg/m’) Thickened or dewatered sludge depending on ‘moisture content - 60 to 85 lb/ft’ (960 to 1360 kg/m’) ANSI AS8.1 is the recommended reference for other live loads. ANSI AS8.1 and local building codes set forth minimum requirements. Actual weights of ‘equipment should be obtained from manufacturers. If the weights given by various manufacturers differ, the heaviest should be used for structural design. Live loads on catwalks, stairs, and office and laboratory floors should be a minimum of 100 Ib/ft? (4790 Pa). In heavy equipment rooms, where the machines may be taken apart and stored on the floor, it is advisable to design the slabs and beams for a minimum live load of 300 Ib/ft® (14,400 Pa). Actual ‘weights of machines and other equipment, including their concrete support bases, should be used for designing floor beams, including the effect of moving loads. Live loads should include the weights of large- diameter piping and valves taking into account the size, number, and spacing of piping, including current loads and allowing for planned expansion. In evaluating live loads for closed tanks the engineer should consider the internal pressures or vacuums that occur under normal operation for serviceability checks of deflection. The maximum/minimum settings for the pressure relief valves and vacuum relief valves should bbe used as the service live load for the design of reinforcement. Care should be taken to insure that vents and relief valves do not plug, freeze, or corrode shut, In cold climates, this may require heating cables on vents and valves. Goose-neck relief valves may require antifreeze. The live load for the roofs of buried tanks should include the earth cover as well asa surface live load of at least 100 Ib/ft? (4790 Pa), Depending on the use of the roof area, a greater surface design live load may be required. Pattern loading effects can be very extreme for buried roofs. One bay may be bare (no earth or surface live load), while adjacent bays are subject to full earth and surface live load. These effects are particularly significant in flat slab roof systems. The construction drawings should indicate any restrictions on the placing, type, or weight of equipment to be ‘employed, and the sequence for earth cover. In electrical control rooms, it is best to estimate the foundation arca and weight of the equipment. The ‘weight of any unit should be assumed as being applied anywhere in the control room, since the equipment may be shifted from its original location to other locations, ‘or more equipment may be added later. An assumed 250 tb/f (12,000 Pa) live load will, in most cases, ‘cover the normal equipment load. ‘The live loads in Table 2.3.2 may be used for ‘chemical storage buildings. Special provisions, such as Raw sewag Grit excavated from grit chamber. Table 2.3.2 — Weights of chemicals for structural desig os we BT ‘ates etbor? agree 8028 cme were 18 ase ‘Ativated se? - ‘Aout 1.616 abso ‘Aum, ie Manufactured nea ste | AL 6OF (156 8 (Sst i bbe nes ice tan eke igs coms, gs 100 ‘ews igh rah | sete pas 288; cont pecs tens | Tov ibign 2836/0) ‘Alumina pees | Bp 001 54 ie Atunine sulese 1070 (8st 1120g/m 6010 7596130 1200 2 poppe eanecter we Cro ‘pora aipous | su finder 0 | pier of, PRM [BREE or ak car, 30.000 8 ac anainwe — leramtencen cer geen ome fae Fp dre fonene Amani 700 30 112010 1280, Sicotoaride Tein) Ammonia sane | one 34 0961 army BF ica ise ae 0b abr ky): bik toremcatenne —[amazenai dans [5 bags 20 1 90.) 2am are 120 Benonite Rage sowa27be | Powder $510 40 C2 Bromine ius sous ssi | Tibi Sg Be] a re BSS cheno |Pire Some ies pee pravity 3.119 Ccaxium carbonate — | gags 22.744: | Ponder 3 9 40 (61 "3 ede bik atc oie | pa 01 22 a Buk: orein pac Pein Caton nyoctirie [Bo 435 TH Re ew: | Grandes 6 10 80 esky. fia a ‘od cosa sah powder s3 te SSG rab eae, tomes kynn ah toe dst [fo e0t kgm “Aaaresive ain on conteENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES. S50R-S Table 2.3.2, cont, — Weights of chemicals for structural design Siow ‘er Spe nie ae meee cena aan Ghimeste —ieereeeti [Sa ie an Poa CREP |i omc Peete tes | rath roongante Heese NB |e EASES, (ase Pe inte contains coved? | O81 2 ay em cxson done | Seat eden - artigres. Sodium stominste | Ground bags 501 | High pray 50 801 ea ry SEU tsa [Meena Eee RES (iene nipes soi ae a - Sosiom exon Bee osiem ae sarees, by saa Soiimiutae — fang ussig. [210 worm ie ‘Cornned ine | Drums 100 ose fs 0 51:0 901 sees a Posaiteats, [ees se se OG ko see Sout earkonste rameetae Dense 6 (1040 ts/m mae favor, crn nn xsesge esresaut [ittecys Bees (Seas ae toe roeie, |seeson oe Bee wns batts lenasoe ter 7 macin saris mnie raseescann [onus ose snes, eso et ka to M0 kg/m Sebo | sematie foam on dseinfgressanoernn erantias te amaaranors perewcrrio lnwasewaer | saentate lous monwseae renee lutena ae, sushi | feethceiite a fea ab haitas ey mnt foe nasty lcrmtinansne | Sian |BuRAGE ME ate wm Sicummanee lawrpeistie [cmtminw | Elaiogn |Beebetsin, {a memes Ira pmetay | gnainentay Best Sense setmroaose [ps oiip fan poe gaps lacamcrrte wsnarcan | grade |S Bee time Soe Kam), To caste forbicies [Sins ee igre Ea seaman [caer set 890 [isan ae Potosi ime ESSE |frme es oare ™ Bear raeh dee? | aes hp BERS | sume a2 gn Bie. | i sas semen four ery lamang tweet fst crs [sung cioan cies [sapere arom? sea Bese |Saeei conan [Sint Satan atte |g me | 6 eo ata, ig at eee as ssn rinitie fan ann [a eR | Faas ve tae igen | sania seeere ssiizs sears, [Berens es ane, seu” cs pres sees %i00 aa 390, | - Bobetectolye or | Avaiae dry and in reson yume | set oe ese get Se ee se ai eae350R-6 ‘curbs or barriers, should be made to isolate and prevent spreading of spilled or leaking chemicals. The structural engineer should decide what is a reasonable stacking height when designing slabs, beams, and other Supporting members. It is recommended that the specific live load, including machines, equipment, piping loads, and bases for which each part of the floor is designed, be indicated on the drawings and posted in the area in which it applies. 2.4 — Types of foundations Structures covering large areas may rest on various soils or rock. The foundation may be: a. Entirely on granular soit b. Entirely on cohesive soil ¢. Entirely on rock 4d. On any combination of the above The type of foundation may a. Piles b. Caissons c. Raft d. Spread or continuous footings If the foundation of a structure rests entirely on only one kind of soil or rock, the design of the foundation and of the structure itself is not difficult. Design prob- lems are more complicated when the structure rests on ‘more than one kind of soil. Most environment neering concrete structures, being water or liquid-con- taining tanks and reservoirs, cannot tolerate much dif- ferential settlement that causes cracks and leakage. ‘Therefore, designers of environmental engincering con- ‘rete structures should carefully minimize differential settlement of the foundations and the structures. If Revessary, slabs may span between grade beams, foun- dation walls, and piers. In general, structures should be designed to minimize differential settlement or de- signed to accommodate settlement as beams on elastic Supports. Adjacent structures with different loading and function may have to be separated physically by ‘expansion joints and/or double wall construction. Design of foundations on granular or other elastic or ‘compressible soils should take into account not only the variations in compressibility of soil materials and the different thicknesses of the soil layers but also the vari- ations in loading caused by alternately filling and draining adjoining tanks, basins, or reservoirs, Soil conditions should be explored with test borings, ‘and soil samples should be analyzed to determine soil resistivity and sulfate content. A minimum of four test borings should be made for the first 10,000 ft? (929 m?) of plant area and at least two additional borings for every additional 10,000 ft? (929 m. In addition, it may be desirable to locate extra test borings at major con- ccentrated load locations, such as center column foun dations of large diameter clarifiers or heavy equipment foundations. Investigations by, and consultation with, @ Beotechnical engineer is recommended In cases of irregular rock foundations or unusual bearing strata, additional test borings may be required. MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE I is important to observe and record the elevation of the groundwater table and any periodic and seasonal variations. The maximum and minimum elevation of the groundwater table in the plant area should be de- termined using the 100 year flood and drought criteria in each case. A high water table may exert uplift on the structures, may lift and damage foundation slabs, and may reduce the bearing capacity of the soil. If the structures are on piles, the use of uplift piles should be considered. Additional substructure considerations are ineluded in Section 2.5, 2.5.