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DOI 10.1007/s10803-011-1309-7
ORIGINAL PAPER
Abstract This study examines Greek teachers perceptions related to the nature and management of autistic
children. To investigate these issues, a statistically reliable
number of questionnaires (n = 228) was distributed to a
diversified teacher population. The questionnaire responses
were analyzed statistically to identify the explanatory
power of critical independent variables. The research
findings support that teachers specialized training and
working experience are critical inputs to improve teachers
perceptions and efficient serving of autistic children. A
cumulative joint effect of teachers previous specialized
education and working experience working with autistic
children was also indicated. This could be supportive of
teachers upgrading their active leading role in team
working with specialized scientific staff, parents and
institutions on autistic children.
C. K. Syriopoulou-Delli (&)
Department of Educational and Social Policy, University
of Macedonia, 49, Bouziki Str., Nea Philothei, 11524 Athens,
Greece
e-mail: dellis@mfa.gr
D. C. Cassimos
Pediatric Department, Democritus University of Thrace,
Alexandroupolis, Greece
G. I. Tripsianis
Department of Statistics, School of Medicine, Democritus
University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
S. A. Polychronopoulou
Department of Primary Education, National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Introduction
Over the last decade, the number of children diagnosed to
suffer from autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is seen to
have increased dramatically (Arick et al. 2005; Finke et al.
2009; Harris et al. 2005; Powell and Jordan 1992). As a
consequence, more children with ASD participate in general education (ASD Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention 2007). A prevailing tendency in the education
community lately indicates that children with disabilities,
particularly pervasive developmental disorders, join general (mainstream) education classrooms (McDonnell
1998). Teachers specialized training is argued to be a
critical component with profound implications for the
education of ASD children (Mesibov et al. 2006).
In Greece, the idea of one school for all was introduced during the last decade (Greek Government Gazette
2000). Before the application of this legislation, ASD
children had access only to special schools for the mentally
retarded. As a result, in some of these latter cases, parents
would prefer to keep their children at home, or asylums, or
youth institutions. Hence, these children were deprived of
mainstream education (Anastasiou and Polychronopoulou
2009). The Greek government has, recently, recognized the
right of ASD children to participate in the educational
process (Greek Government Gazette 2008). Since 2008,
Greek students with ASD can explore two options. They
can either attend a mainstream school class, receiving
additional support from the classroom, or special education, teacher; or, they can attend a special integration class
123
756
123
757
Table 1 Teachers demographic and working characteristics
n
Gender
Female
166
72.8
62
27.2
B30
53
23.2
3140
83
36.4
4150
81
35.5
Male
Age (years)
Method
Participants
Greek Teachers Sample Identity
[50
3.5
No response
1.3
174
32
76.3
14.0
Rural areas
3.1
No response
15
6.6
B5
73
32.0
610
49
21.5
1115
38
16.7
[15
58
25.4
No response
10
4.4
Place of work
Urban areas
Semi-urban areas
Years of service
36
15.8
144
63.2
Inclusive class
3.5
Technical school
3.5
Mainstream school
2.2
3
24
1.3
10.5
Yes
83
36.4
No
145
63.5
Multicultural school
No response
Previous significant studies on autism
176
77.2
13
27
11.8
4 or 5
13
5.7
More than 5
1.8
No response
3.5
Yes
64
28.1
No
164
71.9
123
758
Measures
Statistical Analysis and Multivariate Logistic Regression
The teachers opinions were evaluated using a structured
questionnaire. An initial pilot study was conducted with 20
teachers from the area of Athens, in order to test teachers
comprehension and objectivity in answering this questionnaire. The responses, feedback and final structure of the
questionnaire were evaluated by the research team and
were also based upon and compared with relevant input
from most recent international literature on the subject
(Conroy et al. 2007; Grey et al. 2005; Probst and Leppert
2008; Roth et al. 2010). The questionnaire comprised of
four sets of questions regarding the nature and characteristics of autism, assessment of children with autism, management of ASD children, and the teachers role in the
education of autistic children. Each question included in
the questionnaire was considered a dependent variable that
described teachers perceptions and attitudes. The responses in line with prevailing educational norms and not in
line with prevailing educational norms were discriminated
by the researchers (C.S., S.P.) based on the literature
(Conroy et al. 2007; Grey et al. 2005; Probst and Leppert
2008; Roth et al. 2010). Responses such as I do not know
and I do not answer were defined as responses not in line
with prevailing educational norms for the purpose of statistical analysis. Teachers training and education on autism, and experience in managing autistic children were the
selected independent variables. The dependent variables
were investigated and assessed under the influence of these
independent variables.
Results
Statistical Analysis of Questionnaires on Teachers
Perceptions and Knowledge of ASD
The findings regarding teachers perceptions of ASD
children are summarized in Table 2.
