Topology Second Edition James R. Munkres Massachusets Institute of Technology Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NI 07458Lutrary of Cons Cataloging i-Peaion Date Siping Toe ayn Mankas and 0 ‘sis $82 ‘Boo i Besse ome Aetna Geo Ll) ‘cis hte si Kren eral mr Noms er nd Bee Fee Boe eS Manag Bre Alan Ficher Saucer ay ros Sethe amr He ns Pract Meany fin Tele lt Ass Ge op eStart Cone ons Desenr Be es (Stowe bare ree ‘etter oy me, ‘idtcyemsnon ming ome patie, wero SBN O-33-383420-2 Preece sacs reneanonae (UR) Lime, Loo Proce Haus ov Asean Pr. LED STENEY owns, Hsvaoawnieana SA MEXICO ‘Soecrcetars or an Paes ise. NEW DEL Preece Hace orden oxy Fearon tet Pi For BarbaraContents Preface [A Note tothe Reader Part GENERAL TOPOLOGY ‘Chapter 1 Set Theory and Logic 1 Funan Cones Functions Relations The Urges atthe Real Numbers CCanesian Products CCouotable and Uncountable Sets *8 The Principe of Recusive Deftition 9 Insite Sets and the Axiom of Choice 10. Well-Ordered Sets * Supplementary Exercises: Well Ordering 15, 36 3 37 nemerss vii Coments Chapter? ‘Toppa Spaces and Continuous Functions 3 CChapter7 Complete Metre Spaces and Function Spaces 283 12 "Topological Spaces 3 MO Complete Meu, Spaces a 13 Dasisora Topology 38 M4 ASpoce Filling Curve mm 16. The Order Topology su 48 Compacness im Metnie Spaces es 15. The Product Topoigy on 7 6 4 Poise and Compact Conergene 21 16 The Subspace Topology 88 47 Ascols Theorem oo 17 Clowed Ses and amt ois 2 18 Coniminve Functions 102 (Chapter Baie Spaces and Dimension Theory 24 19 The Poduet Topol 12 at Baie Spee aos The bent Topology 19 149. A Nowe Dieta Function S00 21. The Metric Topology (continued) 13 (30. node @ Dine Tey son 22, The Quote Toptogy 36 Supplementary Exercises Locdly Euclidean Spaces 316 *Sipplemesiary Exercises Topol Groups us Ccmaptee 1 Connectedness and Compactnss ws Part ALGEBRAIC TOPOLOGY Connected Spaces Hs . 2+ Contested Subspaces ofthe Real Line 13. one ane aa 25. Components and Local Connetedness 8 Slate m7 26. Compu Sroses ie 33. covatg Space Ee 21 Compact ubsraces ofthe Real Line m Se The Funda Coup ofthe Cle ut 28. Limit Poin Compactness i. 58. Reactions and Fixed Pots 8 2 Local Compermnest a 1°56 The Fundunenal There of Algcba 353 "Supplementary Execs: News "37 The Borsuk-Ulam Theorem 356 i i ‘SK Drfnmation Reacts nt Homoroy Tyre 359 Chapter 4 Countbility and Separation Axioms 59 The Fundaentl Group of * 348 30 The Countatty uoms @ Fanlutitl Gps of Some Surfaces m0 3L_ The Separation Axioms 52 Nonmal Spaces ‘Chapter 10 Separation Theorem in the Phe m6 33. The Ursnin emma {The Joedan Separation Theorem 316 34 The Ursota Metrization Theorem +62 marance of Domain Sar “33. The Tee Extension Theorem (63. The Jordan Curve Tooter a5 +36 Imbeddings of Manifolds (64 Imbedding Graphs in the Plane oot "Supplementary Exerises: Kevew of di Bask 6S. Th Winding Number of Simple Clnead Cre oot 6 The Cancy Integral Formula 403 ter$ ‘The Tychonoff Theorem 20 The Tychonoff Theorem 230 ‘Chapter IL The Seifertvan Kampen Theorem 407 38 The Stone Cech Compacifcation ar (OF Direct Sums of Abelian Groups 307 (6 Free Products of Groups an ‘Chapter 6 Metrization Theorems and Paracompactness @ Free Groups a 39) Local Hinteness 10 The Sefer-wan Kampen Theorem 26 449. The Nagat-Smimov Metization Theorem 71 The Fundamental Group ofa Wedge of Circles, 34 441 Paracompactness 72 Adjoining 2 Too cat ae 422. The Smimnoy Metsigation Theorem 73. The Fundamental Groups ofthe Tors andthe Dunee Cap 42x Contents Chap 2 Clasicatin of Suter "Fundamental Groups of Surtaces 18. Homotopy ot Stes 76 Cutting and Pasting 17 TheChasitetion Theor 78 Constreting Compact Surfaces Chapter 13. Clasifcaton of Covering Spaces 3D. Bguivalenoe of Covering Spaces 80 The Universal Covering Space 81. Coveing Transformations 82. Existence of Covering Spaces. “Supplementary Exercises: Topological Properties and Chapter 4 Applications to Group Theory. 3 Covering Spaces of Graph 4 The Furamental Group ofa Graph 85. Subgroups ofFree Groups Bibliography Auten 446 ast ar 402 am a 78 437 a4 a S13 Preface “Ts bok inte ton for a ee (verse inoduation topology, at the senior or ist year graduate lev “The sect of topology 8 of interest in ts own ight, nd it aso serves to lay the foundation for future stay in analysis, in geometry and in algebraic topology. There ino universal agreement among matbematicians as to what a fst course in topology ‘hou inch: there aw many opis that ae appropriate such a couse and not all ‘ae equally relevant to these iting purposes T th choice of material to be treated, have tic to sks balane among the various pointe of view Prerequisite, There are ao formal subject mater prerequisites for studying most of this book. Ido aot even asume te reader knows much Set theory. Having Sad tha, [must hasten toad hat unless the reader has studied abit of analysis or “tigorous calculus," mich ofthe motivation forthe concep introduced inthe Fst part ofthe bok willbe missing ‘Things wil go mane cmasthly if hee ce lady hac some experience with continuous functions, open and closed sets, metric spaces, and the Te alknge mone ofthese in axtualy atsured fn Par I we do assume arity ‘withthe elements of group theory ‘Mast students ina topology course have, in my experience, some knowledge uf the foundations of matematics, Bur the amount varies a geat deal fom one stident tw anoher Therefore, begin with fi thorough chapter on et theory ad ogc. It ‘tots ar an elementary evel and works up oa level hat might be described as “Semi- sophisticated” I treats those topics (and only thos) that wil be needed ater inthe ‘books Most tae wil already be Emilion withthe mari ofthe ret ew eens, ‘nu many of them wil find thei expertise disappearing Somewhere about the idlesii Preface he cape How much tine and eto the istracor wil pe to ped ont ‘Ships i tas pend tayey onthe mater opiicvon a eerie of these, Ait tdo he exerci renl (an ory) soul serve a Srewomatecepon for cermin ter uns ener 0 hey Sates forthe soe o eg he stay of so. Many sen and instore), wou petro skp te Younes! mei cf Chote an jn etn fe sy of toon, One goes he foundations, Sowever ony athe Wk of ae cenfsion and et. Wha one can 6 i 0 wea anny oe sets ta ar ede ot nse. potoning the eine nt dey we nected The st even sions hough combi ae nce throughout Sh book wu aia sue of he an reting and acon at Sess 9 thu 10 one om of cove and well rein, eno rede unt the diction ‘Seampcaee an Chop’ Seton sone mash primi sa posioned ‘en lner ih pended nly forthe Tycoon theorem Chater and he tere ne fumetl group near ph (Chup 9). Tow he bok morgane Thi tok anh es for umberf ferent courses The ated oan aly possi os cable he xr 0 follow so oun peerences i ie ate. a coisig of he rit chapa i dt te sit omy called pose tpg Te hs fur capes Gest i he bay walt ‘tiny anne, ould be nce nay noon topology cous wot of he tom Ths tecnico of js ang ey ‘Site opaogca spurs oes compaces (ough comps sepia. an te coon, andsparaon anions (hough te Uso ee Eten. The emaing fur chops of Pt Talo tition Ops: they ae eal edependet of one sate, depending on on the oe mater Setar the uo ay ae en oy any ods Dot he hoor Par fcoatie annoduton othe bjt algebra Topology Iden cl the coe teal of Chaps 1-4 TS pa the ook we wih oe ‘Toamane th mons of foment group a eoveing Space. long with thei tary andsaned plains. Soe the chprs of Pat are independent Fone ‘Be Pi spetinc among ten exes in the flowing dara: reper? The ne ron * ‘Chapter 19 Separation Theureins in tie Plame cooper It The Seven Kangen Tee (bape t2Casinin Sues \ / evap 3 Casi Covina Sees eae Cctapie 14 Application to Group Theory Preface a CCerain sections ofthe book are marked wih an asterisk; these sections may be mite or pop with no las af comtinty. Certain thrones ane eked sit ‘lary. Any dependence of later material on these aseisked sections or theorems is indicated atthe dime, and again whoa the css are nocded. Some ofthe eeriaes also depend on enlier asterisk material, but in such cases the dependence is abvious ‘Sets of supplementary exercises appear at the ends several ofthe chapters, They provide an opportunity for exploration of topics that verge somewhat fam the main thnst ofthe book; an ambicous student might use one asa ass for an indepeodent paper or research project. Most ae fuel self-contained, but the one on topological ‘roups has asa sequela number of additonal exercises onthe opcthat app in tr ‘tation ofthe book omit course walls, Mant guanine tn tnt fo a cove i yea topology will wish to cover Chapters 1-4, along withthe Tychonoff theorem it Chap ter 3. Many will cover agaional topics 36 well. Fosspuites include the folowing the Stone-Cech compoctifiation (638), metrizaton theorems (Chapter 6), dhe Peano curve ($44), AScoli's theorem ($45 andor $47), and dimension theory ($50). Ihave, in diferent semester. followed each ofthese options. Fora one-semeser course in algebraic topology, one can expect to cover most of Patt Its als posible 1 eat both aspects of topology in a single semester, although ‘wi some coresponcing 188 of dep. One reasbie oti Tor sucha course Would consist of Chapters 1-3, followed by Chapter 9; the later does ot depend on the material of Chapter 4. (The nowasterisked setons of Chapters 10 and 13 also are independent of Chapter 4.) Comments am this edition, The reader whic fiir with the ret etn of book will find no substantial changes in the part of the book dealing with general fepology. 1 have confined ase Ingely to "ie-cning” the text mata a die exercises. However, th final chaper of the fis edition, which dealt with algebraic ‘opoiogy, hasbeen subsanally expanded and rewrite, Ichas become Pan Il of is book. Inthe years since the ist edition appeared ithas become increasingly common to offer topology 25a two-term couse, the fist devoted to general topology andthe second to algetraic topology. By expanding the tretnent ofthe later subect. have intended to make this revision serve the needs of such course, Acknowledgments, Mos of the toplogists with whom {hve studied, or whose books I hve read, have contnbuted in one way Or another fo thie book) T metion| ‘only Edwin Moise, Raymond Wiléer, Gail Young ané Raoul Bot, bu thee are many lors. Foret helpful commen Concerning ths hook, my thanks ro Ken BOW, Russ MeMillan, Robert Moshe, and John Hempery, and to my colleagues George ‘Whitehead and Kenneth Hortnan “The reatment of algebraic topology has been substantially influenced bythe excel- lent book by Wiliam Massey [M],o whom lexpress appreciation. Ficlly, tanks arexiv Prefice de Adam Lewenberg of MactoTEX for is extraordinary skill nd patience in setting text and juggling gues, ‘But most ofall, o my students go my most healt thanks. From ther I learned at Teast as muchas they di from me; withou them tis book would be very ferent 1RM A Note to the Reader ‘Two matters require comment—the exercises and the examples ‘Working problems isa crcial par of leaning mathematics, No one can learn topology merely by poring over the dfiritions theorems, and examples that are worked futinthe ext One ret wok port oft froneca Ta provide hat appeiy ie ‘the purpose ofthe exercises. ‘They vary bu dint, withthe easier ones usualy given Rist. Sor verifications designed wo test whether you have understood te definitions o examples ‘ot te preceding section. Others ae less routine. You may, fr instance, We asked 49 ‘generalize a theorem ofthe ext, Alinough te result obtained may be intresting nits ‘ow ight, the main purpose of such an exercise so encourage you to work carefully ‘hugh the proof in question. mastering its ideas thoroughly—more thorously ( hope!) dan mere memoiztion would demand ‘Somme exercise are phrased in ar “open ended” feshion. Sets olen i hi practice fusatng, When faced with an exercie tat aks, "Is every regular Lindelt ace nota ey sap in exasperation don know what I'm supposed to do! ‘Am [suppose to prove itor finda counterexample or what” But mathematics (outside textbooks is usually ike Wis, More otter tha no, all a mathematician has 0 Work with isa conecture or question, and he or she does Know what the corect answer ‘is, You shuld ave some experience with his situation. 2 few merce tha ar moe iil than he ret am marked with asterisks. But one are so dificult ut ha the Best student in my las can sully solve them.avi ANNote oie Reader Another important pat of mastering any mathematical subjects acquiring a reper ‘oie of useful examples. One should, of couse, come to know those major examples from whose sty the theory tel derives. and fo which the important appliextions ate made. But one should also have afew counterexamples at hand with which to test, ausible const ‘Now i all oo easy in studying topology to spend too much time dealing with ‘weit coumeretamples”‘Constunting dem Leyte ingly aul is often great fun. But they are nt really what topology is about, Forunately, one doesnot nee too many such counterexamples fora Rest course; there i a fail shot lst at will sul for most purposes. Let me pve i hee: 12) the pect of the el Line with tse, inthe product, uniform, and box topo ies. By the eal ine nthe topology having the intervals (a) asa basis ‘athe minimal uncountable well-ordered se 12 the clove unit square in he ditonary order topology. “These ae the examples you should master and remember; they will be exploited Part I GENERAL TOPOLOGYChapter 1 Set Theory and Logic Wie adopt, as most mathematicians do, the naive point of view reganing set theory {Ne sll senna that wha meant by aso of aarti lear ane we shall proceed on thar bass without analyzing te coneepé fuer. Such an analysis properly elongs to the foundations of ache matic and mathematic! igi, and iti ot our urpose to intate the study of those els ‘Logicians have analyzed set theory in great deal and hey have formulated a tems for the sujet Fach of thee axons expresses a property of sets that mathe Imatcians commonly accept, and collectively th axioms provide a foundation broad ing and song cough atte et of mathematics canbe built on hem cis unfortunatly true that careless use of set theory eying on intuition alone can lead to contradictions. Indeed, one of the reasons fo the axomtization of set ‘heory was to formulate rules for dealing with sets that would avoid these contac tions, Although we sll not deal withthe axioms expicily, the rules we foliow in (eating nih sets dervefeom them Tn hi ho, yo wil learn how to deal with sets in an “aprentice”fshion, by observing how we handle them and by working wih them yoeroetl At soune pit fy sis, 904 ry wish fo study set theory more areflly and in pester deal ten a couse i Togc or foundations wl be in ore, 34 Set Theory and Logic ar $1 Fundamental Concepts Here we introduce the ideas of set theory, and establish the basic terminology and notation. We also discuss some points of elementary logic that, m our experience, are apt io cause confusion, asi Notation Commonly we shal use capital ters, B, .t9 denote et, and lowercase eters 4, b, «0 denote the objects or elements belonging to these seis. If an object a ‘belongs to set, We express tis ct by dhe nuaion Ia dues wo elog a, me capes ths ft by wing ga “The equality symbol —is used Uoughout this bolo mean Toga! identi. Ths, when we wttea = b, we mean that “a” and“ ae symbols forthe same object. Thi {shat one mean in arte, for example, wha ute wis 3 — }. Silat, she ‘equation & = B sate that “A” andB” are symbols forte sme set; that is, A and B consist of precisely the same abject fa and b are diferent objects, we write a Dy andi A and B ar different sts, we wcite 4 2B. Forexample if isthe se ofall nonnegative eal numbers, and B isthe se ofall postive real mers, then A 3B because the number O belongs A and aot 0B. We at tis asubser of D iPovery clement of isalko an alement of Band swe expe this fact by wring Acs [Nothing inthis definition requires Ato be itferent from Bin fact, if A= Bits te at bath Ac Band D.C A, IEA CB end A is diferent from By ove ey that A ea proper subset of B, and we write age. “The relations C and are called inclusion and proper inclusion, respectively. If ACB, we iso wre B > A, which’ ead" contains A” ‘ow does one go about speciying 2 sat? If the set has only a few elements, one «an simply ist the abject in the set, wating “A ste se onslstng oF the elements a, and" In symbols, his statement becomes A where braces afe used to enclose the is of elements la.bseh 2 Fundamental Concepts “The usual way to spell ae, however, ico ake some se A of objects and some ‘property that elements of tray OF may ot posers, apd to fem the set consisting (fal elements of A having that property. For instance, one might take the st of teal numbers ed fran te sbsct B using ofall even integers. In symbol, this statement becomes B= (x xisaneven integer Here the braces stand forthe words "the set of” andthe vertical ar stands forthe twos “such that” The equation i ead "B isthe st ofall such that xis an even ieee” “The Union of Sete and the Meaning of oe Given two sets A and B, one can form a from them that consists ofall the elements of together with all th elements of B. This st is called the union of And 2 and ie danoted by AU B. Formal, we define AUD [e|xeaorx eB ‘But we nt pune at hs pot ain ake soe enaly what we mca bythe statment “reaorre B” Tn ondnary everyday English, te word “ors ambiguous. Sometimes the stat iment "P of O” means "P or Q, or both” and sometimes it means “P or Q, but aot both Usually one decides from he context which meaning is intended. For example, sonposeFepoke tan int ae flows hie Smt every tet eptre fo cone hae ae ithe ein Tncaralgeba os course analy Mi one, ter you get gra atest on he Ral exam ou wl nk ihscomne?” In the comet. Miss Smith knows perfect well that I mean “everyone hs had linear algebra or analysis, or both" and Me Jones knows I mean "either he ges at lest 70 fre dunks, bt nt th Tslen, Me Jones wld he exceedingly mnhnpy i oth stuements ued out tobe ee! Ti maliantvs, one cannot tolerate such ambiguity. One has to pick just one meaning and stick witht or confusion wil ego. Accordingly, mathematicians have ‘greed hat they wil use the Word “oF in the Mest sense, so tate semen" or Q™ ways means “P or Q, or bot” Ifone means Pr Q, but nt bot,” then oe has to Jncade the phase “hut not bot” explicitly ‘Wah hic umdorctaaing, he ein defining ALA is unambiguous: estates that AUB i the set consisting of al element x that belong o A orto B oro hath6 Set Theory and Logic chr ‘The Imersection of Sets, the Empty Set, and the Meaning of “If... Thea” Given sets A and B, another way oe can form a st st take the common part of A land B, Tisse calle tedndereetion ofA and B wali deneted by ANB, Toomally, ‘we define ANB =l[x]x¢Aandx € 8) ‘Bur justas wit the definition ofA U B thee isfy. The dificult i notin the meaning of the word "and itis ofa diferent sort. Itanses when theses A and ‘agpen to have no elements in common. Wha! meaning does the symbol A 9B have insocha case? "To take care ofthis eventalty. woe mike a special convention We inten a special set that we call the empty St, denoted by 2, which we thnk of as “the set ving elec” ‘Using ths comenton, we express the statement that 4 and have no elements in ‘common bythe equation ans=e, We also express iis tact by saying that A ane are doit [Now some stadents are bothered bythe nation ofa “empty set” “How” they 52. “can you havea et with nothing in 7" The problem is similar to that which arose ‘many year ago when the umber 0 was fst inroduced. "The empty st is only a convention, snd mathematics could very well get akong without i Buti a very comeniont convention, for i saves us a good dea of awkwardness in saing theorems and in roving them. Without tis convention, for instance, ome Would ave W prove Usa the to ets Aaa By ave leu a ‘common before one could se the motaon A. B. Silay the notation C= [x] € A and.x has acenain property| could not be wscd if it happened that no element x of A had the given property. Its ‘ach more convenient to ages that AB and C equal the empty sein such cases, ‘Since the empty set @ i merely a convention, we must make conventions relating it wo the concept aleeady intoduced. Because & is thought of as “the set with m0 ements itis lear ise shuld make the convention that rach ajert the rltinn [re 2 does not hole, Similarly, the definitions of union and imersection show that for Crery st A we should have the equations AUa=A and Anema. “The iusion slain i ait une chy. Ginen a set A, should we agree that 12 c A? Once more, we must be careful abou the way mahematicians we the English language. The expression 2 C 18a shorthand Way of wrnng me sentence, “Every clement that belongs to the empty st also belongs to the set A" Or to pu it more u Fundamental Concepts 7 formally, “For every object x, i belongs othe empl set then x also belongs to the Ts this statement true of not? Some might say “yes” and eters say “no" You will never setlethe question by argument, only by agreement. This is a statement of ‘he form “IF P. then Q” and in evervday English the meaning ofthe "if... then” ‘construction it ambiguous. always means that if P is re, then Q is tive aso Somme that allt means other time t means Something more: that Piss, {Qt be false, Usoally one decides from he context which interpretation correct. “The situations smart the ambi the use of he wud" Que can efor ‘ulate the examples involving Miss Smith and Mr Jones to illustrate the ambiguity Soppose Isai the following Mis Smith if any student eistered fortis course fas mo tien a couse in ‘Me ne, ify gt grade below 70.0 he ial, you ar going to Hunk this Inthe context, Mis Smith understands thar if student in the couse hs wothad linear algebra then hea akon analysis, bt ih hs had inca algebra, he sy ce may not have taken analysis as well. And Me Jones knows tha if he gets aprade Below 70, he ‘wll unk the course, bw i he yes ytd at east 70, be wil pss Asin, mathematics cannot tolerate ambiguity, so a chove of meanings must be sade, Maihematcians have agreed aways (0 use “if... then!” inthe ist sens, 30 ‘hata statement ofthe form “If, then ” means that if is tue, Q is true also, but i P is false, Q may be either tre false. ‘Assn sample, consider the following attement abou rel numbers a> Oitens £0, leis statement of the form, “IP, then Q." where isthe phrase “x > (called the hypothesis of the statement and isthe phrase “x! #0" (called the eonelsion ofthe statement). This sa re statement, for in every case for which the hypothesis r= Dhalds, the cocloson x3: Ohl a wel Another ae statement about real numbers isthe Following If? < Othen x = 23; in every cate for which the hypothesis old, the conclusion holds aswell. OF couse, ithappens inthis example that there ae no cases for which the hypothesis holds. A totement of thi oi sometime cid tr be wacunuel rue “To return now tothe empty set and inclusion, we se that the inclusion @ CA oes nd fn every ect As Writing A is he same assaying, “Ix © then 2 AY and this statement is vacuusly tue,8 Set Thoory and Logic cet Contrapestive and Converse ‘Our discussion ofthe “if. then” onstruction leads us to consider another pot of ‘lementaty logic tht sometimes causes qual. I concerns te relation between a ‘tatomont. if contraposiive, and its comes. ‘Given a statement of te form “It P, then 0." its contapositive i defined w be tne “If 2 rot ire, then Pi not te.” For example. the comtaposiive of the statement Ips > O.then. #0, isthe statement 82 = 0, hem ais move has» 2 as te, Simiely, the statement 3. [Noe hat bt he salem at omtapos Ye <0.thens ‘hss its comtapostve the statement Ux #2, thet isnot rue that x? <0. Agu, both are tre statements about ea numbers. These examples may make you suspect a hee is noe lao between state ‘ment and its contrapostive. And indeed there is; they are two ways of saying precisely the same thing, Each is tue if and only if the oter i ue: they ate logically equa Tent. “Tis fat is not hard to demonstate, Let us introduce some notation is, AS a shorthand for he statement “FP, then 0." wr wie P90 whic is read “P implies @.” The contaposive can then be expressed in he form (60 Q) => (no P. ‘where “not Q” stands forthe pase “Q isnot tue” ‘Now the iy ay in wih dhe stagement "P ~+ Q” can fl he comet iif the ypothess P is true and the conclusion Q is false. Otberwse it is comect, Similarly, the only way im wich the statement (ax Q) => (wt P) sa alt be cote is the hypothesis "not Q” is tru and te conelusion “not P” is false. This isthe same fs saying tat Qs false and P is teve. And this, num, is precisely the station in Swhich P =O fails to be corect. Thus, we see that the two sateen are iter both ‘omest ofboth incorrect; hey are logically equivalent, Therefore, we shall accept a proof the statement "not Qn P”ae pmol of the statement “P => 0.” "There is another statement that canbe