Chemistry SOL Review and Study Guide This review and study guide may serve as your FINAL EXAM! Student Name:, SOL EXAM DATE:, SOL ROOM NUMBER:Chemistry FINAL EXAM Culminating Activity Option Student must complete ALL OF THE FOLLOWING: (Partial Credit Will NOT Be Given!) Part One and Part Two: Part Three: Jefferson Lab Quizzes Part Four: Multiple Choice Questions jotes and Short Answer Practice Problems ‘Ifyou pass the Virginia SOL Exam with a passing score (Pass Proficient) AND have turned in this completed, signed review packet, a score of 90 will be entered as your FINAL EXAM Grade, If you receive a passing score on the Virginia SOL as Pass Advanced, your final exam grade will be entered as a 95. A perfect score on the SOL Exam will yield a 100 as your final exam grade. Realize that if you pass your Virginia SOL Test, you are exempt from taking your final exam. However, receiving a 90, 95, or 100 as an exam grade for the culminating activity will serve as extra insurance for you if you think you are on the borderline of passing the course. In addition, the exam grade can move you from one letter grade to another depending on your average. Exams counts as 20% of your semester average! [THERE WILL BE NO CREDIT AWARDED IF YOU ARE MISSING ANY OF THE L DOCUMENTATION. NO EXCEPTIONS. NO PARTIAL CREDIT. IF YOU DO NOT PASS THE SOL EXAM, THIS OPTION IS NOT AVAILABLE TO ‘YOU! YOU WILL THEN PROCEED TO THE REGULAR FINAL EXAM WHICH WILL BE ADMINISTERED DURING THE FINAL EXAM PERIOD. This is an EXCELLENT OPPORTUNITY to help prepare you for the SOL Exam and to reward your efforts in review! Parents: This 2 great opportunity to help your student by tutoring them at home... Tacknowiedge that I have received the entire review packet, Print Student Name ‘Student Signature and Date Parent Name + Parent Signature and Date‘Chemistry SOL Review Packet Parts 1 and 2: Notes Followed by Questions joes korn a review created iy. Ms, Joyce McAliter ond Ms, Sonne Cisden, Menchll High School, ip nllesn 126s sence /SHONNASOLReview/SOLHlepage hr Topic 1: Alomie stucture ans Periodic Relatonshios 1.1 Allmatteris macle from about 109 diffsreni chemical elements. The Periodic Table of the Eements shows allof the knovin elements, ctanged by increasing ciorric number. Each element has « symbol, The symbol for many of the elements one capital letter. In lwoletter symbols for elomants, ihe Fest letter is ‘ahways on uppar cess eter, the second one a lower case. The smalest paricie of en element is an cern, ‘Some common elements that cre gases are composed of molecuss containing wo atoms of the same element, Example: hydrogen Haig} and oxygen Osigh 1.2. Atoms are made of taree types of subctomic particles: protons, neukrors and electrons. Each atom has ¢ nucieus in the cenier, made of protons and neutrons packed lightly together, An electron cloud sutounds the alomic nucleus, The atomic number for an element is the same as the number of protons. All ‘atoms of the same elernent have the same number of protons. proton has o postive charge and o relative mass of one. The number of electrons the some as the number of protons in a neutral atom. An electron has a negative charge ond a relative mass of zero. A neviron has no charge ond < relative mass of one, 1.3 There are only certain regions in the electron cloud where electrons ore Ikely fo be found. These: regions are called energy loves. The lowest energy levels closest fo the nuctus; the highest eneray levels farthest oway from the nucievs. Bectrons wil occupy the lowest available energy level[s} before they filin higher levels. The outermost electrons in an ctom are called valence electrons. The petiod (row) number Con the periodic table corresponds to the highest energy level occupied by the valence electrons in an element. Elements in the some group [eclumn) on the periodic table have the same number of valence lectrors, AI of the graup 1 elements have ane valence aiectron and group twa elements nave two. Group 13 elements have three valence elecirons, group 14 slements have 4, group 15 haye 5 and'so on. through group 18 elements, which have eight valence electrons. Anions on atom that has G charge ‘because thas gained or lest elactrons. Postve ions have lost electrons: negative ions have gained 2ie+ On 2.10 A cherrical equation s atecord of what happens in a chemical reaction. It shows the formulas ofall the teacianis on the lefl hond side of the arrow, and the formulas for al the produc on the right hone side. 2.11 Combustion reactions are exothermic reactions in which oxygen cornbines with other elements. Ons ‘example ls the reaction between methane and oxygen in c Bunsen bumer: Calg} + 202(g} COxig) +2420(9) + eneray 2.12. Because matter cannot be created o: destroyed, elements mus! be conserved in a chemical ‘reaction (Conservation of Mass) There must be the some number of each kind of atom on both sides of balanced equation, The only way to balance @ chemical equation is by placing coefficients infront of ‘each substance Untll each side has the same number of cioms of each element. 2.13. When two of more subrtances combine lo form a single product the réaction is called a synthesis reaction For example, the formation of water ftom hnycrogen anc onygen gates a synthess reaction: 2H) + Or (a) > 240 1h c decompostion reaction, @ compouns breaks down into Wyo or more simpler substances. For exornpl, in electro}, water i broken Gown into hydrogen and onygen gases 220 (> 2H Ia) *Orig) + 2.14 Ina single replacement reaction (review single replacement reactions here) one element takes the place cf another in acompound. Ino double repiocement reaction the postive portions of two ionic ‘compounds are interchanged. 