— Structural considerations Large reinforced concrete reservoirs on compressible soil may be considered as beams or girders on elastic supports. Sidewalls of rectangular tanks and reservoirs ‘can be designed either as cantilever walls fixed at the bottom or as walls supported at wo or more edges. Circular tanks normally resist the pressure of their con- tents by ring tension. Elevation of the groundwater table and flood water conditions are basic design considerations, and these loads should be considered in the same manner as in- ternal liquid loads. The groundwater elevation may be ally raised locally by leaks from nearby tanks or pipes. Walls supporting both interior water loads and exterior earth loads should be designed to support both the full effect of the interior water pressure and the full, effect of the maximum exterior earth pressure without considering that one load could minimize the effect of the other. Should the reservoir space remain sealed, the surrounding walls and the bottom of the structure must withstand combined lateral or vertical water and soil pressures, and the structure as a whole must resist flo. tation, The soil reaction on an elastic slab is quite different from the soil reaction on a more rigid slab. Walls can- tilevered from a flexible slab on yielding compressible soils present a problem of mutual influence of soil and structure. Spanning a bottom mat between parallel sidewalls is rot always a simple task. Increasing the thickness of the ‘mat counteracts uplift with increased concrete weight and reduces required reinforcement. However, this ap- proach has economic limitations. Inverted beams or ‘rosswalls over the mat could reduce mat spans to per- ‘mit economically acceptable thicknesses. All water-containing structures should be assumed 10 ‘be empty for buoyancy and external pressure siress cal- culations. The effect of possible alternate gravity tank loads and uplift should be investigated. In some cases, uplift on the bottom mat could be limited by: (1) standpipes that automatically would bleed water into the tank when a certain groundwater elevation is ex- ceeded; (2) installing automatic pressure relief systems in the base slab or sidewalls where applicable; or (3) lowering the groundwater table with perforated drain pipes and collection systems. Depending on soil condi-ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES tions, uplift ples or drilled anchors also may be used in appropriate soil/rock conditions to resist uplift pres- sures ‘When none of these methods is practical the use of an alarm system may be considered. The alarm system should alert the operator when a dangerous ground- water elevation is reached so that action may be taken, immediately to start filling the tanks to balance the uplift. At least two independent alarm systems should be provided and tested at frequent intervals. Tanks below grade normally are tested for. water- tightness before backfilling, and where appropriate, this condition should be considered in the structural design. Large-diameter tanks expand and contract appreci bly as they are filled and drained. The connection be- tween wall and footing should either permit these movements or be strong enough to resist them without cracking, When the wall is not interconnected to other structures of tanks and free to move, the joint detail at both the floor and roof should be carefully designed and constructed. ‘The analysis of rectangular wall panels supported at three or four sides is explained in detail in References 6 ‘and 7, which contain tabulated coefficients for design. ‘When the wall panels are rectangular and the dimen- sional ratios exceed those given in the coefficient bles, the tables still may be of some use. The end re- gions of the rectangular wall panel can be designed based on the coefficients for the closest aspect ratio in the table. Determine end moments at wall intersee- tions. The remaining middle portion of the wal is then designed as @ one-way span or cantilever, As an alter- an elastic analysis can be used. Vertically reinforced walls supported at top and bot- tom also are used frequently. These are particularly a vantageous when a rectangular tank is relatively nar- row or when the tank is supported on piles. It may be desirable to design the side wall of a tank for two con- ditions: as a cantilever wall and as one supported at top and bottom. The reason for the double design is that such sidewalls, when the tank is constructed in an ex- cavated area, will often be backfilled before the top support is constructed. It should be noted that expan- sion joints in tank floors will eliminate the continuity between the opposite walls. Therefore, the designer should carefully investigate sliding, including the re- action of friction due to buoyancy from leakage Reinforced concrete walls atleast 10 f¢ (3.0 m) high that are in contact with liquids should have a minimum thickness of 12 in, (305 mm). Usually, the minimum ness of any minor structural member in environ- mental engineering concrete structures is 6 in. (152 tm). A minimum of 8 in. 203 mm) will be required where a 2 in. (51 mm) concrete cover is desired. How- ever, when waterstops are used and the positioning of reinforcement might adversely affect proper place- ment, 2 greater thickness should be considered. Tt should be noted that the shear key problem discussed in Section 2.8.4 is particularly severe in thin walls. For ‘rack control, itis preferable to use a large number of 3508-7 small-diameter bars for main reinforcement rather than an equal area of larger bars. Maximum bar spa Should not exceed 12 in. (305 mm). Section 10-64 of ACI 318R provides guidance for limiting bar sizes. ‘The amount of shrinkage and temperature reinforce- ment that should be provided is a function of the dis- tance between the joints that will dissipate shrinkage and temperature stresses in the direction of the rein- forcement. In addition, the amount of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement is a function of the particu lar concrete mix and other properties, the amount of aggregate, the member thickness, its reinforcement, and the environmental conditions of the site. These factors have been considered in applying the analysis method developed by Vetter* to environmental engineering con- crete structures, and the recommendations contained the remainder of this section are based on this work.? ‘Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement should not, be less than the ratios given in Fig. 2.5 except when shrinkage-compensating concrete is used. Contraction and construction joint spacings of up to 75 ft (22.9 m) have been used successfully with shrinkage-compensat- ing concrete and 0.3 percent reinforcement. When shrinkage-compensating concrete is used, construction details should be developed in accordance with ACI 223 recommendations. Consideration may be given to re- ducing the amount of shrinkage and temperature rein- forcement sown in Figure 2.5 when details are devel- ‘oped in accordance with ACI 223 recommendations and non-shrinkage compensating concrete is used. Concrete sections 24 in. (610 mm) or thicker may have the minimum temperature and shrinkage reinforcement at each face based on a 12 in. (305 mm) thickness. ‘Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement should be spaced not greater than 12 in, (305 mm) on center, di- vided equally between the to surfaces of the concrete oes evar | 4 ° as Fig. 2.5—Ratio of shrinkage and temperature rein. forcement for concretes made with ASTM C 150 and C 5595 cemenis. The minimum temperature and shrinkage Steel should be t4 bars; maximum spacing should be 12 jn. (305 mm) on center, each face350n8 Table 2.5 — Minimum concrete cover for reinforcement ottom bars for dry conditions: ee . f A ee Sopein ee Sa OTT SS, Soe rca emt oman i Rie, 7 For dry cond! "Sirupe ira, ad ties Vin Prins teinforcement 2 out at, ego wah ; ops ad in Prana referee Bin Wate For dry conditions: “bas and ater dein Haand iis are iin ‘Formed concrete surfaces exposed to earth, water, sewage, ‘weather orn contact with ground: ‘Crear tanks with ring tension Alvotbers Footings and base slabs "At formed sufaces and bottoms bearing on onerete work mat 2ia ‘surfaces and bottoms in contact Sin ‘Top of footings ~ same as slabs Over op of pies in. sestion. The reinforcement in the bottom of base slabs in contact with soil may be reduced to $0 percent of the value given in Fig. 2. Minimum concrete protective covering of reinforee- ‘ment should be as shown in Table 2.5. Environmental engineering concrete structures nec- ‘essarily cover large areas, and the covering of filter beds and tanks may pose problems. In roof design the engi- reer should take into consideration exposure to & hu- tid, possibly corrosive, interior atmosphere and should allow for movement joints in walls. The latter can be accomplished by carrying the joints through the roof. Supports designed to permit sliding of concrete on con- crete frequently result in problems such as spalling of the supporting ledges on beams, walls, and slabs and are not recommended. Superstructures of environmental engineering struc- tures, other than tanks, are not discussed in detail be- cause they are frequently similar to conventional struc- tures, In some facilities, the gases generated may be toxic and also present an explosion hazard. Additional ventilation, pressure venting, gas alarms, and provision for explosion venting may be required. Where build- ings or equipment rooms are located over the tops of tanks or digesters, the tanks may require g2s-proofing by means of liners and/or the installation of gas detec- ion equipment. 