fonmed fom the statement P => Q. Its the stem oe. a Fundamental Concepts 9 hic is called the comerse of P => Q. One must be careful o distinguish between statements converse and its contapositve. Whereas astatement andi contrapositive ‘az logically equivalent, the trth of statement sy nothing at ll about the rath or falsity of is converse. For example, the te statement Wx > O.then 8 £0, asa is converse the staerent 8 #0. then x > 0, which is fase, Sina, de ue sae Yo <0, then a = 23, he ie sonverse the statement Ux =23. then? <0. hich is false, Witshould happen tha both the satement P => Q and its comese Q => P are tre we onpenc thie Ft hy the ntation Peso hich is read “P bods if and only if @ holds Negation fone wishes to form the coneaposine of the statement P -+ Q, one hat to know ‘how to form the statement “not P.” which is called the negation of P. In many cases, {his causes diol, lat seen confusion evs wile ov ing ie phrases “Tor every” and “fora last one." These plrases arcaled logical quantifier: To lust, suppose tat X va se, Sa subset of X, and isastaement abet the general element of X. Consider the folowing statement ic) For every x € A, saement P hols ow does one foum the negation ofthis statement? Let us wansate the problem into the ianguage ot ses. Suppose that we lt denote the stot all hose elements # Of X for which P holds. “Then statement (2) is just the statement that A is a subset, Oo B, Whats is negation? Obviously, te statement that A isnot a subse of; that isthe statement tha there exists atleast one element of A that does no belong to ‘Translating back ino ordinary language, this becomes Forat least one x € A statement P doesnot hold "hereto, to form the negation of statement (sone replaces tbe quantifier “for every” bythe quanties“for atleast one," and one replaces statement P by its nenaton,10 Set Theory and Logic out “The process works in reverse jut as wel the negation of the statement Forat least one x © A, statement Q holds isthe statement Foreveryx € A, statement does not hold ‘The Difference of Two Ses We retum now to ou discussion of ses. There is one other operation on sets thats occasionally useful isthe diference of two ses, denoted by A ~ B, and defined as the set consisting of those elements of Atha ar pt in B. Formally. Ane lx |x € Aands ¢ 2) tis sometimes called the complement of Brelaiveto A, o the complement of B in A ‘ur thoes st operations ate mptesented schematically in Figure OOD Pique 1 Roles of Set Theory Given several ses, one may form new sets by applying the set-theoretic operations to them. Ain algera, one nies parentheses to indicate in wha ole the operation ae tobe performed, For example, AU (B 7\C) denotes the union ofthe two se 4 and BMG while (AU B) N.C denctes the intersection ofthe wo Sets AU Band C. The sets hus formed ae quite eiffere, s Figure 2 shows Avena, wavayne Figure 12 w ‘Fundamental Concepts ML Sometimes different combinations of operations lea tothe same set when that rappens, one has a rue of set deer. FOr Insane, i is WUE Mit for any vas AB, and C the equation AN(BUC) = (An BU(ANC) holds. The equation s illustrated in Figure 1.3; the shaded region represents te ein ‘questo, as you can check menu. This equation can be Unwgik ofa ‘Uisibutve Jaw" fo the operations Mand U. © Figure 13 (ter example of set-theoretic res include the second “distributive aw” AU(ENC) =(AUB)N(AUO), and Dedorgans laws, A-WUO)=(A-H)NLA-O), A-(RAC) =A RCAF) We lave i to you to check these rules. One can state oer rules of set theory. at these are the most important goes. DeMorgan's laws are easier o remember i you soraline them a fallow: The complement ofthe union equals the intersection ofthe complements The complement ofthe intersection equals th union ofthe complements. Coletinne of Sete ‘The objets belonging to set may be of any sort. One can consider the set ofall ven integers, and the set of ll blue-eyed people an Nebraska, and te se of all decks of playing ands inthe world. Some of these are of limited matbematical interes, we ‘admit But the thi example illustrates a point we have not yet mentioned: namely, ‘hot the jects Relging toast may thomefvor he ete Fara dock of ear itelf ‘432, one Gonsisting of pices of pastehoard with cenain standard designs printed on Thom, The set of all dicks of cards in the world is thas a et whose clement a themselves seis (of pecs of pasteboar12. Set Theory and Logic aur Wie nw ave anther way to form few sets from old ones. Given set A, we can consider ses whose elements are subsets of A. Tn particular, we can consider the set [Stall sub ofA. Thi te sometimes denoted hy the sya (A) and sealed the power eof A (For reasons tobe explained late) When we have a et wnoseeetenls ate sts, we sual fen tion of sets and denote it bya seript fete such 25 or 8. This device wil help us in Keeping things straight in argumens where we hae to consider ofyets, an sets of| ‘objects and collections of sts of objects, all atthe same time. For exampie, we might tse A fo denste the collection ofall decks of cards inthe world, leting an ordinary apt eter lenote deck of cards and lowercase leter a denote a single playing card ‘Acct ania f cae with tation eased at his pint We make a ine tion between the object o, which isn element of ast A, and the one-lement et a] which isa subser of A Tolar, iis de set a,b, a the lens itasacolee aed, CA, amt (ale PUA) areal comoc, butte statements fa] € Anda C A are no Arbitrary Unions and Intersections ‘We have already defined whot we menm hy the ion andthe intersection of Wo Se. “Theres no reason to limit ourselves jus vo Sets, for we can just as wel Frm he si an itesestion of sbtrarly many ss Given a collection A of sets, the union of the elements of A is defined by the ceuation U “The intersection ofthe elements of is defined bythe equation ‘There i no problem wth hes deritons fone of te elements of happens tobe the emp set Bu itis bt ticky to desde what (if anthng these denis ean Hfve alow A tobe tbe empty election. Applying the defnions Healy we see that ho keent «ties he defing propery fer he union ofthe elements ofA. So itis ‘eons toy that Us ‘fA empty. On the eter han, every sts (aco) he dng propery tor the imersccon of the laments of The question every x in wha se? I one has a [en ne set ht speed a te tet of he dca fo De om “UNE “Sscouse and on conser only sbses of Xthogbout ii reasoeabletlet na {elx eA foratlentone Ae Al [ae Aforevery A € I a Fundamental Cowcepis 13 when is empy. Not all mathemsiins flow tis convention, however To avoid ‘Bticlyone sl dfn the inesecton when A emp ‘Carestan Products “Thor iayot another way af forming new Sets rom oi onesies the nation of an “ordered pir of objects. When you studied analytic geomet he fst hing you did ‘wa eomviawe yourself that afer one has chosen an asin and a yvaxis inthe plane {every point inthe plane can be made to correspond o a unique ordered pir (x,y) of real nimbers (Ina more sophisticated reaument of geometry. he pane 1s moe key tobe defined a the set of al ordered pairs of real numbers!) "The notion of ordered pair cates over to general Sets. Given sets A and B, we fie theireartsian rine Aw Btn the et ofall nee paisa, b) for which a isan element of A and bs an element of B. Formally, Ax (a,b) |a¢ Aand ‘Tis efton assumes tha the concept of ore pi isaeady given. fhcan be ‘aku aa prime consp asthe ation of at: rt can be gen 3 efron term of thst operon ready nrodued. One defini tems ef set operations = sxpresee by the atom at. ta 1 defn the deep aD) a clleton of sts. IF thi defo a (a,b) ia collection contig two sts, op of which sa one-clement set nd the the ‘Stunlonon et The frat carne of the adele is defied 0 be the element teonging to both et an ie second coordinate i the eeent belonging to On nu ‘heute fa = then ia calletion containing only oe seta. sce a l= lesa) = (a inthis aes rt Sorina nd soa cordate bth ua he element inthis sine set Tibi is ro sy tat most mathematicians think fan nerd pa asa rive ‘comcet rather than hang of a5 a colecon oe! Letus make consent on notation. Its an unfortunate fact thatthe notation (2, B) ‘is nmlyestabisnec m muthemaics wid wo enizey leew weainys. Ou ea ing as an ordered pit ofobjcs, we have just discussed. The oer meaning isthe ‘one you are aia with fr anal ia and are real umber, the symbol (a, 6) sed to denoethe interval consisting ofall numbers x such tata . (@ AC Bad ACC AC (BUC) (by AC BorAcC @ AC (BUC). (@ ACBaWAcC Ac (BNC) (@ AC Borace m ACURA) (@ A-A-Bpe. A= @- aya ans. (e) AN (BC) = (ANB) ~(AN0). (0) AUW—C)= (AUB) ~ (AO. (@ (AN AULA) =A. G) AC Cand BC D(A xB) C(CxD). 6) Thr comerse of) (W)Te converse of), assuming that A and # are nonempty. (m) (Ax BIC xD) (ALC) « (RUD) (0) (Ax B)NC x D) = (ANG) x (BND). (0) Ax(B—C)= (A xB) ~(A xO. (p) (A~B) x (CD) = (AxC~BxC)~AxD. (@ (Ax B)=(Cx 0) = (4-0) x5 Dp. 2. (@) Write the conrapoiive and converse ofthe fllowing statement then ?-—1 > (and determine which (if any ofthe three statements are () Do the same forthe statement "Ix > 0, then x? — x > 0 4. Let A and 8 be sets of real numbers, Write the negation of ech ofthe fallowing (a) Forevery a € A, itistmethata® ¢ B. {b) Forat lest wea © A, itis ue data = B. (e) Forevery a € A, itis tre that a ¢ B. (a) Foratleastone a g A, susttue tata € 8. 1 Lat A be a nonempty collection of ete rtermine the ruth of each of the following statements and oftheir converses: GF User d = 1 € A forat east one A 6, 0) F€Usegd re A forevery Ac A. (© SE [ |g A xe A foratleastone A € A, (@) xEMicA a re A forevery ACA, 6. Writ the contapositive of each of the statements of Exercise 5. 2 unctons 1s 7, Given sets A, B, and C, express each ofthe following sets in terms of A, B. and C, using the symbols U, and Dative dude eDoxecy), E=[x|(xe Aandre Bore el, Fe[rlreAand(re Bx €C)] 8 Ifa set A has two elements, show that (A) has four elements. How many cements does P(A) have if has one clement? Three elements? No elements? Whi is P(A) called the power setof A? 9, Formulate and prove DeMorga’s laws fr sbitrary unions and intersections. 10, LotR deme th se of val mbes, Po cach of th flowing sulci Ry determine whether its equa othe cartesian produc of tvo subsets of R. (ay (Ux) |x 1san meger. © (ny) |0 a) (@) {(x_y) [xs not animeger andy isan imtezer © lw le+y the subse of D consisting of al second cordiate of elements ofr. Formally, oman r= (c | there exists d € D such hat (€.d) € = (a | thee exits ¢€ C such that (,d) € 7}. image [Note that given a rule of asignmentr, its domain and image ae entirely determined. ‘Now sv can say what a function ie Dennition, A function 7 isurute uf asigument together with asetB that contains the image sc ofr. The domain A of the rule ris also ealled the domain of the function f the image st of ri also called the mage se of f; and he et Bis elle the mange of 1.7 IF J isa function having domain A and range B, we express this fet by wating fd B whichis ead “fis afanetion from Ato B;" or “f i. mapping from A into B.” oF Sntply "maps Aine 2." One sometimes vewalis fac. geome tansformation ‘physically carrying the point of Ato pois of #. Tey A= andita is an elemento A, we dete by f(a) the unique cae ‘of B hat the rule determining f assigns o a; iis elled the value of f ata, oF Sometimes the image of a under f. Formally fis tie rule of he tuncton J, ten la) denotes the une element of B suc that a, f(a) € ‘Using this notation, one can go ack tn defing functions almost as one dd before, with no lack of gor For intance, one can writ ting denote the real numbers) ef be the fanrtion whose ue is (Gx.22 + 1) x € R) and whose range sR, ‘one can ously well write “Let f sR» be the function such that f(x) = 3° +1 Both sentences specily precisely the same fonction, But de sentence “Let f be the function f(x) = 1 + 1" is no Tonger adequate for specifying a function because it specifies neither the domain or the ange of. "Aris go we te word ange” to dence wha Me Dave cae te “age eo “hey vol ing thee B 3 ae 2 Funcions 17 Definition. If f= A > B andi Ay isa subse of A, we deine the restriction of f to Ay ots the Faction mapping A into B hon al x (a, Flay) 1a.¢ Ao eee hy flo, which ira fetid og saute | eRe mi yd he mn FRR ceoeddy feo) RR oetmadty ie) RoR, oetnedby his) =, eR RL cefrady a) ‘he function is ilfeent fom the fnon F because tee ues ae diferet sve of cts the estan of othe et Ry The ution isa ieee rom even though thee rules athe sae el beens he ange spied for is iret foe te "ange speci for 7. The funcion Fs feet fo al of tse, These functions se petured i Figure 21 Y WM Figure 21 Restitng the domain ofa function and changing its ange are two ways of form ing a new function from an ol one. Another way i form the composite of two Tanctios. Definition. Given functions f : A + B and: B — C, we define the composite go f of j ana asin tuncion go 7 "A> Cdenneaby the equation 9 7 Na) = afta). Formally, 9 + A> C isthe function whose rules (a,c) | For some b © B, f(a) = band g(b) =) Wie often picture the composite go fas imolvng a physical movement ofthe point a tothe point f(a), and then tthe point gf (2). usted in Figure 22 Noe tht gf defined only when the range of f equals the domain of,18 Set Theory and Logic buat as i sxtnied ve > CS Catone a oo ExahLe2, The compost of he function f : R— Riven by the ttn @ Bm Ren by xr = Sr isthe fnctons © f: given (0 fa) = g(a) = 08 +2) = 5H? +2) “The composite f eg can als be foes in his case: iis the aie iteren fanetion fog RBvenDy (regi = F900) 60) = 3507 +2, Detinition, A function J A -+ B iss be injatve fo one-to-one) if for each trio dsinet pints of A thet images under fare distinc. tis aid to be surjective acy is suid to map A on B) ifevery element of 6 the image ut soe element ‘Std ander the function I both njeative ad surjective itis sai to be Bective {ovis called s one-to-one correspondence) More formally, f 18 nective it Lrtay = see fama and f essuecuve (eB) (= Fea) for at leat one a= A denoted by f~! and is defined by leting f~(b) be that wnigue element a of A for nceraseancel apm haha xauue 3. Conse opine otf 54a of p21 The son CS Ste EE jeer ci nr saete ein te Fee ae eatin apne bettas. Tefucion dR aie a 2 Functions = by changing he range is sujetve bt ot injestive. Te function: Re — R oblned fon by rsiing the dain and Siig th age beh serve ud sete sortbas animes ine a coun, What we uly call he sguare wor fat. ‘A useful eieion fr showing that given funtion fis bijective isthe following, what rot lf tn the xeric emai 2te Let fo A BW ere ate fansite $B A and BA suc that g(f(@)) = a for every in A and fh) = b foreveryb in B, then f is byecuve ana =H Definition, Le f= A > B. If Ay subset of A, we dente by f(A) these of al ages of om ot Ao unos he funtion J: is se eal te mae ot Ao under f- Formally, Fld) = [b| b= fa frat least one a € A. (nthe oer hand if By isa subset of 8, we denote by J“! (Bo) the set ofall elements of A whose images under f Tie in Bo; ts called the preimage of By under (or the egunteimage.”o the “inverse image” of Bs), Formally F485) = a | Fad Bab. ‘Ofcourse, there may be no points # ofA whose images ein Byin tha case, F" Bp) isempy. Note tha iff: A B isbijectve and By CB, we have two meanings fr the ‘notation J~#(B). I can be taken fo denote the preimage of By unde the function J ‘orto denote the image off under te function f°": B —» A. These two meanines ive precisely the same subset of , however, so thee i, in fat, o ambiguity ‘Some cre is needed if ones ous the and f~! eotation cmos. The opera: sion 4" for instance, when applied 0 subsets of B, behaves very nce it preserves Inchon, unions intecestions, and dierences of Sts. We sl ie this Fat fe= «quently. Bu the operation f, when applied o subsets of A, reserves only inclusions ‘As another situation where cares needed, we note hat its ot in gener eve hat J-"CAo)) = Aoand ff (Ba) = Be (Se the following example) The elena rules, which we leave to yout check athe following: If f= A=» Band if AoC A ain iy CB. then Av FH p(Aa) and F"BDN) C Bo ‘The fist inclusion sam equality fi injective, andthe second inclusion i anequality HF beamiectve2 Sot Theory and Logic aur ExaseLe 4, Consider the ction f:R — R gvenby f(a) = 30 +2 Figure 23) Tet tacb| ete the clooe intra a= 5 0. Then ety — FD = FO H0.30) = F(-1. 1) = 2.51 Figure23 Exercises Le La fed > B Let Ay Aand OR {@) Show that Ap © f1(/A9) and that equality hols if fis injesive {by Slow that //~l)) © By st Rat gual olde if 7b surjective 2 Lat fA Band et A; C A od B,C B fori = Oandi = |. Show that f~! preserves inclusions, anions, intersections and diferences of ses 9) Myc B= UCB) C PHB) 0) F'BOU BY = F-BUF (0) J7KDg BY — FBS (@) F718 ~ BY) = FB) ~ Show tnt 7 preserve nus ad unin ny (©) AoC A= f(A0) C far) Lil Relations 21 (® f4gU AN = FAY lav, (@) 74 At) € Jao) A FLAY); show tat equality bok J injective. (0) f{A9 ~ 1) 3 Fo) ~ (AD; show tat equality bods if isimjetive. 3. Show that (6), (0, (P, and (g of Exercise 2 hold for arbitrary unions and inte 4 Let fs A> Bandg: BC. (@) IG CC, show mat 0 J)-MCH) = J~"ig-*(Co). (b) IEF and gate injective, show that go fi inesive (©) If f isinjetve, what can you say aout injectvity off and 9? (@) Ff and ae surjective. show tha 2 of is surjective. (©) If f is surecive, whatcan you say about surectivity off and g? 8 Summarize your answers tb) (@) nthe form ofa theorem, Stn general, et us denote the identity function for a set C by fc. That i, define ig | C.-C to be the function given by the rule ic(x) = x forall xe C. Given f : A > B, we say thata function g: B > A is aleft mere fr fit 82 f= iasand we sy that hs B -» A iparight inverse for Jif f oh = (4) Show that iff has left inverse is injective: and has ght vere f issujetive (©) Givcan example ofa function that has lft iver bt no ght inverse (©) Givean example ofa function that has aright inverse but mo let inverse (a) Cama Tunetion havemore an nee inverse? More tan one ignemerse? (ed Show that iff has both a Tet inverse g and a right imerse A then fis bijective and g =k =f 6 Lat JB —> Ribethe fonction f(x) = 23 — x. By msrcing the domain ant Fang fF appr, cain fn fai fencing raw the raps and g-Te (There are several ices org.) 83. Relations ‘A concept that is in some ways, more general than tat of function is he concep of relation. In this section, we define what mathematicians mean by a relation, and ver cnmider tue type nf elaine that one with ene Frege in mathemati ‘equivalence relarions and order relations. Order relations wil be used thoughout the books equivalence relations will ot be uoed unl §22. Deinidon. A reaom ost issubvet C of the een product A A IfCisa relation on A. weuse the notation xCy to mean the same hing a x.y) € CC. We ead it" is inthe relation Cw ¥" Aru of acsgnment, fora function fA > Ais also azabsct of A x A. Dutt isa subset of avery special kind: namely: one suc that ech element of A sppeas 25 the fiat enact wt cleaned or exit Ones. Any subset OFA A 34 Tea ond22 Set Theory and Logic cur Exawis 1. Let P denote the st ofall pope te work and define DC Px Py theeqtion = Us, 9) Lina decent of “Th Dna cat othe St P. Theses the tion Mtn" and {escefat of» ean presely te sae tg. namely, hat (9) € D. Two ter ‘unr cn P ae flowing ‘n= {9} | xa a ancestor whois an ances of), 15 = (6.9) | the pcees of rete pects of) Wecancal 8 the “blood relation” pun intended), and we can cl the “siting elation” These the elaions hen ifrt properties. The Bao rains s symmetric focimance Git ya Hod rlative of 3, then yi blood weve of), whee he {ecm nnn We calcd hese elains ain str uivalence Relations and Partitions ‘An equivalence relation on a st Aisa relation C on A having the following three properties (1 (Refexviy) Cx forevery xin A, (2) (Symmetry) IFxCy, ten yCr. {@) (Transavig Ie Cy and yCe, then aCe Exams? Among the selon defied in Example the decent eatin Dis rete eferve oo syne, while he Wood elation Bis not tanstve (am ota Fe tio ony we bheuph ny tle ar!) Te sibling relation Si, however, smequaienc elation, as you may chek, “There is no eason one mUSt USE a capa KnEF—Or indeed ees Uf ay t= to denole elation, eventhough i x2 et. Another symbol will do just as wel ‘One symbol thats fequently sed to denote an equivalence relation is the “ld symbol ~ Sine hi tation the properties of an equivalence relation become (U) x~ x forevery in A (2 Itx~ ymeny ~x 8) Wr ~ yond y ~ 2then ~ “There are many oher symbols tht have been devised to stand for particular equiva Tenet clans; wo shall met some of them i the popes nf hi hook. ‘Given an equivalence relation ~ on a set A and an clement x of A, we define 3 certain subse £ of 4, called the equivalence class determined by x, by the equation [Note thatthe equivalence Gis detain by 4 vans , since x ~ 2, Equa lence classes have the following property: 8 Rentions 23 Lemma 3.1. Two equivalence clssesF and Bue ether disjoint or equal. Proof Let E be the equivalence class detemined bys, and let Eb the euuivalence lata deterined by x. Suppove that £7 Ee not amply lat y bea point of ££ See Figure 3.1. Weshow that E = 2 ) Figure By definition, we have y ~ x andy ~ «Symmetry allows us to conclude that 1 yand y ~ 1; rom tasty it fll atx ~ x, Afnow wis any point of E, wwe have a = 3 By definition; follows from another application of tanavity that wx" We conclude that E CB he symmetry ofthe situation slows ws to conclu that £ CB as well, $0 hat E=E. y inven am mieten erations 4 eet A let we dete hy the callecton af ‘he equivalence clases determined by this relation. The preceding emma shows that tins clement of 8 are doit. Furthermore, the union of the elements of © equals allo A because every element of A belongs to an equivalence class The collection & ‘sa pacular example of what scaled a paron o 4 Definition, A partition ofa set Ais collection of disjoint aonempy subsets of A ‘whe ain eal A Studying equivalence relations ona set and sudying ptitins of A ae realy ‘he same thing. Given any partition D of A there is exactly one equivalence relation ‘on A from which tis derived. The proo is not difficult. To show thatthe partion 2D comes from some equiv- lene ration, et us define «elation C on A by setting xCy if + andy belong to the same element of D. Symmetry of C i obvious; reflexivity follows fom the fact ‘Gat te won of Ue eleens uf. egal ll of Uv fans oa he at that distinct elements of are disjoint It is simple to check that the collection of ‘euivalence class determined by Cis precisely the cllecton ‘To show there is only one sac equivalence relation, suppose that Cand Co are two equivalence relations on A that give rise to the same collection of equivalence shccee 2) Given + 2 A. we chew that sCix iPand only Hf yO, fom shih we jxomclude that C) = Cp. Let be the equivalence cass determined by x relative to ‘he relation Ct be the eauiatenc lar determined by x relative to the elation clement of , so tat lt must equal the unique element Dof D that24 Sor Theory and Logic cnt contains x. Similarly, E> must equal D. Now by detition, £4 consists fall y such that vas and consists of ally such tat yC3x. Since By = D = E3, our eal is proved. EXAMPLE 3. Define two point inthe ple tobe equivalent if hey ea the sme Tne te niin, Retenny,symetn, and weet hol tv The cle tion € of equvaince clases onsss a al ces centered ate ng, lng with the st sing i tigi lee Enns 4 _ Bein to pins uf the plane ro be equivalent if hey hae the sme Srsoordinae, The collin af equivalence elses is the callecon ofl aight bes ‘he pane pale oie ani EXAMPLES, LEE be te colcbon oat rah nes hepa ata te ine or oe Then £is.apaon ofthe plate, ace ech pon is or eal one such ne Tne prion £ comes eevee aon tpt ht Seles pis (Gdn ad (x, 1) 9 Begala 49+ x9 EXAMPLE 6, Let" be the collection of al stright ines inthe plane. Then is not 2 partion ofthe psn, fr isin elements ofa nt pees soins es tay nersect without Peg equ Order Relations relation C onaset Ais called an order elaion (oa simple order oc a linear order) it ic asthe following proprio 1) (Comparabiliy) For every x and yin A for which x # y, ether xCy or yCx. (2) (Nonreflexiity Fora xin A does the elation xCx hold. (G) (Tranny) IExCy ane Cs, then 20 [Nate that progety I) doesnot by itself exclude the possibilty that fr some pai of Clements and Of A, bom the relatins-xCy atl yCr bok since “oe” means “one forthe oer, or both") But properties (2) and (3) combined do exclude tis posibil- ity; fri both xCy and yx eld, wanstiaty Would mply that xCx, conradcing onretlexvit Exar 7. Consider teestion nthe ea Tine consisting fal s(x,» of al Fel Ung. Ales fie ode elton onthe elie the lowing: Define Cy SP ites ay? an =p Yu can check thay an rd lation EXAMPLE, — Consider pan terebsonsips song peuple vein Exaile b,Te ‘ond rein B sities none of he popeies of an order elation an the sibling re thon 3 sates ony). tbe deen reason D Js sew ei fo isis tosh (2) and): homer, comparably il