2.15 Ing sample of pure water a very small number of water molecules Gssociate, producing equal Concentrations of both hydrogen ions [H"] and hydroxide ions [OH]. The pH of pure water's 7. HO © 9H + OF oF BHO €9 HO" + OF 2.1 6Neutrazation reactions result from the reaction of an acid with atbase fo form asatt and water. These ‘eactions ore usvally double replacement reactions, HCI+ NaOH > NaCl + HOH, i 2.17 pi (0-14) mecsures the hydrogen ion concentration in water. Each pH unit involves a tenfold change in nyarogen ion concentration. The pH number ond the [H#] are inversely related because pH =-log [H#] ‘+ an increase of 1 pH unit means that tne hydrogen ion concentration has decreased 10 times, + Adecreate cf | pH unt means thaf'he hydrogen ion concentration hos increased 10 times.Acids ore compounds inat increase the concentration of hyckogen lons fH] when they cssolve In water. ‘Acid solutions have « pH below 7, foste sour ond fum fmus poper red. Bases are compounds inet increase the concentration of hydroxide (OH4] when they dssclve in water. Bases have @ pH greater than 7. taste bitter, feel sippery ond tum Fimus paper blue. 2.18 Both strong acids and strong bases dissociate completaly in water, therelore cre strong slectolvtes, Ina solution of a strong acid ike hycrochiorec acid, aknost of of the HCI molecules dissociate aeeorcing the following equation: HCifag) > Hrfaq) + CHa} Wek acids ond weak bases are weak electrolytes. Ina solution of a weak acid ike ccetic ack Tew of ifie CHCOOH molecules dissociate: CHCOOH <> Hrfaq) + CHaCOO{oq) ony a NOMENCLATURE, CHEMICAL FORMULAS, AND REACTIONS 1. The two main types of bonds in chemistry are and, 2. An ionic bond is normally formed between a anda In an ionic bond, the two elements should have a rather difference in their electronegativity values. In an ionic bond, electrons are transferred from the to the ‘A classic example of an ionic compound is an alkali metal and a halogen, like NaCl. If an ionic compound is soluble in water, then it will produce aqueous ions in solution. tonic compounds are considered to be electrolytes. 3. Fillin the names and formulas for the following ionic compounds ‘Chemical Formula Chemical Name NagS MgClz kOe : | LN KP Remember that calcium fluoride we use Roman i numerals to strontium fodide Haha copper(!) bromide charge on the 5 jon when it can copperill) bromide form more than irontltl) oxide one charge.4. The ionic compounds above are called binary compounds, because they consist of only two elements, Some ionic compounds contain more than two elements. That is because thoy contain polyatomic ions. The names, formulas, and charges for the following polyatomic ions should be memorized: ammonium carbonate nitrate hydroxide sulfate phosphate 5. Fillin the names and formulas for the following ionic compounds that contain polyatomic ions ‘Chemical Formula Chemical Name NaNOs | Fee(SO.)s, NHI potassium carbonate | ‘magnesium phosphate calcium hydroxide 6. A covalent bond is normally formed between two “Ina covalent bond, the two elements should have a relatively. difference in their electronegativity values. In a covalent bond, electrons are shared between the atoms. A classic example of this is HzO. If a covalent compound (like sugar, CsH12Os) is soluble in water, then it wil not produce any ions. Covalent (molecular) compounds are nonelectralytes. 7. Fill in the names and formulas for the following covalent compounds ‘Chemical Formula | Chemical Name. oc, earbon tetrachloride Remember that we use prefixes BES to indicate the SFs number of - atoms in a diphosphorus pentoxide covalent carbon disulfide compound, 108. The following compounds are classified as acids, because they can all donate Hi. Write the formulas in the blanks provided. You should know these formule, hydrochloric acid sulfuric acia _—______catbonie acid nitric acid phosphoric acid You should know that an acid is @ H" donor and it wil have a pH that is You should know that a base will accept H” and it will have a pH that is Examples of acids are listed above. Examples of bases would be anything that contains the hydroxide ion, For example: NaOH, KOH, Mg(QH)2, AKOH)s, etc. ‘The molecular formula only tells you the number of each kind of atom. ‘The siructural formula will also tell you how the atoms are connected to each other. 