Running head: INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ESSAY

International Development Essay

Phoebe Tay

Gallaudet University

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Trends in International Development

The History of International Development
According to Sach (2005), all regions in the world were poor in 1820. Over time, while
economic progress was ubiquitous, some nations progressed much more rapidly than others. The
reasons accounting for the differences in the pace of development among countries were the
nature of political institutions established, and their geographical locations where some countries
had access to the best domesticated animals and crops while others did not (Acemoglu &
Robinson, 2012; Diamond, 2005). Consequently, a development gap, defined as the disparity in
living standards between the advanced regions comprising the United States, Japan and Western
Europe, and the underdeveloped economies which consist of Africa, Asia, Latin America and
Eastern Europe, occurred (Roland, 2014).
At the Bretton Woods conference in 1944, delegates from the allied nations gathered in
New Hampshire to establish a monetary and exchange rate management system as part of war
reparation efforts (Baker, 2014). This led to the establishment of the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) and the World Bank which provide financial and technical aid to developing nations (The
World Bank Group, 2015; International Monetary Fund, n.d.). In 1945, the United Nations (UN)
was founded with the goal of preventing another global war from occurring (Black, 2007).
The concept of international development was devised in the West after the second
world war (Black, 2007). Development is defined as the process by which countries stricken by
poverty or failed states would catch up with industrialized nations, as a result of assistance given
to them. During the post-war years, the United Socialist Soviet Republic (USSR) became a
model of communism for communist states. Countries either adopted democracy or communist

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principles which led to political tension, and influenced the course of development work.
According to Black (2007) US President Truman had a different agenda with regards to
development. He stressed the importance of the advancement of poor countries using democratic
principles, for the purposes of combating communism and protecting the political interests of the
USA and its allies. Therefore, the concept of development has ideological connotations.
In the 1960s, the UNs Decade of Development was launched (Black, 2007). Every
industrialized country was required by the UN to contribute one percent of their Gross National
Product (GNP) to Official Development Assistance (ODA), which was used as aid to support
underdeveloped economies. US President Kennedy followed up on several initiatives which
included the Peace Corps, Food for Peace and the Alliance for Progress. The media was
increasingly used to promote images of suffering around the world. The UNs Food and
Agriculture Organization launched the Freedom from Hunger campaign which moved people to
compassion in the West (Black, 2007). This led to other non-profit organizations such as Oxfam
International being established. The US Agency for International Development also came about
to provide aid to foreign countries to foster social and economic development (USAID, 2015).
In 2000, the eight Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) were implemented. Countries
committed to halving extreme poverty and addressing other needs such as curbing the spread of
HIV/AIDS by 2015 (United Nations, 2015). In the same year, there was a new wave of
philanthropy headed by Bill Gates which saw the creation of the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation (2015). The organization introduced several initiatives in global health, global
development, policy and advocacy, US education programs, and also allocates grants to
international non-profit organizations. Presently, the UN acts on issues such as peace and

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security, sustainable development, climate change, terrorism, human rights, disarmament, gender
equality and more (United Nations, 2015). It is evident that development assistance from the
Northern countries changes according to global issues that arise such as terrorism.
Colonialism and its Impact on Development
Colonialism has influenced the nature of development work and is responsible for the
state that developing countries are in, to a large extent. It accounts for why some countries are
developed while others remain underdeveloped. Graham (2015) stated in A review of William
Easterlys The Tyranny of Experts: Economists, Dictators and the Forgotten Rights of the Poor,
that the tyranny of experts is referred to as the development community in the international
financial institutions, the policy arena, and D.C. think tanks (p. 93). It is evident that those who
wield power and are involved in decision-making in development are the colonialists. This has
negative repercussions on development work because decisions that are made often serve the
interests of the colonialists instead of the recipient country. Development work has political
aspects to it as most of the funding of development projects come from the U.S. government (K.
Giddens, personal communication, March 10, 2015). This means that the way that the funds are
allocated is often subject to the interest of the U.S. government.
Black (2007) highlighted that it has been approximately 60 years since development work
came about to assist backward countries in catching up with developed nations. Instead of
achieving its desired result, the irony is that the numbers of people in poverty have increased.
Thus, development work has caused more harm than good. Diamond (2005) revealed in his
documentary Guns, Germs and Steel that the colonization of Africa has created modern high
density, cities and towns where many Africans have moved to, from their small communities.