ails Relations thst @) and @) our ten enough tence ob gi ay ie Tey ne walled st tad onder etna, we snl conser te ler (Sc $1), 8 Kelanons 25 ‘A the de, ~, 8 the generic symbol for an equivalence relation, the Less than” symbol, <, 8 eomunonly used to denote an order elation. Sate inthis motion, ne properties of an order relation become () Ihr f y.theneither < yory flay) Re tet the [ein ess than every poi ying above tom the eres ie ogh py a ps ess ‘Ramer pu heh of i eta in EXAMPLE 12. Consderthe set(0 1) fal murbersan thst of pose ine, bax inhi osaloner ie 2 (0.1) he ions rd Ts et a these ede Igpe athe se of woaegaive els: the fetion flexnansea isthe requ bijective onder peseringcirepondene. On the her hand, the St [h.1) x Zen the dtonay eres as quite a difleen order type; for example, eery ‘ems of hs ode sts an ate sucess These Sls af pce in Fi te33 8 Relations a ——3 | E—3 eto a awed ‘One ofthe properties ofthe real numbers at you may have Seen before i the “east upper bound property One can define this propery for an arbitrary ordered set, Fst, we need some preliminary defniions Suppose thar A vase ordered by the elation < Let An bea subset of A. We say thatthe element is the largest element of Ag it b © Ag and if = b for every 1 Ag. Similan, we ay tht isthe smallest lament af ty fa @ Ayand ita = © for evry x © Ay, Its cay to see that asl fs at most one largest clement and at snost oe alles elntet ‘We say thatthe subset Ay of A is Bounded above ifthereis an element bof A such that r< 6 tor every Ap; te element 6 called an upper Bound Yor Ay. It the ‘se fall upper bounds fo Ay has a smallest element, hat element is called the least "upper bound, ofthe supremum, of Its denoted by sup Ay; it ay oF may not Itong ta do ft dows ste the area lament af A Similry, gis Bounded below if there i an element a of A such hata < x for every € Ay the element ai called lower bownd for Ay. I the ot ofall ower ‘ours for Ao has largest element, that element is called the greatest lower Bound, ‘or he infimam, of Ap. I is Seo by i Ag ry uray a ela to Ay. CAL oes itis the smallest element of Ao ‘Now we can define the last upper bound prope. Detintion. An ordered set A is said to have the least upper Bound property it every nonempty subset Ay of A thats bounded above has a Teast uppar bound. Analogously, the set A ssid to ave the greatest lower bound property i every nonempty subset ‘Ag ut A hats bowed below fas reales towes ou ‘We leave ito the exercises to show that A has the least upper bound prope if and only it has the greatest lower bound propery EXAMPLE [3, Conse these A = (~1, 1) of el pumbers in he usu de. As suming tbe fat ht he el muers hve th east oper Pound pope fliows hat28 Set Theory and Logic cht thst A hs the east oper bound prety. Fe, given an subse of A having an per ound ins utows at oer tnd Gh el one bei Po example the subset [1/28 | € Zl ofA, ough aso largest element does ave estas bua A tema ‘Ont ther hand the set B'= (1,0) (01) dts not have the as upper ound opengl (12a jn © Zig} of Biante by ay eu 1, tit aso east upper Bnd in B, Exercises Fuivalenee Relations 1 Define two points (xo 0) and (x11) ofthe plane tobe equivalent it 0 — ‘91 ~ xf, Chek ta thsi an equvatence relation and deeribe the equivalence classes 2 Lev be acelaton ona set A. If Ay © A, define the restriction of Cto Ay to be {he ralation C19 (Ag Ao). Show tht the reticton of an erivalenee elation Js an equivalence relation 5. Here i a “proof” tha every relation € thats both symm and tanstve 8 also elexive: “Since Cis symmetric, ab implies bCa. Since C is transitive, ‘aC and BCa together imply aC, a desired” Find the flaw inthis argument ALAS: A > Bho a suresive funtion. Let us dain sation on A by sting aay Hla) = fa). {Show that this is an equivalence relation. Ab) La A" bethevet uf opsivalnce clases, Slt ee i adijetve caer dence of A* wath 8 5. Let Sand be the fllowing subsets ofthe plane Sal ply set lendd S. Desenbe the equivalence clasts of S (@) Show thet given any collection uf equivalence stations ow a set A, thee imersecton i an equivalence relation on A. (6) Describe the equivalence relation Ton the real line thatthe intersection ofall equivalence relations on the ral line that contin $. Describe the cquivalence classes of T. 8 Relations 29 Onder Relations 6, Define a relation onthe plane by sting (0,90) < tr.) renter wy — xf <1 — for yy 3 = yy — #9 am ag < a1, Stow tha tis isan order relation onthe plane, and deseribe it geometizally. 17. Show tha the estition of an oder elation i an order elation, 8. Check that he lation defined in Example 7 sen ceder elation 9. Check that the dictionary order is an order relation 10, (a) Show that he map f = (1,1) — R of Example 9 is oder preserving (8) Show dat the equation g(3) —2y/0U 1 (1 4y2)0 deine a faction sg: (1, 1) thats both aft and a ight inverse fo f "TL Show thar an element an ordered set has a mos‘ one immediate suecessor and ‘most one immediate predecessor. Show that a subset ofan ordered St has at most one smallest element and at most one largest element 12, Let iy donot the set of postive integers. Consider the following order elation? oaZ, x2, (0 Ihe eicoonary orc (6) (ao, yo) Cas, her 29 — Yo <8) — rz — Yo =) — We aNd yo (0, 1]?9 Set Theory and Logic ot $4 The Integers and the Real Numbers Up to now we have been discussing what might be called the logical foundations fr fur study of topology—the elementary concepts of set theory, Now we tum to what {oe might ell the mathematical fumaatione Foe oe Stuly—theintepers and the real fume system, We have already used ther inaninfomal way inthe examples and actin of te preceding setions. Now we wih o deal with hem store formally ‘One way of exablishing these foundations iso consrac he real number system, using only the axtoms ose eneory—o build hen widh ne’ bread 0 speak ‘Tis way of approaching the subject akes a good deal of time and elf and is of greater logical than mathemaxial interest. ‘A second way i simply to assume ast of axioms forthe real numbers and work from these axioms. In the present section, we shall sketch this approach to the real umber, Specifically, we shall give ast of axiom forthe real morihere ad shall indicate how the falar properties of real numbers and the integers ar derived from thc, But we sal leave most of dh profs Io the xeesises Ifyou have seen all this befor, our deserigtion should refresh your memory. If not, you may want to ‘work though the exereses in dealin order to make sure of your knowede of die ‘mathematical foundations. Fist we needa definition From set theory. Definition. A binary operation ona Set A i function f mapping A x A into A ‘When dealing witha binary operation fon a set A, we usually use a notation ‘tren fom the standard funcional noaioniniodueed in §2, Instead of denoting the value ofthe furetion f athe point a.) by f(a, <), we usally write the symbol forthe function berween the two coordinates ol the pont in question, wnting he value ofthe function at (2, ') 38 afa’. Furthermore (ust as was the ease with relation), itis more common fo vse some symbol other than a eter to denote an operation Synbols ften ed ee the ple sino + the ultipieaton symbols and, and the asterisk +; however, there are many oters. Assumption ‘Weassume there exist set, called the se ol reat numbers, two binary operations + and: on called the addition and multiplication operations, spectively, and an order relation «on , sch ha the following properties hod Algebraic Properties () (bye Oe (eye xy 2) forall, 9,210 Watyayts zoey forall, yin ‘he integers and the Keal Numbers 31 (3) There exists a unique element of ® called zero, dented by 0, such that x +0 = rane ® ‘There exists a unique element of 8 called ome, diferent from 0 and denoned by such that I= forall eR, (4) Row ach ein R,there acne a nig yin Bach that + » — Foreach xin diferet om 0, there exists a unig yin such that y 0) 1s Ute 2 forall, 2 A Bice Algebra and Onler Property (6) a> yothenx b2> ye, We yand 2s Ouene-2> ys onder Properies (2) The onde elation has the east upper bound progeny (8) fx © yy there exists anelement sch that x < zandz < y From progertie (1) (5) follow the familie “we of algebra” Given, one do notes by =r that number y such that x + y = 0; iis elle the negative of x. One (etn the subwracuom operon by ve foemula 2~x = 2+ (=x). Siti, given +x #0, one denotes by 1/x tht number y such that x-y = Its aed the reeiprocal ‘of. One defines the quotient 2/ by the formula 2/8 = z-(1/x), The usa laws of ans. and the rules fr adding and multiplying fractions, follow as theorems. These sof algebra are listed in Exercise | atthe end ofthe section. We often dence xy simply hy ry ‘When one adjoins propery (6 to properies(1)-(8), one can prove te sual “ws ‘of neque," suoh s the following: Mae y and 660, then xe ye 1 <0 and 01 “The laws of inequalities ar sted in Exercise 2 ‘We define a number x to be positive ifx > 0, and 10 be negative ifx < 0. We denote the positive reals by R. andthe nonnegative reals (for reasons fo be explained ler) by Ry. Properies(1)-6) ae falar properties in modem algebra. Any set sth 0 binary operations eatitying (1) (5) a eallod by algebeitea lel ifthe eld hasan order elation satisfying (6), is called an ordered field Prope (7) aa), on te esha, ae fais props ia wplogy. They involve only the order relation; any set with an order relation satstying (7) and (8) i ‘led by lopologss 3 linear continuum "Now it happens that when one adjoins oth axioms for an ordered fle (proper ties (1)-(6)] the axioms for ainear continuum [properties (7) and (3), the resulng Tit contain ome rdundanrine Pnpenty (8) in parca, cam be penance ‘quence ofthe others; given x < y ope can show that 2 = (x-+ y)/(1+ 1) satisies the requirements of (8). Thertere, inthe standard rcatmont ofthe real number, propetes(1)-() are taken as anions, and property (8) becomes athearem. We have32 Set Theory and Logic on included (8) in our list merely to emphasize the fact that it and the leas upper bound property ace the to cra properties othe order relation for. om these WO properties many ofthe topological properties of may be derived, as we shal se in Chapter, ‘New thee is nothing in hi lis tan to tlle what a integers, We now defn the iors, using cay properties (1)-6) Definition, A subset ofthe real numbers is said to be Inductive it contains the ‘uber [andi for every in A, te number x1 sal in A Let dese colleen of al inductive subsets of R. Then the set Z._ of postive Integers is defined bythe ‘uation = fla [Note thatthe se Ry of postive real numbers is indvetive, for it contains 1 and tne statement > 0 simples the satement x 1 > 0, Theres, Zc Re, a0 the ‘elements of Zar indeed postive, a the choice of terminology sugeess, Indeed, one sees readily that Ii the stalls element of Z., because the sto al real ners x for which « > Lis inductive “The basic properties of. which follow readily from the definition, are theft towing: (0) 2 isindutive (2) (Principle of induction), If A 8 an inactive se of positive Integers, then A = ‘We define the set Z of integers to be the set consisting ofthe postive integers 2, the member 0. and the negations of the slemente of 7, One nue thatthe sum, diference, and product of two inleges ar integers, but the quotient nt necessarily lav ineger The set ol yates a cll the St of rational numbers: ‘One proves also tha, given the integer, there sno integer a such that n b ~ I; foraterwise,D— | would bean upper bound for Z.. ‘Smale than b. Then + 1 >, contra tothe fact that an upper boun frZ. “The least upper bound axiom i also used 10 rove & number of other tings about R. It is used for instance 1 show that has the greatest lower bound prop- fe. aso ured to prove the existence of unique postin ware met «/F for ‘rer positive real number, This fact, in ura, can be used to demonstrate the existence Of eal naribere hat ae noe ational mrbers the number Wi an eaty example ‘We use the symbot 2 to denote | + 1, the symbol 310 denote 2+ 1, and so on through the standard symbols forthe positive integers. tis a fat mat mis proce assigns to each postive integer a unique sybo, but We never need this fact and shall ot prove it. Proofs of hese popes othe itagre and ral nursbers. along witha few other proptes we shall ned late, are outline in the exercises that followSM Set Inecry and Logic ot Exercises 1. Prove the following “aws of algebra” for, using only axioms (1)+(5) @ erty =s.tneny =0, Ub) 0-1 = 0. fine: Compute (+0) ] (s=y) =e ty, ‘then y= wf () ¥ #Oand y #09 xy #0, Vive)iy 2 #0. (xuyiOe if y,2 40. tert uyoait ys 20 () £05 Ir #0. W) i/wje) = efaritene £0. (© e/yV/tw/2) = U2) ify, 2,2 #0. (9) (an)/y =ats/y)ity #0. © (fy =a/(- =~ ity 0 2, Prove the following "laws of inequalities” for R, using axioms (1)-6) long with the retls of Enric | (a) x>yandw>ropetw> ye (b) x > Vandy > 4+) >0andxy >u. @ r20e-x<0 () t> ye —" ey. fe) x> yands <0 22 < ys, () e205 30, where ( -1eo-4 (h) xy > 0 ox andy ae both positive or both neyaive O20 ia 2d. G) F>y>0— yx a ~€ Z, U0}, (Hin Let X sk 1 € £4. [0}; show that X is inductive] lo ede Raredde Landed eZ, (Hint: Proveit fist ford = 1] ( qdeZoeded. ©, Leta € R, Denne inductively (x |x eRand for n € Zys (S087 for 9 discvsion of the penoese aint defition} Show that for n,m € Zand a2 € ata = 0", (oyna oH 2 tobi" “Those ars called the flaws af exponents Hin: For Berd mp the Formulas by induction oa m] 7. Leta © Randa #0. Detne a? = 1, and form € Zy.@ "= 1a". Show unt the laws of exponents old for a,b # 0 and n,m € Z. 1. (a) Show that Kas the greatest lower bound property. 0) Show dha ilftjn [© Z4] = 6. (© Show tht given a with 0-< a < I, infla® | m © Z,) = 0, (Alin: Let fet = a)/a, ano show ac + hy" 2 Lem 8. (a) Show that every nonempty subset of Z thats hounded above hos a largest clement () Ufa ¢ 2 show there is exactly one & Zach hate exe n+ {6} If —y'> Ly show there i at least one x € Z such that y a forsome h > 036 Ser Theory and Logic ont (©) Given a > 0, let B be the set of all real rambers x such that 2 < a Show tat B is tounded above and woataan atleast one poiive matter Letb = sup 8: show that b? = a (©) Show tat and care postive ana B* = then & 11, Ginn © 7, we cay that mi nem i m/2 © 7, and i dd ctr (@) Show that if mis odd, m= 2n + 1 for some m ¢Z.(int: Choose nso that (6) Show that if p and ar odd o are p-q and p*,forany m € i. (6) Show wut ifa > O's rational, then @ = mj7 for Some m,n € Za where ‘ot both m and mare even. (Hint: Let be the smallest element of the set bel e%, andx-a e241) (2) Theorem. 2s irrational, §5. Cartesian Products Wo have already defined what we maon by the cartesian product vB of two sets. Now we introduce more general caresian product. Definition. Let be a nonempty collection of sts. An indexing function foe Ais surjective function f from some set J, called the index set t0 A. Th collection together with the indexing function J. called an indesed family of este Given ae J, we shall denote the set f(a) by the symbol Ag. And we shall denote the sndexed family sl? bythe symbol (Aeiewss is read "he fanily ofall, abu anges ovet J Sometince we wile itis clear what he inde Sts Note dat although an indexing function i required tobe surjective, iis not = wid 0 be injective. Iie entialy possible fr Ay and Ag to Be he same st oF, fren thoughar ‘Oue way i which inderng functions are used is © giv anew pouton for aro tray unions and intersections of sets. Suppose tat f J —+ Ais an indexing function for Arle Ay dente f(a). Then we define Use lx |foratleastone @ € J.x€ Aah, P)Ac mtr foreverya Fore A 6 Canaan Products 37 “These ae simply new notations for previously defined concepts; one sees a once {ong the aurjoctity ofthe index Faction) tha the Rist eas the nnn of al the Clements of and the second equals the intersection of alte elements of. "Tw copeilly uf index ast ar he st |, -- of postive tages from | tom, and the set Z of all positive integers. For these index ses, we introduce some special notation, Ia ollecion of sets ndexea By he St (1, ], we dene te indexed family by the symbol [A.A]. and we dente the union andintesection, respectively, ofthe members ofthis Fumi bythe symbols ALU Uy and AL Inthe ease whcte the indox set the set 2, we denote the indexed family by the symbol (A, Aa, +--] andthe union and intezsection by the respective symbols AVUAQUS» and ALAIN: Definition, Let m be a positive integer Given a set X, we define an mtuple of elements of X 10 be arunction Sham +X {Fx ic an maple, we fen dente the value of xa by the symbol x eather than xi) and call the ith coordinate fx And we often denoe the function x iselt by the Cent Now let (A1,.--» A} be a family of se indexed withthe Set (1, ....m). Let X = A, U---U Ag. We define the cartesian product of his indexed tary denoted by Fla eset tobe the set of allm-tuples (x... 9) oF elements of X such thax) € Ay foreach EXAutrLe 1, We now have wo defitions tbe symbol A x 8. One definton i, bv cose the one gen eaten, Under whieh A XB dence he set at IE fs (a,b) such tata A and b B. The seco defen just pen, defies A Bs Ine seo al fuctows Xs [h2) > AU A on thc xl) | theres bijective conespondence of AD Ay wit (ALI CAND Ae () Given de dened Gaaly fy pss et Dy = Aon BLLA= AX AD and B= By Bs x (@) Show that if 8, C A, forall, then BC A. (Surly speaking, if we are sven aft mapping the index set Zino the inion of the ot Rw must change its ange before ican be considered asa funtion mapping 7, io de aio of ents, We al jgunc thin ccbaiaity when eating, with cartesian products % Finite Seo 39 (0) Stow he comers of) hold B sone (©) Show tha if A innonegty, cach Ay moempy- Doss the eomvene hl? (We wl tu tts question the exereises of $19) (6) Whats te reston betwen beset UB an te caesian proc of he $e 4; B.? What the elionbaen he et 47 B andthe cateson frost the sets A, 7B? A Ltn eZ LX 4 8 (@) Him = mind an jective apf: X" — 3 (0) Finda juve map g 2X" 8X" XA. {o) Findan injective map" > X° {8) Findabitve mpl: X9 < X° > X. {e) Findabiectve map! X* x X* =X. (Wa c Ba finda jective map m= (A) > Bo 5. Whit oe along subse ot of subsets of 8? Go) bel san snege teal (©) (x1 >i forall (©) {2 | am inegr forall = 100) @lnen) an Be expensed an i cavesian youet §6 Finite Sets ‘ae sets and innit ses, countable sts and uncoumaDe ses, these a ypes of sts that you may have encountered before. Nevertelss, we shal discuss them in this setion andthe next, no only f0 take sure you understand ther thoroughly bt aso te erate come ail points of lose tha will arise later on. Fist we consider Fines, Recall shat m i a posi integer, we se S, to denote the set of positive integers tess than nti cled a section ofthe postive integers. The sels Sy are the prototypes Tor wha we call he Gt s Definition, A setis sid to be inte if there is bijective corespondence of A with ome setion oft psi inimgors Tha i fe ite fe emp ne there byjeetion FA (bec) for ome positive mee m nthe foemer case, we say that A has cardinality 0; inthe fate wns wou ht nei or nstance, the set (1... il hac cartinaity nfo i in jet or spondence with self unde the identity Function,40 Sec Theory and Logic ont [Now note carefully: Ke have not ye shown thr the cardinality of a fie se is uniquely derermined by the se, IC's OF Course clear tat the empy Set us have ‘cardinality rro. But 38 fa as we know, there might exist bijective corespondences ff given nonemply set A with two diferent sets (1,-...) and (1,-.-ym]. The pesility may seam ridiculous for itis ike saying thi itis possible fr two peooke to count he macbes ina box and come out with two different answer, Both correct. ‘Our experince with counting in everyday life gest tht sch i imposiNe, nd fact hiss easy to prove when isa small number such as 1, 2,03. Buta direct proof ‘nla nf lion would be impossibly demanding ‘Even empirical demonstration woul be dificult for such a large value of n. One mig, or stance, constuct an experiment by taking freight ar fl of mubles and hiring 10 iterent people to count them independently. If oe thinks ofthe physical problems involved, it seems likely that the counters would not al asve atthe samme wer (Of eone. the conclusion one could draw is tha atleast one person made a ristake, Bu thar would mean assuming the correctness of the eesult one was tying to demonstrate empincally An alleraive explanation could be that there do exist bijective corespondences between the given set of marbles and two diferent sections ofthe positive nego Tn real fe, we accept the Fist explanation. We simply take it on faith that our ‘experience in counting comparatively small sets of objects demonsraes a truth that olds for airy Large sets as wel "However, in mathematics (as opposed to eal life), one doesnot have to ake this statement on faith, If formulated in terms ofthe existence of jective corespon- (1, ..-.A forsome n € %,, Let 8 be a proper subset of A. Ihen there exist no byection 2B {l,.. nh; but (povided B 2) there dos exist a hijecton h: B —» (1, ml forsomem < ‘Proof, The casein which & = o is wiva, for ere cannot exist a hijecton ofthe fempiy set B with the nonempty st (1... ‘We prove the theorem “by induciion™ Let C be the subset of Z consisting of ‘hose meses for which the theorem hold. We sal show tat Cs inductive, From this we conclude tat C = 2, so the theorem is tue fr al pose integers n First we show the shearer ctve for m= 1 Inthe 4 conits a9 ingle clement (a and its only proper subset is the empty se42 Set Thoory and Logic cur [Now assume thatthe theorem iste form; we prove it true fr n+ 1. Suppose that fA > [l,-_ ont 1) 8a bijection, and tsa nonempy prope subset of ‘Choose an element a of B and an element ay of A ~ B. We apply the preceding Tema to conclude there i bijection 2A Lag) eso [Now B ~ (ah is «proper subset of A ~ (2, foray belongs 10 A ~ fag} and noo Blo). Because the theorem ha been assumed to hold forthe imtegern, we conlude {he following (1) Thor exists notion b= = ag) — HL (2) Either B ~ (ap) = 0, or there exis bijection kB (oo) 1... pl forsome p B isa bijection By assumption theresa bijection g A —> (I... foe omen. The composite go J the peoceding tare Corotiary 84, 24 1s noc ate, Proof, Ta function f : 2p» Z ~ (I defined hy f(a) = m+ 1 isa bijection OF 2. with a proper subset of sll 7 Corollary 65. The carinality of nite set Ais uniquely determined by A Proof, Letm B. 2) OMS Ceecnt > Dis aujestve, define g 2B > thee val by the equation (0) = smallest element of FB, Because fis suretive. the set J~!(b) is nonempty: then the wel-ondering property ‘of Z, wil us that g() i uniquely defined. The map g is injective, for if b # B, then the sete F-H(BD and J-HUW ae joint, co their malet elements ret Be silferen. (3) 9 tng 8+ sn) isinjetive, then changing he range OF gies abject of B with a subset of (1...) Itfllows from the preceéing cory that B is Bite 7 Corollary 68. Finite unions and faite cartesian products of nite ets ar finite. ‘Proof We fist show hat if A and B are finite, so is A U B. The result is wival i A o¢ B is empty. ‘Otberwise, there are bijections f= (l,....m] —> A and g (oo in) + for some choice of m and'n. Define a function A: (Uy m+ ‘nl > AUB by setting WG) = fli) ford = 1, 2, --o, mand hd) = g(i ~ m) for Tre Ly im | mI easy to check that is surest, fom which it follows thar AU Bis finite Now we show by induction tat tenes the es A... Ae pes seness ‘of thei union, This esl stevia form = 1. Assuming ite form ~ 1, we note that ‘Ay U~--U ay isthe union ofthe to finite ses Ay U-U Ay and Ay, 90 the result ‘ofthe prveding paragraph applies "Now we show ta he cartesian prot of two finite ses 4 and Bis ite. Given 14 € A tho set {a} B i Brit, boing in bijective correnpondnce with B. The sat ‘A B isthe union of these ses since there are ony irtly many of them, A x Bis Ae union of nie sets and sus te “To prove tha the product Ay x» Ay i inte ifeach A, is rite, one proceeds by induction. 7Set Thoory and Logic cor Exercises 1. Ga) Make ais ofall te injective maps £1123) 1L2,3.4), ‘Show that none is bijective. (This constitutes a direct prot that a set ot ‘inal tree doesnot have cardinality fou) (b) How many injective maps J: 8) Osos 10) ar there? (You cam ae why one would nt wish oy i prove direct that there is no bijesive comespondence between these sts.) 2. Show that if Bis mot Hine and 8 C A, thea Aas nO AME. 2 Ter ¥ he the twevelemen! set (0, I]. Finda bictive comrespondence between 1X° anda prope subset of sel 44 Let A be umnenay Bait simpy ordered st, (a) Show that A has a largest clement. (Hin: Proceed by induction on the cadinality of A () Show that A has the order type of a section ofthe positive integers. 5. IFA x B is ite, does it olow tat A and B are finite? 