8. The empirical formulas the lowest whole number ratio of atoms. For example, the empirical formula of GzHy20s is CHO. Write the empirical formula for each of the follawing: CoH Cra Hen Colts 10. Draw the Lewis dot structure for the following compounds: NaCl, COz, NHs and HBr, 11, Here are some simple molecules. Indicate the geometric shape for each molecule, Your choices are bent, linear, trigonal planar, pyramidal, tetrahedral. If you learn these 5 examples you should be in very good *shape’ a12, Balancing equations is a skill that every chemistry student should know how to do, Here are some equations for you to balance. OH + CHe + AWOH)s + FeCh + Al + Oe Sco: 5 Ch > Cok + HPO, > AIPO, + NaCOs > — Fea{COs)s + HS0, > AL(SO). + H.0 HCI HO Nact He ‘When we learned about chemical reactions, we also learned about that there are categories that describe reaction types. You should be familiar with the following types of reactio [Reaction type ‘General Scheme ‘Specific Example synthesis A+B> AB Ne + 3He > 2NH3 decomposition | ABD A+B 2KCIOs > 2KCI + 3 Oe single replacement A+BYDAY+8 Mg +2 HCl > MgCl + He double replacement AX + BY > AY + BX AgNOs + NaCl > AgCl + NaNO. neutralization | H) X + MOH > HO + MX HCl + NaOH > HO + NaCl 13! Identify the type of each reaction below: (synthesis, decomposition, single replacement, double replacement, neutralization) Reaction Reaction type Zn + CuSO. > ZnSO, + Cu HNO; + KOH > KNOs + H20 Mg + Nz > Mg.Ne Ck + 2NaBr > Bre + 2NaCi Po(NOs)e + 2KI > Pblp + 2KNO3 2NHNO, > 2Ne + O2 + 41,0 Ca(OH), + HBr > HO + CaBre CaCO; > C02 + Cad 14, KeSOx + Ba(OH)z > BaSO, + 2 KOH ‘Sometimes questions will discuss the energy in a chemical reaction. Here are some things you should know about energy: Potential Energy ‘This reaction represents an ‘You can think of energy as one of ‘whieh means that you would write oo Reaction Progress. heat, will be NEGATIVE. process. This means that energy is the products of the reaction, ton the side of the equation. “AH,” which represents the change in R16. This reaction represents an process. This means that energy is You can think of energy as one of the reactants, which means ‘that you would write it on the side of the Potential Energy equation. "AH," which represents the change in heat, ——_—_— Reaction Progress wi] be POSITIVE, ‘Sometimes you will see @ question about how a catalyst speeds up a reaction. Here is an important fact you should know about 2 catalyst: A catalyst will the activation energy, which makes the reaction go faster. Which path is the catalyzed reaction? Which path is the UNcatalyzed reaction? Label them. 7. Progress of Reaction How do you think the speed of the reaction will be affected by temperature? Well, you already know that if you increase the temperature, the molecules will move So if you increase the temperature, the molecules will collide with each other more often and the reaction rate will 3Topic 2: Phases of Motier ond! Kinetic Moleculot Theory 3.1._Atoms and molacuies ars in constant motion. Paice of a gos move fastest porticles in a lguis move: slower ond particies in a soid move slowest. There isc direct relationship between temperature and speed Cf the particles. When the temperature Increases, parficles move faster. There Is an inverse relationship between pressure cad voluene of gos particles. When the pressure increases, the volume decreases, 3.2 Pressure and temperature both affect the volume that a gas occupies. ‘Pressure and volume are inversely related: if pressure increases, volume decreases. ‘Matherotically the reletionship means tha! PV=k, Le. that if allthe factors remain constant then the pressure tines the volume is alsa constant, + Absolvie temperature cnd volume cre directly relatect if absolute temperature increases, volume Increases wien ihe temperaiuce remains constant, Mathematically this relationship means that Tek, i. thal fal other fectors remain constant then the volume dlvided by the temperature is iso constant, 3.3. Phase changes that require heat (ike melting or baling} are endothermic. His postive for on endiothermic change, Tris means heat goes in. Phase changes that give offheat (lke fteezing and condensing} are exothermic. His negative. This means heat is released. Heating and cooing cuves ore ‘fsa known as phase Giogrars 3.4. Bernenis form bonds to become mare stable. A flled valence configuration (eight s and p electrons} ?pSis very siable. Stabily is inversely related fo potential energy, therefore when atoms bond they become lower in potential energy. Potential energy is stored energy. Chemical bonds contain potential energy. Energy s required to break bond. Breaking bonds is endothenmic. Energy is released when bonds are formed. Forming bonds is exothermic. 35 _In chemical reactions bonds are broken and new bonds are formed, The energy absorbed in breaking the bonds is never exactly equal fo the eneray released when the new bond are formed. Therefore, allreactions are aecompanied by @ change potential energy that can be measured and is represented by ihe symbol H. An energy level diagram can ako be used represent the energy change uring 9 chemical reaction. Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy thal must be supplied to system to start a chemical change. Heat of reaction's tne amount of energy absorbed or released uring a chemical change. A catalysis c substance added to o chemical reaction to increase the rate cand that can be recovered chemically unchanged ater the reaction is complete. 3.6 Datton's Law states, the lolol pressure in @ gas miklure isthe sum of the pital pressures of the individual components. The partial pressure of any gasin a mixture can be coicuiaied using the mole faction of inat gos ino minis, P= Pi #P2 # Pat The following mathematical relationship betwean the pressure, volume and temperature of o gas is Used lo describe tha behavler of gases: 5 Bui = Pave 7 Te 3.7 Hop (Heat of vaporization) i ihe amount of energy needed forthe particles of a substances to escape: from ine attractive forces ofthe other poricles and escape from the surface inio the gas phase. The stronger the forces of attraction between partices, he greater the heat of vaporization. Heat of fusion is the amaunt of energy released when the particles of a substance soldi. The stronger ihe atiractive forces between the prices, ne greater ne hect of fusion. Heat of fuson (Has) is the amount of energy released when the parlcies ofa substance solciy. The stronger the ottractive forces between the pparicles, the greater ine heat of fusion. 