2.6 — Structural design 2.6.1. General — ACI 318 contains general require- ments for reinforced concrete building structures that are also valid for environmental engineering concrete MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE structures. The design engineer should establish the for a specific concrete structure within ions of the ACI or local building codes basex the special requirements of environmental enginee structures, Environmental engineering concrete structures | erally belong to the category of structures for wl ‘minimal cracking is a paramount requisite. Leak into potable water or out of contaminated water fa ties must be avoided to protect the public hes Therefore, experienced designers of environmental gineering structures have established somewhat m conservative allowable stresses for such reinforced c crete structures. The strain of the reinforcing bars under stress wil ‘wansferred to the adjoining concrete. Low stress in inforcement at service loads will tend to minimize amount of eracking. ‘The structural design recommendations herein an be regarded as minimum provisions for general 1 ‘Any special structural features, unusual loading cc binations, or unusual exposure conditions may reqt special design precautions more conservative than ‘minimum provisions. In particular, the designer sho consider the structural effects of joint spacings and tails, and construction sequences. Special design considerations regarding details « specifications should be given to the possible haza ‘ous and corrosive effect of oxygen, ozone, hydro} sulfide, and methane gases in closed tanks. This is pecially important when habitable spaces are loca ‘above the tank. 2.6.2 Design requirements — Reinforced envir mental engineering concrete structures must be « signed for both strength and serviceability. 2.6.3 Methods ~ Two methods of structural des for reinforced concrete sections generally are accep in practice, and both are applicable to environmen, engineering concrete structures. These methods + presently described in detail in ACI 318. They are strength design, using factored loads U, specified st and concrete strengths f, and f,, and capacity redi tion factor #; and (2) working stress design (altern design method, ACI 318, Appendix B), using serv loads and reduced allowable working stresses. 2.6.4 Special limitations — Both methods requ special limitations for application to environmen structures to assure resistance 10 leakage of liquids a long life under conditions of exposure in environm tal service. For additional design information when using ce crete made with shrinkage-compensating cement, + Chapter 3 of ACI 223. 2.6.5 Strength design — The load factors prescrib in ACI 318 may be directly applied to environmen engineering concrete structures with one adjustme! The load factors for both the lateral earth pressure and the lateral liquid pressure F should be taken as 1 The factored load combinations for total factored « sign load U, as prescribed in ACI 318, should be iENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES Seat ma Soak Vin ee Saracen Eman Tn oo za zing? Ser as {ih [_[_[uecthun CT] HART Stress +stress — i: K lersée sob [Grade 60 TTT YU val j i : [Li hi : Tit ye . I coo 2 [WACIMUM spacii \ = \ ‘MAXIMUM spacing. | -? #2 ‘ bn | 4 dn 7 zea : i 2. + : w. +t | if ’ . ‘MAXIE T ® ert jt * Grade } Ut > bs > TNT ‘ ‘ att 5: Stress. : rae : ‘ ee TeTTerereeeer yy 1 + WE 16 17 18 19 2029 22 23 20 25 26:27 0.29 30 Allowable service Toad stress, fs» ksi Fig. 2.6.7(a)—Bar spacing for flexural erack control (43 through 45 bars) creased by sanitary durability coefficients for environ- ‘mental engineering concrete structures as follows: a. In caleulations for reinforcement in flexure, the required strength should be 1.3 U. ». In calculations for reinforcement in direct tension, including hoop tension, the required strength should be 1.65 U. €. "The required design strength for reinforcement in diagonal tension (shear) should be calculated by applying a sanitary durability coefficient of 1.3 to the excess shear. Excess shear is defined asthe difference between the factored shear force atthe section, V,.and the shear strength provided by the concrete, 6V,.. Thus dV, = 1.3 (V, ~ 6¥), where ‘$V, is the design capacity of the shear reinforcement."” 4, In calevlations for the compressive region of flexure ‘and compressive axial loads, and for all foads carried by conerete, the required strength should be 1.00 U. «. For Factors to be used in seismic design, refer to ACI3I8. ‘As noted previously, the durability coefficients were developed from crack width calculation methods. 2.6.6 Serviceability for normal sanitary exposures* Except as provided in this section, serviceability re- Quirements of ACI 318 to control calculated deflee- aniary expovses ne defined a gd etemton (nate i tiie an 3 eo ae Allowable service load stress, fg, ksi Fig. 2.6.7(b)—Bar spacing for flexural crack contr. (6 through #8 bars) tions and crack width are applicable to environment, ‘engineering concrete structures. For flexural reinforc: ‘ment located in one layer, the quantity Z should a exceed 115 kips/in. Z values were established for cov: equal to or less than 2 in. (51 mm) and should be base on this value when the cover exceeds 2 in, Addition cover may be regarded as added protection. ‘The Z factor and crack width are a function of th concrete cover and overall thickness of a flexural men, ber and are valid only for one-way flexural member ‘The designer should use the basic Gergley-Lutz equ tion, as recommended in the Commentary to Sectic 10.6.4 of ACI 318, for one-way flexural members. For members subject to direct tension (hoop te! sion), a sanitary durability coefficient of 1.65 may 1 ‘used for all grades of reinforcing."*" The factor Z h no direct bearing for this state of stress. ‘The reinforcement for a two-way flexural memb (e.g., slabs and walls) may be proportioned in each ¢ reetion based on Section 2.6.5 since reliable crack-wid equations for such members are not available in the I erature at this time."""" For design by the working stress method of Sectic 2.6.7, deformed bars or wire should be spaced so th the quantity Z does not exceed 11S kips/in., as shov in Fig. 2.6.%(a), 2.6.7(b), and 2.6.7(c), and the spaci should not exceed 12 in. (305 mm). In all other flexursono rev oF couse ntence Bar sizes #9, # 10,and 11 with 2 in, cover Table 2.6.7(b) — Recommended maximum em? stresses at service load for recommended — imum 12-in. (305-mm) spacing of reinforcing 1483 irs in environmental engineering concrete Eat 1 Saye EST : a a ee, a SE? | dae tPA wena i : nie |S a8 eo ——— . { a tit nun [Soe ob 2 am = 1 WAXIMUM spacing. (Gee) Tes mnie { sereame | woe | ap TF dwme [Olsson 2's 95) | ano | adda u_ Flexural members 0 ‘Normal sanitary 22,000 20,000 paxirn (Maximum 2 = 113) | (152,000) | (138,000) og ‘Flexural members: 7 Grade Sere capanne ooo an vosnesny | EET oy | ol 7 Flexural members. meets | om | ome : SEPT | EB | oS a SRA apo amy ee aR ot Sess a te dee a See : PPVidct tata wate eam eco ee arene ac 16 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26.27 28 29 30 Allowable service Toad stress, Fig, ks\ Fig. 2.6.7(c)—Bar spacing for flexural crack control (#9 through #11 bars) Table 2.6,7(a) — Recommended allowable stresses for concret gnginesring concrete structures that must be F tight and resistant to chemi Modulus of elasticity ction Flare: ree ier resin compresion ous Ente fiber ses in tem nll coneresfootngh and wale 16 Shear Tris eau of diagonal tenon a rom face of support ‘Hears with no web reinforcement Joists with no web reinforcement “Members with web re ommbined bent bars a ‘Slabs and footings (peripheral seat) Pea nti ares (On one-third area o es {genera sould conform o Appendix (akeraue design wethod of a ‘members, bar spacing should be limited so that calcu lated Z values do not exceed 115 kips per in. Deformed bar or wire spacings should not exceed 12 in, (305 mm). Preferably bar sizes should not exceed #11. "bards troup sin Grae 0 ave Den deleted rom ASTM A 6. For severe environmental exposures, structural d sign should conform to Section 2.6.6 with the quantity Z which does not exceed 95 kips/in., and surface or other protection or barrier should be provided suitable for the particular conditions of exposure, 2.6.7 Alternate design method, ACI 318, Appendix B (working stress design) — Except as noted below, the alternate design method should be in accordance with ACI 318, Appendix B. Recommended concrete and steel stresses for design at service loads are presented in Tables 2.6,7(«) and 2.6.7(b). These stresses are for a maximum bar spacing of 12 in, and have been estab- lished to control crack widths for concrete surfaces ex- posed to conditions encountered in environmental en- ‘gineering concrete structures. The stresses for 12 in. bar spacings should not exceed 27,000 psi (186 KPa) for Grade 60 reinforcement nor 20,000 psi (137 KPa) for Grade 40 reinforcement. Fig 2.6.7(a), 2.6.7(b), and 2.6.7(c) are presented for lesser bar spacings and a broader range of Z values. Development lengths and anchorages should conform to the requirements of ACI 318, 2.7 — Reinforcement splices Splices in reinforcement should conform to the re- quirements of ACI 318. In circular tanks designed for ring tension, the location of splices should be stag- gered. Adjacent hoop reinforcing splices should be “SOT enlaryexponres ste conditions in which he sks defining ner- sma Stary expres reeceENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES staggered horizontally (center of lap to center of lap) by rot less than one lap length nor 3 ft and should not co- incide in vertical arrays more frequently than every third bar. It should be noted that due to the unusually thick slabs found in some liquid-retaining structures, the slab top bar mats may require “top bar'’ lap lengths. Top ‘bar requirements are set forth in ACI 318. 