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This has created countries in Africa where the spread of diseases is rampant. Furthermore, the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) compounded Jamaicas development problems during the
1970s and 1980s by imposing conditions such as restricting the way funds could be allocated to
programs and making Jamaica accept imports from America that were sold at a cheaper price
(Black, 2001). This affected the local market adversely as people could not sell their products.
Collier (2007) pointed out that some regard aid as a form of reparations for colonialism in order
to resolve the guilt of Western society, instead of about development. Maathai (2009) asserted
that the colonial governments had deliberately restricted the education of Africans and barred
them access to the professional classes so as to prevent them from threatening their positions of
power. They also ensured that the new people in power did not possess the ability to lead on their
own. This maintained Africas dependency on the colonialists. Consequently, when the
colonialists withdrew, there were very few qualified Africans capable of leading the country.
Colonialism and development are clearly intertwined. Colonialism has hindered
development instead of fostering it because the rights of the recipients of development are often
exploited. The interests of the colonialists are being propagated in development work and power
is concentrated in the hands of international organizations to a large degree. It can be inferred
that the term development is often misused by those with covert political agendas.
The Aid Debate and Solutions for Improvement in Development
There are two diverging perspectives in the aid debate. Raster (1990) and Hayer (1971)
stated that foreign assistance is either viewed as the external intervention by richer nations to
serve as a catalyst for economic success for developing countries, or as imperialism in disguise

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(as cited in Andrews, 2009). Sach (2005) purported that foreign aid is necessary to spur
economic development. However, outcomes of foreign aid seem to suggest otherwise.
Aid does hasten the growth process and has prevented the countries of the bottom billion
from falling apart (Collier, 2007). However, aid on its own, is highly unlikely to be able to
address the issues of poverty. Mathaai (2009) indicated that frequently the recipients of
development assistance fail to understand the intrinsic value of what they have been given. As a
result, when donors and development assistance come to a halt, the individuals return to their
original state of poverty and passivity. They do not take the initiative to address problems within
their community such as repairing taps, which development assistance has previously focused
on. Hence, development assistance has perpetuated the cycle of dependency on foreign aid with
nobody assuming responsibility or accountability for the ongoing development of the community
(Maathai, 2009). This has impaired the capacity of the African people to develop solutions to
solve the multitude of problems they face.
Sach (2014) mentioned that Easterly, a long-standing opponent of aid, theorized that
large-scale aid projects would inevitably fail, and recently made the declaration that the aid
debate was over. Easterly (2013) is highly critical of Sachs ideas on how to end poverty. Sach
purported that having adequate money could simply solve the issues of those mired in poverty by
paying for the technical solutions to their problems. This involved provision of bed nets to
prevent the spread of malaria from mosquito bites, constructing wells to supply clean water,
building hospitals to treat ailments, and increasing the yield of food crops by using fertilizers.
Easterly asserted that the problem goes deeper than that and that it was important to dig beneath
the surface. Glennie (2011) highlighted that giving aid is not actually an act of generosity but

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instead used to support the political and economic interests of donors. He stated that it is
important for rich nations to restructure the way they handled development assistance instead of
just rendering aid. This can be achieved by establishing fair trade rules, making quick
adaptations to climate change, and addressing problems of resource scarcity by placing limits on
consumption, and introducing other reformations that will not disadvantage recipient countries.
If such restructuring is achieved, development work will reap more positive results.
Birdsall (2005) also discussed the problems with donors by highlighting their seven
deadly sins. She implied that people who are for development assistance tend to lose sight of the
big picture and focus on advancing their own interests instead. When listing the seven deadly
sins she pointed out that donors are impatient where institution building is concerned, are
envious of other donors projects and accomplishments, ignorant of their own failures, are unable
to exit a program due to pride even when it is appropriate to do so, display sloth by pretending
participation is adequate for ownership, are greedy by allowing unreliable and miserly transfers,
and show foolishness by mismanaging funds for global and regional public goods such as
vaccines. Birdsall (2005) then suggested solutions to these issues. She is not against development
assistance but indicates that those providing development assistance need to firstly recognize
how important the challenge is and to fix those issues, take efforts to address them, and be
tenacious in implementing a new approach to development assistance.
While it appears that development has been unsuccessful to a large extent, there are
development projects that have been successful. Development projects that responds to the needs
and the culture of the local people and are focused on equipping them with skills to carry out
their work independently have yielded positive results (Krishna, Uphoff & Esman, 1997). This is