2.8 A reaction rate describes how rapidly « cherrical change lakes place. Reaction rates are determined ‘experimentally by measuring @ change in some physical property such as volume, temperature, cover, mass orpH. There is @ dtect relationship between temperature and teaction rale. Reversible reactions Teach equilbrium. At equim, the forward ond reverse reactions eccur at the some rate. Le Cnatetia’s Principle states, when a system at equilibrium is dstucbed by applying stress, the equiftxium posiion shifs to 4Fefleve the stess, Sirsses that con change equifium include changes in concentration, temperature or pressure PHASES OF MATTER AND KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY Here are some important things to know about the kinetic molecular theory: Gas particles are in constant, rapid, random motion, and they are very far part from each other. When you increase the temp., gas particles travel faster because they have more kinetic energy. Here are some gas laws you should know: Charles’ Law: As temp. goes up, volume goes up (and vice versa) Boyle's Law: As pressure goes up, volume goes down (and vice versa) Hi you ever see a problem involving a gas collected "by water displacement" or “over water,” you will always subiract the water pressure from the total pressure fo get the pressure of the dry gas. 4, For example: A sample of oxygen gas is collected over water at 98.67 kPa. If the partial pressure of the water is 2.67 kPa, the partial pressure of the oxygen is In general, the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each individual gas. 2. Ifyou have to do any calculations with gases that involve temperature, you should always convert the temperature from °C to K by Here is an example: A sample of gas occupies a volume of 6.00 L at 25°C. This gas was heated at constant pressure and the volume increased to 6.00 L. What is the new temperature of the gas? Charles Law: Ty = Ty (298 K) = _{T2 Te = [6.00\(298) = 958 K-273 = 85°C Vy Ve (00) (6.005 (6.00) 1s3. Assamile of gas occupies a volume of 10.0 liters at 10°C. What would be the volume of this, gas at 50°C ifthe pressure remains constant? ltyou are given a problem that involves the ideal gas law, you will need to remember Here is an example problem: PV =nRT R=6.31 kPae dm? moies ¢ K A gas cylinder is filled with 4.00 moles of oxygen gas at 300.0 K. The piston is compressed to yield a pressure of 400.0 kPa. What is the volume inside the cylinder? A 3.19 dm® B 6.25 dm* © 24.9 dm* D 315 dm* To answer this question, you need to solve for V: VeaRT P (4.00 moles\(8.31 kPa dm® mot K")(300.0 K\ (400.0 kPa) R=8.31 kPa L mol K 24,9 dm? (Notice that all units cancel ‘out exoept dm) 4, Asample of oxygen gas occupies a volume of 15.0 liters at a prossure of 250 kPa and a temperature of 50°C. How many moles of oxygen are present in this gas sample? 165, There are other things you should know about phases of matter: Fill in the name of the phase changes below: ‘These three phase changes are all ENDOTHERMIC: Solid > Liquid > | Solid > Liquid Gas | Gas | ‘These three phase changes are all EXOTHERMIC: Gas > Liquid > | Gas > Liquid Solid __ Solid Another word for melting is FUSION, Another word for evaporation is VAPORIZATION, If you see 2 diagram with a sealed liquid in ajar oF flask, you should know that there is an equilibrium happening in there. The rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of ‘condensation. Vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the gas above a fi Here is an example of some vapor pressure curves: [ Bye Lp. C1 io1.aKPa omens Vapor Pressure (kPa) & | 0 20 40 60 80. 100 Temperature (°c) 6. From this graph we can get certain information. x 8 a) The normal boiling point of liquid A is b)_ If the external pressure is reduced to 60 kPa, then Liquid C would boil at c) The liquid with the strongest intermolecular forces is most likely, vCiquid | Bolling Point 0) | 3 ether ethyl alcohol 78. water 400 aiycerins 280 Which of the liquids in the table above would have the highest vapor pressure at room temperature? Expiain 8. Ifyou want to get water to boil BELOW 100°C, you can the air pressure. lt you want to get water to boil ABOVE 100°C, you can the air pressure, 9. Ityou add salt to water, this will the freezing point and the boiling point. 22,100 ois uae |< ois) Pressure (kPa) ost ‘Triple point | : 7 ae Ternpsrature °C) 10. The diagram above is called a phase diagram. All along the boundary between two phases ‘there is an equilibrium between those phases. What can we say about the triale point? 