8. (a) Let = {lyesssn, Slow tore is 2 Beton of PA) with the cmesion product X", where X is the eworeerent set X = (0,1, 4) Show vats Ais pie, then (A) site, 17.164 and B are nite show thatthe set ofall fantions =A —> Bis Gite §7 Countable and Uncountable Sets Js as sections ofthe positive integers are the protoeypes for the fit sets, the set of alt the postive integer ste prowaype for what we call the countably init stk this section, we shal study such Sets we shall alo constrct some sets that ar either finite nor countably infil. This sty will ead us into a discussion of what we mean ‘by he proces of “inductive definition.” Definition. A sot A es ae dante ft is notte. Is sald tobe countably infinite i tere isa bijective corespondence fd by LeaMete 1, The et Z ofa nepr i counly finite One hc ey hat he function f ZZ, defined by noo, f= Pa ttneo Ivatijecion " Countable aod Uncountable Sets 48 ExanLe2, Thepoobet2, «2 icomably iain. we repesar the elements of theo Z Zs by the ineper poses nthe equa, then he hal porton (oF Fipte 711 suggest bw to “cout” the poi hats to pc thom Bete Soespundence withthe postive ieger. A ici i ota prot, of couse, but his itr suggests prot Pot, we dee a bison f ZZ. —> A, where A isthe Sher of 2, >, consisting of pis x) for whith y B, (2) Thor san injective Fanction = Be» Zi Proof. (1) => (2). Suppose tat B is countable, If Bis countably infinite, theres ‘bijection f: 2 —» By definition, and we are through. If B is Ginie, there i 844 Ser theory and Logie cur bijetion h:(1..-..n) —» B forsome n > 1 (Recall hat 8 #2.) We can extend k rowsurjection f 1 Zy > Bby defining fu) for si =m, 1) ford > (2) + (3) Let f Za > Hrbeasujection. Deine g : B > Z by the equation (0) = smallest element of ~!(b). Because fis surjective, f-1() is nonempy: thus gis well defined. The map gis inject, torit b the ssf (0) ad f-1(0) ac aso, eset ements ferent {3} mo Ul). Leg: B > Za bean injection; we wish w prove 8 countable nny chaein he range og we can bain a ietion of B witha subset of Za Ths to prove our result sfc to show hat every subset of Zi countable, Sot © belnnabet of Zy. IF iinet is countable by dbntion. So what we need to proves that every inte wine Cu Za sendy infinite Ths sttrent io entity plausible. Foe the clement of C can eaily be aranged in an infinite seauence; one spy kes the Seip ins sal ora Yes" al te elem of ae hat are notin C! “The plausibly ofthis agument may make one overlook its informality, Provide ing formal prot rues a etain aount of ae. We sat his esl a separate lea, which follows. 7 sO Lemma 7.2. 1fC isan finite subset of 2, than Cis countbly inte Proof We define a bijection h: Za —> C, We proceed by induction. Define A) 10 be the smallest element of C; it eins because every nonempty subset C of Zi, has 8 ‘Then acuming tht (0), hl = 1) are defined, define et elem ‘ny = ssnllst element of (C — ACL ay “The set CAI]... — 10) is notempty fori it were empry. them hs {2,0 1} C would be surjective, so that C would be Binite (by Corry 6.7) Thus hn) few defined, By induction, we hve defined h(n) forall € 7 “To show that his injective i eaey: Given m = n, note that h(m) belongs othe set Alison Up, beens Ain) by dein, does net. Hence Mi) 7 HCO “To show that his surjective, let ¢ be any element of C: we show that cis inthe mage set of. Fits not hat A(Zy) cannot be contained in Ure ite (1c ‘peease AZ, infinite (since is injective), Therefore, there is an i Za, seh than) > Let m be the smallest element of Z, such that hi) > c. The tral i m, we anise have Mi) < c, Thus. ¢ doesnot belong tothe et A(,....m ~ ID. Since hm) is defined athe smallest element of the et C — hi... 1), We trust ave hen} ze. Putng the (we inepaitiee together, we Rasen) = me desired, . v CCouncabe aad Uncountsble Sets 7 ‘There isa pont in the preceding prof where we tretched the principles of logic bit. Ie oeourred at the point whe we eid hat "using the induction principle” we had defined the uneton foal positive integers n. You may have seen arguments Tike dis wed before, wilt uo questions rabed conceming thelr legacy. We Rave sleeady used such an argument ourselves, nthe exercises of $4, when we defined a” ‘ut there sa problem here. fer ll he induction principe sates only that i A isan inductive set of postive intesers, then A = Z, To use the princole to prove a theorem “by induction." one begins the proo! with he statement "Let A be the set of ll positive integers for which the theorem ire" then ene gor ahead prove that A is inductive so that A must be al of Zs. In the preceding theorem, however, we Were not realy proving a thcorcm by ection, but defining something by induction. How then should we start the proof? {Can we var by saying, "Let A be the sexo all megs Yr whic te TuDcton As etned”? But that’s sly: the symbol has no meaning atthe outset ofthe peo. Tt ‘oly takes on meaning inthe course of te root. So something more i needed. What is needed is anaher principle, which we calle princiole of recursive def -niton- Inthe proof ofthe preceding theorem, we wished assert the following. Given the init chet Cf 2, here aig function hs Zip m= C satisfying the fol (A) = smallest element of C, i) ~ arollet element of fC — W( “ a) ales ‘The formula (2) in cll «recursion fora foi defies the fanetanIin terms oftelf A defition given by such a formula is called recursive defimton. 'Now one can get into logical aificultes whe one tes to dete someting recur sively, Nota recursive formulas make sense. The recursive formula a for example, is sel-contradictry; although hi) necessarily is an element of the set ‘i(l---F-4 1) this formula says that does nt hele tothe et Another expe Ssthe clase pardon: {Let me bare o Seite sbave every man of Seale who des ae shave his ‘Who hall shave te barter? In this statement, the barber appears twice, once inthe phrase “the barber of Seville” ad once a an element of the set "man of Seville" this Sefton of whom the baer shall shave is recursive one. I also happens to be slf-contradicony. Some vecusve fonnuls do make Seise, loweves. Specially, me is the owing pincpe: smallest element of (C— M0, s+ Wk Principle of recursive definton. Let A beset. Given formula thar deine hi) 282 unigue element of A, and for! > 1 defines h(i) unguely a8 an element of A Jn terms ofthe vais af Fr itn intngere le than this fry determines unique Fanetion 2 —> A48. Set Theory and Logie cut “This principe isthe one we actually used inthe proof of Lemma 7.2, You can simply seep t on hth you like. IL hay Nowever Be prove sigswowsy, wing the ‘punt of induction. We shall formulate it more precisely in the net section and Fruicte how itis proved. Mathematicians seldom refer to his prerpe specially “They are mich more itl to white penn ike ur proof of Lemma 7.2 above a proof in which they invoke the “induction prt” todefn a function when what they are ‘ally unin the pimple of recursive deiition We sll avi nde pedantry in this book by following ter example. Corollary 73. A subset ofa countable set is countable Proof, Suppose A C B, where B ie countable. There is an injection fof B into Zs the estiction of / 10 A isan imeston of into 2. . Corollary 7A, The set Zi * Z, is countably infinite Proof. In view of Theorem /., i sums 1 contrat an Za > Zu, We define f bythe equation ajestve map f : By > Seay) = 239% {tis easy to check that is injective. For suppose that "3" = 273%. fn < p, then 3 contradicting the fat tha 3" od forall m. Iheetore, m= p. As ‘yn = 38, Then ifm, i follows that | = 3°, another contradiction, Hence m = 4. 7 EXAMPLES, The set Qe of postive atonal umbers is ountably infinite, For we can acassationg: 2.» Ey ay by theemmtion cin.m) =m Because 2. Ze x commable, tee is a wjetion f Za > Ze x Ty. Then the ‘Shoponte fo Zs Qy tvasuecon, sot Q. is counanie, An of couse, Site beste i cons ‘Weleseitasanctersetsbow ie otradonal mabe oy inte ‘Theorem 7, A countable unin of countable esis countable Proof Let [Aq)nes be an indexed family of countable ses, where the index set J is ite (1, as }'or Zy- Assume that cach at Ay i nonempty, for convenience his Assumption doesnot change anything ‘Because each Ay is counable, We can cheese, for cac n #sujetve Function fu: Zs —> Aa. Silly, we can choose a surjective function g : Z > J. Now Sine hidy xB > ae " (Coumable al Uncoumable ety by the equation km) = fant. Wiseasy to check that his surjective, Since Z x 2 is in bijective comespondeace wits 2, the countably ofthe union fll on Theatea . ‘Theorem 7.6. A finite product of countable sts is countable Prog Fis let us show tar the proauct of wo countable sets A and Is count ‘The result is trval if A of B is empey. Otherwise, choose suetive functions Zy > AandgZy > B, Then the function h:Zy x Z, > A B defined by the ecuation hin. m = [fn am) is supectve. so that A x B is countable. In general, we proceed by induction. Assuming that Ay x --> Ay iscountale iteach countable, we prove the something forthe product Ay = = ay. Fic note tha theresa bjetve comespondence BEAD ly (AL 2 Ant) Ay defined by the equation 808 ted = tise tna Because the set Ay x + A countable by the induction assumption and As outa by yp he pala of dave Uwe sts Goutal as proved in the preceding paregraph. We conclude that Ay x -- Ay ipcountbleas well. ‘wey tempting watt sha countahle pode of ental et ghd he ‘ountable; bu this assertion i in fae note: Toren 7.7. Le X denote two eens, I, Mente st X" uncut Proof, We soon ta, iven ay funtion ra {8 no surjective, For dis purpose fetus dene gin Flows (0) = (Bah ed Bad were each 1 eter 0 or 1 Then we dete an element Y = (1. Y2.-00e Yas) Of X" by leting 0 ike = 1, 1 itty =o. ne5 See Theory and Logic cur (lee write the numbers tina rectangular array, he particular elements on appear (Sie diagonal enviw in satay: We cboose ys Us ism cocina irs Tom the diagonal nt) 9) ‘Now y isan element of X®, and y doesnot ie in the image ot g3 given me point gt) and the pint life ina Feast one coordinate, namely the mth Thus, g 8 ot surjective . “The catesan pruct (0, 1)" is one example of an uncountable set, Another isthe set CZ.) a the following theorem implies ‘Theorem 78, Let A beaset, There is no injective map f:.P(A) -> A, and there is po sunectve map g A> PA) Proof, Ya genes if B isa nonempty tthe existence of mn injective map FB —e CC implies the existence ofa surjective map g = C > Bj one defines g(©) = J") foreach inthe nage set ot fan dees g avbivaily on the rest of C “Thevefore, it sufices to prove that given amap ¢ : A —> 9A), the map g is nt surjective. Foreach a € A, the image g(2) of a subset of A, which may ve may fot contin the pint asl, Let B be the subset of A consisting fal those points 2 Sch that (2) does nox contain a 8 |weA-sla) ‘Now, B may be empty orit may bell ofA, buthat does ot matter. We asset that B Inttubsctof A tha doesnot inthe image of g. For supp that B= sl) ot Some dg € A. Weask the question: Does ay belong to B o ot? By definition of A) § BF AWE A~ Eley) oP EAB, In cither case, we havea conteaticton. . [Now we have proved she exivience of uncountable sets. But we have not yet men= tioned the most familiar uncountable set of allthe et of real umbers. You have aay aceathe anny of RSemoncteated lead Ife acces tht every ‘eal number canbe represented uniguey by aninfnite decimal (with the proviso hat a ‘epresenlatton ening mn an inate ti of ss Fxbiden), hen the wneonabiy fot the reals ean be proved by avait ofthe diagonal procedure used in the proof of| “Theorem 7.7. But this root is in some ways not very stisfyng. One reason ya the infinite decimal repesetation of areal number isnot t allan elementary conse- {quence ofthe axioms but requires a good deal of labor to prove. Another reason is thatthe unccuatsiliy of Blows no fat. depen on einfnte decimal expansion ‘of Ror indecd on any ofthe algebraic properties of Rt depends on only the crdet proyerics uf Re We sull sonstate the uncounablity of R wxing ony toner properties, ina later chaptec 7 Countable and Uncounmble Sets St Exercises 1. Show that Qs countably init, 2 Show that the maps and g of Examples | and 2are byections. 3. Let be the rwowelement st (0. 1]. Show there i bijective comespondence ‘berween the set P(E) ad the cartesian product X* 4 (9) Atal manera a be lige (ver terns it ois ae polynomial equation of postive depree ba baie ay with rational coefcint a Assuming that each polynomial equation has ‘nly Britely ny ots, show hat the eof algerie amber ceesntahle (©) Areal number is said 1 be anscendenal iit snot algebaic. Assuming the reals are uncountable show that the transcendental sumbere ae uneount able, (tsa somewhat surprising fac that only two transcendental umbers fue Cala ow ead x» Even prvi ve we bers irancendera ishighly nontvial) 5, Determine, for each ofthe following sts, wheter or not itis countable. Justify your wert (a) The set A of al functions f: (0,1) + 2. (by Tho ot By of al functions f:[f,...sal > Zy (6) The C= Usez, Br (i) The se D ofall tons fe => By. (e) The set E ofall funetions J: 2. —> (0.1) () The set F ofall functions J, > (0,1) that are “eventually 20” (We say that is eventually zero i there isa postive integer N such that, f(r) = Oforalln > N’] be) The wt of al fetions f <7 == 7 tha ae evenly 1 (b) The set H of all functions f 2, > Z that are eventuly constant, i) The et ofall wo sloment subsets of () The set J of al finite subsers of 2. 6, We say that wo sets A and B hase the same cardinality i there i a bijection of Awith . (@) Show that if 8 C Aandi hee is an injection pao, then And B have the se cardinality [Mins Define Ay — A, By = By and form > 1 Ay = f(Ay-1) and By = f(By-1). (Recursive detiion ‘again}) Nowe that A) 9 BL 2 Az 3 By 3 AyD =. Define a bijection fed B by tiene ja [FO Hee y= Been, MO Ve otherwise.)Set Theory and Logic cht () Theorem (Schroeder Bernstein theorem). If there ae injections f= A —+ Candg C+ Ay then A and C hive the same cardinal. 11 Show that the sets Band of Beerie § have the same eandinaliy 8. Let X denote the two-element st (0, Isle 8 be the set of countable subsets of 1X. Show that X and 2 nave the sume carina. ©. (9) The Ferma aay © 40) Ay =the | DF thee is ot one tn which he pvincinle of recursive definition applies. Show that revethles there Joes exis a function h: 2 —» sailing this formula {lft Reformeace (+) 90 tat the principle wil apply ol rei ho he positive () Show shar dhe fous () of pt () does mt determine uniquely. (Ain Teh is a positive function sastying (2), let fi) = AU) fort 3, and let {0)=-h)1 {es Show that there no function h: 2. R satisfying the formula my AQ) =2, ln) = (on + DIF 4 to DP terns? DP torn 22 *§8 The Principle of Recursive Definition Before considering the general form of the principle of ecusive definition, fetus Hirst rove iin a specific ese, hat of Lema 7-2. That should make the underlying ge [tthe proof mich clearer when we coasider the general ease. 'So, given the infite subset C of 2, let us cose he fllowing recursion fo. mula fore function hp» C lest element of C, sles element of (C — A(t, Il fori >t ‘We shall rove that there exists a unique function, —r C satstyng this recursion Formal, "The fist step isto prove that there exist functions defined on sections (1...) of Ly that aay (2): co) thee exit fanstion ft mae that sates () for all ints domain Lemma 81. Given <2, we ‘The Principe of Recursive Definition $3 Proof _‘The point of his lemma is thatit sa statement that depends on therefore, it Is capable of being proved by induction, Let be the sto ll n for whic the lemma holds. We show tat 4 isinducve. I thn follows that A = Z. ‘The emma is tue form = I, singe the function f : (1) —> C defined by the equation fit) = set eement oF © satis (4). Supposing the lemma tobe true form ~ L, We peeve ite fr. By hypothesis. there isa function J" {L,....m— I] —> C satistying (x) forall in ts domain Dafne F(a] by the egatone FO ASG) Feed eset} Fn) = smales clement of [C ~ fC DI Since isinfnite, ft not sucective: hence the set C= f'((,....m =H) sm emply, and fn) is well defined. Note that his definition isan acceptable one; t does sot dain fin tems of ie bat in tems ofthe given funtion f tis easy to check that f satisfies (0 forall in its domain, The function f satis (forts m1 Because i equals "Ihe, And J sashes (9) for = 9 because, by definition, a) = smallest element of IC ~ fl. m ana =H, nat . Lemma 82, Suppose that f= (1,-...n] + C and g = [1,-...m) C both ste (2) fr all in thee respoctive domaine. Then fi) — g() forall in both Aonains. Proof Suppose not. Let be the smallest intege for which f(2) gi). Te inte- {ge isnot F, because {UL = sas element ot © = a0, by (2). Now forall j< i, we have /(f) = g(J). Because f and g sats (+), Fld) = smallest element of (C= f(y. ID i) ~ sae! lew of [C = (Uys = BD imee JUULeaagt =H) glee Ui), We nave JU) = gl), conay to the hoe of .54 Set Theory and Logic cnt ‘Theorem 8:3. There exists « unique function h = E+ C saistying () for all jek. Proof, By Lemma 81 there ens fo ech function that maps (2s --ym} ato © land sas (+) forall im its domain. Given , Lemma 8.2 shows that his fune= tn is ungues two such functions ving the same doman mus be eyua Let (x) =» € denote this unigue function, ‘Now comes the crucial step. We define a funtion h : Zy, > C by dehinng i fate to be the union Uf the rls of the funtion fs. The rule for fy is. subset of Ties n} Ce therefore, U ia subset of 2, > C. We must show tht U isthe ule ura fasion = By — C “Thais, we must show that each element i of Zy- appears 2 the fst coordinate of exactly one element of U. His ey. The seg iy in te domain off if and ony ifm > 1 Therefore, these of elements of U of which iis the first coordinate is rcisely the set fall pies of the form (i, fq()).10r > ¢, Now Lemma 8.2 eis ws Fat fa = foi) ifm, m > i, Therefore al these element of U are equal: thats, there isonly one element of U that has as it frst coordinate. “To chow that satis () ial easy i's consequence ofthe folowing fats: Wiy= fei) fori cn, “a sites (fo al ints domain, “The proof of uniqueness is copy ofthe prof of Lemna 8.2 . [Now we formulae the general principle of recursive definition. Thee are no new ideas inolved in its poo, so we lave tas an exer ‘Theorem 84 (Principle of recursive definition). Let A be. set: lta be an el dt of A. Suppoos p is funtion that asione to each function mapping 2 nonempty section of the positive integer ag A, an element of A. Then there exis & tunigue fureion bid st at fly =a, Wi) = a(bM eos) ford > 1 “Te formula (¢) is called recursion formula for h. It species R(), and it expresses the vale of hat > Li terms of the values of for pitve integers Less than EXaMPce |, Let show that Theorem 83s a pei as of his theorem, Given he fash of Zlatan ete salt lamer of Cand deine yt emition © pl) = smallest element of (C~ nage eto. * ‘The Principle oF Recursive Definition 5§ esa Cite af oa ming i iC image mcafee» vel een yon een fates a> Cosh th) seid ort a) =i. =U) ral claea fC Gage tt malate of[C~ileat =I dese, ExaurLe 2, Giena € Reino n te exe fH, by te cin esha Tame mde iio 2 pry at Na), Wanye et Sn emt of Rand tne py Siete if'= Fon eae fies Thnetio a eho A= a Hi) = pty ost = UD ford = itm a A) = aa RE) = R= Da ford > Lene A by a we ss dese, Exercises A. Let (bys...) be an infiite sequence of real nu sum s ‘etn indo ain ane Yo 7 form Ue) Lette the set of real nubs: choose ps that Theorem 8. apis define this som eigorounly. We sometimes denote the stm Sot By the symbol bb ba be tbe ae56 Set Thoory and Logic cur 2. Let (by, bo,-..) be am infinite sequence of reat numbers. We define the product by te equations Te Use Theorem 84 to define tis produc rigorously. We sometimes denote the product | [f= 6 By the symbol 022° 4. Obtnin the definitions af of anda! form € Za spel cases of Exercise 2 4A. The Fibonacci numbers of nunber theory ae defined recursively by the Forma 1 fecttheet form > 2 Define them rigorously by we of Theorem 8 Show tht them is nique Function h : Ze > Ry satisfying the formula mays, na) = TAG =U ford > 6. (a) Show tat there sno function h : Zy > Ry stsying the Formula A= 3, i) =e —1)— tor > 1 Explain why this example does nt violate the principe of recurve denai- (&) Consider the recursion formula Aye, tau = ty = eR Ba s ani) 51 ao fori > ‘Show that thee exists a unique function = 2 —> Ry. satisfying this fore ml 7. Prove Thawren Bo, Verify the following version of the principle of recurve definition: Let A be {set Lat p bea function assigning to every fonction J mapping a section Se (7, ints A, amelement n(FVot A. Then there is aumiguefuetion hy > A 9 Innate Sets and the Axiom of Choice 37 §9 Infinite Sets and the Axiom of Choice We have already obtained several criteria for ase to be infinite. We know, for instance, ‘ata set A is inne if tas a countably inte subse, ori there sw ijection of witha proper subse of isl. tums out ha either ofthese properties is sufficient to charactenze infinite sets. This we shall now prove. The prot wll lead us ito a liscusson of a point of lone we have not vet mentioned—the axiom of choice ‘Theorem 9.4. Let A bea set. The Following satconnts about A arc equivalent (U) There exists an injective faction f se + A. (2) There exss a bijection of A with proper subset of sel 0) Aisin. Pm We pre he ieplications (1) = (9) <5 (9) (1) Tepe that (1) = (2, ‘we asume there sa injective function f : Zy —» A. Let the image tet F(Z) be enoted by B and let fl) be dented by ag Bocsuin f is ince, a ty if nm. Define eA AR lah bythe equations focay © 2, focx € AB. ‘The map gis indicated schemarcally in Figure 9.1; one checks easily hati is @ biseton. A AAA a Figure 3.1 ‘The implication (2) = (2) is jus the consapositve of Corollary 63, soit has already been proved. To prove that (3) => (1, we assume Mat is ing and consruct “by induction an injestive fonction f: Ze > A Fst, since the set isnot empry, we can choose a pint uy of As define f(1) 10 he the pint sn chosen ‘Then, assuming thar we have defined f(1),..., fn—1), we wish to define fn) These filts-vym Upienotempey lorie wore cepts themup f (Eo om 1} > A would bea sujetion and A would be ite. Hence, we can choose an‘58. Set Theory and Logie cht element fhe set A ~ fl, ~ ) and define fn tobe hs element. “Using theindiction principe weave dened train € 2, tis as to seth fs injective. Fo suppose that m ‘But tis as not an acceptable recursion formu a ali! For u does nox dene 1) sigue in terms of f[1,--..i = 1). in this espect tis formula dies notably from the recursion formula we conse credin roving Lemma72, There we had an infinite subset C of Z.,and we defined bythe formula ay A ” smallest clement of lla cketent of [E—A((Ty o-oo WY) nd = “Tis arma does define Mi) uniguly in terms of if. Uh “Another way’of seeing thar (+) i aot an accepable recursion formula sto note that tit were, the prciple of recursive definition would imply tha there is a unique function f = Z, — A satsying (). But by no setch of the imagination dos (4) specify f uniquely, In fac, this “definition” of fimvalves infinitely many arbirary "What we ae saying is thatthe prof we ave given for Theorem 9.1 i not atually 4 prook, Indeed, onthe base ofthe properties of set theory we hve sess pts row isnot posible to prove this theorem. Something more i neded. Previvuly, we desuibed vertu definite allowable methods for apeciying set (1) Defining set by Fisting its elements, orby taking a given set A and specifying & subset 8 of i by giving a property thatthe elements of Bare tsaisly, slomente of piven cnliction af et, ce (2) Taking unions or iterations of taking the diference of two ss (3) Taking te se oF a subsets of a ven se (4) Taking cartesian products of st, [Now te rl foe the Function f is elly aot: a subet of ZA. Therefore, t prove the exstnse of tho function f, we must const the appropriate subset of ZA ‘sing theallomed methods for forming sets. The methods already given sirply ae not, ‘nloyiale fr the purpine. We nocd anew way of wailing the cabanas ofa set So, \we add fo the listo llowed methods of forming ses the following: » Innate Sets and ne Axiom of Choice 59 Axiom ofchoice. Given colecton of disjoint nonempty sets, there exists aserC lomsstng oP era one clewcat oneal client of A at iy a set C sus aC |s contained in the union ofthe elements of A, and foreach A A the setC 11 contains 3 single element ‘The set C can be though of as having besa oblaned by choosing ons element from each ofthe sets in A, "he axiom of choke cenanly Seems an imnocent-enough assertion. And, 1%, ‘most mathematicians today accept ita prof the set theory on which they base their mathematics. But in year pasta good deal of controversy raged around this particular assertion conceming set theory, fr there are theorems one can prove with is ai that ‘some mathematicians wer reluctant to accept. One such isthe well-ocerng theorem, ‘which we shall discus shortly. Foe the preset we shal imgly seth choice axiom to clearup the dficulty We mentioned in the receding poot. Fs, we prove an easy senso uf he aah of nine Lemna 92 (Existence ofa