2.8 — Joints 2.8.1 Volume changes — Volume changes in con- crete generally are caused by expansion or contraction in response to changes in creep, shrinkage, tempera- ture, or moisture content. Temperature variations, being daily and seasonal, are somewhat more regular and predictable than moisture changes. Contraction due to evaporation of excess water be- gins during or after the curing period, depending on the quality of the moisture and temperature controls. Shrinkage may continue for several years, as is shown in Fig. 2.8.1, unless water is added to the hardened concrete for extended periods. However, in environ- mental engineering concrete structures designed to con- tain liquids, the shrinkage may be halted when the structures are placed in use and even reversed during hot, humid weather. To provide for volume changes in a manner that will mize damage to the concrete, movement joints and reinforcement should be provided for in the structure by the design engineer. All joints should be shown on the engineering drawings. Additional guidance on joints is contained in ACI SO4R. Shrinkage-compensating concrete can be used to re- duce shrinkage cracking in environmental engineering concrete structures, but this committee is not yet in a position to recommend detailed requirements for its use, Additional detailed information on shrinkage- compensating concrete is contained in ACI 223. It should be noted that additional care and control should be exercised during design and construction 2 Movement joints 2.8.2.1 Expansion joints — Expansion joints are movement joints used to allow for expansion and con- traction of concrete during the curing period and dur- ing service to permit dimensional changes in concrete due to load, 10 separate or isolate areas or members that could be affected by such dimensional changes, and to allow relative movements or displacements due to expansion, contraction, differential foundation movement, or applied loads. Expansion joints also can function a3 contraction joints or construction joints In general, expansion joints should be provided near abrupt changes in the structure configuration. As stated in the foreword of the Federal Construction Council Technical Report No. 65 (National Academy of Sci- ences), “Many factors affect che amount of tempera- ture-induced movement that takes place in a building, and also the extent {0 which this movement can take place before serious damage will occur or extensive ‘maintenance will be required. Because of th: complex- 3s0R-t1 coay Lone . Average ot 56 cylinder shrinkage 2097 é Pernt ° ‘Seay 28taye 9Deq" wey Oy Oy 2p A0yr Tie ater toading (leg sele) Fig, 2.8.1—Drying shrinkage-time ratio curves, based ‘on cylinders cured for 28 or 90 days, then stored ai $0 to 70 percent humidity (from Troxell et al."') ity of this problem, no one has yet established nation- ally acceptable procedures for precisely determining the size and location of expansion joints.”"" Historically, in environmental engineering concrete structures, the spacing of expansion joints has been conservative and rmuch influenced by the restraints in- herent in the geometry of tanks and buildings, with spacings varying from $0 t0 250 ft for walls and super- seructures. Base slabs with frequent construction joints have been built, without expansion joints, up to 600 ft in length. In general, expansion joint spacing preferably should not be spaced greater than 120 ft (36.6 m). When the spacing of expansion joints exceeds 150 ft (46 m), a special investigation should be made for the reinforce- ‘ment requirements and the expansion joint details. The restraint exerted on the base slab by the Soil should also be investigated. It is often desirable to locate expansion joints at abrupt changes in the structure configuration but when so placed, the joint details must be designed to transfer the shear caused by differential deflection of the elements on cach side ofthe joint or, if shear trans- fer is not provided for, to accommodate the distortion inthe joint details caused by the differential deftection such as in the waterstop. ‘The recommendations of the preceding paragraph are for normal environmental engineering concrete struc- tures partially filled with a liquid. When tanks or other structures will remain empty for long periods of time, particularly in hot climates, closer spacings should be tsed. In this respect, particular attention should be paid to conditions during construction. Many satisfactory expansion joint details have been devised and used, some of which are illustrated in 2.8.2.1. Other suggested details are found in Fig. 8, 11, and 12 of the ACI 508R. All expansion joints should include some type of compressible preformed filler and a joint sealant or compression seal at the liquid face, If the member must be watertight, a suitable waterstop, made of rubber, neoprene, or plastic, should be in- eluded to act as the primary barrier to leakage. Water- Stops. preformed joint filler, and joint sealant should be selected to allow for the movement aniipated. Reinforee- ment should terminate 2 in. (51 mm) from the face of the Join.3508-12 6 coset rrafored joint thr to LARS deere Fig, 2.8.2.1—Expansion joints (not to scale) 4 1 Weakened plane sont for slabs and paving Fig, 2.8.2.4—Contraction joints (not to scale) 2.8.2.2 Rubber waterstops permit the greatest joint ‘movement and last indefinitely when kept in a dark and humid environment. Polyvinyl chloride waterstops per- ‘mit somewhat less movement than rubber and are less sensitive to light and drying out. Polyvinyl chloride may be spliced by applying heat. The minimum thick- ress of either type should be % in, (9.5 mm), and they should be at least 9 in, (230 mm) wide for expansion joints and 6 in. (150 mm) wide for other types of joints to provide adequate embedment in the concrete,"* In any event, the engineer should verify that the water stop is chemically compatible with the liquid it must contain. The preformed joint filler has the twofold task of serving as a form for the second placement of concrete ‘and preserving the space into which the concrete may expand. An ideal joint filler will permit compression to one-half its original width and will reexpand to fill the joint when the adjacent members contract. Cork, neo- rene, rubber, foam, and other materials conforming to ASTM D 994, D 1056, D 1751, and D 1752 are sat- isfactory joint filles. 2.8.2.3 Sealants should be recommended by the ‘manufacturer for the intended service. Only a few non- sag sealants have been recommended for submerged service. For other services, nonsag and self-leveling sealants may be used. MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE Water treatment plants and reservoirs require sea ants approved for potable water. In addition to tast: odor, and toxicity concerns, the sealant should be sistant to chlorinated water. Consideration should t given to the effects of prolonged exposure to chlorir at normal drinking water concentrations, as well ¢ short-term exposure to chlorine at the high concentr: tions required for disinfection. Sealants intended fc use should be approved by agencies having jurisdictio over the specific project or resource, 2.4 Contraction joins — Some designers us contraction joints as a type of movement joint to diss pate shrinkage stresses. Where used, a contraction joir should be located at intervals not exceeding 30 ft (9. 'm) unless additional reinforcement is provided, as rec ommended in Fig. 2.5. Two types of contraction joint known as “full” and “partial” contraction joints are i common use. In full contraction joints, all reinforce ‘ment is terminated 2 in. (51 mm) clear of the joint. Th abutting ends of the concrete are coated with a bon breaker (sce Fig. 2.8.2.4). Waterstops, which may b metal, plastic, or rubber, should be used for water ness, Where necessary to insure equal deflection 0 each side of the joint, a method of transferring sires such as smooth dowels, should be provided. A sealan usually is provided along the exposed perimeter of th joint to exclude water or foreign matter. It may be desirable to pass tension forces through th joint to tie portions of the structure together. In thi: ‘case a partial contraction joint may be used. This join is similar to the full contraction joint; however, in or der to weaken the joint and assure crack formation, noi more than $0 percent of the reinforcement is passec through the joint. Inserts which reduce the cross sec- tion of the concrete and form a weakened plane have been used to form partial contraction joints in slabs and paving. If the insert is removable, the resultant void should be filled with sealant. It is desirable to use reduced spacing for partial contraction joints, This spacing should be approximately % that of the full contraction joint. If splices are used at partial contrac- tion joints, they should be positioned as shown in Fig. 28.2.4. Contraction joints may not be required when using shrinkage-compensating concrete. Typical contraction joint details are shown in Fig. 2.8.2.4. 