18“Temperature ('C) Heat (Kea) 11. The diagram above is called a heating curve. Match the descriptions of what is happening with the various line segments —__ Between 1 and 2 A. ioe is melting Between 2 and 3 B. liquid water is evaporating Between 3 and 4 C. ice is being heated Between 4 and 5 D. liquid is being heated —___Between 5 and 6 E. gasis being heated Sometimes you will be asked to calculate how much heat is needad to raise the temperature of water. Hee is an example: How many calories of heat are needed to raise the temperature of 50.0 9 of water from 20.0°C to 80.0°C? You should know that it takes ONE CALORIE to raise the temperature of ONE GRAM of water by ONE DEGREE CELSIUS. So all you have to do is use the following equation: (MASS) x (Loalorie) x (AT) where AT is the change in temperature. o°C s (50.0 g) x (1 cal/ g °C) x (60°C) = 3000 calories 12. How many calories are needed to raise the temperature of 75.0 g HeO from 30.0°C to 70.0°C? 19Sometimes you will be asked to calculate how much heat is needed to melt a substance. They will give you the heat of fusion, Here is an example: 13. The heat of fusion for water is 6.12 kJ per mole. How many kJ of heat is required to mett 100.0 grams of ice at 0°C? 14, Ifyou see a question that mentions that water has a high bolting point or a high heat capacity, then the explanation will be that water has very strong intermolecular forces, known as 48, If you see any questions that deal with polarity and mixing two liquids together, you should know that two liquids will mix well together if they are 16. You might be asked to predict ifthe attractive forces are strong or weak. You should know that + if a substance has a high melting or boiling point, then it will have attractive forces. 20Topic 4: Motor Relaitonshios 41_Atoms and molecules ore too smal fo count. Mole fs the unl used to tel how mary particles ore in a Certain amount of a substance. & moe I £02,000 000,000,000.000,000,000 pariices fatoms oF molecules), Expressed in scieniiic nototion, o mole fs 6.02 x 10% particles. Scientific notation s used to exeress vary “mall or vary large measurements in powers offen. Ih expresses quantfes by using a number between one: ‘and ten, wrich i then mutipied oy fen to a power fo give the quantity Its proper magnitude, 42._The sumot the protons and neutrans in on atom is known as the mass number. The number of neutrons In.en atom canbe found by suthracting the alemic number from the mass number. Isotopes are atoms of the some element thot nave diferent numbers of neutrons, Some isolopes ore radioactive, many are net. 43. The molar moss of a compound isthe mass of one mole of fhe compound, Its found by taking the sum of the molar masses of he individual elements thal make up the compound. The percent mass of an element in c compound can be deterrined: ‘by moss of element = totolmass of element incompound x 100 Total mass of compound 4.4 Molar masses from the patodie table con be used fo caiculate the number of moles in a given mass {af on element or compound. This s becouse the masses on the petiodc lable represent the number of ‘groms in one mole, The numiber of moles can ago be Used fo calculate the number of particles - ctoms of molecules. The number of particies can be determined from the mass of a compound or element. 45 Because matier comot be crealed or destroyed, the lotal mass of the products s equal fo the total ress of the reactontsin a cherrical reaction. Molar masses from the periodic table and mole ratios rom tha Balanced equation can be used fo calcUate the mass of a reactant or product, 4.8 Salanced chemical reactions and numbers of moles of each substance can be used! fo predict the masies of reactants or produc's. At SIP [standard temperature and pressure, O* Celsius ond 1 atmosphere (OR 740 mmniig OR 101.2 kPa] the volume of | mola of any gas s 22.4 ters 47 The number of moles of a gas In} canbe detemminedif the pressure (P), temperature [1] and volume [V) of the gar sample are known, using Ihe constant R accorcing to the following equation: PV = nk is the Ideal gas low constant and hos Iwo vatves depending on the pressure units. They are R= 8.314 Lkpa/mobk and 8 = 0.0821 Latm/mobatr, 48 _Anemptical formula shows the smallest whole number ratio of elements ing compound. lorie solids fore composed of oppositely charged lons arranged in c regular, repeating, cnstallattice structure; the ‘empirical formula ciways gives the ratio of posive to negative ions. Covalent compounds are often in the form of individual molecules: the ematical formula gives the ratio of atoms in one molecule. Example: The ‘molecular formula for glucose is CiHi20«: the empifeal formula is CH20. 49. The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute coniainedin a certain volume of solution. If solution contains @ smal amount of soluie Its called cite, and it contains a large amount of solute I ‘called concentrsted, in chemisiy, concentration given os molly, the number of moles of the solute in ‘one fter of solution and expressed as mol/L o ust M. 4.10. The genetal rule for precicling solbity is "ike disolves tke". Water's a polar substance, so It can Cissolve lonie and polar solutes, Oil is non-polar, 50 oll will not dissolve in water. Oil and water don't mix but ferent ols de becouse a nor-polar solve will dissolve in a nor-poic solvent 4.11 To safely lute an acid, add ocid to water. De not add water to acid concentrated acid. Always perform this toskin.