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evident in the agriculture program established in the San Martin area in Guatemala for the Indian
farmers, which adopted best agricultural practices that ensured the sustainability of the program.
The program focused on getting the villagers to make the changes to their agricultural practices
themselves by teaching them techniques and ideas they could easily implement with the
equipment they owned or could afford. In this case, development work was contextualized which
caused major increases in crop yields and fostered a sense of partnership in the community as the
local people were directly involved in the planning and implementing of the project.
Development assistance has clearly hindered economic development to a large extent and
it has created a culture of dependency and even greater poverty especially when foreign
development workers take on all the responsibility. The more foreign intervention a country
receives, the further it sinks into poverty because the local people do not learn how to help
themselves. However, development work when focused on training and equipping people with
the skills to implement projects independently, are successful.
Personal Thoughts on how Development can be Successful
Smith (2005) states that problems surrounding illiteracy can be subtle, and devising
solutions to them is no easy feat. Millions of people in Asia, African and Latin American
converse only in indigenous and tribal languages that are very contrasting to the dominant
language. This makes it difficult to acquire literacy. Imagine what the world would be like if
every individual had full access to an education in their mother tongue. People would develop a
sense of confidence and pride in their cultural identities and communities. What would it also
look like if every single person had English as a second and shared language? Not just one
standard form of English per se, but their cultural version of English? Just like American and

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British English differ, there is also Konglish in Korea, Singlish in Singapore, and so on. People
would be able to educate and inform other ethnic groups and nationalities about the beliefs,
values, norms and worldview of their cultures. There would be intercultural understanding, racial
harmony and equality among various people groups.
Skutnabb-Kangas (2001) highlights that language is rooted in ones identity and for most
minority groups, ethnic conflicts arise due to their identities being threatened by not being
granted language rights. Issues of power and dynamics of oppression are perpetuated. Thus, the
solution to preventing or reducing conflict is allowing minority groups their rights to language
and education. Therefore, it is essential for language rights all over the world to be established
and protected. Schools that deliver and teach content in the native language of local communities
need to be built. English should be taught in all schools as a second language by local teachers
and used as a tool for empowerment and bridging communication across various cultures
(Giddens, personal communication, March 10, 2015). Teachers need to be trained to impart
curriculum in their mother tongue as well as in English. When all children and adults have a
strong sense of cultural identity and the skills for intercultural communication, they will not view
other cultures as superior or inferior to them. This is the starting point, for how development can
be done successfully as issues of racial equality, power dynamics and oppression caused by
colonialism, would be addressed. Ethnic minorities and other people groups would not look to
the West as the experts and the West would not think of themselves as better than those in the
Global South. This would level the playing field among professionals in the field of international
development worldwide. Leaders and advocates in their local communities would also feel
empowered to make their own decisions, ones that would best benefit and promote development

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in their countries. Overall, it is crucial for development work to be contextualized by advocating

for language and educational rights of minority groups, in order for development to be
successful.
Persons with Disabilities and Development Assistance
Exclusion of Persons with Disabilities in Development Assistance in the Past 60 Years
Persons with disabilities (PWDs) have been viewed as a burden instead of as people who
have the capability to problem-solve and improve their quality of life, by governments and aid
agencies (Houge, 2015). During the 1950s in the USA after World War II, PWDs did not
consider themselves a minority group and the term disability rights was unheard of (Gilkey &
Neudel, 2011). There were also multiple stereotypes, myths, misconceptions and fears
surrounding disability and those who had a disability were perceived as not normal or
different. It was commonly believed that if an individual had a disability, he or she did not have
the desire to live a fulfilling life. A study conducted by the Womens Refugee Commission in
2008 also found that PWDs have difficulty accessing development assistance programs because
of the many societal, environmental and communication barriers that they have to confront
(Pearce, 2014). PWDs are often stigmatized and are socially isolated in their communities, and
this can cause them to be forgotten in development assistance (Sanson & Felix, 2013).
Furthermore, many humanitarian workers, service providers and stakeholders have not been
trained and educated in disability issues and accessibility, and do not know how to interact with
or respond to the needs of PWDs (World Health Organization, 2011). For instance, a survey by
the Zimbabwe Parents of Handicapped Childrens Association discovered that PWDs were
excluded from general HIV/AIDS services due to lack of accessibility to sign language in