2.8.2.8 Additional reinforcement at joints—Move- ‘ment joints, particularly expansion joints, should have the conerete ends reinforced to resist spalling and/or splitting of the conerete due to inadvertent contact with the concrete on the other side of the joint. The tein- forcement should not be smaller than #3 bars spaced 12 in, on center, should be along each face of the joint, and should be anchored back along the normal con: crete reinforcement. 2.8.3 Construction joints—Constru which should not be taken as movement joints unless designed in accordance with Section 2.8.2.4, should be located so as to least impair the strength of the struc- ture, to provide logical separations between segments ofENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES the structure, and to facilitate construction. Additional construction joints, or revised locations of joints, may ‘be proposed by the contractor but should be subject to approval of the designer. Before placing new concrete against it, the surface of the joint should be prepared to insure a good bond, unless designed as a contraction joint (Section 2.8.2.4), ‘All reinforcement should be continued across or through construction joints, unless designed as in Sec- tion 2.8.2.4. Where the joint must be watertight, a w terstop should be used. 2.8.4 Shear keys for movement joinis—In some in- stances, shear keys have proved troublesome in prac- tice. Failure of the key can result in leakage due to by- passing of the waterstop. When shear keys are used, special precautions should be taken to avoid this prob- lem. A number of techniques have been used, including shear transfer with dowels and steel waterstops, relo- cation of the waterstop, and redesign to avoid the ne- cessity of shear transfer. 2.9—Impact, vibration, torque, and seismic loads To maintain the watertightness of a structure, it is essential that cracking and crack widths be kept to a minimum. Accordingly, special care is needed in de- ning for impact and vibration, either of which can initiate or propagate cracks, In particular, the effect of vibration is cumulative and cracks will continue to de- velop and grow with time. It is, therefore, important that corrective action to reduce the vibration be taken a early as possible in structures where vibrations have caused cracking. 2.9.1 Impact—Impact loads are occasionally en- countered in environmental engineering concrete struc- tures, When they are present, a conservative design approach is recommended to keep cracking to a mi mum. Design for impact should be as thorough as pos- sible. However, where a complete shock analysis is not Practical, appropriate impact factors should be used and design should be based on the stresses recom- mended in Section 2.6. An appropriate impact allow- ance, frequently in the range of 25 percent of the weight, is used for heavy machines. 2.9.2 Vibration—Most of the mechanical equipment associated with environmental engineering structures, such as scrapers, clarifiers, cer types of floccula- tors, and rotating vacuum sereens, is basically slow- moving and will not cause structural vibrations. For such equipment, a separate design for dynamic loading is unnecessary. Other commonly used machines, such as centrifugal pumps, fans, centrifuges, blowers, gen- erator engines, and compressors, have much tational speeds and require special considerations in the design of their support structures and foundations Usually, the value of such machines is so much more than the cost of the foundation that i is imprudent to economize on foundation costs and run the risk of shortened machine life, increased maintenance costs, and breakdowns. 3508-1: In environmental engineering structures, the ma- chines that most often cause vibration problems are forced-draft fans and centrifuges used for dewatering clarifier sludge or digester sludge. These are very sensi- tive machines and need carefully designed foundations with no critical resonant vibration, Chemical mixers may also serve as the source of significant dynamic loads. The supports of such mixers are particularly prone to vibration. ‘The key to successful dynamic design is to insure that the natural frequency of the machinery support struc- ture is significantly different from the frequency of the disturbing force. If the two frequencies approach each other, resonant vibrations will be set up in the support structure, To minimize resonant vibrations, the ratio of the natural frequency of the structure to the frequency of the disturbing force should be kept out of the range from 0.5 to 1.5. As discussed later in this section, it i preferable to maintain a frequency ratio above 1.5. For spread foundations, the safe-bearing load fre ‘quently is assumed as one-half of the permissible safe load for statically loaded foundations at the same lo- cation and on the same soil or rock."*”” Some equip- ment manufacturers recommend minimum founda tion/equipment mass ratios, generally in the range 0! four to six. Adherence to this rule has not alway: proved satisfactory,"* and to insure that the equipment ‘ommended that the natural frequency of the founda tion system be calculated. For natural frequency calcu lations, follow the method recommended in Reference 16, For pile-supported foundations, foliow the recom: mendations found in References 19 through 21. Ofter the machine foundation is insulated or entirely sepa rated from the floors and other parts of the structure minimizing transmission of vibration to other areas 0! the building. If the anticipated vibration is of a fre ‘quency and amplitude that can be transmitted througt the ground, the equipment foundation also should bi insulated from the ground by shock-absorbing sup ports. More detailed information on the dynamic de sign of foundations can be found in Reference 22. If the machine is not supported directly on a solic foundation but on columns and beams, itis the natura frequency of the support members that is of primary importance. Needless to say, the strength of thes« ‘members also must be within acceptable limits, ‘The natural frequency of a structure should be cal ‘culated for the vertical direction and for the two prin cipal horizontal directions. To combine the effect 0 several masses, such as those due to the machine anc the structure, the natural frequency can be calculatec using the following formula 7 rea ft yt i VATA Re 1 R wherecombined natural frequency natural frequency due to Mass 1 natural frequency due to Mass 2 natural frequency due to Mass 3 ‘natural frequency due to Mass 4 Fy = 7 wn ‘The individual frequencies, in cycles per min, can be calculated using the expressions given in Table 2.9.2(a), in which D is the immediate deflection due to the mass being considered. Gravity should be assumed to act in the direction of vibration, and in lieu of a comprehen- sive analysis, D can be calculated using the method outfined in Section 9.5.2.3 of ACI 318, The preceding equations provide a simple method of computing the natural frequency of a structure from its static deflection. For the case of a concentrated load only, Table 2.9.2(b) relates the static deflection of a structufe supporting an item of equipment to the natu- ral frequency of that structure as calculated using the equations. A similar table can be developed for struc- tures in which the uniform loads or other loads are sig- nificant. As stated, the ratio of natural frequency of the structure to frequency of the machinery or other dis- turbing force should be either less than 0.5 or greater than 1.5, preferably the latter. Table 2.9.2(b) shows recommended maximum structural deflections for given equipment operating speeds. ‘Theoretically, the natural frequency of the structure also could be lower than the operating rotation of the Table 2.9.2(a) — Natural frequencies of beams Natural ewer _ ee els pe alan End snaivon Where D] Where D Peston of |denesion| deo end | bra 2 za] aire Fined free [Unto a3 | Palin | 103 or” unter |idspan 0 ined eed | @ Fixed | Fixed | Concenatea we | 90 Fixed [Free Jfany pasion [Under load | Ty) Pin _ [Pin _ Table 2.9.2(b) — Recommended maximum structural deflection for given equipment operating speeds Resommges Ireauency of ‘Operating speed Istructare, eyes ‘fmachinany min from formule | load and machinery load, » Calcium hydroxide Calcium oxide Potassium permanganate Sodium bicarbonate? Sodium carbonate Sodium fluoride Sodium hydroxide (except over 20 percent concen- tration, then in Group 3) Sodium silicate Sodium siliconfluoride ‘Trisodium phosphate Group 2 Concrete exposed to the chemicals listed in this group should be made with sulfate-resistant cement (see Sec- tion 3.1) or should be given a protective coating, as de- scribed in Section 5.4. Copper sulfate Ferric sulfate Group 3 Concrete should be protected against these chemicals with a protective coating, as described in Section 5.4. Activated carbon (when not agitated, then in Group » Activated silica (when not agitated, then in Group 1) Alum, liquid ‘Aluminum ammonium sulfate ‘Aluminum chloride sol Aluminum potassium sulfate ‘Aluminum sulfate ‘Ammonium sulfate Calcium hypochloride Chlorine Ferric chloride Fluosilicic acid Sodium bisulfite Sodium hydroxide (except less than 20 percent con- centration, then in Group 1) Sulfuric acid CHAPTER 6 — REFERENCES 6.1 — Recommended references ‘The documents of the various standards-producing fed to in this document are listed designation, including year of adoption or revision. The documents listed were the “Cau wth respect to ahaecive serene350-22 latest effort at the time this document was revised. Since some of these documents