choice function). Given a collection B of nonempty 28 (no acess isin), there exists function oa—Ue su mato) an semen of Forsch Be 8 “The function of clled a choice fuetion forthe collection ‘The diference between ths lemma an the wom of choice i that in thi emma lhe sets of the colleen 2 ate wot veguzed 1 be disjint. Tor exauple, ve cat allow tobe the colleton ofall nonempty subsets of a given set Proof of he lemma Given an clement B of 3, we define set B as follows = (8,0 [xe Bi. Thais, B the collection fal ordered pi, whee the ft coordina of he dred tir the set Band te second coon isan clement of B. The st ia subset ‘the cartesian product axUe. ‘Because B contains at least one element x, the set BY consis a east the element (8,2), 30 is nonempty ‘Now we cli that f Band By ace two different sts in, then the comresponing se an Bardo. Forte yal lene of sap of te om (B.) nthe spial clement of Bina pai he Ferm (2, 2). Ne two such be equal, for their fis coordinates are different. Now let us form the calles (e'|pe oh(60 Ser theory and Loge cn itis collection of dint onempty subsets of axUs Ry the hie avo, then etc consti of excl one element am each element of. Our cai htc tele for he dese choice Function. Inthe replace, frauen of aeUa In the second place, ¢ contains exactly one element from each set B; therefore, for etch fe 3 the sel ccrntsine onal one onder pie (Rx) whose fst coordinate 18. Thus cis ined te le for afncin fom te coletion 3 hese Yoga 8 aly if (Dy) ee, then x belongste B20 that e(B} ¢ 8,25 desired 1 second proof of Theorem 9.1. Using this lemma, onc can make the proof of ‘Theorem 9.1 more precise. Given the infinite set A, we wish 10 construct an injective function f : Zy —> A. Let sor the collection 8 of all onempry subsets ofA. The Jemma ist proved asserts the existence of a choice funtion for 8 thats «function oa lle such tat 6(2) € # foreach B&B. Letun ow define function f : Zp — Aby the recutson formula Fal) = ela), ” PO =CA~ Hest =H) EEA Because A ws mate, the set — Jt{4y---e1 = b)) is nonempys there eight ‘Side ofthis equation makes sense, Since this formula defines f() uniquely in terms of Filts..ssi I) the principle of recursive definition applies. We conclude tat there xi ime into F: Za > A span 9 forall € Zn off follows as before. Having emphasized tat in order to conseuct a prot of Theorem 9.1 tha slog tally cotet te aunt wake apie wee of # cigs fonction, we pow beslaraek and ‘mic at in practice most mathematicians do no seh ting. They go on with a0 {ualms giving profs Uke our at version, prools hat involve an inate aubec of ftitary chokes. They know tht they are realy using the choice axiom: and they know tht i it were necessary, they could pot their pros into a lorclly more sat isfctry frm hy introducing a choice function specifically. But usually they do not bother "And neither wil we You wil find fw Further sperifie nors a choice Fantom inthis book: we shall inode a choice funtion only when the proof would become » Inge Sees an te Antom ur Cice 64 confusing without it. But there will be many proofs in which we make an infin number of arbitrary choices, nd in cach uch cae we wll ctl Be wing the choke axiom impli. ‘Now We mst confess that in an earlier Section of his Book here 8 proof in which we constructed a certain function by making an infinite number of abiary choices. And we sipped tat proof in without even mentioning te choice axiom, Out Spalogies forthe ders, We lve ito yo to ferret cut which oo twas! Let us make one final comment on the choice axiom Thee are two forms of this axiom. One can be called the finite tom of eho; asses tat given finite collection of disjoint nonempty sets, there exists a Set C consisting of exactly one flement from el element uf A. One ess thin weak aa of the choice aio all the time; we Rave used it rely inthe preceding sections with no comment. No ‘eathematiian bas any qualms about the nite choice atom; 18 pat of everyone's Settheor Said itferetl, no one has qualms about roof tat involves only intel ‘many arbirary choices. “The rongee frm ofthe aio of choice, the oe ha applies oan arbitrary cole lection 4 of nonempty sts, is the one thats properly called “the axiom of choice” ‘When a mathematician write, “Thi poof depends onthe ehiee axiom," evar bly this stronger form of the axiom tht meant. Exercises 1. Deine an injptin map f= Ze XS whee X i the two-lement st (0.11 ‘without using the choice axiom. 2 Find if possi a choice funcuon foreach ofthe following collectons, without sing the choice axiom: (a). The collection <4 of noneropty subsets of, (6) The collection of momempty subsets of Z (©) The collection € of nonempty subsets ofthe rational numbers Q. {) The collestion D of nonempty subsets of X, where X = (0 1) 3 Suppose that A is aset and (faye, iba given indexed Cun of injective func ‘ions Fa (yeaa) A, ‘Show that A is infinite, Can you define an injective function f= Zy + A without wing the choice axiom? 44. There was a theorem in §7 whose proof invlved an infinite numberof arbicary choices. Which one was it? Rewrte th proof so as to make explicit the use of the choice axiom. (Several ofthe ear exercises have wed the choice sx also.)62 Ser Thooryand Logic cht 5. (a) Use the choige axiom to show tht if: A + B issurective, then f has a right inverse hs B—> A (&) Show that if f A —> Bs injective and A isnot empty, then f has a et inverse. I the axiom of choice needed? 6 Must of the Fame panulonce uf wave net diery ave ates in sone Way x ‘ter wit the concept ofthe "et fall es.” None ofthe rules we have given for forming sete flows us fo conse seh a et, And oe good reason-—the concept ise self.contadctory. For suppose that A denotes the “set ofall es.” {a} Show that (A) C a; derive a contraction, (©) (Russel paradar) Let B be the subset of A consisting of all sts ha are not elements of themselves: 2 (A | Ae Aand A € Al (OF cous, there may be no set A Such that A € Az AF SUC is the ease, then Ba) be B an client of itself or not” 7. Let A and # be two nonempty sets, If there i an injection of B into A, but no Injection of into B, we say that A has greater cardinality than 2. {@) Conclude rom Theoret 91 that eoery umenntaheset hie preter cating fy than 2. ‘Slav dha i At rents cana than B, and B has gecter cardinality ‘ham C them A fas rear cardinality than (e) nda Sequence 4, ,-.— of infinite sets, sue ar foreach m © Ze, the Set ag has greater cardinality than Ag. (@) Find 1 set that foc evey bas cardinality greater than Ay “8, Slam dat (2) tl tvs the sae cardinality. (ies You may wc the f thar every real number bas decimal expansion, which is unigue if expansions ‘at engin an innit snng ot sare fortdden. ‘A fanous conjecture of set theory, called the conrinum hypothesis, asserts that there exists no set having greater eatdnality than Zand lesser cadality than R. The generalized continaus hypothesis asserts that. given the infinite S004, there is no set having grewer cardinality than A and lesser cardinality ‘han (A). Soprsinglyencvgh, hothof thor astertone hase Bren sho 1 be independent ofthe usual axioms for set theory. Fora readable expository scout 908 [0 » $10 Well-Ordered Sets One of he useful properties ofthe st 2, of postive integers isthe ft that each of ins ronempey suloet os w ould cine, Gaveretiing tin opty Feds to he concept of x well-ordered set 0 WellOnieredSess 63 Definition, A set A with an order relation < is sud 10 be well-ordered if every nonempty subset ofA has a males element. EXAMPLE 1. Consgerne se [1 2) ne tomar orden. Seber. ‘canbe represented as on nite sequence felled by another inne Sequence: abba. wn ie uogerstancing th a clement is thn every lea oe ight Fs atu so tha ery soarpty audit Co thor set as sale et TC conais any on oe cements og, We simpy fake he stabs erento DE intesection of C wth te sequence a3, wile fC cons wo ae, then 8a sec ofthe sequence,» and sb ha males element Exouinue2, Csi thet, 1 for b- B inthe dictionary order: then some section of is uncountable. (Indeed, the secon of © by any element of the form 2 % 6 is uneuuRIabie) Let $4 be the smallest element of C for which the section of C by $i uncountable, Thea lt A consis ofthis eon along with the element 2 . [Note tat Sa is an uncountable well-ordered set evry section of which i count he. order wpe is in fat uniquely determined by this condition. We shall call t= minimal uncountable well-ondered set. Furthermore, we shall denote the well-ordered set ~ ig [2 by he syed 3a (for sean toe se late). “The most well property ofthese Sa for our purposes is expressed in the follow- sng theorem ‘Theorem 103. 14 isacountable subset of Sq, then A as an upper bound in So. Proof. Let A bea countable subset of Sp, For each a © A the section Sy is count: able. Therefore. the union B = |e. Sv is also countable. Since So is uncountable the set B is nc all of Sq: etx be 4 point of Sq thats notin B. Then «isan upper hound for A. Forty = for some ai A, then x Belongs wo S, and hence 0 B, contrary to choice, . Exercises 1. Show tat every well-ordered set has the least upper bound proper. no WotlOntered Sete 67 2. (a) Show that in a well-ordered set, every element excep the largest (i one frit) ha a immrint saceensor (o) Find a set in which every element hasan immediate sucesso that isnot wellondered 13, Both {1.21 x Za and 2 x [1 2} ae well-ordered in the ditonary order. Do they have the same order pe? 4 fo Let Z- deawse the set of negative integers in the uel oer Show tha 2 simply ordered set fils to be well-ordered if and only if contains 3 Subset having me sme oder ype 8 2 {b) Show tat if Ais simply ordered and every countable subst of is well ‘oxdered, then Ais well-ordered. [5 Sow the well ending thaorem imlis the choice atom 6. Let Sq be the minimal uncountable well-ordered set (@) Show that Sn hs no largest element (6) Show that for every a € Sa, the subset x |< x) isuncountable (@) Let Xo be the subset of Sh consisting oF all elements such that has no immediate prdeestor Show that Xo is uncountable. 71. Let J be a well-ordered set. A subset Jy of J ssi tobe inductive if fr every aes, (4 Cn) ee Theorem (The principle of transite induction). I J 16 a well-ordered set an J iam inducive subse of J, then Jo = J (@) Let Ay and Aa be disjoint ses, well-ordered by <1 and <2, respectively ete anes ielatan vm Ay U Az by leting a < Beier if, © Ay and faci Boovita, be Az anda <2 b,orifa = Ay and b € Aa, Show that this {sa wellonderng. {b) Generalize (a) 0 an abitary faily of disjoint welFordered ses, indexed by a well-ordered set. 9. Consider the subset oF (2) constng of al infinite sequences of positive ine tegets x = (a...) that end in an infinite sting of I's. Give A the following fwser X= yWdy © Je aN x = yi fOr > Wecall hin the “aiiionary odes” on A {a) Show that for every there is a section ofA tat haste same order ype as (Z.)" in the dictionary order () Show Ais welhordered 10, Theorenn, Let J aid C be welordered sets: assume tha there i 0 sujotve function mapping a seston of J onto C. Then there exits a unique funtion hyd > € saying te equation © ay = smatest (© — W09168 Set Thy and Logi car foreach x J, where Sy i the section oFJ by Proof (@) IFh and & map sections of J, or all of J, into C and satisfy (2) forall xin thei respective domains how that hx) = Cs) fora. n both donuts () there exists funetionh: Sy —> C sasfyng (4, show that thceexstea Fanetion 5 Sy U fu) —+ C saistying () IER CJ and for alla K there exis a function hy | Sy —r C satisiving (6), show tat there eXsts a function ee U&—e satstying (@ Show by transite induction that for every € 1. thee exits» Fnction hig = Sp —» C satisying(). [fine IF f hasan immediate predecessor a then Sy = 81 (a} Tene, Sie the union ofall Sy tee (e) Prove te theorem 11 Let A and B be uo sets. Using te well-ordering theorem, prove that ithe they have the same cardinality, or one has cardinality greater than the the. int: Tt ‘ere sno sunection f 4" B, apply the preceding exercise] “$11 The Maximum Principte* ‘We have aicly indicated iat th axiom of chorce leas to the dep theorem that ev 24 setcan te well-ordered, The atiom of choice has oer conseauences that are even ‘more important in mathematics. Collectively cefewed w as "maximum principles" they come in many version. Formulated inlependenaly hy » numer of mater! sians, including F. Hausdorff, K, Kuratowski, , Bochner, and M. Zor, during the ears 19L4-19R6. they were wypically proved as sonsequcmces of te welling theorem. Late, it was realized that they were in fact equivalent wo the well-odering theorom. We consider several of sein hee First, we make a deiniion, Given a Set A, relation < on A is called a strit ‘mortal order on 1 as the following two prapecies (41) (Nonreflexivity) The relation « «never holds. @) Cransivity) a < band {0,1} by leting it assign the vale 0 49 1 if we "oa a in the box.” and the value 1 if we "throw ay away” This means that hn) = 0, and fori > 1, wehave Mi) = Oif and ony if i comparable with every element ofthe et (a) |j (0,4) Bis eany to chook thatthe set of those wy fe which hL)) = O ina axial simply ordered subset of A, IAs not countable, a variant of this procedure will war, we alow ourselves 10 se the well ordering theorem. Instead of indexing the elements. of A with the st ‘we index them (ina Dijetive Fashion) with the elements of some wellocdced set J, 50 = lay la € J}, For this we need the well-orering theorem, so that we Know there is bijection between A and some well-ordered set J. Then we can proceed as inthe previaneparneranh letting. eeplce iin the arpvenent Sry speaking, 0 ‘eed to generalize the principle of recursive definition to well-ordered setsas wel, bt ‘hat isnot partially difficult (See the Supplementany Exewises) “Thus the well-oering thearem implies the maxinum pincipe Although the maximum principle of Hausdoer was the Mt Be Commuted sd {is probably the simplest to understand, there i another Such pcnciple that is nowadays the one most frequently quote. Ie is popolry called "Zom’s Lem” although Ku- ‘atowski (1922) and Bochner (1922) preceded Zomn (1935) in enunciating and proving ‘version oft. Fora history and eiscssion ofthe angled history ofthese ess, se (C] or (Mo To sate this principle, we need some temincogy Definition. Lee A be ost end et ~ be eatit partial onder on A. If B i a abet ‘of A, an upper bound on B isan element c of A such that for every in B, ether 1b = cord ~ ¢. A maximal element of A's an element m of A Such Mat for no clement a of 4 does the elation m 6, Using exercises Land 2, show that J Is the onde ype of Eo seston of E. (in: Choose ey € £, Define a : J —> E by the recursion formula N(Se) sa section of hay smalls (E AGS AS) snd Ma) — cy otherwie, Show that Ma) = 2a) for al a conctude that Sq) # & forall a] 4. Use Exercises 1-3 to prove the following (a) If A and B are well-ordered ses, then exactly one ofthe following thee ‘ondtons holds: and 2 have the same order type, or 4 has the onder Spe fs cction af foe R hae the onder type fx eention nf A. (Wnt Foe 4 well-ordered set conning both and Basin Exercise 8 of $10; then fool the poceding exec} () Suppose that and B age well-ordered sets that are uncountable, soc that ‘every section of and of B iscounable. Show A nd B have he vane ner ‘ype 5. Lat X be ase; let be the collection ofall pics (A, <), where Ais a subset OF and ~ fea well-onlering of & Define aac iE (A, <) equals a section of (8, <). (@) Show that ~isa ste partial order on A. (6) Let bea subcolection of thts simply oxdeed by ~, Define Bw be the union ofthe sets B, for all (2, <) € 8; and deine <'to be the union of te relations forall CR.) RS that (Rc ea wellneeret set. 1. Use Exereses 1 and > co prove he fitowing Theorem, The maximum principle is equivalent othe well-odering theorem. 7. Use Exercises 1-5 to prove the following: “Theorem. The choice arom is eqivaen! othe weil-orering theorem. Proof, Let X be a set let ¢ bea fixed choice function for the nonempty subsets GERLIPT isa ult of X and = isa clation 90 7, we say that (7, =) oa tower in X if < isa wellordeting of T andif foreach x ©, reek SAT),14 Set Theory and Logic cot where S(T) is the setion of T by (@) Let (Ty =) and (Ta, <2) be two wwers in X Slow that ier dese wo cred ses are the sme, orone equals asection ofthe othr, [Hint: Switch ing indies if necessary, we can assume that T; —» T is oder preserving snl h(T)) equal either To ora section of Ts. Use Exercise 2 to show that hay = forall x] IFT, =) atom (7, 2) isasection, (6) Let (Th, sole eK) be the collection ofall towers in X, Let T-Un om == Yen. ae a in X an TX, ch thee eater in X af which Show that (7, <) ipa wwerin X. Conclude that 7 = X. 8. Using Exercise | 4, consist an uncountable well ordered eta follows. Let ‘Abs the collection of al ats (4, ~), where Aisa subset of Z, and < isa well ‘Grdcring of A. Ge allow A to be expt.) Define (A, =) (As = F(A =) and (A, have the same order type. It stevia to show this san equivalence relation, Let [(A, <)] denote the equnalence cass of (A, E by senting f(x) = (5,(A),restition of <)] foreach x € A) (Go) Conclude ha Eis well ordre by (@) Show that E is uncountable, (Hin: Ih: E+ Z isa bition, then h ives tne Wa welladesing of Ze) ‘This same argument, with Z, ceplaced by an arbiary well-ordered set X, roves (without use ofthe choice attom) the existence ofa well-ordered set E whose cardinality i eater han that of X ‘This exercise shows that one an construct an uncountable well-ordered st thence the minimal ecnntahlewell-olered st hy an explicit constuction that doesnot ue the choice sxiom: However, hs esl i ess imevesting than Imight appea. The crucial property of Sq the ono we use repeatedly the Lact that every countale subset of Sq isan upper bound in Sn. That fact depends Inurm, on ue fat dat a coun onion vf eae ses councble. Ate the [oof of tha esl (f you extnine it carey) involves an infinite numberof abitary choices—that st depends onthe chorce axiom, Sid ferent, without the choice axiom we may beable to construct the minimal uncountable wel ondeed set, but we ean’ set for anything! Chapter 2 Topological Spaces and Continuous Functions “The concept of topological space grew out ofthe study ofthe rea ine and euclidean pace and the sty of continue fctons a thea spaces. In hie cheer, we dee Be what topological space is, and we study a number of ways of constructing 3 fel on 2 et 9 9 the tala wplgal spine. We also cousider some ofthe elementary concept associated with topological spaces. Open and close es, fmt pomts, an continuous tancuons are nioasced as natal genealzanons of me ‘corresponding ids forthe real ine nd eveldean pce. §12 Topological Spaces “Te dei of « Wpuloeal spe Ua is wow standard as 2 Lng tne i Bi fomulated Vatous materoticans—Fréchet, Hasan atere-proponed di {erent defntions over period of Years during the fst decades ofthe center cen- try, bu i ook quite a while before mathematicians sted onthe one that seemet ‘most suitable, They wanted, of couse, a definition tat was as broad as possible, so thar it would ince as Special cases all the various examples that were useful in mathematies—euclidean space, infnte-dimensonal eneldean space, nd function pases among thm bot hey ace wsnted the defion tbe mo enh thatthe ‘Sandard theorems sbout these falar spaces WOUId hold fr topological spaces in 1%76 Topological Spaces and Continuous Functions ey ‘general. This is always the problem when one is trying to formulate & new mathe atcl concept, to deide how general its definison shouldbe, The defini tially Setled on may seem abi abstr, bu 3s ou work through the various ways of con- structing topological spaces, you will et beter feling for what he concept means. Definition, A topology on a set X isa collection T of subsets of X having the totlowing properues: (1) @ and X are in. (2) The union of the elements of any subcolection of is in 7. (6) The intesection ofthe elements of any Finite suboolection of 7 isin 7. [Ase X for which a topology 7 has ben specified is called a topological space Property speaking, «topological space isan ordered pair (X, 7) consisting of a set X und aepuogy on Xcbut we oRen omit specie mention Of ifm conlsion IF i a topological space with topology 7 we say cata subset U of X is an ‘open set of if U belongs to the collection -. Using this terminology, one can say that a topological space isa set X together with a collection of subsets of X, calle ‘nen sts. such that @ and X ake both open. a such that arbivary unions and ite imersetions of open set are open. EXAMPLE 1. Let A pea moe-oementset Xo (ae), The te wy posible topologies 0X, some of which a indsated schemata n Fite (2-1. The diagram Inte upper gic mana comer indica he wpsigy in wane Ue spe Ses we ey (ab), (lean! (cl. The topology in he wpper lech comer cots oly and ‘wie apeog) ine lowerrighhal cates eta every Sse aX. Youn ge tet pslogies on X by perming 2, and Ge) DD @® Figure 21 From tis example, you cn se Mot even a deelemene Set as many dierent tepohops. But nr ety cllesion ot sbscts of Xie a tiplogy um X. Nevber a he tnlection inte a Figure 122 4 poly frinstance oe Topovogical spaces 77 ea) @® Fivure 2 EXAMPLE 2, _1EX ie any ct th colon of al shat of X i topology 60 XG tis Caled th ieee tology Te colton consisting of Kad 2 ony aoa topoogy ‘om Xs we shal liebe apology, oral ology Bxawres3. LetX ease 7 be the collection ofl uses U of X such ha XU ether nie ors al of X. Then 7 ia wpoogyon X, calle he te complement topology. Both X and & aren 7, sine X ~X istteand X ~ 2 allo XC) smindeved fan of nonempy cles oto show hat LU sin, We compete X-Ule= Mx -Wo. “Tn later seis ite bec cach ot X— Uy is ite. FU, Ue af monty “Te ter ee ne ion fie ss a etre, Site EXAMPLE 4. LaLX be ase: et; te de collection of all bse U of ¥ such at XU either econo oie of X Then Tie topology on X35 yn om heck Definition. Suppose tat T and 7" are two topologies ona given set XIE 7" 3 7. we say that ie fner than 7567" papery contains weeny that 7 ¥e rey {finer than 7. We also say that Fis eoarser than 7”, o strielycoarser in these 40 respective situations, We say T is comparable with F"sfeither 717 or 7 9" ‘This terminology is susested by thinking of a opolopcal space as bein some- thing like a truckoa ful of gravel—the pebbles and ll unions of colctions of ped- ‘es being the pen st I now we smash he pebbles nt smaller ones, the collection ‘of open sts hasbeen enlarged, and the topology, lke the gravel, is said to have been nae inet by the open “Two topologies on X need not be comparable, of course. In Figure 12.1 preced- ing, tne topology in the upper nght-hand comer i cy ner tan ech of the tare topologies inthe rst column and srt coarser than each ofthe ether topologies in the thd column. But itis not comparable with any of the topologies in the Second column ‘er terminology is sometimes used for this concept. IF 7 > 7, sorme math ‘smatcians would 24) that 7s larger than 7, and 3s omar than 7'- The ie ‘certainly acceptable terminology if nota vivid as the words fine” and “coarser178 Topological Spaces and Contanvous Functions on ‘Many mathematicians use the words “weaker” and “stronger” inthis contest Un fortunately, some of them (pardculaly ssaysis) are apt 60 say chat 7 is stronger than 7 if 7" > 7, while others (particularly topologists) are apo say that 7” is tweaker thin 7 in the same situation! TE you run across he terms “tong topology ‘or "weak topology” in some book. you will ave to decide fiom the context which inclusion i meant. We shall not use these terms in this book. §13 Basis for a Topology Foreachof the examplesin the precoding section, we were able to specify the topology by describing the emite ils To wpe slo, Uaually this i t00 iffcuk. Th ‘most eases, one specifies instead a smaller collection of subsets of X and defines the {opology in terms ofthat. Definition, I X is ast. a base fora topology on X is collection 2 of subsets of X (Galle bai elements) such thet (1) Poreach x © X,ther is atleast one basis element containing {@) If belongs to the intersection of two basis elements By am 2, then there fsa Ici element fy comtsinine xc that By C Bs 7 Bo 1 sates these two conditions, then we define the topology T generated by 3 as follows A suber U of X is sid to be open in X (that sto bo an lament of 7) if for ‘each © U, there ia bass element B eB such that x € B and B.C U. Note that ‘ach basis element i itself an elemento 7. vs comsider Some examples. EXAMPLE |, Let 3 te the cles fal circular regions esis of ies in he phn ‘Then sues hth contin or bass The second ond is sud ia Figur (31, tothe tpoogy general by 2, a subct U of he plane is open if ry In icin we rar eon cnn igure 12.1 Figure 132 as Basis fora Topology 19 EXAMPLE? Let 3 be the cllection ofall ectangulr pos (mers fren) ‘nthe pine, whee th ectneles tae sides pal the caine aes Thon 3° ‘ses both coton for buss. The seco condo iad ip Figure 13.2: (hscas, he canton iv because te mersestonof any tw ass lesen self ‘bess clement (orem) As we alse er, te bas generates he same tpg fomthe lane asthe ass ven i the resets exam ExaMMLE3._IfX is any wt he lltn ofall one-pot abt of X sa bs for fediscree poly on Lotus chock now thatthe colton 7 generated by the asi isi Fst 2 topology on X. IF is the empty ests he defn coniton of epeness aunnbly. Lewis, Xs, Sue fn each eX the is se bs Seen B containing «and conti in X. Now leu ake an indeed fail (Ualacs. of lees oa how tt o-Uv belongs to 7. Given x © U, thre is an index such that x € Ug. Since Uy is open, there isa basis element B such atx € BC Uy. Then x € Band 8 CU, otha 0 is open, by definition. "Now laa take svesemnts Uy and Ue of Fan show that U, Wz belongs to Given € Ui Us, choose a basis element 2 containing x such hat By C Ur choose dav ats chart Bz costing » ch hat Da Ue, The sso wnaliion Go a ‘eas enables us wo chooe a basis element containing x such that By C By 7 Bs See Figure 14.5. Then x © 3 and Bs C Uy MU, $0 Us 11 Up Belongs to 7, By hnition, nally, we show by induction that any Bite ntrertion H.