123
759
Disagree
Do not
know
No
response
126
55.3
57
25.0
38
16.7
3.1
Most individuals with autism acquire good language skills at a later stage
Autism exists alongside mental retardation
57
89
25.0
39.0
103
87
45.2
38.2
65
42
28.5
18.4
3
10
1.3
4.4
24
10.5
108
47.4
85
37.3
11
4.8
26
11.4
159
69.7
38
16.7
2.2
46
20.2
85
37.3
93
40.8
1.8
100
43.9
74
32.5
49
21.5
2.2
73
32.0
79
34.6
72
31.6
1.8
34
14.9
104
45.6
86
37.7
1.8
146
64.0
2.2
31
13.6
46
20.2
116
50.9
73
32.0
30
13.2
3.9
82
36.0
42
18.4
99
43.4
2.2
51
22.4
59
25.9
115
50.4
1.3
167
73.2
47
20.6
11
4.8
1.3
Autistic children are suppressed and their condition worsens in a strictly structured
environment
66
28.9
95
41.7
50
21.9
17
7.5
44
19.7
77
33.8
98
43.0
3.5
126
55.3
55
24.1
40
17.5
3.0
28
12.3
91
39.9
100
43.9
3.9
34
14.9
70
30.7
115
50.4
3.9
117
51.3
45
19.7
53
23.2
13
5.7
Autistic children are better off if their education is focused on social skills rather than on
academic subjects
Auditory teaching methods are superior to visual methods
Behaviorism is an obsolete method
It is preferable for autistic children to attend special vocational schools rather than
mainstream secondary schools
The role of the teacher in the education of children with autism
Teachers should cooperate with specialists
216
94.7
1.8
2.2
1.3
130
57.0
57
25.0
38
16.7
1.3
Teachers rather than medical doctors should play the leading role in the educationaltherapeutic treatment of autistic students
114
50.0
56
24.6
53
23.2
2.2
With appropriate training, teachers can deal effectively with an autistic child
180
78.9
25
11.0
19
8.3
1.8
Even with the appropriate training, teachers cannot raise the question about autism
121
53.1
65
28.5
35
15.4
3.1
123
760
123
761
Table 3 Teachers perceptions and knowledge of ASD in relation to their previous relevant education
Education on autism
No
n
Yes
%
71
49.0
55
66.3
0.011
Most individuals with autism do not acquire good language skills later in life
Autism exists alongside mental retardation
49
43
33.8
29.7
54
46
65.1 \0.001
55.4 \0.001
61
42.1
47
56.6
0.034
92
63.4
67
80.7
0.006
30
20.7
16
19.3
0.798
39
26.9
35
42.2
0.018
39
26.9
40
48.2
0.001
Disorders cannot be overcome to a large extent even with the appropriate education
49
33.8
55
66.3 \0.001
79
54.5
67
80.7 \0.001
76
52.4
40
48.2
0.540
42
29.0
40
48.2
0.004
19
13.1
40
48.2 \0.001
28
19.3
19
22.9
Autistic children are not suppressed and their condition improves in a strictly structured environment
The treatment of most autistic children should not include drugs
43
38
29.7
26.2
52
39
62.7 \0.001
47.0
0.001
0.520
Autistic children are better off if their education is focused on social skills rather than on academic subjects
68
46.9
58
69.9
34
23.4
57
68.7 \0.001
0.001
24
16.6
46
55.4 \0.001
It is preferable for autistic children to attend special vocational schools rather than mainstream secondary
schools
26
19.9
19
22.9
0.365
137
94.5
79
95.2
0.820
73
50.3
57
68.7
0.007
Teachers rather than medical doctors should play the leading role in the educational-therapeutic treatment of
autistic students
60
41.4
54
65.1
0.001
With the appropriate training, teachers can effectively deal with an autistic child
Even with the appropriate training, teachers cannot raise the question about autism
ASD children did not affect significantly teachers perception of diagnosing autism in infancy or the ability of the
teacher to recognize autistic characteristics in a child. The
teachers gender did not modify, in general, their perceptions and attitudes in autism. However, the belief that
autistic children can gain exceptional skills in a particular
field was significantly more common among female than
male teachers (70.5 and 46.8%, respectively; p = 0.001).