are revised frequently, generally in minor detail only, the user of this docu- ‘ment should check directly with the sponsoring group if itis desired to refer to the latest revision. American Association of State Highway ‘and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) T 260-84 ‘Sampling and Testing for Total Chloride Ion in Concrete and Concrete Raw Materials American Concrete Institute (ACI) 201.2R-77 Guide to Durable Concrete (Reapproved 1982) ACI 2111-81 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavy- (Revised 1985) weight, and Mass Concrete 212.2R-81 Guide for Use of Admixtures in (Revised 1986) Conerete 214.77 Recommended Practice for Eval- (Reapproved 1983) uation of Strength Test Results of Concrete 221R-B4 Guide for use of Normal Weight Aggregate in Concrete 223-83 Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage-Compensating Con- crete 224R-80 Control of Cracking in Concrete (Revised 1984) Structures 224, 1R-86 Causes, Evaluations, and Repair of Cracks in Conerete Structures 225R-85 Guide to the Selection and Use of Hydraulic Cements 301-84 Specifications for Structural (Revised 1988) Concrete for Buildings 302.1R-80 Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction 304R-85 Guide for Measuring, Mixing, ‘Transporting, and Placing Con- crete 305R-77 Hot Weather Concreting (Revised 1982) 306R-88 Cold Weather Concreting 308-81 Standard Practice for Curing (Revised 1986) Concrete 309R-87 Guide for Consolidation of Con- crete 309,2R-82 Identification and Control of Consolidation-Related Surface Defects in Formed Concrete 318-83, Building Code Requirements for (Revised 1986) Reinforced Conérete 318R-83, ‘Commentary on Building Code ‘(Supplement 1986) Requirements for Reinforced Concrete 344R-70 Design and Construction of Cir- cular Prestressed Concrete Struc- tures (Reapproved 1981) MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE 347-78 Recommended Practice for Con- (Reapproved 1984) crete Formwork 504R-77 Guide to Joint Sealants for Con- crete Structures S1S.AR-79 Guide to the Use of Waterproof- (Revised 1985) ing, Dampproofing, Protective, and Decorative Barrier Systems for Concrete SP-4 Formwork for Concrete, 4th Edition, 1981, Revised 2nd Printing American National Standards Institute (ANSI) A$8.1-1982 American National Standard Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures ASTM A61S-86 Standard Specification for De- formed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement ‘Standard Specification for Rail- Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement Standard Specification for Axle- Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement Standard Specification for Low- Alloy Steel Deformed Bars for Conerete Reinforcement Standard Specification for Zine- Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars Standard Practices for Making and Curing Concrete Test Speci- ‘mens in the Field Standard Specification for Con- crete Aggregates Standard Test Method for Com- pressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens Standard Test Method for Com- pressive Strength of Hydraulic ‘Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or 50-mnm Cube Specimens) Standard Test Method for Slump of Portland Cement Concrete Standard Specification for Port- land Cement Standard Specification for Sheet Materials for Curing Concrete Standard Method of Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Con: crete by the Volumetric Method A 616-86 617-86 A 706-86 A 167-85, ATIS-86 31-87 33-86 C 39-86 C 109-86 C 143-78 C 150-86 cin (Reapproved 1986) 172-82 173-78ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES: Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Con- crete by the Pressure Method Standard Specification for Air- Entraining Admixtures for Con- crete Standard Specification for Liq- uid: Membrane-Forming Com- pounds for Curing Conerete Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Con- crete Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements Standard Specification for Fly ‘Ash and Raw or Calcined Natu- ral Pozzolan for Use as a Min- eral Admixture in Portland Ce- ment Concrete Standard Test Method for Re- strained Expansions of Expa sive Cement Mortar Standard Specification for Ex- pansive Hydraulic Cement Standard Test Method for Re- strained Expansion of Shrink- age-Compensating Concrete Standard Specification for Pre- formed Expansion Joint Filler for Concrete (Bituminous Type) Standard Specification for Flexi ble Cellular Materials—Sponge or Expanded Rubber Standard Specification for Pre- formed Expansion Joint Fillers for Concrete Paving and Struc- tural Construction (Nonextrud- ing and Resilient Bituminous Types) Standard Specification for Pre- formed Sponge Rubber and Cork Expansion Joint Fillers for Con- crete Paving and Structural Con- struction © 231-82 C 260-86 309.81 © 494-86 C 595-86 c 618.85 C 806-75 © 845-80 878-80 994-71 (Reapproved 1982) D 1056-85 D 1751-83, 1752-84 ‘The previously mentioned publications may be ob- tained from the following organizations: ‘American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 444 N. Capitol Street NW, Suite 225 Washington, DC 20001 ‘American Concrete Institute P.0. Box 9094 Farmington Hills, Mich, 48333-9094 ‘American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 1430 Broadway New York, NY 10018 950R-23 AS™ 100 Barr Harbor Dr. ‘West Conshohocken, Pa. 19428-2959 6.2-Cited reterences ‘Treatment Plant Desiga,"” Manuel of Engincering racic Wo 19, American Seley of Cl Engines, New Vo 1968, 353 0, 2, "Wastewater Treatment Plant Design" Manual of Enineer {ing Proctice No. 36, American Society of Cvil Engineers, New York, 1977, 34 pp. 3, “Design and Construction of Sanitery and Storm Sewers," Monual of Engineering Practice No. 37, Arsetiean Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1969, 332 pp. “Underground Concrete Tanks." Information Sheet No. 1S071D, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1973, 4 pp. 5, “Cireular Concrete Tenks Without Prsiresing,” Information ‘Sheet No, ISO72D, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1942, 32 ve, 6. “Rectangular Concrete Tanks," Information Sheet No. 18003.03D, Portland Cement Asiocation, Skokie, 1969 (Revised 1981), 16 pp. 7. Moody, W. T., “Moments and Resctions for Reciangular ‘Engineering Monograph No, 27, U.S. Bureau of Reclama- tion, Denver, 1960 (Revised 1963), 74 pp. 8. Veter, C. P., “Stresses i Reinforced Conetele Due to Vol: lume Changes,” Transactions, ASCE, V. 98, 1933, pp. 1039-1053 9. Klein, Frank; Hoffman, Edward S.: and Rice, Paul F., “Ap: plication of Strength Dssien Methods to Sanitary Structures," Con ‘ree International: Design & Construction, V. 3, No. 4, Ape. 1981, p. 38-40 10. Gogate, Anand B., “Structural Design Considerations for Set- ting Tanks and Similac Stractures,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceadings V. 165, No. 12, De. 1968, pp. 1017-1020. 11, Gogete, Anand B., “Structural Design of Reinforced Concrete Sanitary Structures—Past, Present, and Future," Conerete Interna Uonat: Design & Consiracton, V.3, No.4, Ape. 1961, pp. 2428. 12, Gogate, Anand B., ““An Analysis of ACI Committee 350°s Recommended Design Sandards," Concreie International: Design & (Construction, V.6, No. 10, Ox. 1984, pp. 1-19. 13, Troxell, GE. Raphael, J. M.:and Davis, RE, “Long-Time ‘Creep and Shrinkage Tess ef Plain and Reinforced Concrete,” Pro- ceedings, ASTM, V. 58, I95E, pp. HOI-112. 14. “Expansion Joins In Bulldogs,” Technical Report No. 65, Federal Consiuction Council, National Academy of Sciences, Na ional Retearch Council, Washington, D.C, 1974, 43 pp. 1S. Allen, EA. 2 waters ia Ardcu Iated Concrete Constuetion," ACI Journal, Proceedings V. 82, No. 1, Sept. 1955, pp. 83.91, Also, Discussion, Part 2, Dec. 1986, pp. thao-tt32 16. Whitman, Robert V., an@ Rich dures for Dynamically Loaded Foundations,” Proceedings, ASCE, V.93, SM6, Nov. 1967, pp. 169-193, 17, Ish, K., and Walker, W. P.. Foundations for Reciproceting ‘Machines, Concrete Publications Lid., London, 1988, 103 pp. Karabins, A. Harty, apd Fowler, Timothy J Foundations for Equipment & Machinery, SP-TE, American Con- 19, Novak, Milos, “Vertical Vibration of Floating Piles." Pra- ceedings, ASCE, V. 103, EMI, Feb, 1977, pp. 153-168 20. Novak, Milos, and Howel, John F., "Torsional Vibration of Pile Foundations,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 103, GTS, Ape. 1977, pp. ms 2, Singh, Jogeshwar P.; Donovan, Neville C.; end Jabris, Ad snus C., "Design of Machine Foundations on Pils [ASCE, V. 102, GT, Aug. 1977, pp. 863877 22. Barkan, D. D.. Dynamics of Bases and Foundations. McGraw- Hill Book Co., New York, 1962, 496 vo 23, Biags, 1M, Inioduction to Structure! Dynamics, McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, 1964, 41 pp.350R-24 24, Church, A. H., Mechanica! Vibrations, Joba Wiley & Sons, [New York, 1963, 32 pp. 25. Skipp, B. O., Editor, Vibration in Civil Engineering, Butet- ‘worths, London, 1966, 298 pp. 26. Major, A. Vibration Anelyss and Design of Foundations for Machines and Turbines, Colts, London, 1962, #28 pp. 27. Hoasner, G. W., “The Dynamic Behavior of Water Tanks, Duiletin, Seismie Society of America, V. $3, No. 2, Feb. 1963, pp. 381-387. 728, Ballantyne, D. B.; Pinkham, C. Ws and Weinberger, L. W.. ‘-Setmic Induced Loadings on Sanitary Facilities," ASCE Specilty Conference on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering (Oakland, AU. 1981), American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. 