@ fume hood. When preparing o more dilute solution from a stock solution of known Concentration, Mi Xvi = Ma X V2, The malay of the fis solution matipied by is volure will be equal fo the molly ef the new salution muttipied by its volume. Phenalphihaisin is cn indicator that is colorless the pretence of an acid of neutral substonce but Is pinkin the presence of a base. Litmusis also an ‘acia/ocse indicator, Base tun ed imus bive and acids tur ble limus red. aMOLAR RELATIONSHIPS Here are several important facis about moles that you should know, You should memorize the number 6.02 x 10 and the number 22.4 and know when to use them. f General Facis Specific Examples 7 = 1 mol of Cu = 6.02 x 10% atoms of Cu UG 1 mol of CO, = 6.02 x 10” molecules of CO, ‘The mass of 1 mole (in grams) can be {mol of HO = 1.0+10+16.0= 18.09 calculated by adding up the atomic masses of | 1 mol of COz = 12.0 + 16.0 + 16.0 = 44.09 all the elements in the chemical formula. {mol of NaCl = 23.0 + 35.5 = 58.59 ‘Ai standard temperature and pressure (STP), 1 mol of He @ STP = 22.41 1 mole of gas has a volume of 2.4L 1 mol of Ne@ STP = 22.4L ; Tn the equation Ne + 3 Ha 2 NH, this can be Cr asec summarized by saying that “1 mol of Ne reacts ea mr toler ratios, with 3 mol to produce 2 mol NHs" When we perform conversions with moles, we usually set up ratios, or conversion factors, that help us to cancel out units. Remember the following = The units will cancel out when they are on opposite sides of the line. ; = When a number is above the line we multiply; when a number is below the line we divide. Here are some examples: Convert 3.58 x 10™ atoms Fe into moles of Fe 1 mol Fe 95 mol Fe 3.58 x 10 atoms Fe x 6.02 x 10" atoms FE Convert 2.25 moles of KNOs into grams of KNOs (Note that we need the periodic table to do this.) K=991x4 9394 401.4. gKNOs No140x1=140 2.25 moHKNOs k 227 g KNOs O=16.0x3 = 48.0 {01.4 g/mol 2Now it’s your turn: 1. a) 3 Perform the following conversions: Calculate the molar mass of Ca(NOs}z How many grams of oxygen are present in 2 moles of CaCOs? How many moles are present in 2 100.0-g sample of CoHsO? What is the mass of 9.25 x 10 molecules of water? (two steps). 23Another type of molar conversion you will be asked to do is related to a balanced chemical equation. We will use the coefficients 1o set up molar ratios, or conversion factors. Again we will try to cancel out units. Here is an example: When magnesium metal is burned, it produces magnesium oxide (MgO). How many moles of ‘oxygen gas are needed to bum 10 moles of Mg? In this problem we are not given a balanced chemical equation, so we have to virite one first: here is the equation: Mg + 2 > MgO and now itis balanced: 2Mg + O2 > 2MgO ‘Notice that there are 2 moles of Mg for every 1 mole of Oz, That is the molar ratio you need. mol O2 Now it's your turn: 2, Perform the following conversions: a) Given the following equation: | 2CaHs + 702 > 4002 + 6H.O 165.2 moles of ethane (CoH.) is burned, how many moles of Oz are required? b) Given the following equation: 2Al+ 6HCI > 2AICk + 3H: 113.4 moles of aluminum reacts with excess hydrochloric acid, how many moles of He will be produced? 24 |Sometimes you are asked to convert grams of one chemical into grams of another chemical. With this type of molar conversion you will need to do three steps. Again we will try to cancel out units. Here is an example from the 2005 SOL test: 2KOH + H:SO; > 2H20 + K:SO, What mass of potassium hydroxide is required to react completely with 2.70 g of sulfuric acid to produce potassium sulfate and water? In this problem you need to go from grams of HeSOx into grams of KOH If you take it one step at a time, and remember to set up the units so they will cancel out, then this is nota difficult problem: This is the basie set-up, with the units in place, Notice how everything cancals out except for the grams of KOH at the end of the problem. mol HeSO, mol KOH 9 KOH 2.70 g HeSOx x ~ = gKOH g H2SO. mol HeSOu mol KOH Tho 1% step requires the periodic table. When we add up all the atomic masses for HsSO,, we get (2)(1.0) + (82.0) + (4)(16.0) = 98.0 g/mol ‘The 2" step requires the coefficients. We see that 2 moles of KOH react with 1 mole of HeSOx. ‘The 3" step requires the periodic table again. When we add up all the atomic masses for KOH, we get (89.1) + (16.0) + (1.0) = 56.1 g/mol Now put all the numbers in place: TimolHsSO, _2molKOH 88.1. g KOH —- = 3.09 g KOH 2.70 g HSO, x — 98.0gH:SO, 1molH_SO, 1 mol KOH Remember that if a number is above the line you multiply and if it is below the line you divide. Now its your turn: 8, Perform the following conversion: Given the following equation: Pb(NOs)2 + 2KI > Pble + 2KNOs 15.00 grams of potassium iodide reacts according to the equation above; how many grams of lead iodide will be produced? 25‘Another type of problem that you will need to know involves moles of gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP). Conditions of STP are pressure = 1 atm and temp. = 0°C ‘The equation we use for gases is called the ideal gas law: PV = nRT P = pressure, V = volume, n = moles, R= a gas constant, and T = temperature, When you solve for the volume of 1 mole of any gas at STP, this is what you get: nRT (1 mol)(8.31 kPa L mol" K"*}(273 K) 224 P (101.3 kPa) Because this number is used so often, you should just memorize that 1 mole of any gas at STP has a volume of 22.4 L There are a number of ways in which you can use this information. Try the following examples: 4, 2) Whatis the density of CH, gas at STP? b})_ Which sample of gas has the largest volume at STP? 10.0gHe 10.0gNe 100gAr 10.0gKr ¢} Whatis the volume of 3.01 x 10% atoms of He gas at STP? Na{g) + 3 He(g) > 2 NHs(g) ‘Suppose that you have a balanced chemical equation