-F, of ements (of 7 isin 7, This fact is vial for n = I; we suppose it tae form ~ land prove it foe, Naw I) MO Ud Dy180 Topological Spaces and Coninaous Functions a2 By hypothesis, U, ==" Uy belongs to 7 by the result just proved, the inter section of Uj MUqa and Cy ao belongs to T “Thus we have checked that collection of open sets generated by a basis 2 is, in facta topology. ‘Another way of describing the topology generated by a basis i given inthe fl Jowing lem: [Lemma 131. Let X beast; lt:8 bea busi fora topology 7 on X. Then T equals the collection of lf unions of element OF ‘Proof, Given acllecton of elntens of D, they ar als elements of 7. Because 7 isa topology, thei union is nT, Conversely, given UT, choose for each x € U_ ‘anelement By of such hat € BCU 1ten U = Uggy Br, 80 U equals unio of elements of 3. . “This tens states hat every open ct U in X'can be expressed as anion of brass elements. This expression for U isnot, however, unique. Thus the use ofthe term “basis” in topology dlls drastically from suse tn Une algebra, whete the ‘equation expressing a iven vector as linear combination of bass vector unique. We have described in two difeeat ways how to go fom bass co the topology ie generntec. Sometimes we nent ga in the reverse direction. from a topo} 10a basis generating i Here sone way of obtaining a basis fora gven topology: we shall oct frequently [Lemma 132, Let X be a topological space. Suppose that © is acoletion of open sts of K such that foreach open eo 17 af ¥ an each + in TF there isan element C ‘OFC sueh that x € CCU. Then isa basis forthe topology of X Proof, We must show that € isa bass. The fst condition for a basis i easy: Given Le . cince X i tell an open st, ther chy hypothesis an element C of © sich that © © °C X, Tochock te second condition, let x belong to C1 C2, where C fil Cp weclemenisof €. Since C; and Cy reopen, s0 8 C, Cz Thector, there exists by hypothesis an element Cy in € such that x € C3 C C1 Ce Let be the collection of open ses of X; we Must show kat se wpOlaEy 7 enerated by € eqals the topology 7. First note that U belongs to andi € U, then there is by byporhess an element C of € such that x € C CU. Tefollows that belongs the topology 7’. by definition. Conversely. f W belongs tothe topology 7”. then W equals a union of elements of, bythe preceding lemma, Since each element [OFC belongs to F and ie topology, W alee Belongs 7 . ‘When topologies are given by bass, tis useful to havea eiteion in ers ofthe mers fr determining whether one topology is ner than anotet, One stch criterion fs the folowing: 3 Basis fora Topology at Lemma 133. Let 8 and 2 be bases fr the topologies T and 7”, ¥ Then dhe following are equivaent: (1) 7 istinee than (2) For each x © X and each basis element B & 3 contiing x, there isa basis clement 8 such thax € BC B Proof (2) = (1). Given an element U of T, we wish to show that U = 7", Let ve U, Since 2 generates J, tte isan element 8 w sien that x € CU. ‘Condition (2) tells us there exists an element BY © 3! such hat x € BY CB. Then £8" CU, SoU ET", by definition (1) > Q). Weare given.x ¢ X and B ¢ 3, with x € B. Now B belones to 7 by dfn 7p ain 2: eine, 8 7”. See 7 by there ean lament = 8 uch that ve BPC. respectively on Sone stuns thi conoe hart osm “hich way oss de ila sion go? ey ak, Itty be eset remember if you recall the analogy between {opel spve als uch flu rove TI of ie pedbes A he Bas elemento the topology afer the pebbles ae stated ods the dst particles ate the bas element ofthe new opology. The new topology is er tan the done, and each ds pail was conned sie pebbles the eiterion ates EXAMPLE. Onecannow ce dhe colle of altar eon fe lane fesrncs sane pag selina veg nfs Pig 2d ‘aes pot” "We Sal eth etample mae foray when we dy eie Figure 124 We now define tree topologies on the real ine Ball of which are of interest. Defi 2. IF.B isthe collection ofl opem intervals in the eal (ad)=(ela te ene ith =~ e+ D waa cme a= ep S{tF EL Dea ce omen EXAMPLE 6 The set X = (1.21 <2 inthe dedonary orders anther examole of sm oneed st with a sles een. Deng 1 n By ay and 2 = n By By, We ca represen Xb) 403. 3bibe ‘Tae ole topology on X is ma the discrete topology, Mest one pot setae open, BA there san eeepon-~he ogi eth). Any open Set omaning by mus oan a Tsclonet about (Sie), nd ay ab ements ps lien equ Definition, 1X isan ondared ot, and it an element of X, tare ar four seats ‘of X that te called the rays determined by a, They are te following: (a, 400) = [|x > al, (osu) Beha Sale a, 400) = te | x2 a), (Cooval= be |x =a),1% Topological Spaces and Cominuows Functions nz Sets ofthe fst two types ar called open ray, and sets ofthe last ewo types ae ealed losed ays “The use ofthe term “ope euggests that open eays in X ar open sets inthe order topology. And so they are Consider, fo example, the ray (a, +00) It X has largest element by then (2. +20) el he bi lent (ay EX bas no larger element, then (a, +30) equis the union of al basis elements ofthe form a.) for x > a. I tthe ease, (2, 700) open. A similar argument epples tote ry (— 4 “The open rays, in fat, form a subbass for the order topology on X, a8 We HOW show Because the open rays are open inthe order topology, the topology they gen- trate is contained in the oder topology. On the other hand, every bass element for the order topology equal a nite intersection of open rays; the interval (a,b) equals tte inctvecton of (26,8) ad (ay 122) hie [ag Bama (a othe eve, are themselves open rays. Hence the topology generated by the open ay contains the caer topoiogy. §15 The Product Topology on X x ¥ IX and ¥ are topological spaces, theres standard way of defining 2 wpology on the cartesian product X x F. We consider tis topology now and study some ot properties Definition, Let X and ¥ be topological spares The produet topology on XY is the wpology having s basis the collecion 2 of al sets ofthe form Ux V, where U san open subset of X and Vis en open subset of. {tas chock that a basis. The fst condition is trivial, since X x ¥ is ise ‘basis element, The second condition is almost s easy, since the imersection of any to basis clots (= Vy and U2 Vie another hase element Por WL Vay Ua «Vd = (Us NUD) x WAV andthe later sets a basis element because U7 Up and Vi Vp are open in X and ¥ ‘espeatvety. See Figure 15. ‘Ne thatthe collection # i€ not a topology on X x Y. The union ofthe wo rectangles pictured in Figure 19.1, for aStanee, 18 aot a product of tw ae, 90 it cannot belons to B; however, it is open in X x ¥. Each ime we introduce a ew conesp, we shall yt reife ito the concepts that ‘nove Been previously intodced. Inthe present case, we ask: What can one Sy ifthe topologies on X and Y are given by bases? The answer sas follows ‘Theorem 15.1. 18 ia basis forthe topology of X and is bass forthe apology (oF, enue coleeion Da(Rxc| Re Bande Ee isa bass fr the topology of Xx ¥ a The Product 1opology on KX 1 Figure 15.1 Proof We epply Lemma 132, Given an open set W of Xs ¥ and a point x y (of Ws by definition of the product topology there iso basis element Ux V such that waxy eU nV CW. Decause and @ ae bses for X and F, cespectvely, we ca ‘choose an element B of B such that x € 8 CU, and an element C of © such that yECCY, Then x xy e Bx C CW, Thus ine covection 3 meets the cenon ot Lemma 13.2 so D is basis for X x Y. . EXAMPLE 1. We ave a sand topology on R: the oes tpoogy, The prada of ‘hs topology with set sealed the standard oplogy on BH = HI basa bs the collection of al pret of open st of Bb he hte jut proved tw at the ‘much smal collection of al pretuets a.6) x (ed) of open eas oR wl aso serve ‘abi for te topology of Each such seca be piste as thier ofa etangle ‘nie, Imus the stand oology on Xu he one we considered imap Pot 15. i terme of eubass, To his sonst eel to express the product top do this, we fst define certain functions called projections. Definition, Let x) =X x ¥ > X be defined by the equation mile yye let: Xe ¥ = ¥ be defined by the equation mils. y) =, “The maps my and 2 ne cle he projections oF X x F mo ies fst ane second factors, espetvey We we the word "onto" because ay and yar surjective (ness one ofthe spaces X or F happen be empty, which eve X = ¥ i empty and our hole discussions empty a wel. IU Kanope sunset of he eset "(U) i pecciy we e U XY, which isopenin XY. Similar if Vis ope in Yen ahW eX,{88 Topological Spaces and Continuous Functions cn which i also open in X x ¥, The intersection ofthese two ses the set UV. a Indicated in Figure 15.2. This fact ead othe tollowing theorem: ‘Theorem 15.2. The collection 5 = (ay U) | U open in XIU oes) | V open in 4s a subbasis for he product topology oa Xx Y | au igure 15.2 Proof Let 7 denote the prot typology an X x V: let” he the topology gene sted by 8. Because every clement of $ belongs t 7, so do arbitary unions offi Jnvescuins of eleemol fi. Tas 77 © 7- On the other hand, every bass element oe V forthe rpology 7 i inte intersection of elements of 5, ince apt nas" ux Wy), “Therefore, U x V belongs to 7, so that T Cat wel . §16 The Subspace Topology Definition, Let X bea topological space with topology 7. IEY isa subset of X, the ‘olection neleerd 18, topology on F, ales the aubopuce poy. With is topology, ¥ is called 3 Subspace of X open set consist fal iersecions of open ses of X with 910 The Subspace Topology a9 Wiscasy to see that Ty isa topology Kt eonians © and Y because e=¥no a Y=YoX, where 2 and X are elements of 7. The fat that iis closed under finite imersections fart unions follows from the euaton= MON A MON Yuen Uuonr, [Lerma 16.1. IF is. basis for the topology of X then the collection er wor | Bes) 13 avs forthe subspace topology on Proof, Given U open in X and given y ¢ UY, wo can choose an elament B of 3 suchthaty © 8 CU. Then y © BOY CUNY. Ifollows fom Lemma 13.2 that By Isa bass forte subspace wopolvgy ou Y . When dealing wih 2 space A and a subspace Y, one needs 10 be caret when ‘ne uses the tern “open set". Does one mean an element of the topology of ¥ or an ‘element ofthe topology of X7 We make the following definition: IF is a subspace ‘of X_ we say shar a set U is open in ¥ (or open relative to ¥) if it belongs tothe topology of ¥; his implies inpaticular hat itis subset of Y. We say that is open Jn X if tbslonge to the topology of X "There isa special situation in which every set open in Y is alb0 open in X: Lemma 162. Let ¥ be a subspace of X.IFU is open in Y and ¥ is open in X, then LW isopen in x Proof, Since U is yeu i ¥,U = ¥ FV for some set V open in X, Since ¥ and ¥ axe both open in X, 80s YV. . [Now let us explore the relation berween the subspace topology and the order and product topologies. For product topologies, the result i What one might expect; for rer tpologies 8 ‘Theorem 163, IFA iso subspace of X and B ia subspace of Y than the product {opology on A B isthe same as the topology A B inherits as subspace of Xx ¥. Proof, "The set x Vis the general bass element fr X x ¥, where U isopenin X 0d Vic open in V. Therefor, (7 ~ V) (A wR) ic the gener! basis element forthe subspace topology on A x B, Now Wx VyM(A x B) = (UNA) B).9 Topological Spaces and Continuous Functions cn Since UA and V 1B are dhe general open sts for the subspace topologies on A and B. respectively, te set (UMA) » (V9 B) isthe genetal basis clement Fr the product topology on A x B. "The conclusion we draw is thatthe bases forthe subspace topology on Ax B and forthe praduct topology on A.B are the same, Hence te topologies are the same. nw Ia X he an eed ein he ole onalogy. and let be a subset of X. The ‘exie elation op X. when restricted to Y, makes ¥ into an ordered set. However, the (aulingonfer topology on ¥ nood not be the same atthe topolegy that V inherit a Cesubspace of X. We give one example where the subspace and order topologies on ¥ fagte, and wo examples where they Ww Beaune 1 Concert cael ¥ = [0 1} ofthe rel ie Rin the suroaceoolony, “The subspace toplogy has bs alse fhe Form 2,8), whet (a, ) 8 an pen inves in Shae iva neo the flowin es (2.5) \FaandbareinY, 10.0) ifony Basia. (ol) only icin Y Yor if meter a nob sin (a.byny = ‘By deiton, ech ofthese si ope in, Bt st of the Sconand hid types are ot pen inibe ger epace "Noe tha tse st fr a bass forthe oer topogy on ¥. Thus we that inthe sete Y= 0 ence ens be of nr ay EXAMPLE 2. Let beth sue, 1) U2} of. nthe sobs apology on Y he merino, brant the erection of the ope et (3. 2) wah Y- Buti ‘Re ure opology on 7 he et (2] tno open- Any bass clsment ore orde topology fan hemi so te fr (else Yanda ahs this isan open ay ofthe ordered set Ifa ¥, then is ether a lower bound on Y ean upper bound on ¥ since ¥is convex. Inthe former case the st (a. +00) OY equals al of Yn the later case, itis empty. 'A similar remark shows that the tection of ths eay (90,) wih ¥ ie ether an open ray of ¥, oc ¥ itself, oc empty. Since the ses (a, +20) Y and (~00, 4) 0¥ form ssubbasis forthe subspace wpology os Fain siace eas wpe i Ue onde topology the err topology contain the subspace topology. "To prove the reverse, noe tat any open ra of ¥ equals the stersecton ot an open ray of X with soit is open in the subspace wpology on ¥. Since the open rays of ¥ ae a subbasis forthe order topology on ¥, his topology is contined in the subspace topoloey. 7 “To oid ambiguiy, et us agre that whenever X isan ordered St inthe oer topology and Y isa subset of X, we shall axsume tat Yi given the subspace ropology tales we pecially sate caberwise. IY is conver in X, thin inthe ame an the oer topology on ¥otberwise, it may not be Exercises 1, Show that if ¥ isa subspace of X, and isa subset of ¥, then the topology A22 Tapulrgical Spaces and Continuous Functions cn Inherits asa subspice of isthe same as the topology it inherits 38a subspace of 2. WF and 7" ae topologies on X and 7" is sre finer than 7, what ean you ‘iy abou the coresponing Subspace topologies on te subset "of x A. Consider the et ¥ = [=I 1) a6 asubspace of R. Which ofthe folowing sts ‘are open in ¥? Which are open in R? Azitiiekien, bai bcwicn, ei} sil <0, bidsi U then the product topology on X" x "is ‘nn than the proauetwopology on X= () Does the comerse of) hold? Justify your answer. 6, Show tha the countable collection ((a,0) xed) 1a < bande of x and x, respectively, (at ae dijo a7 (Closed Sets and Limit Points 99 ‘Theorem 17.8 Every finite poin sot ina Hausdor space X is closed. Proof ttsatces to show tha every one pot st (20) sed. HEIs. point of X tifferent from xo, then # andy have disjoint neighbochoods U and V, respectively. Since U does not intersect xo), the point x cannot belong tothe clore of eset (0) Aca esl the closure of the st (ol is 29) isl, otha itis closed. 7 “The cenit hat finite pin se be lose i infact wear than the Hane condition For example, the real ine Rin the finite complement topology i not 3 Hausdott space, but ts a spice su whic ait pot sets are closed. The conivion that nite point sets be closed has been given aname ofits own: itis called the) ax- Tom. (We sall explain the reason for tis seange terminology in Chaper 4) The T, axiom wil appear inthis book in afew exercises, and in just one theorem, which is the folowing ‘Theorem 17. Let X bea space satisfying the Ty axiom; let A be a subset of X. ‘Then the pont x1. imi point of AHF and only ieveryneighinutund uf x contains infinitely many pont of A Proof Wevery neighborhood of x intersects A in infinitely many pints itceninly intersects A n some pout omer tan x Hse sot «i nt poo ‘Conversely, suppose that + isa limit point of A, and suppose some acighbor- hood Uf intersect Ain only Hitely many points. Then U aso mtersets A ~ x} infinitely many points; It (xs...) be the points of UA (A ~ tx). The set Xa, sta) fs a open set of X, since the finite point set [a ...,m) closed; the Ue. tald Isa vcighbortood of hat interes assumption hax is imi point of A. 7 the set A= [eno atl Thi oteict the (One reason for our lack of interest inthe; axiom is the fact that many ofthe imecesting theorems of copology require not just that axiom, but the Tul strength of the Hanalorft axiom Farthermose. most ofthe spaces that ae important to mathe ‘matcians are Hausdorff spaces. The following two theorems give some substance (0 these seks. ‘Theorem 17.10. 1X 163 Hausdot space, then a sequence of pins WX eonvergcs ‘o at most one point of X. Proof Suppose that 8a Sequence of point of X that comerges tox. Ify #2. Tec U and ¥ be dsj negnbornoods of ¥ and y respectively. Size U contain forall but nitely many valves of, the set V cannot. Therefor, xy cantot converge wy, 7100 Topological Spaces and Continuous Pantin ce the sequence x4 of points of the Hausdorff space X converges to the pot x OF X, often write +n, nd we sy that xi the imi ofthe sequence ‘The proof of the following results left to the exercises. ‘Theorem 17.11. Every simply ordered sti Hausdort space inthe order topology, ‘The product of two HausdortT spaces i Hausdoet space. subspace of a HausdoriT space fon Hans space ‘The Hausdocf condition is gencally considered to bea very mild extra condition to impose ona topological space. Indeed, ina fst course in topology some mathe- ‘maticins go sofa aso impose this condition at the oust, refusing o consider spaces ‘that are not Hausdorff spaces. We shall not go this fa, but we shall cersnly assume the Howsdorff condition whenever ite aeded in a proof without having an quale bout limiting seriously the range of applications of the results. "The Ensue cos eof eles uf entra nian evan pte ot ‘topological space. Each time one imposes such a condition, one can prove stronger "eorems, bu ane its he class of spaces to win the theorems appl. Much of the research tat ha been done ia topology since its beginnings has centered onthe peob- Jem of finding conditions that wil be strong enough o enable one to prove interes ‘hennems ont epaces saitying those coins, and yet not sa tng tha they Hit Severely the range of aplication ofthe results. "We shall study a umber of such condition nthe next two chapter, The Haus doef condition andthe 7 axiom are but two of acoletion of conditions similar wo one other dh ate calle olectively dhe stpuraionusioms. Orbe soos neha de ‘countably axioms, and Various compaciness and connectedness conditions. Some ot ‘these are quite stringent requirement, a You wil Se. Exercises 1. Let € bea collection of subsets of the set X. Suppose that 2 and X ae in @, nd tat ite unions and arbitrary intersections of elements of Caren €, Show that the coletion T=X-cICee) topology on X 24 Show that if A in closed i ¥ and ¥ is cloned in X, the A x cloned in. 3 Show that Ais closed in X an B is closed ¥, then A x B isclosed in X x 44 Show that if U is open in X and is lose in X, hen U ~ is open in X, and Ay Wished in 5. Let X be an ordered st in the onder topology. Show that TB) (a), Under ‘what conditions does equality bold? uw Closed Sets and Limit Ponts 101 6 Lea, Band A, denote subsets of spice X. Hove the ollwing: (a) ac B.then A cB. © AUB = AUB. © Oar SU dy: give an example where cay fis. 1. Chie the following “prot” that Ay C Uda if Aa) is a collin of sein X and fx © Agu then evry aegiborhool U of x eect (Ay ‘it! must inset son Ay sothatx mustbeloge theo of some Ay Therefore = UA Let, Da Ay denote subst of espace X. Deteina whatber the flowing tions holds fan equality fl, detemine whether oe ofthe inlusons > cn (@ AnB= Ani. «b) PVA. woaeo 9. Le AC X and 8 C ¥. Show that in the pace X x Y Wea dxd 10, Show that every order topology is Hausdort 1 Stow dt de palit uf tno HausdoaT spaces is Hause 12, Show thata subspace ofa Hausdorff space i Hausdort 1B. Show thutX is Hausdorf if an only if the diagonal A = (x cx |x © X) is sovad in XX. M4 In the finite complement topology on R, 19 what point or points does the se quence ty = 1/m converge? 15. Sheth 7 axiom is equivaent tothe condition that fr each pi of points of X, cach hs neighborhood not containing the othe. 16, Camis te five pugs sR given in Exercise 7 of $22. (a). Determine the closze ofthe set K = (I/ |» © Z under each of these Lopoioges. (©) Which ofthese topologies satisfy the Hausdorff axiom? the 7; sxion:? 17, Consider the lower lnit topology on R and te topology given by the basis © tf Excise & of $13. Determine the coaire af he ites A = (0, J7) ad 1B = (02,3) inthese two topolones. 18, Determine the closures of te following Sunsets of me erdered sue: ‘A= lm) «01m € Ze) Bai(l=Wm x} ine Zs) Calexoi0crenh nx plocr ed emia l0~ <0.M2 Topological Spaces ant Cominuous Functions on 19, IA CX, we define the Boundary ofA by the equation Baa = AnH, (@) Show tha To and Bd A are disjoint, and A = Int AU Bd A. {h) Show that Ré-A = oF 2 A ith open and closed, (6) Show that J i open @ BAU = 0 ~U. {@) IFO open, ets hat U — ton Dy? Jcsily your 20, Find the boundary andthe interior ofeach of the following subsets of: (@) Aaiexy ly =O} () Ba [xx yix>Oandy £0) ( C=AuB (@) Dm [rw yw icra © Ealexy[0er=y <1) © Fate xy lx £0andy 31a) 21, (Kuratowsk) Consider the collection of al subsets A ofthe topological space X. ‘The operations of closure A'—> A and complementaion A+ X~ A ae func ‘ions fom this collection to sell. (@) Show that stating with agiven set A, on can form no more than 4 distinc “ote hy applying thee tw operate ehncesively () Finda subset A of init usual topology for which the maximum of 143s ‘bt $18 Continuous Functions ‘The concept of somtinuous fanotion ic basis to much of muthematie, Coptnuoue functions o the eal line appear inthe fst pages ofan calculus book. and continucus factions te plate wd in space Colom se fa Vela Mone geuesal Kis of continuous functions arise as one goes further in mathemutics. In this section, we shall, formulate a detintion of comtunut tat wil include all these as special ease, and we stall stdy vatious properties of continuous functions. Many ofthese properties are dec generalizations of things you leaned about continuous function in cleus and analysis Continuity of Function Let Xa Ve wpa spss Auction J. X-— isd be conan if foreach open sunset V of ¥. ese f-H(V)is an open bse of X. eclltbat J-"(V) he st Fal puns xo fo which J) € Vis emery FV does ot ier the mage set F(X) off ‘Contin of a funtion spends no only upon the funtion J tse, bat also on she topologies frie rnin rnge, If we witht empha hi fa, swe cans that / 18 continuous elarive to pei topologies on Xana Y. a8 Comino Fineions 188 Let ws not that ithe topology ofthe range space Is given by a basis then to prove conti offi fons show thatthe inverse image of every bass element isapen: The arbitrary open st V of Y can be writen as a union of bass elements =Us Then y= UB. sothat 1) i open if each set J~!