198 28, Housner, George W., "Limit Design of Structures to Resist Earthquakes," Proceedings, Worid Conference on Earthquake En- ‘ineecing, University of California, Berkeley, 1956, pp. 5-1 ~ 5-13. 30. Medears, Kenneth, “Energy Absorption of Structures under Cycle Loading,” Procedings, ASCE, V. 90, STI, Feb. 1964, pp. 61- o. 31, Stark, David, “Longtime Study of Concrete Durability in Sul fate Soils," George Verbeck Symposium on Sulfate Resistance of Concrete, SP-77, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1982, pp. 21- ©. 132, Lamond, Jorph F, “Twenty-Five Years’ Experience Using Fly Ash in Concrete,” Fy Ath, Slee Fume, lag and Other Mineral By- ‘Products in Concrete, SP-79, American Concrete Insitute, Detroit, 1983, pp. 47-69. 6.3 Additional references 1. Bicaok, Imte, Concrete Corrosion and Concrete Provction, Sth tion, Chemical Publishing Co., New York, 1961, 543 pp. MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE 2. "Code of Practice for the Design of Concrete Structures for Retaining Aqueous Liquids,” (BS$0OT:1957), British Standards In- ston, London, 1987, 3. Critchel, Peter L., Joints ond Cracks in Concrete, Contactors Recoed Ltd, London, 1958, 22 p. “4 Davies, John Duncan, and Lo ‘Squue Tanks on Elastic Foundations, EMG, June 196, pp. 783-772 ‘5 Manning, G. P., Concrete Reservoirs and Tanks, Concrete Publications. Led, London, 1967, 384 pp. 6, Kleinloge!, Adolf, /luences on Concrete, translated from the Geman by F.5. Morgenroh, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co.. New York, 1950, 281 pp. "7. Concrete Manual, Denver, 1975, 27 pp. 3, “Concrete for Massive Structures," Information Sheet No, |s0W128T. Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1987, 24 pp. 9. Conerete for Wastewater Treatment Works,” Information ‘Sheet No. 1S182W, Portland Cement Assocation, Skokie, 1976, 15 PP John Edvard, “Behavior of " Proceedings, ASCE, V. 94, Bai n, US. Bureau of Reclamation, 10. “Concrete for Water Treatment Works," Publication No. PAQG@W, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1963, 24 pp. 1 “Effect of Various Substances on Concrete and Protective ‘Teaiment,” Information Sheet No. 1S001T, Portland Cement As- saxiaton, Skokie, 1986, 24 pp. 12. “Volume Changes of Concrete,” Information Sheet No. {S018T, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1969, 4 pp 1B. “Design of Cieular Domes." Information Sheet No. ISOT4D, Portund Cement Astcition, Skokie, 194, 8 pp. Ths report ns sbi 10 eter ballot of the commitee aad was ap proved in acotdnace wit ACI baling procedureTHE FOLLOWING ApomdnaL INFORMATION TO THE READER. “piscussion by Himat Solanki and Committee 350 By HIMAT SOLANKI Ey ete ont ei Sn De eer, Sra ‘ACI Committee 350 should be congratulated for its “ine work in preparing the proposed report. The report "should facilitate the design of environmental engineer- jing concrete structures. However, the discusser has some questions regarding Section 2.4 — Structural De- sign. This section does not address the design criteria that are required forthe design of the structures. In this tl ment may not be true in all cases, because neither 1 Committees 350 nor 318 address adequately eral design parameters?” such as the minimum De‘alure of liquid in the structure versus the outside mperature); pressure gradient with respect to time re increases/decreases in the structure in a timely } 2.6.7 (a), (0), and (¢) are primarily devel- ped from the Gergley-Lutz equation for one-way flex- fal members. These figures cannot be applied to envi ntal engineering concrete structures because the parameters. ‘The discusser had an opportunity to review and de- gn an environmental engineering concrete structure ge ‘reatment plant). The consideration of the pre- “Yiously mentioned parameters was given (o the design, "tid it was found that secondary-type crack widths and ings were developed so far. ae tapout m9 PERERENOES | Langhout, M. 5, "Dikwandige Betonconsrcts; sche _ gists c minum vapengspcenag:asdeever 3 Heoning, Wand Rossy, FS, “"2vang und Oberiche “Seectrung icc wind,” ion and Salbronau (Bee), NO-& “SPE IBES, pp. 106.13, and No.5 May 1985, pp 34196. sp Brien, CL. and Lanphous M.S", rtening van de _Shewnce bi awancigebtonconsiuces”P1/Cinale Techn ‘Fhe Nethersds, No, 188 ee JP“ Aimate tina owe coi de raion des Sirctre en ben,” These Ne. €66, EPFL BAP, asi, “ ‘cco 3-0, ea, "Arma iinale pout conte de [a funtion, Repports desl, EPFLIBAP, Lassnee, My 4 Set 191, an ly 1986, 34 Kong, Get, "Retain, Crtck-Width Control and Minimum “stioromenn " Environmental Engineering Conerete Structures. Report by ACI Committee 350 DISCUSSIONS, WHICH WERE PUBLISHED IN THE MARCH-APRIL 1990 ACI Sructura | ARE NOF PART OF THE REPORT ACI 260-89, BUT ARE PROVIDED AS (armstads, V. 1, 1986, pp. 9:22. 38. Helms, Manfred, “Experimental Approsch tothe Minimam Reinforcement in Thick Concrete Elements," Dermstad! Concrete (Darmsta), V.2, 1987, pp. 15-122 40, chia, P., “Bescriakung ds: Risbriten bel Zwangsbean- ‘pruchung,'” Betonwerk & Fertqal-Techak (Wiesbaden), NO. 6, 1996, pp. 268.24. 41. Dimiriev and Birla “Opening of Cracks ia Prestressed Con- crete Members," Beton { Zhelezobeion (Moscow), V. 16, May 1970, pp. 182. (in Rusian) 42, Holmberg, Ake, and Lindgren, Sten, “Cracks in Concrete Walls." Document D7:1972, National Swedish Building Research, ‘Stoctota, 1972 7 pp. 43. “Les Nsutations des teins," Annales, Inset Technique da ‘Bitiment et des Travaux Publics (Paris), serie Bétor No. 202, Ox. 1981, 9 pp. “44 Clarke, J. L., “Compartment des elements en bétanprécon- esol sout Vefect de gradients de tempartureseyelques,” sminlre fers cytique et transtotes dans let sructure, chevrevse, Oct. 1979. 45. Breugs, Van K., “Kap het scheurgedrag vs ‘consirucis warden vocrapld?," Cement (1-Hertogeabosh), V. 40, No.1, Jan. 198, pp. 47-5. COMMITTEE CLOSURE ‘The committee thanks Mr. Solanki for his helpful comments and corrections, which have been carefully reviewed and answered as follows. Mr. Solanki had essentially six comments that were related to his belief that Section 2.6~Structural Design does not address the design criteria that are required for the design of the structures. In the same vein, he ques- tions the committee's statement in Section 2.6.1 of the report which says, “ACI 318 contains general require- ‘ments for reinforced concrete building structures that are also for environmental engineering concrete struc- tures. The design engineer should establish the design criteria for a specific concrete structure within the lim- itations of the ACI or local building codes based on the special requirements of environmental engineering structures.” Mr. Solanki believes that “‘these state- ‘ments may not be true in all cases because neither ACI ‘Committees 350 nor 318 address adequately several de- sign parameters,” including . Minimum reinforcement ratio to control the cracks where the structure requires a leakproof condi- tion, . Loading conditions where an impact due to tor- nnado-tossed objects hit the structure. ¢. The effective ratio of reinforcement to withstand loading conditions where an impact due to tornado- tossed objects hit the structure. . Temperature gradient (i.e., of liquid in the struc- ture versus the outside). . Pressure gradient with respect to time (pressure increases or decreases in the structure in a timely man- ner). f. Tensile strength of concrete, etc., in crack widths and crack spacing computations of the structure. 3808-01‘350R-D2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE 8. Also, “Fig. 2.6.7 (a), (b), and (c) are prim: developed from the Gergely-Lutz equation for one-way flexural members. These figures cannot be applied to the environmental engineering concrete structures be- cause the figures do not take into account the previ- ously mentioned parameters. In answer to Mr. Solanki’s general objection, the ‘committee believes that the report was not intended to bbe a workbook of design aids or a handbook of design. ‘The tables and curves are intended to be illustrative of the committee's recommendations. The design engineer should consider devising appropriate design aids for the various grades of steel and values of conerete strength, ‘conerete cover, bar sizes and sanitary exposure, It is the committee's opinion that Section 10.6 in the Commentary to ACI 318, and the figures and text of Section 2.6 in ACI 350, do address and illustrate the design criteria referred to by Mr. Solanki (Points a and b previously mentioned). They do, however, require some effort by the designer to develop 2 complete de- sign criteria for each project. {In answer to Points b and ¢ of Mr. Solanki's com- ‘ments, the committee has not found it necessary to de- sign most environmental engineering concrete struc- tures, such as tanks, for tornado loads caused by flying objects. The buildings in treatment plants would ordi- narily be designed to resist wind loads and seismic loads set by local codes, ACI 318, or ANSI. We do not understand Mr. Solanki’s concern over temperature gradients. Temperature gradients in envi- ronmental engineering concrete structures are limited in their effects on the structure by details of design, in- cluding reinforcement, which limit deterioration of the structure, Examples of structures affected by tempera- ture gradients are sludge digestion tanks and blower buildings, with their galleries. The temperature gra- dients in sludge digestion tanks are not extreme, and their effects are limited by details of design, including reinforcement and insulation. The effects of high tem- perature in blower buildings and air main galleries are also dealt with by details of design, including expan- sion joints and expansion couplings. Mr. Solanki’s concern with regard to “pressure gra dients”" has not been a problem. The committee does not understand his concern. Changes in pressure usu- ally do occur associated with basically slow moving equipment and do not cause serious structural vibr tions or impact loads. In response to Mr. Solanki’s comment concerning the Gergley/Lutz equation governing one-way flexural ‘members but not two-way slabs, Section 13.4, ACI 318. 