like the one above, and that all of the ‘chemicals are gases. You already know that the coefficients represent molar ratios. But fall of the chemicals are gases, then the coefficients also represent volume ratios! In other words, the equation above can be thought of as the following: “1 liter of Ne reacts with & Titers of Hz to produce 2 Iters of NH,” ‘Suppose the question asks you something lke the following How many liters of hydrogen gas are needs to react completely with 2.00 L of nitrogen gas? All you have to do is use the coetfcients as the ratio between liters of Ha and liters of Ne: 3LHe 2,00 LNex———- = 6.00 LHe __ It's really simple. Try the following examples: 1 LNs : 265. a) Given the following equation: 2 CaHe(g) + 7 O2(g) > 4 COz(g) + 6 H20(g) To produce 12 liters of water, how many liters of oxygen gas are needed? b) Given the following equation: 2 HaS{g) + 8 Ox(g) > 21.0 + 2 SOa{a) 1f 4.0 liters of oxygen gas reacts according to the above reaction, how many liters of MoS wil be required? The last topic in molar relationships deals with molarity (M), which is defined as follows: moles of solute M This equation can be rearranged: (M) x (liters of solution) = moles liters of solution Remember the following: Ifyou are given grams of solute, you can convert it into moles using the periodic table. ‘Of course you can also go from moles to grams, too, If you are given a volume in mL, you can convert it into liters by dividing by 1000. For example, 500 mL = 0.500 L. Of course you can also go from liters to mL by multiplying by 1000. Here are some example problems that deal with molarity. 6. a) How many grams of KCI are required to prepare 500 mL of a 0.125 M solution? b) What is the molarity of a solution that is prepared by dissolving 75.0 g of CathzOs in enough water to prepare 500.0 mL of solution? ¢) How many milliliters of 2.50 M NaCl are needed to provide 0.150 mol NaCl? a ‘‘Sometimes a solution is prepared by diluting (adding water) to a concentrated solution, Ifyou have to do a problem that involves dilution, here is how you do it: MyV;=MzVe_ where Ml is the initial molarity of the concentrated solution Ma is the final molarity of the dilutad solution Vs is the initial volume of the concentrated solution Ve us the final volume of the diluted solution Example: A 15 mL sample of 4.0 M NaOH was diluted to a volume of 250 ml, What is the new concentration of the solution? (4.0 M)(15 mL) = (M2)(250 mL) Me = (4)(15) =0.24M 250 7. 2) 1750.0 mL of 28.00 M solution is diluted to a volume of 500 mL, what is the final concentration? b) 750 mL of 0.50 M HClis required for a lab experiment. How many milliliters of 6.00 M HC should be used to prepare this solution? 28 5‘Topic &_ Scientific Investigation 5.1 Safety equipments used to protect the eyes and skin from contact with laboratory chemicals and flames: goggles, aprons. gloves, safely shawer, eyewash, broken gloss container, fume hood and fre blanket. You musi undersiond ard folow the laboratory safety rules and procedures that are described in your Safely Contract in order to workin the chemistry lbbacatory, 5.2 Historically, scientists have been known to stand on the “shoulders of giant’, meaning that they bull ‘on previous knowledge to make new discoveries. This: especially true cs scientists began to develop theories conceming the otom and ifs stucture. From John Deion, a 1.1 Thampson te Emest Rutherford {0 Neils Bohr fo the modem day electeon cloud [quantum mecharical] model of the com, ‘53 Significant figures are used in mating calcuations with measurements made in the fab. Measure volume of a liquicin millers [mj usng a graduated cylinder and stating measured dials plus he esiimated digi. Measure mass in grams (@) using on electroric boionce and identifying the estimated digit. Significant figures are used in making calculations with measurements made in the lab. Determine the mean {average] of c set of yolurne or mass measurements using tne rules for significant digit 5.4 Percent eroris the rat of absolute value ofthe difference between the experimental value ond the theoretical value fo the theoreticas value, muted by 100 Theorefcal value -_ Experimental voive |X 100 Theoretical value 5.5__Desctibe and demonstrate sofe techniques for lighting and using gas bumners. Understand and use Materia! Safety Data Sheet (MSDS| warnings including: handling chemicals ethal dese (LD) nazoras, disposal and chemical spill clean-up. 5 Percent yeldis the ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield, mutipied by 100. Actuolvield xX 100 Theoretical yield 3.7 Accuracy is how close a mearurement isto the true value, An accurate measurement has very ttle ‘error. Precision is how exact and repeatable a meosurement i. 5.8 To safely lute on acid, ad ocd 1 woter. Do net add water fo acié concentrated acicl. Aways perform this faskin a furne hood. When preparing a more afiute solution from a stock solution of known. Concentration, Mi XVi = Mz Va, The molarity of the fist solution mutipied by is volume willbe equal fo the molarity of the new solution mutipied by Is volume. Phenolphihalein isan Indicator that is coloress in the presence of an acid or neuira substance but I pinkin the presence of a base. Lifmusis also an acid/oase indicator. Base fun red fimus bive and acids tun bive imu red. 59. Tirafion uses burets to dispense precise amounts of slution of known