(B) is open. Tf he opology on ¥ is given bya subbasis 8, to prove contimty off twill even ulfcet show thatthe inverse ign ofeach eubhnteolament agen: Th airy basis element B for Y can be writen as a fnite intersection Sy +++ Sy of subbasis feet alos fou the equation PHB = HSIAO F HS thatthe averse image of every bass element is open. [EXAMPLE I, Let ws considera function Uke thst stud in analysis, “ea-valved fact fat ibe” ROR In analysis one defies conti off via the “3 dfn” a bugaboo ovr the Years The ove) sunt of mass 'At one wold capes the sion and a ee Shivler To pow that or delsiton impish 8 dentin, or tancs, we proceed Siaows ‘Given in and givene > Ose ine ¥ = (ta), fag)+4) sam open set ‘he ange pe Be Tate, fo"EV 8 an open et ine dma pce . Beemer FTC contin the poi, it ona some bss clement (6) abut. Wechoos Ccvctieomlee tthe we tambo ya aad ag. Then ifr 2, the point tat bin (a8), otha (2) @ Ved fe) ~ fap < ae se Proving tat the edt impisour itn sn rer we eu 9 yu We sal tun ths example when we sadly MEE spaces. [EXAMPLE 2. Incalels oe considers the prope of conti oe many Kinds of fovetine, For ovampin, on io fein of the loi F:R FRE Gouvesinthe plan) FR eR (cvesin pace) 2 uneons fe, atom sel vb) JF2RE sR danetons Fe 2) of thee elas) JRE RE (ecto ls wu) in te pare), sch f them has noon of contin defined fort. Ove genes defation of cominaity Foc he esl ese: th fas ile consaoenceof neal heres mE ‘hal prove covering continuo fontonson prods Spoce ard on metic space.104 Topolgical Spaces and Continous Functions one EXAMPLE 3. LEC denote th set of ral rumbers it sual topology, and let Ry FRR the ei unetion; fx) = «for every real number x. Ten foo continous Fin the verse mage of he ope se To.) of Ke sal el, when i not open in Onthe oer hand, tb dent furcon RR ‘scominvus, because the inverse image of (2,6 sil hic open in Re In analysis, one studies several diferent but equivalent ways of formulating the ‘efniton of cotimity Some ofthese generalize to arbitrary spaces. and thev are ‘considered inthe theorems tat follow. ‘The familiar “e-5" definition and the “con ‘serge soquonce definition” de aot teary spaces they wil be eated wwe we stidy metic spices. raze ‘Theorem 181. Let X and ¥ be topological spaces; lt f: X —» ¥. Then the {allowing are equivalent (1) Fiseraianous. 2) Forevery subset A of Xone has f(A) © TWA. (3) For every closed set oF, te set -*() is eased in X (4) Foreach « © X and each neighborhood V of fx). ther isa neishborhood U of such hat (0) CV. Ifthe condition in (4) bods Forth point x of X, we say that fis continuous at ‘the point. Proof. We show that (1) =» (2) = (3) => (1) and that (1) =» (8) = (. D) + Assume dat fp comtnyus. Lt A be asubsot of X, We show that then f(x) € f(A). Let V bea neighborbood of f(x) Then fH V) isan open St of X containing ¥: it must terse in some poly. Then Vioersgcts (A) In the point fy), s0 hat f(x) © FCA), as desired (2) = (). Let B be closed in ¥and lec A = f-!(B). We wish to prove that A is closed in X2 we show that A= A. By elementary set theory. we have fA) IP "B)) CB. Therefore, if € A, sore fac FH cb sothat x € f-'(B) = A. Thus AC A, stat QU. Ler beam open eto F. Ser B hay y= py 2 XW) Now B isacosedsetof ¥ Then f-!(B) is closed in X by hypothesis. so that f"V) Isopen in Xs dese, us Continuous Functions 105 (1) G@), Let € X and Jet V be a neighborhood of f(x). Thea the set = f-1) ie nrightortond of + ach that FU) CV. “(4) =» (1). LatV bean open set of ¥let x bea pointof FV). Then F(x) €V, so at by hyp ae gird Ur of ach tat fs) & Than G, € FW). Wllows iat f-1V) canbe writen asthe union ion ss so tals open. Homeomorphisms Let and be topological spaces et fs X — ¥ beabijetion.Ibothte function f ae the inverse Function riyex ae continuous, then f 5 called a homeomorphism "The congion that J-* be continuous Says tat tor euch open set UX, the imerse image of U under te map fl: Y—> X is open in ¥. But the inverse Image of U under the map J ste same asthe image of U under the map J. See Figure 1.1, So nother wa¥ t define « homeomorphism isto say that tis a bjetive correspondence f /X-—> ¥ sich hat /(U) is open if and ony if U is open. ‘Tis emack shows that a homvomorpicm J 1X > ¥ gives we a jective cor respondence not only Berween X and ¥ But beeen the collections of open ses of X fnd of ¥- Avaresul, any property uf X dais cutie expressed io terms ofthe topol- ‘gy of X (thats in terms ofthe open sts of X) yields, via the comesponserc f, the ‘coresponding propery forthe space Y. Such a property ot X called a topological property of X "Yu may have tuiedin modem algebra the notion of an isomorphism between al- beri jets sich a ger ng Femarphiem active correspondence thot preserves the algebra Suctre volved. The analogous concep in topology is {hat of homeomorphns ite bijective corezpondence that poceres the topological ‘sricture involved Now suppose at fs X > san injective comms vip, whee X and ¥ are topological spaces. Let Z be the image set f(X), considered a a subspace of Y; then te function f": X —> Z obtained by estictng the range otf 1s byecuve. IJ” hannens to he «homeomoephism of X with Z, we say thatthe mip [ °X — Visa topological imbedding, or siply an imbedding, of Xo ¥. Figure 181106. Topogical Spaces and Continuous Functions cn ExaMeLe 4, The fiction / 8+ Rgivenby /(2) = 3e +163 homeoropism. Seetigue 12, we dene {> Rby the usin sore jo-0) gfe) = foal el mune «andy ‘hen ane can check easly that 480) FT comtnaty of fan a aia rest Iota ise ad ha from eau EXAMPLES, The fonction Fs (1,1) B defined by Fa=7 Isatwmeomoepis, See Figure 18.3. We hve aca note in Example of § that F [Signe me yrensing somespendene sinuses te function © eet Wy a» oon at “The at that Fis «homeomorphisms cn be proved ia wo ways. One way is torte hat tecaseFisorder preerving and sine, F eae ass eeent forthe oder oplogy in(- 11) ontoa bass loment forthe order ploy in Rand vice vera. AS aren Fs Euomataly a oaeororpis of (1, 1) with eth inthe order topology). Since the Serine ante oc oF ee, Fathom ott) wah diy eteet Figure 182 Figure 183 A sesond way to show F a homebngphism io se the comity ofthe algebraic uncon an he uae ot fncton 9 stud ll Fl ae nian. These ‘ao fair far seas. EXAMPLES. A bijective funtion f : XY canbe continuous without sing home ‘moms, One sich neon 8 Newey map Ky => H comer in Expl ‘Sotiris the following Lt § dnote the uni circle, bate y Leta yt a8 Cominvous Functions $07 considered 3 suhspce of the plane RE an et F:0.y—s! be th map denedhy ft) = (cos2er. net, Iefat at ijt na cont ts fll rom fair prpeties of the wigonometc fanetions. Bat the function" ‘Shor ominous, The mage ender J ote open set U = (0 |) oft oma, 1 m= stance sat ope int, fr he pint p = (0) isn ope set V of KE such hat Vinsi e710). See Figie 18. wr Figure 184 EXAMPLE, Comider the fnction 20.) oR lined from he faction Fo the pectingetamole by expaning tbe range, The map ‘Bamenample of comtncsnocve mop that nt an imboaing. Conctructing Continuows Fumetions ow does one go about constructing continuous functions from one topological space toanother? There ares number of tethods used in analysis, of which some generalize {to aritrary topological spaces and others do nt. We stdy fst some constrctions| that do hold for general topological spaces, dering consderavon of the others until ro ‘Theorem 18.2 (Roles for constructing continuous functions}. Ler X,Y, and Z be ‘opoogiel spaces. (a) (Constant function) IEF : Xr ¥ maps all of X into the single point yo oFY, then f 3 coatinuans (@) (lnlason) IFA i subspace of X, the inclusion function j : A > X is contin- (ed Composites) Wf: X > Y anda: ¥ + Z ae continuous, then the mip gofiX— Z iscomiouous108 Topological Spaces and Conrnuous Funetions cn? () (Resticing the domain) If f = X —» Y is comingous, and i Aisa subspace ‘OF; hen the resected function fA = A — Y18 continuous. (e) (esicing or expanding the tinge) Let f° X — Y he continuous. UZ isa Subspace of ¥ eontsning the image set j(X), then te function g : X —> Z ftralned by resting di sange of io ctinaoan 12 isa space having ¥ 2 ‘tsabypace then the function h : X'—> Z obeained by expanding the range of f (© (Lees formulation of continuity) The map f =X —> ¥ is continuous ifX canbe teiten asthe union of open sels U such hat is continuous for each Proof (a) Let f(x) = yo forevery x in X. Let be open in. The set /—'(¥) qual X of 2. depending on whether V contains yp oF non either case itis open Yo) FU is open in Xthen j-'U) = UA, which i open in A by definition of se zbepace opology {ey Lis open sn Z, then g~!(U) is open in ¥ and f~¥(g™'(U)) is open in X. ue Sey =o IW), by elementary stiteoy (The function JA equals the composite ofthe inclusion map j = A —> X and wemap f X=» batho which ae continous, (ele f 2X > ¥ be continuous 1F/(X) C Z CY, we show that he function 2 1 obtcned fom fie sontinuus. LotR be open a Z. Then B= 2.00 for Some open set U of Y. Because 2 contains tbe entire image et /(X), PU) =, ty elementary set theory. Since /~"(U) is open, 018") “Tothow b= X + Z i continuous If Z has ¥ asa subspace, note that i the composi ofthe map +X» ¥ and he incksion map js — 2. 1D By hypothe, we can urie X as union of open ses Un such that (Ui continuous foreach Let V bean open satin ¥. Then PW) ny = (fe), because both expressions represen the set of those poins x Lying i Cf whi Feri e V, Since flU is continuous, this eis open in Uy, and hence open X. But rly =Uurwones, ott f—!(V) i alo open in X . Theorem 18.3 (The pasting emma). Ler X — AUB, where A and B are closed inX. Let fA > Y andg ; B — Y be continuous. I f(x) = gtx) for every CAMB. then j and g combine to give a conanuous funtion h . X=» Y eft by sting h(x) = fla) if © A and h(x) = eta) if €B. a8 Cominvoms Funeions 109 Proof, Let C be a close subset of Y. Now IOS MOUEO), by elementary set theory Since fi continuous, f~!(C) is closed in A an, therefore, closed in A. Similariy. g '(C) inched iB sod Unvefone closed in X, Theis union F1(C) is thus closed in X. . “This torem also toi Aan ae open ses in Xs this is jus pect ase of the “ial formulation of continuity” rule given in preceding theorem. EXAMPLES. Letusdefine 2 funton A: — R by seting hey aff, OED, nls tare 20, och ofthe “ices” of his defiiton is 2 continous function, and they agree om the tveappne net ol hi domains, which i the one-point st, let Gomains ae ‘ised ne fonction hs conaus, One eed the “ees” ofthe function o ace ‘nthe overapsing prt of thee danas node to av a function tall. The equations > ber eo. (Leg? torr 20, for instance, donot fine function, On the oer had, one neds sme initations on these unl Bs gonaneecotinity. Th eqoatons i eae} focinsance. o define faction mapping Rito Rand Both of he pieces are contin ‘Bu! snot continues the terse mageot the opel (13), fr ane, the maopen set 10,1 See Fine 185, Figure 185110 Topolugea Spaces and Coatinuous Fanetions one ‘Theorem 184 (Mapsinto products). Let fA > XxY begivenby the equation $10) = (fla) fla) ‘Then fis continuous if and only ifthe Fanecons fiASX ad fe Ay “he nape sf ae called te coven fametine off Proof Letmy 2X ¥ =» Xand m2: XY — ¥ be projections ono theft and Second facto, spectively. These maps ate comiuoas. For x; (U) = U x Y and yl) = > Vand these ste ae open and V ate pen. Note ht for ech ae, fila)=m(f(@)) and fata) = mis. Ifthe function f is continuous, then f, and fy are composites of continuous func~ tions and therfore continuous. Convrely,suppoce that fy and fy are continuous. We show tht for each basis element Ux V forthe topology of XY. its inverse image MU x Vp s8open, A puinca ii f-4U x V) iCal oly if flay 0 «Yt if and only if fila) € U and fala) © V- Therefore, PMU Vy = FMW) I, Since both ofthe sets f;"NU) and f;"(V) ate open 50 their intersection. “There is no useful eiterion forthe continuity of a map f= Ax B + X whose lorsain sa proguct space. One might conjecture that 1 corinuous fits continuous Sach vathleceperately” hut hi onjectare snot re. (See Exercise 12.) EXAMPLES. Incalels a porametrised curve in the plane defied we acotinuous| tmap 7 o0] —= Rh esi expressed ie fonsn J) = (all (0), amd one freely ues the fet hat fa contouos ust oth x ad y are Sia, corel he ple reer) = Pla 9+ Ot 288 Us). OU8.99) ‘ead ta be conan iEDth ant Q are coainous functions or equivalent if oom pf BY ns Rh ofthe seen ae sey special Cs Of the prececing here, ‘One way of forming continuous functions tha used reat eal in analysis i 0 take sums, difeences, products, or quotients of continuous real-valued functions. Tt isa standard theorem that iff. X —> Rare continuous, then f+ g, f ~ g. and ok oe all We Shall consider faa continu, 4 f iis theorem in $21 we Cominuene Functions AML Yet another method for constructing continuous functions that is familiar from analysis is 0 take the Limit of an infinite sequence of futons. There i theorem to the effect that if sequence of continuous real-valued fnctions ofa el variable con- serge uniformly to imi function, then the limit function ie necenanly continous ‘This theorem is called the Uniform Limit Theorem. Its wsed for insane. co demon- strate he continuity Of e uigomumseic fations, whe uae defines dese Futons rigorously using the infinite seis definitions ofthe sine and cosine, ‘This theorem {eneralizes to a theorem about maps of an arbitrary topologial space X ily a mete Space ¥. We shall prove iin $2 Exercises 1 Prove thal fi faanions f RB do €-F defiition of contin pies the ‘open st definition, 2, Suppose that: X -» ¥iscomtinuous, If i alimit point ofthe subset A of X, iedtnecescny tue that (2) is init pot of FAY? 3, Let X and X denow a single st inthe two topologies T and 7, respectively. Let: A" — A be te ety tncton (@) Show thats continuous es finer than (&) Show that! a homeomorphism 4» 7 = T- 4. Ginen.cy © M and yo © Ys sbow thatthe maps fox > Xx Vande: ¥ > XY defined by ft x0 and gQ)= xy sue imbesdings ‘5, Show thatthe subspace (a, 6) of Rishomeomerphic with (0,1 andthe subspace [sb] of Ris homeomorpie with [0 1 6, Pind funtion f > B hats continuous t precisely one point. 7. (a) Suppose that f R-+ R is “contiuous from the right” thts, for each a € R, Show that fis continuous when considered 2 2 function from Ry oR. (@) Can you conjecture what functions f : R + R are contimous when con- sidered 2s maps trom R to Ry? As maps fom Ry to Ry? We sll return 19 this qucstion in Chapter 18. Let be an ordered et inthe oder topology. Let fg : X — ¥ he continvous (@) Show that the set [x | f(s) = a(2)] i elosed in X.112. Topological Spaces und Continuous Functions cna (0) Leth |X -+ Y bee funtion sy = min (2), g00) ‘Show tht his continuous. (Hint: Use the pasting lemma} 9, Let (Aa} be «sole of autmets of Xt X— Up des Let fi: o> Ys suppose that fa, is continuous for each (a). Show th ite collection |) sine and cara Se Ay s close. then fs (o) Find an example where the colleston (4) is countable and each Ay is closed. but fis not continous (e) Am indened arly of ss [yi sid tobe locally finite i each point x of Xs nighborbod thar intersects, for ony italy many values of fa Show that f the family [Ai loclly Brite apd each Ay is closed, then of reomtaaens 10, Let f : A+ Band g : C+ D be continuous functions. Let ws define # map fx giAxC + Bx Dby teequation (f «pla x)= fla) x 800 ‘Show that f ¢ 8 continuous MAY + 2, Wesay that Fie continuous in each variable eeparately if foreach pin Y.the map h: X —> Z defined by hx) = F(x y) is continuous, find for ew in X, the wap hs Y — Z debned by K(y) = Fo % 9) ‘continuous. Show thai Fis continuous, then Fis continuous in each viable separately. 12, et FR Bs Redfin hy the equation exited A) ite yt 0¥0 0 rx y=0x0, Fixe (4) Show that P ie contiuous in each variable separately () Comput the function g: R > R defined by g(x) = FUx xx) {6 Show that Pip not conincoas BB. Lat Ac Xs let f | A ¥ be continuous; let ¥ be Hausdoett. Show that if f may be extended toa coatinuos function g = A > Y, then gw unguely determined by F §19 The Product Topology We now return, forthe remainder ofthe chapter. othe consideration of various meth- ‘ods or imposing topologies onsets. Ho ‘The Product Topology ang Previously, we defined a opology onthe product X x ¥ oftwo topological spaces, Inthe present ection, wr generalize thi Afinon in owe general cresian poste, Soleus consider the cartesian products Nyx Xe and Xp x tc cml, is a apolagial spac. These ate tne posible ways te proveed Ome vray is tae a basis al es ofthe frm Ux ~~ Uy i the fist cae, ad ofthe form Us x U2 x» ute second ease, where U sun open set of; oF eae, This procedure does indeed define a topology on the cartesian product; we shall eall tthe ‘ox opotog. Anothor wav to proceed isto generalize the subbasis formulation ofthe definition, siven in $15. In tis ese, we take sa subbasi all set ofthe form n,*(U), where is ‘ny inde and Um open et of We chal cll this topology the produc tepetosy ow do these topologies diller? Consider the typical bass element 2 for the secu apology Wis fie inesetion uf sais eemcuts«"(U), say font fay coop as Then a point x belongs to B if and only if mx) belongs to Uy fori = 1. theee sno restction OF other vas Ot In folows that these two topologies agree for he finite cartesian prodvt and difer forthe inate product. Whats notclearis why we seem to prefer the second topology “This ithe question we shal exponen thie cecton Before proceeding, however, we sal introduce amore general notin of eanesian produc: So fr, we have defined sho cartcsan product of an indcxed family of ste fon inthe cases where the index st was the Se {I,m} ofthe set Z,. Now we ome he case whee the en seis completely abi. DDenniton. Let J bean dex se. vena set X, we deine 2 J-tple of elements (of X wo bea function x: J —> X. fa isan element of J, we often denote the value ff x ata by xy rather than x(a); we cll it the ath coordinate of x, And we often Aenote the fmston ihelf hy the symbol (talees ‘which isa close a we ean come 1a “tuple notation” for an arbitrary index set J. We emote the at fal J tuple of elements of by 7 Denton, Let [Aglyey be an indeed family of sets et X= Ugey Aas The artesian product of tic ndete ily. dented by Ts is dened oe te set of al ples nas of elements X ssh ht A for cachare J. That ts thst of al fncons ad Uae soot (a) € A for cacho€ J114 Topological Spaces and Cominvous Functions cn (Occasionally we denote the product simply by [] Me, and its general element by (i) the index sats understood al the sets ae cual to one set X, then the eresian prot [yey Asis just the set! ofall J-uples of elements of X. We sometimes use “tuple tation” fo ‘he elements of X7_ and sometimes we use functional notation, depending on which is Definition. Let [Xaac Be an indeed fail of topological spaces. Let us tke as basis for aopooay vn the edt ace Tx the collin of al es ofthe fom []e. wher Us in open in Xq, for eachar€ J. The topology generat by this bass icalled tne bar tpotoy “This lla sts theft sndton for abaishreate [Xa iit als clement, an it este second condon becuse the intersection fan wo basis lemeats nome sis element (eood] w= [env Now we generalize the subbasis formulation of the definition. Let ape | [Xe Xe te the function assigning to each element ofthe product space its th coordinate, plCeades itis eae te projetion mapping associated with the inde a Definition. Lets denote the collection 5 Up) | Up openin Xp), and et § denote the union ofthese collections, 5=USs ing ‘Tuctupotogy generted by the sbbasis $e called the produc tapaagyInshistop0! (ny Floss Xe i calle a product space. a The Pott Tpulogy as ‘To compare hese topologies, we consider the basis hat § generates. Th cole Lecion 8 ons ofall its intnectons of slamets ofS Itwe nome cleents telongng wo the same one of te set Sy, we do ot get anything new because mp Up)P.xg |p) = j"Up Vp: the imeretion of two elements of 3p, oF of fnitly many such elements, is again an cleueat of 3p. We got one vor only whe we lene event ete Set 5p. The ypc clement ofthe bass can tus be desrbe as folows: Let, ‘ae ante set of sunt ces Hom te index ean lt Uy, Bean open setin Xy ford = 1 ..n.m Then Beng Ug rag Upload isthe pica element of 8 [Nowa point x= (x) is in B i and only i its th coordinate is in Up is th coordinate isin Uj, ad 0 08. Ther sno restriction whateer onthe ath Coordinate ‘of cif isnot one ofthe indices fi... Ay. Asses, wecan write Bas the product, Te. where Uy denotes the entre space Ny if Bie» By “All his is sumumarzed in the fllowing theorem: ‘Theorem 19.1 (Comparison ofthe box and product topologies). The box ropol ‘gy on []X, ba 38 baa al ets ofthe fon [[ Us, whore Ui ie open in Na For each a. The product topology on [|X has as bass al es ofthe form [| Us, where ig is op in Ky Lo ele ad yes Ky excep or ily ay value of ‘Tow things are immnintly lear rt, for Fite pacts FT Xu the 180 topologies are precisely the same. Second, the box topology isin geseral finer than the prest opology ‘Whar is ot so clears why we prefer the put apology tothe bx topology. The ‘answer will appear as we Continue our study o topology. We shall ad theta aumber ‘of important theorems about finite produts wil also hold for arbitrary prada if we use the product topology, bu nt if we use the box topology. AS a esl, the product ‘topology is extremely important in mathematis, The box topology nat a important ‘we shall seit primarily for consrctng counterexamples. Therefore, we make the Telling convention Whenever we consider the product TX. we shal assume itis piven the product topology unless we specifically sae otherwise ‘Some ofthe theorents we proved forthe product X x ¥ hold forthe produc] Xq re mtr which iopogy we te, We it them here me of dhe est ae let he16 Topological Spaces and Continuous Funcions cn ‘Theorem 192. Suppose te pology on ech space Xe is given by abs Be, The olson Fal st he fr T% are Ba € Be freach wil serve abs for he Bx topology On yes Xe: he toon ef aloof he soe fr. Bo 2 fre any indo and Ba = Xa fll th ening ines, wil serve as bss rte rouse yey Ke kaneis Comidercanm spc. Afr 8 us ofallopeninervl ‘hse ta er ply sno al prec of he rm (oh) (an bn ln Since RY is a rite proc, he BOX 290 rode ops ee, Waves we st ‘der R we wil ssume tht ge tus toplo, unless we specially sae the ‘Theorem 193. Let Ay bea subspace of Xo, foreach a € J. Then [As is a _ltupace of [] et bul praduis ac give de Box topology, orf beth produ are ive the product topology. “Tmeorem 194, each space Kq i 8 Hauadoe? space then [].X. it» Henao? space in both the box and product topologies “Thewcem 19.5, Let(Xe) be an indened family of spaces: Int A. CX, foreachar If [1 Xa is given ether tbe produc or the Box topology hem nl Proof Letx = (x) bea point of] de; we sow tatx [Tg Let = [Ube atl clementforether pe bo o product oplogy ta coma x ince ¥ Aa fern rhe a point vz € Unt Aw foreach a. Then y = (ya) belongs to both Tad] Ae Sine U ibrar follows hat x belongs be closure o | A ae rposese ) fain the lose nf [A nether topology. We show tha fo any hen inden fs we Ave ry Ag. Lt Vy be an arbitrary open et of Rp conning sp Sacenz"(¥) is open [a in either toplog. it conn » teint = (00) fT 1An Ten yp Belongs Vp A. fllows tat xp € Ap. ‘Sof nn reso has apred for pefeting the product the box topology. is suhen we ry to generalize our previous theorem about continuity of maps into product Whee tata dierence fet anzee, Here fe theorem shat dae not bod i FTX 8 igen he box topology = [T+ 59) Te Pralvct Tylogy 7 ‘Theorem 196, Let f: A> Tlyes Ku be given by the equation F(a) = (felaoes whee fa © A —> Xy foreach a. Let [].Xq hate the pric topology. Then the Fiction fis eontnvou if and only ach fnction fy entinsoa. Proof Let rab he projesion ofthe produ ono its th act. The union is eoninuus, for if Uy is open in Xy be e-%;(U) sa subbasiselemene forthe product wplogy on ee Now suppine ht f°: A> [] a coninwous. The Tunetion fp equ the composite ny 0 f; being ke compass of two comin funetos, 8 comin. ‘Conversely, suppose that each conte function fz is comtinvos. To prove tat fi samtinus tse to rove tat theives image unde f ofeach subbass ‘leat sonen in A: we remark on hi fr when we defines continuas Funston ‘x typical subbais element forthe prod topology on [1X et of the form {nj WUp), wher pt some inde and Up ope in Xp. Now riage ip 'Wpr pectuse Jp =p 0. Since fp continuous, this seth open in A desired. ‘Why does this theorem fil f we use the box topology? Probably the most con- vineing thing to doi to ook aan example. EXAMPLE 2, Consider RY, he countably infinite prot of R with sel, Real that we []%, hee Xo Ribeeach Lets eins fnction f+ RY by he ution F012 Uo tto the mh corn onton off ste fection f() =. Each fhe cousin fnctons eR > His conunous eretore, te uneven fis coninvus IIs gWeR De roduc polgy. But fis st continoes if Re given the ox opolgy. Coser or ‘samp te oss eee fbx for the box topology. We assert that f-"(B) is tot open in R. MF f-'(B) were In wl cnn so col (9 sho es Tw Bat Fuecsshye Broo oping yt boise he clea, fal5,8) = (8.8) RY) tora, a conaaicun cLpeeh Dee118 Topogieal Spaces and Continuous Functions cuz Exercises 1, Prove Theorem 192. 2: Prove Theorem 193, 2. ve Theo 104 4, Show that (Xy x --- x Xq-t) x Xx is homeomorphic with Xy x + * Xn One ofthe implications stdin Theorem 192 BOGS fr te DX ey. Wt oe? 6. Ltn, beaseqnc oft if erat [Show at enseqcncoconege tthe put anon sh emorce (0) Rt Svea orate orca sth fst ref oe ues the Box tpobogy int ot te poss pm? 2. tar B ete sbst of onsiting of al sequences hare “evenly 280° ori auequmcs ase) seh hats Of onlin) many was SFr Wc tna in Re inthe oe ad rout toplogs? sly you ane 2 Ginen cents a...) a0 bby) el mamta with ay» Of Alltadefne hs R° > B by he eon Psi oo) = ane bya) how att Ris gen he produ opogy, fs Pomeomaphsm ot wit ist What pens if Riven be tel)? 