83, states, ‘Area of reinforcement in each dizection for ‘wo-way slab systems shall be determined from mo- ‘ments at critical sections but shall not be less than re- uired by Section 7.12” (shrinkage and temperature re- inforcement).Testing Reinforced Concrete Structures for Watertightness Reported by ACI Committee 350/AWWA Committee 400 ACI Comme 350 Roger H. (Chairman, Leakage Suboommitiee Woed" James P. Archibald” ‘Secretary Steven R. Close Gerald B. Hassetvander Nicholas A. Legato Patrick J. Creegan Willim J. Hendsickion W. Robert Lite “Ashok: K. Dhingra’ Jerry A. Holland Lary G. Mrazek Donald R. Dressler Willa J. twin ‘Andrew R. Philip Donald L. Dube Dow Kaminetaky David M. Rogowsly ‘Anthony L. Felder Reza Kianoueh Satish K_Sechdey Ray A. Franizon David G. Kitridge” ‘Willan C. Sehnobrich ‘Anand B. Gogate Frank Kieio Joba F. Seidensicker Charles S. Hanstat David A. Kleveter ‘Sudhakar P. Verma AWWA Comite 400 David Srybet Chairman, James P. Archibald ‘Terrence J. Hodaik Jon B. Ardahl ‘Anthony P.tzz0 “Ashok K- Dhingra Pal Thomas W. Douglas Eator Roger H. Wood Harry R, Herman, 3. + Members of ACI 380 Lealage Subcommittee who prepared this report. The recommendations incuded inthis prt are applicable 10 eatin: ‘place reinforced concrete water containment suctres including tanks, ‘servo, basins, conduits, ete. The recommendations are for suctures containing water or wastewater. The recommendation: are not necesaily ‘pplcable 10 the containment of other fds, asthe vscoer of ther aids are cifferert, However, the waterighness es may be use indicate ‘the tighnes, relative fo water, for sructres containing Other Paid. The ‘recommendations are nt intended for presresed concrete arucures for ‘Precast concrete sructures such as cubers or pipes, for concrete paved ‘Sructues such at channel and impoundments, for hazardous material °8 AO ‘Measurements are taken at 24-hr intervals; therefore, the test duration should be a minimum of 3 days. Example 2—The structure is a conical or pyramidal bottom, unlined, reinforced concrete tank with a 15-ft sidewater depth and a maximum depth of 21 ft. The allowable leakage rate is 0.1 percent of the water volume in 24 br. Equivalent depth: A = surface area; d = equivalent 350.185 depth fx Apis GAM Ae a- rr -15+22177 Duration of test 05 in. = 24S days 0001 injinjday x 17 fx 12 init Measurements are taken at 24-hr intervals; therefore, the test duration should be a minimum of 3 days. ‘At the end of the test period, the location of the water surface should be recorded at the location of the original ‘measurements, The water temperature and the water sur- face in the evaporation/precipitation measurement device should also be recorded. The leakage rate from the tank should be computed, corrected for evaporation or preci pitation as applicable, and, if necessary, temperature. If the rate exceeds the criteria indicated in Chapter 2 or the criteria specified, the structure should be considered to have failed the test. The structure should also be consi ered to have failed the test if water is observed flowing from the structure (other than from the underdrain sys- tem) or if moisture, other than from precipitation or con- densation, can be transferred to a dry hand from the exterior surfaces, ‘Any structure failing the test should be repaired and retested. The repair work may include dewatering the structure and inspecting the interior for defects that cause leakage. CHAPTER 4—REFERENCES 4.1—Cited references 1, "Summary Report on Concrete Water-Holding Structures,” AWWA Committee on Concrete Water Holding Structures, American Water Works Association Journal, Aug. 1978, Denver. 2. ACI Committee 350, "Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures (ACI3S0R-89)" American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1989, 20 pp. 3. "Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Concrete for Retaining Aqueous Liquids (BS. 5337:1976)," British Standards Institution, London, 1976, 4. "British Standard Code of Practice for Design of Concrete Structures for Retaining Aqueous Liquids (BS '8007:1976),’ British Standards Institution, London, 1987, CONVERSION FACTORS 1 in. =25.4 mm 1 ft=0305 m fp 21.8, + 32 TTR por war edt to eter ballot of the commites and aprined in eordace wis ACT balloting prosodures,Concurence for pbicaton bs bees ‘ecnod fom the American Water Works Aton,Concrete Structures ACI 350.2R-97 for Containment of Hazardous Materials Reported by ACI Committee 350 James P Archidake+ Joho Ard ‘Chain ‘Secretry A. Ray Frankton Steven R. Close suteommitee Chteaan Subcommee Sexetay Walter. Bennett Anand B. Gopate William J. win Wiolas A Legatos* Sith K. Sachdev acick 1. Cregan (Chares S. Hanekar Dov Kaminetity Lamy G. Mraz. Wiles C. Sebacbich Ashok K. Ding Wiliam J. Hendrickson Reza Kianoash ‘Avvrew R. Pili John F.Seidenstcker Donald L. Date Jerry A. Holland David G. Kinecge Davie M Rogowsky Sudhakar? Verma Anthony L. Felder David A. Klewoer Roger H. Wood Consulting and Associte members cotibating to he report Joha A. Abe John W. Baker* Robert. Doge Dennis Kohl ‘Wiliam H.Buckows* David Cocker rok Keir {Gane E. Noble * MantersofACT350 Hatrdous Ms Subcom who ep spat Ths report presents recommendations for structural design, mara, and constuction of structures comsnony ved for handout materials contain iment. Ths includes reinforced concrete tanks, sump, and ater srccures that requite dente, mpermacble concrete wth high resistance 1 chemical tack. Derign and spacing of joints are considered The roport describes roporioning of concrete, placement, curing, and protection against cher ‘eal Information om liners, secondary continent systems, and teak ection stan isso included. ACI Conumitice Repors, Guides, Standard Practices, and Commentaries are intended for guidance in planning, de- signing, executing, and inspecting construction. This docu- ment is intended for the use of individuals who are ‘competent to evaluate the significance and limitations Of its content and recommendations and who will accept responsibility for the application of the material it con- tains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all, responsibilty or de stated principles. The Institue shall not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom. Reference to this document shall not be made in contract ‘documents. If tems found in this document are desired by| the Architecv/Engineer to be a part of the contract docu ‘ments, hey shall be restated in mandatory language for in| corporation by the ArchitecUEngineer. Keywords: coating systems; constuction joins: cack contol environ: meatal structures; fiber reinforced past (FRP) sheets; exible mem: brane lines geewexle; hazardous meri containment; joins joint sealants Honk dotection systems, nes, ould tightness; monaiie acerca pipe nections precast concrete: prestessng: primary com Iwinment; secondary containment; saver wall; sump; tank; Wal cementous marrils ao; watesogs CONTENTS Chapter 1—General, p. 350.2F-2 1.1—-Seope 1.2—Definitions L3Types of materials Chapter 2—Concrete design and proportioning, Pp 350.2R-3 24—General 2.2—Design 2.3—Conerete cover 2.4 Exposure 2.5—-Conerete mixtare proportions 246 Fiber reinforced concrete Ac1802897 nme fli Nae 197 NU Gcktne rier ef prdcien and we ny fm ty sca, ing rag fps my pn pce estone ono fr sry kre eva tsem Ge: ar pec a Tae ES 350.2R-1350.2R-2 Chapter 3—Waterstops, sealants and joints, Pp. 350.2R-6 3.1-—Waterstops 3.2—Joint sealants 3.3 Joins Chapter 4—Construction considerations, 'p. 350.2R-8 4.1 —Sump construction techniques 4.2—Curing and protection 4.3—Inspection Chapter 5—Liners and coatings, p. 350.2R-11 5.l—Liners 5.2—Liner materials, 5.3Coatings 5.4—Design and installation considerations for liners ‘and coatings 5.5—Inspection and testing of liners and coatings Chapter 6—Secondary containment, p. 350.2R-13 6.1—General (6.2—Secondary containment system features 6.3—Secondary containment materials Chapter 7—Leak detection systems, 350.2R-14 TA—~General 7.2—Drainage media materials 7.3—Design and installation of drainage media Chapter 8—References, p. 350.2R-15 8.1—-Recommended references, 8.2—Cited references CHAPTER 1—GENERAL 1.1—Scope ‘This repor is primarily intended for use in the design and Construction of hazardous matcrial containment structures, Hazardous material containment structures require second. ary Containment and, sometimes, leak detection systems (see Section 1.2 for definitions). Because ofthe economic and en- Vitonmental impact of even small amounis of leakage of haz: ardous materials, both primary and secondary containment systems must be virally eak free, Therefore, when primary or secondary containment structures involve concrete, spe-

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