concentration to determine the Cceneentraton of another solution, SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 1 On previous SOL tests, students have been asked to choose the piece of glassware that gives the most precise results. They have usually been given the following choices: beaker flask pipet test tube graduated cylinder Of these choices, the most precise piece of glassware is the because.When you read the volume on a graduated cylinder or you measure length with a ruler, you should always estimate the final digit. The final estimated digit will always be one power of ten ‘smaller what each line is worth on the instrument. In other words, if the ruler shows lines every 0.1 cm, then you estimate length to the nearest 0.01 cm. Estimate the length of this stri om | you measure something in an experiment, why do you think itis a good idea to perform the measurement three separate times and take the average result? If you take several measurements, then your data will be precise if .. Data is considered to be accurate if ‘A.common scenario is to show data that is precise but not accurate. The boiling point of water is 100.0°C. Give an example of data for the BP of HzO that is precise but not accurate: Trial 1 Trial 2: Trial 8: Trial 4: Basic lab techniques for separation of a mixture are listed below. Match the physical property with the separation technique. chromatography A. boiling point filtration B. particle size distillation ©. interaction with the solvent (polarity) "eS match the separation technique with the picture: chromatography = nm fitration a tite ___ distillation8. Fill n the blanks by writing numbers in either regular notation or scientific notation. Regular Notation — Scientific Notation 15600 1.56 x 10% 250,000 0.00045 2.3 x 10° 6.1 x10 9. Ifyou get a chemical on your skin or in your eyes, the first thing you should do is always 10. If you need to mix acid and water together, remember that the safety rules state that you should always add to 11. If you see a graph that shows a relationship between two variables, it will often fall into one of two categories: direct relationship or inverse relationship, ‘A direct relationship can be summarized by saying that as one variable increases, the other variable ‘An example of this would be ‘An inverse relationship can be summarized by saying that as one variable increases, the other variable An example of this would be Sketch the general shape of each graph below: ‘ | ‘ | x x Direct relationship Inverse relationship 12. Ityou are asked to calculate percent error, you should know that percent error = _| measured value — accepted value] x 100% accepted value - A ceriain piece of metal has an accepted mass of 65.0 grams. Its mass was recorded in the laboratory as 55.0 grams. Calculate the percent error in this measurement. 3143. The following information concems the metric system and other unit conversions. You should definitely know these numbers. 4b tka 9 Ce 14, Students often forget how to determine how many si measurement. See if you remember how to do this. ficant figures are in a given [Numbar| Significant Figures | 25.7 700.62 200.0 {0.075 ; [0.0050 45, When you multiply or divide two numbers, the rule is that the final answer should be rounded so that it has the same number of sig figs as the measurement with the fewest sig figs. Ifthe mass of an object is 2.7 g and the volume is 3.5 mL, calculate the density and round your answer to the proper number of sig figs. 16, Report the average of these three measurements using the correct number of significant figures. Trial 1] Tral2| Tal S| Average 85.2 | 84.9 | 25.4 17, Sometimes students are asked to identity pieces of laboratory equipment. In each blank below write the letter that matches the name of the equipment with the picture. ~fok— beaker evaporating dish volumetric flask crucible graduated cylinder watch glass Erlenmeyer flask “__mortar and pestle 32or 4.1 Organic Chemisty isthe branch of chemistry concemed with the compounds of carbon: orginally onfinad to Compounds produced by living crgarisms bul row extended fo include man-made substonces bazad on earoon, such os plestics 62. Saturated organic compounds contain single carbon-carbon covalent bend, dus to the presence of Al single bores, these compounds ore less reactive, Lnsatvated organic compounds contain at least one Goubla or tiple covalent, dus fo the presence of double cnd tiple bonds these compounds are mere 63 Polymers chemical compound that Is made of small melecuies that are arranged in a simple repeating siuclure fo form larger molecule, Examples of nalutal polymers: nucieic acids and proteins. Bxamples of synthetic (man-made) polymers: plastics, nylon, Kevier, Teflon. 6.4 Recogrize that organic compounds play oole in natural and synthetic phermaceuticas, Example of atural phormaceuticass; ascorbic acid {Vilamin C-ttom an orange}, examples of synthetic phamaceutical: Vitamin Cin a pill form, csp, ‘Organic and Blochemisiny 1, Drow Lewis dot siructures, dently geometries, and describe polarities ofthe folowing molecules: (CHa, CH, Cate, Cal, CHsCH:OH, CH:O, Cite, CH:COOH. Which of tase ae argane compounds? : Which statement describes how plastic lifer from nucleic aids? A. Pst are sya pms Sut mei acdsee pyr, Pos are oma fom open eben, Mot uc ae are at © © asc are erm from organ apenas a ret, = D Pass ae pela, bt mud ads re mone. 33