Management of Children with Autism The opinions and
attitudes on certain topics of serving and managing ASD
children were found to differ considerably between
teachers with previous specific education or previous
108
74.5
72
86.7
0.029
31
21.4
34
41.0
0.002
working experience and teachers without previous education or experience on autism, respectively. More specifically, the majority of sample teachers with education and/
or experience attributed low credit to psychoanalytic programs, as it was accepted that the most beneficial programs
for ASD children are not psychoanalytic ones (teachers
with education on autism: 48.2% compared to 13.1%;
p \ 0.001; previous working experience: 40.6% compared
to 20.1%; p = 0.001). The majority of educated and
experienced teachers were seen to believe that the treatment of most ASD children should not be based on drugs
but emphasize on special education (educated teachers:
47.0% compared to 26.2%; p = 0.001; experienced
123
762
Table 4 Teachers perceptions and knowledge of autism in relation to their previous relevant experience
Experience with
autism
No
n
Yes
%
80
48.8
46
71.9
Most individuals with autism do not acquire good language skills later in life
62
37.8
41
64.1 \0.001
0.002
52
31.7
37
57.8 \0.001
74
45.1
34
53.1
0.277
0.001
104
63.4
55
85.9
35
21.3
11
17.2
0.482
45
27.4
29
45.3
0.010
51
31.1
28
43.8
0.071
65.6 \0.001
62
37.8
42
92
56.1
54
84.4 \0.001
83
50.6
33
51.6
45
27.4
37
57.8 \0.001
The most beneficial programs for autistic children are not psychoanalytic
33
20.1
26
40.6
0.001
29
17.7
18
28.1
0.080
Autistic children are not suppressed and their condition improves in a strictly structured environment
54
32.9
41
64.1 \0.001
0.897
44
26.8
33
51.6 \0.001
Autistic children are better off if their education is focused on social skills rather than on academic subjects
79
48.2
47
73.4
42
25.6
49
76.6 \0.001
0.001
35
21.3
35
54.7 \0.001
It is preferable for autistic children to attend special vocational schools rather than mainstream secondary
schools
30
18.3
15
23.4
0.380
153
85
93.3
51.8
63
45
98.4
70.3
0.118
0.011
69
42.1
45
70.3 \0.001
123
124
75.6
56
87.5
0.048
41
25.0
24
37.5
0.060
763
Table 5 Cumulative effect of past specialized education and working experience on teachers perceptions of autism
a (%)
b (%)
c (%)
1. Most individuals with autism do not acquire good language skills later in life
31.7
54.4
71.7
\0.001
28.6
40.4
66.7
\0.001
26.2
31.6
51.1
0.004
27.0
38.6
51.1
0.003
5. The disorders associated with autism cannot be overcome to a large extent even with the provision of
appropriate education
31.7
54.4
73.3
0.004
14.3
28.1
55.6
\0.004
7. Autistic children do not feel suppressed in a strictly structured environment, and their condition improves
8. The treatment of most autistic children should not be based on drug therapy, but rather on special education
27.8
24.6
47.4
35.1
73.3
57.8
\0.001
\0.001
9. Autistic children are better off receiving education on social skills rather than an academic education
45.2
57.9
80.0
\0.001
19.8
45.6
88.9
\0.001
The table records only the items with statistically significant difference
a: Without education or experience; b: with either education or experience; c: with both
Discussion
Past studies have postulated that teachers perceptions and
knowledge play a crucial role on the service and management of autistic children. However, despite its importance,
research remains surprisingly thin in this field. A core
objective of this study has been to partially mitigate this
gap, focusing in particular on the Greek educational system. More specifically, revealing Greek teachers perceptions and knowledge of the nature and management of
ASD children has been, thus, a principal purpose of this
paper. The findings are indicative of the prevailing contradictions, ambiguity and confusion about autism among
teachers, especially as regards the nature of autistic disorder, the most efficient approaches to manage ASD students
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764
Table 6 Association of teachers education and experience in autism with their perception and knowledge of autism, expressed as adjusted odds
ratios (aOR) with their 95% confidence intervals (CI)
Education
aOR (95%
CI)
Experience
p Value
aOR (95%
CI)
p Value
2.2 (1.14.5)
0.029
Most individuals with autism do not acquire good language skills later in life
2.7 (1.45.2)
0.002
2.1 (1.04.1)
0.043
2.1 (1.14.0)
0.019
2.3 (1.24.5)
0.017
2.7 (1.16.3)
0.023
2.4 (1.24.5)
0.009
Disorders cannot be overcome to a large extent even with the appropriate education
2.9 (1.65.5)
\0.001
2.2 (1.14.4)
0.025
2.4 (1.25.0)
0.016
3.1 (1.47.3)
0.008
3.3 (1.66.4)
\0.001
The most beneficial programs for autistic children are not psychoanalytic
Autistic children should not be educated in a special school
Autistic children are not suppressed and their condition improves in a strictly structured
environment
The treatment of most autistic children should not include drugs
2.9 (1.65.5)
\0.001
Autistic children are better off if their education is focused on social skills rather than on
academic subjects
1.9 (1.03.6)
0.044
4.3 (2.28.4)
4.7 (2.39.4)
\0.001
\0.001
It is preferable for autistic children to attend special vocational schools rather than
mainstream secondary schools
2.3 (1.24.6)
0.014
2.2 (1.14.2)
0.024
2.2 (1.14.5)
0.025
Teachers rather than medical doctors should play the leading role in the educationaltherapeutic treatment of autistic students
With the appropriate training, teachers can effectively deal with an autistic child
Even with the appropriate training, teachers cannot raise the question about autism
2.3 (1.24.5)
2.6 (1.35.2)
0.007
0.015
Results of multivariate logistic regression analysis, adjusting for teachers gender, age, place of work and years of service
123
the opinion that ASD can be diagnosed in infancy. Furthermore, past specialized education can contribute to the
acquisition of skills in particular fields of autism. A significant divergence between the two sample teacher subgroups (with or without past education and/or experience
on autism) was seen in the case of management of autistic
children. This view was related to the substantial
improvement of ASD students whenever they were taught
in a strictly structured environment, where they could
upgrade their social skills. Based on the research evidence,
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Appendix
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767
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