9. Show that he bu anim is evant 1 the semen th for any indeed Tal (Aelec f onempy swt 0, theca foe Ts isc ey. 10, Le A bea set et (Xalaey be an ndond amily of spaces; nd Tet (fuer Be ‘indeed fail of fancons fA Ku (a) Show tere i unique cates topology 7 on A relative to which each of te functions fa is continous. ote Sa = Ufa'Us) | Upisopenin Xp), and et $= [J Show thar Ss a subbass or 7 {o) Show tata apg Y — A ecominus rive to 7 if and ony i each imap 0g is continous, (@ Let fA [] Xe be defined by the equation Lia) = (feteDoess lot 7 dence the sohspace F(A) ofthe product space P] Xa. Stow tha the Image under fof ech element of 7 san open of Z 20 ‘The Meare Typology uy §20 The Metric Topology (One ofthe mos important and fegucntly used ways of imposing aopology ona sais defi he vpology in tenn uf esac om the seu Topologies vei is way ie atthe heart of modem analysis, fr example. In this seton, we shall define the metic topology and shal give a number ot examples. In the next section, we shall consider some of the properties that marie ropoogies satis. Delisition, A medrie on a act X in function dX XR Ising de ating prope (1) d(x, ») 2 Oforall x,y € Xs equality holds and only if @) dex, y) =d(y,2) forall, y €X. 8) Meiangle inequality dle, y) | diy, 2) de). forall, 2 Given a meric d on X. the number d(x.» soften cll the distance between ad y in the metic d. Given € > 0, consider the set Bl.) ‘of al pints y whote distance from i lets than ¢. Ii alld the e-ball centered (25, Sometimes we omit the mctned from the notation and wrt this ball simply a8 ‘Bir, «), when n0 contusion wil ase, ly Lda) 0,18 basis fora topology on X, called the metric topology induced bye. ‘The fit condition for a basis is rival since x € Ux.) for any € > 0, Before checking the second condition fora bass, we show that sy i a pot of the basis flement B(x, <) than thre i basis element B(y, 8) conrad at» that i contained in B(x, ¢), Defie 8 tobe the positive number ¢ ~ dx, ), Then Bty,8) & Btx,¢), Reif By 8), dhe lye) ~ 2 — le, 9) Ta which we nik a aye) S dla yy) Se See Figure 201. [Now to check he second condition for ass et By and Bs betwo basis elements and lety€ By?\Bs. We have just sown that we can choose postive numbers 8 and Je 0 that Bly. 51) C Br and Bly, fo) C Bp. Leting & be the smaller of 8; and fs, we «conclude tht B(y, 8) ¢ By 0 By ‘cing what we have jst poe, can eps the defini of the metric ony as follows:120 Topological Spaces and Continuous Functions one Figure 201 [Ave Us upenin the metric tpotegyindnce hyd ifond only ifr oack ©, there isa 3 > O such tat By. 8) CU: CCealy this conton implies tht U is open. Conversely, if U is open, it contains ‘fais clement B= Byes,e) cnining y, and B in sum contains a hess element ‘Bu(y, 8) centered a, EXAMPLE I, Givenaset X deine dayat wey. day=0 itrny stint chek thtd is amine The topology induces the dee topoogy the brsiselemen Bs for example, cons fe on lee EXAMPLE, The Sanda meta on the El AUT eine by ie eytion onan on Wis cay w check had ie tie tpolgy ic induces the same a te ore topugy: Each eet a, ) forthe rer poly i bess clement forthe mee ‘poly nd, (@.0)= 81.0) eee = (a4 5/2 amd = (6~ 2 And comers, each tall Bex) egasan pet nea the nal x= 68 F Definition, 1FX isa topological space, X is said 10 be metriable if there exists 3 rmetne don the set X tha induces te topology of X. A metric space i metnsble space X togeter witha specific metre d tht gives the topology of X. ‘Many of the spaces important for mathematics ae metrizable, but some are no, Metnzabty i always gy desi aibte fora pace possess forthe evs tence of a metric gives one a valuable ool fr proving theorems about he space 20 The Metric Topoey Its, therefore, a problem of fundamental importance in topology to find cond ions om a topological pace that wil gaarance iis metiable. One of our goals in ‘Chapter 4 wil be to Sind wach conditions; they ate expressed therein the famous the- ‘oem called Unechn's motcation theorem, Purtber merization theorems appest in (Chapter 6. Inthe presen section we shall content ourselves with roving merely that an 5° are mee ‘Although the merizailiy problem isan important problem in topology, te study of metre spaces as such doesnot propery belong to topology as much a does to analysis, Metizabily ofa space depends only on the topology ofthe space in tvestion, but properties that vole a specific metric for X im general 6 aot. For Instane, ane an make the following definition ina metric space Definition, Lot X bea wes apace wilh weuic dA subset A of X said to be bounded i her is some number M such that ay.03) 0, chee exists a8 > Osach hat Bes, 8) C Bale. 20 The Motre Topology 123 Proof, Suppose that ts tiner tan 7. Given he bast element B(x) tor there isty Lemma 13.31 basis element B forthe topology 7” such hat x © BC. Bulx,¢) Watin B we can finda tll B(x, 8) centered at Conversely, suppose the condition holds. Given a bass element B foe T con- taining x, we can Hnd within B a ball By(r, e centered atx. By te given condition, there that By (x, 8) © By(ssc). Thea Lome 13.3 alia to show 7 fier than . ‘Theorem 203, The topolegies on induced by the euclidean metric and the square metric pace te sime asthe product ropoogy on R* Proof. Let x= (8h.0oy4q) ad y = (yl, 3m) Be wo gts oF RE ey Agere to check that ie 90%, 9) Sox, y) = Viptx, y). ‘The fist inequality shows that Bus. 6) C ByO8.6) for all x and ¢, sine i xy) < , then p(y) < € eso. Simla, the second Snagulity shows that Bete e/fAVC Rae ed for all and. I follows from the preceding lemma that he two metric topologies ae the sae. "Now we show tht he prt topology the same ae shat given Wythe matic First, let B= (aby) x « qs ba) ti a bass element forthe product topology, and etx (FB Roch, thors ian sich hat Gt. %) bean element (et HOC labo: choose € = minfe.....é. Then BylX,€) © B, as you can readily check. AS a ‘result the p-topology is fer than the product topology ‘Convery et (s+) be a ai element for the pgelogy. Chen the element Y-€ 3, €), we need to finda basis element B fr the product topology such tht YE BC BARE) Bur hiss trivia, for ro) ists basis element forthe prot topology. . (FO KK GeO,124 Topological Spaces and Continuous Functions om [Now we consider the infinite canesian product R™. Its natural to try to generalize the merce d and to this space, For insta, one ean atte to define a metric d fom R bythe equation ae Jans [E« vi] thi eguon dnt ways ma ee he ie in ein ned ao eye sene ont cou ino eto fooet cue loci) ee ptm) =supilee yah ‘Azan, this forma doce not always make sense. TE however we rplice the i metic d(x,y) = [x — 9 on R by its bounded counterpart d(x, y) = min(x ~ yl 1). then his denon does ake sens, i gives 2 metric om called the wnform metric "The unifonn metric can be defined mote generally on the cartesian product R? for sxbivary Jas fellows: Definition, Given an index set J, and given points x = (te)ees and y = (aed (FB let we dafine a mente Bn by the mation Inet its called the uniform metic on R!, and the topology it induces is called the eniform opoegy. “The mlaion hetwean this topology and the product and box topaogies is he fol- lowing: ‘Theorem 204. The uniform topology on RY is ier than the product topology snd ‘couser than ihe Dox topology; thse ice wpologies are all fect if J i infinite, Prof Suppoze tht we are givens pin = (aac, and pert topology bass ‘element [] Uy about x Let a,..-,ay be the Indices for which Ug # R. Then for faci inne ej Ovo tha sic eal contered a xy fa the d mete is contained In Ua, his we can do because Uz, is open in R. Let e = miley... ¢x then the ball venteed at xm the 6 metrics comand in [[ Ug. Fenix isa point of RY suc that Bix) < e hen dt, 2a) < € forall a so that 2 € [] Uy Ht follows that he ‘uniform topology i nr than the product topology. ‘nthe ether and, let be the e-ball centered ax inte @ metic. Then he box neighborhood U=[]ee- forthe 0 The Metric Topology 128 of wis contained in B, For ify € U, then dle, ya) < $€ forall a, soshat Ax, 9) Showing these three topologies ure diferent if J is inte i @ task we leave to the exercises. . In the case where / 1s mht, we stil nave not determines whether ic! 1s metnz able in either the box or the product topology. It tums out that he only ove ofthese tases where Ris metizabl is the case where J is countable and R’ has the product topology. As we shall see ‘Theorem 205, Let du, 2) = illu ~ bbe the standard Bounded metric on B If and y ae wo poins of RS, define dias. Des. 9) = 9 4-29) Then D is mee tht induces the product ropogy on Pro, The uopetes uf utc ae satisfied trivially excep for the angle inequal ity, which proved by noting tat for ll, daa) , dum , done a) «te = Poy) # PY), sow 5D.) +DQ.2 “Tae fact that D gives the product topology requires a litle more work. First let be open inthe meine topology ana etx € Uwe fd an open se Vin de produ topology sch hat x € V CU. Choose an e-tall B(x, «) yingin U. Then choose N Tage enough that 1/27 e, Finally let V be the basis element forthe product topology Vm (a1 eat) WEAN HO) RXR We asert at VC Bp): Given any yin RY, fori > W. ‘Trerioe, teeny desayn) Denys max [SEEM Sere) A ty is in V thi expression is es thane, so thar V C B(x). 88 desired126 Topological Spaces and Continuous Funes on Conversely, consider a basis element v= Tu forthe product tepology, where Us open in B foe = a. .---ta and Us = R forall Dies indies. Given xe U. we find an open set V of the meni topology sch that Bee CU. Chane an terval ay — ins 1-6) in centered how 6 ad I inU, ford = ay,s,-yaq; choose each «, =I. Then deine fe aiiien ea saa resonance Latyhea itt 846 Tn fr = DKy) <6 Now ii aye sty then 6/4 that Ale, 3) 6 <1 follows that ly = yal Beis continue, then the topology of Xs finer than the topology of: 50 ‘The Metric Topoloey 127 ‘One can summarize the result ofthis exercise as follows: FX has a metre d, then the topology induced by d isthe coarsest topology relative to which he fusion di continuous. 4. Conse the pred, uniform, and box topologies on (@) In which topologies ace the following functions from R to R® continous? Fi = (0231, BOE toe hay = fee Mood {&) In which topologies do the folowing squences converge? meat, 2 0.2.2.2.) = 0,0,3,3,..-). = 0.0.0.0...0. 1224 4,00...) naG hh, 5, Let R be the subst of R~ consisting ofall sequences tn ae evenly 221. ‘What she closure of Rin Rin th uniform topology’? Jusiy your answer Let be the uniform metric on R*. Given x = (x1,22,-.-) € R® and given Ose etl Mee) al ae oly OHO (a) Show that Ux ¢) snot equal wo he e-all B5(%, 0, 1) Show tat (x) not even open inthe eiform topology. (6) Show th Bute Uves. 77. Consider the map hk: > HC dened in Exercise 8 ot §1% give K™ te Unt form topology. Under what conditions onthe numbers and is continuous? homeomorphism? 48 LAX be the subset of RH consiting of al goquoncssxsuch that 1? converges, ‘Then the formula | i ae »- [Ee -»a 1, “Topological Speces and Continuous Functions om ‘defines a metic on X, (See Exercise 10.) On X we have the thre topologies it Sent from th bons uniform, and pret tpelogies on RY. We Rave aso the topology given bythe metic d, which we call he topology. (Read “le ell wo") (@) Show that on X, we have the incsions ‘box topology 3 C-topolony 2 uniform topology. (0) Tie et ofall sequences hata veal 2 isconied in X, Show thie for toplogtes that Re ners a asebspace of Kare all dint. © Tenet ar [sonra is comaind in Xia the Hilbert exe, Compare fur opis tha mein a ata of X Stina fe eciean mete don #8 mei flows: I, y © RE ad CER, dete G1 Meena Hah eX (ete weyenn tba (6) Show that x. (y 42) = (8-9) 460-2). (6) Show that iy! = Uy. [Hin Ixy #0 lta = b/bxh and fad ve the fet ha nt L byl = 04) (e) Show that fx + yl) © Axl + Ik {Wms Compute (x + y) (6+ ¥) and apply ©) (6) Vesfy tha d isa metic ‘Let X denote the subset of R™ consisting of al sequences (x2...) such that Sea? converges. (You may scone the standan facts abot infinite series. Th ‘ase they ae not familiact you, we shall give them in Exercise 11 ofthe next section.) {@) Show thatifx,y€ X, thon Fil converges. [Hin Use (b) of Exercise 9 to show thatthe partial sums are bounded () Lete €R. Show that ifx,y € X,then so rex +y nd ex. (6) Show tat i 1 sonal Sav] isa well-defined metic on X. a ‘The Metric Topology (comineed) 128 "UL, Show mat td sa metne ror X hen Hoa) ds, 91h +e, 9)) isa hounded mvc that gives the topology of X. [ins IEF) = x/(L-4.9 for 1x > Ouse the mea-vale theorem to show that f(a-+6)~ f(6) = f(@).} §21 The Metric Topology (continued) Tn this section, we discuss the relation ofthe metic opogy to the concepts we fave preven indeed “Subspaces of metric spaces behave the way one would wish them to, i A is @ sabipuce ofthe topologisat spe Xand dis a matic For X. then the restction of to Ax Aisameti forthe topology of A. This we leave to you to check. "About onder topologies et hing Ws be aad, moe ce metizabte (Fr in ance 2. and), and others are nt, as we shal ee. “The Housdorfatiom is satshed by every metric topology. Ix and y re visit pons ofthe moti space (Xd), we let ¢ = Jax, y) hen the tangle inequality Fimplies that B(x, €) and Bg(3, € ace disjoint. "The prone ope we hav ley ensidered in special eases we have proved that the products "and Rare meirzale este in general tht countable products Ur iettable paces are mctneabe; the proot Fellows ptr smilie # the prot for, so we leave itty the exercises, ‘About continuous fancions here 4 yoo deal w be sid, Consideration of his topic will occupy the remainder ofthe section ‘When we study continuous functions on meine spaces, Weare about as lose the study of ealeults and analysis as we sal come inthis book. These ae two things ‘we want to doa this point. ete ant fo hon tha the Fria “edition” of continuity caries over to general metric spaces, and 0 des the “comergent sequence definition” of comtind+ Second, we want to consider two additional methods for contacting continsous runctons, besides tose diScuse in §L8. One iy dhe puxess of taking sor, dill ‘ences, produits, and quotens of cominsous real-valued fonctions. The other isthe proces oftking limits of uniformly convergent sequences of continuous ranetons ‘Theorem 214, Let {2X —> Y: let and ¥ be metiable with metrics dy andy, ‘eopectvely. Then sontinty of jis equivalent wo the equrement that given x € X and piven ¢ > 0 thee exists > D such that dyle,y) <5 => def) FON <6 Proof Suppose that fis continuous. Given x and €, consider the set PNB1 Topological Spaces and Continuous Functions ca which is open in X and contains the point x, It contains some S-bll Bx, 8) centered atx Wy isin this bal then f(y) isin thecal entered at f(x), 8 desire, ‘Conversely, suppose that the ¢-F condition is satis. Let V be open in Ys we show that Fo14Y) open in X. Late he a pint of the cet FMV). Since fC) & 1, there isan e-ball B(f(x),€) cemeed at f(x) and conained in V. By the e- ‘colton, te na Bball Bs, 3) scutred ax scl that f(B(e, 5) c BEF). ‘Then B(x, 5) isa neighborhood of x conned in f—'(V), so that f-1(V) is open 3s este, 7 [Now we tur to the convergent Sequence defntion of comimuty. We begin by sonsidering the relation between convergent sequences and closures of ses, I sce tainly believable, ftom one's experience in analysis that fx les inthe closure of set A of he spice X, then them howl ree a equence of points of A converging tox, This snot tue in general, but iste for metizable spaces. [Lemma 212 (The sequence lemma). Let X bea topological space let AX. If ‘ore a sequence o points ofA converging ws, hens © Ay the cuverse oils if X ‘s mewizabe, Proof, Suppose that x= > x, where xy € A. Then every neighborhood U of x ‘onlains «point of mss © aby Theorem 17.8. Convery, suppose that ie tmetizable ans © A. Let d be a mete forthe topology of X. For each positive tnlegern, ake the neighborhood Kyte, Ln) of ras Lm fad enne 4 be point ofits intersection with A. We aset that he sequence converges to: Any ‘open set U containing x contains an cba By(x €) centred atx if we choose W 80 that 1/9 « €.then U contains x forall = W. . ‘Theorem 21.2. Lot FX» Y. Ifthe fiction f i contnneas, hen For every co. vergnt sequence xy —> xin X, the sequence fq) converges 0 f(x). The converse kb 1X meuiable Prof, Assume that i continuous. Given 9 —», we wish 0 show that f(s) —> fla). LAV bea neghbortood of fe). Then f—"(V) isa neighborhood of x, and so ‘here is an NY e0oh that sy @ f—1(W) foe 2 N. Then J) © V form 2 N "Toprove the convert, assume that the convergent sequence condition i satisfied Let A be waulnet uf Xy we alm thal fA) TCA). Uae A, ten there is sequence of points of A converging f0 «(byte preceding lemma)” By assumption, the sequence (tm) converges to). Since Ja) & f(A) the preceding lemma implies that f(x) © J (A). (Note tat metrizability oF ¥ ist needed.) Hence f(A) C FA). 2 dese, . {ncdemaly in roving Lemma 2.2 an Theorem 213 we id at tell strength ‘ofthe potest the space 118 mete All we ely needed waste couable lecon fis 1a) oft aout. This fact eds 0 make anew dein, ' apace Xi id have » countable Bassa he point x tthe is 4 coutable oct (Us erz, of eigborhod of uch Ui ay eiorhood «eons nm ‘The Metric Topology (continued) 131 eas one fhe eC: Aspe X el oa at ach fs points do ‘Sty the ret countably axiom TX isacounable hss (a, the he poo of Lamm 21.2 gos toh; ane simply epaces the al By, 1) Brought by the et By =U. WU “The proof Theorem 21.3 goes trough nenanes ‘Rimetizale pce ays ates thf countably aio, bl the conyers is at that we sometimes impose on topological space none o prove range theorems bout thepace, We sal say tim ore otal in Capes [Now we consider attional methods for constuctng continous functions. We need the fllowing fer: [Lemma 214, The addition, subwaction, and multiplication operations are continu ‘bas faneons fom B= Rint R, and he ustentopcration is 2 cominzous Fimcton From & + (B — (0) nto. ‘Yur have probably seen his lemma proved before itis a standard 6-8 argument” Ifncts a prot ts oullined i Exerciae 19 below you should have no trouble fling in the details, ‘Theorem 215, IF is topological space, and if fig: X —» R are continuous functions hen f+ 8, f and J -g ae continuous. I g(x) #0 forall, then fi Proof, The maph: X > Rx Refined by ay = F08) x 8) is continuous, by Theorem 18:4, The faction f+ g equals the composite of hand the ition eration FE RER SR tierefoe j +s cominaoos Similararguments apply to f— e.g, and f/g. Final, we come to the ation of uriform omvergene, Defition tot f.-X o» Ye aseqence of function from he et X to the metic Spc ¥. Letdbethe metric for . Wesay thatthe sequence (fx) converges uniformly tethe fonction f+ X-—> ¥ if given ¢ > them exit an integer N such th A hoe). a) < {or alin > W anal «in . ‘Unifiemity of convergence depends nt only on the topology of ¥ but also on its mearie We hve te following tees slant uniformly eomersent oquencer:122. Topological Space and Continuous Functions m2 ‘Theorem 21.6 (Uniform limit theorem). Let fy: X--» ¥ bea sequence of contin~ tous fanctons from the toplogienl sce X to the metric space Y. TF fl converses ‘uniformly of then fis cominuous. Proof, Let V be open in Y; let x0 bea point of f1(V). We wish to nd a neighbor hood U af x ach that f(U) © V. Let yo = fia) First choose ¢so that the «ball By. €) 8 contained in ¥. Then, sing uniform convorgence, choose N so that forall n ZN andall x ©, Af), Fe) <3. Finally, sing continuity of fy. choose a neihborood Uf x such hat fy caries U tothe e/3 ballin V centered at f(x) ‘We claim that cares U into Biyn.<) and hence into V, as desired. For tis prpose, note that ifx € U, then ACF), Jule) <3 Ubychorceot Ny, disubn), Sutra) <27¥Uhychoice of U (fy, f20)) < /3 (by choice of), ‘Adding and using the tingle inequality, we se that (f(x), (20) < 6,88 seied, . Lets remark cathe noon of enna amvergene fle the definition of the uniform metic, which we gave inthe preceding section. Consier, for example, the space R™ ofall fonctions f= X-—» K.an he uniform metric p. 1s not diticu 0 ‘see tht asequenceof functions fy : X —> R converges uniformly tof ifand only if the sequence (f,) converges to / when they ae considered as elements ofthe merc space (8,8). We lev the pro th aren ‘We cole the setion with some examples of spaces that are not merzable EXAMPLE 1. inthe os topology tno metre ‘We hl show that th sequenoe mma does ot hold or RY. Let Abe the sub of contig of ote prs of wnow contains re ost! Ano Let Oe the “on” Rta the point (0,0... eah of whose coortnats is 2 Te bot topology, Dbslongs oA for it B= watiy uniads ee) Las S Oforaé 62) {any ha let containing then B interes A. For nse the pint (fbn fon belongs B14 Th ne a ht res segues of point af A sunt tort (a) be a segieace of point af 4, where a tied a ‘The Matric Topology (continued) 138 very coon pie, Wr we an cna hin eet Dar he bos op ‘gy ony sting B= aon) oma. x “Then BY contains the origin , bu it comais no member of the sguenBe (a): he int ns cannt belong in rane th connie oes i ele the eta TEIRTecD: Hence the sequence fay) ammo converge inthe box topology ExaMPLe 2. An wicountale roduc of with te is or meri TI ban uncoated tt nso But! ars rt iy the sence Tena in the prod poe Tats be te sea of 8 soning of a pigs (ra) ich ha = forall at fly many values of. Let be the "origi Rte point each of whose cones “We sett telongs othe last of A, Let] Uy ea bass element conaining 0 sruen 2 forty ancy mony ran fo. uj fr mesa Lt Ceabe pom of 4 define by ling = OSora= o,./an tod xg =| forall tervals of Tiihen x) © [Tesi ‘Bushes a wo seqzace of pois of A converging 10, Foret ay Be a sequence of pinta Cian tJ oer he abet of J eansising of thoes fr which {he th condi of ay diffrent to [The union of al tests J sa countable (hin fit eel heer ann Resse J ls uncountble Het an indo in Jy tat des le ary of he ets J. Tis meas hat foreach ofthe pews nie bce gale "Now fe be te pen ier (~ IR! Te Vis tiehorhood of ha sequence a canna converge 00 1) Ba et be he open set 7 Exercises 1. LetA © XI ica metric forthe topology of show that A> A is ametrc forthe subspace topology on A. 2 Let X and Y be metic spaces with metres dy amd dy, cespetvely. Let f 1X > Y have the propery that for every pr of points 1, of X, by flay) fea) = den, ‘Show that f isan imbeing. Is called an ometric imbedding of X i ¥. 13. Let Xs be a metre space with metric dy, form € 2. Show that pas) = manlda Gen 30s dabse ID Ina une in the pratt pace Ky = XeUL Topological Spares and Continue Functions on (@) Let; = mina. 1). Show that Dex, 9) = supe N/a J a mets forthe product space [TX 4, Show that Rand the ordered square satisfy the fst countability axiom. (This result doesnot, ofcourse, mpy ta they are metnzIe) S. Theorem. Lotsn -+ xand ve > v inthe space R, Then Sabon tye Ment aye snd provide that each #0 and» 0. Kel Ye HI dina: Apply Lerma 21.4 eal rom the exercises of §19 that if.ry > x and Jem itera n> EH 6 Define fe 10,1] —+ R by the equation fax) = x. Show thatthe sequence (Ul) sonverges for each x & [0 1] bu‘ that the sequence (fy) doesnot con- verge wiformly 7. Lat X be a set, and let fe: XR be a sequence of functions. Let 5 be the unifies wi te apne RY. Sow thatthe sequence (Jy) converses ‘uniformly tothe function f 7X —» Rifand only if the sequence fx) converses {o f as elements of he mete space (R™. 8. Let X be a topological space and let ¥ be a metic space. Let fy : K+ Y. be a sequence of continuous functions. Letty bea sequence of points of X conversing tox. Show tha if the sequence (J) converges uniformly tof then (alz)) converte 0 (8), 9. Let fy be the uncon Jatey = Se OnE FT SeeFigure 2.1 Let f: R-> beth zero fntion (a) Show that fic) fla) foreach x € R (€) Show tht fy does not converge niformiy tof (Ths shows th the com: versaf Theor 2 does mel the inion faye catia ren though the convergence snot uniform) Using We lose se formulation of contin (TEER 181, stow that Re folowing ace closed subse of Artexylye, S'atexyl Ba texyie ry? s ih ct ‘The Meine Topology continued) 138, Figure 211 ‘These Bis called the (closed) unit Ball n RE 11, Prove the following standard facts boot infinite seis: (0) Show thet If (5) ia hound seqnce of eal tember andy & fy FO ‘each nthe (sy) converges. () Let (aq) be ween of eal embers deine 3g — 5, we say thatthe infinite series ‘converges tos als. Show sat t Fa) converges 05 an Tb esmerger tor, then (ca; + by) converses toes +1 {) Prove the comperison test for infite series: IF a] < by foreach i, and it the series Jb, converses, then the series Jay converges. (int Show that the series Sj] and Sse comerge, where = lay +a.) (0) Given a saquanca of tetions fy" X me B, let sae to. rove the Weierstrass M-tet for uniform convergence: IF|fi(s)| = Mi for alle € X andalli,andif the sree SM, convrgs, thon the soquance(,) ‘converges uniformly toa function 3. (Hit: Lat rq = yy Ms. Show {hat > m, en k(x) 9] S ras cet at 9A) 944)1 5 rd 12, Prove contimty of the algebraic operations on R, a8 follows: Use the metic a,b) = la ~ bon Rand the mete on R* given by the equation cy} C20, Jo) = aK x 2a, Ly ~