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counseling and testing services for deaf people, and educational materials were not converted to
Braille for people with limited vision. There is also a general lack of awareness in the public
about the needs of PWDs (Vanter, Savill, Rickert, Bogopane, Venkatesh, Camba, Mulikita,
Khaula, Stone & Maunder, n.d.). A person with a vision impairment in India reported that
passer-bys clutched his shirt collar or sleeves when he requested for assistance to cross the road.
This made him feel insignificant and inferior.
According to the World Health Organization (2011), the needs of PWDs in the past have
been catered to in the form of segregated settings such as special schools and residential
institutions. Prior to the 1970s, there was a lack of organization of Disabled Peoples
Organizations (DPOs) and disability was not regarded as a human rights issue. Furthermore,
PWDs have often not been directly consulted with on projects designed for them. Wilson (2005)
found that the Jamaican Deaf Community was frequently excluded from the planning, designing
and evaluating stages of development programs and the American assistance they received did
not best meet their needs. A view of charity is adopted when providing assistance to Deaf
people and PWDs, instead of empowering them to devise their own solutions. Lastly, legislation
in certain countries have failed to protect the rights of PWDs (Independent Living Institute, n.d.).
Effective Approaches for the Inclusion of PWDs in Development Assistance
Training international development workers in disability awareness and inclusion,
employing PWDs to work on development projects and in international organizations, and
removing barriers in the environment by making specific adaptations, are effective approaches
for the inclusion of PWDs in development assistance.

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CBM, an international non-profit organization has an inclusive development sector which

practices and promotes inclusion of PWDs in their development initiatives (CBM, 2010). There
is also an Inclusive Emergency Response Unit that seeks to ensure that in the event of a disaster
or conflict, PWDs are identified by humanitarian workers and that their needs for food, water,
shelter and healthcare are met. CBM promotes equal rights and inclusion for all PWDs in their
projects and employs staff with disabilities to manage their projects in their international offices.
The community in the slums of Kibera in Kenya where the Little Rock Inclusive Early
Childhood Development Center is situated, could be a model for inclusion (Koninklijke Kentalis,
2014). The school was set up to provide education for the vulnerable kids in the area. It adopts an
inclusive education philosophy; hearing children, Deaf children and children with other
disabilities from ages 3 to 8 are enrolled at the school, and some of the teachers are Deaf. What is
remarkable about the school is that all the children are taught sign language regardless of their
ability to hear or their disability (Little Rock Kenya, 2015). This removes communication
barriers in the environment and facilitates language access for the Deaf children. The school can
serve as a beacon of hope for Deaf people and PWDs in developing nations.
It is imperative that aspiring and current international development workers are trained
how to work with and include PWDs in development initiatives. Gallaudet University in
Washington D.C. is the only university in the world that adopts a bilingual approach to education
for Deaf people with American Sign Language (ASL) and written English as languages of
instruction (Gallaudet University, 2014). The institution offers a Master of Arts in International
Development program which specializes in how to include Deaf people and PWDs in
development initiatives. More of such programs should be established in other universities.

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Personal goals for Working in Development

Human Rights Watch (2013) highlighted that many Deaf children and youths all over the
world are frequently denied their right to an education. This is due to a shortage of teachers who
are able to communicate fluently in sign language and a lack of awareness by parents of their
Deaf childs potential to learn or his or her right to attend school. Frequently, parents do not
know sign language which means that the deaf child has no language input at home. This creates
many problems such as language and cognitive delay, and mental health issues, because the
minds of Deaf children are not receiving any stimulation. I envision myself advocating for the
rights of Deaf kids to access an education in their native sign language in the future. This will be
done by designing and implementing educational programs for Deaf kids, writing advocacy
articles or books that will educate people on Deaf culture, perspectives, and sign language
linguistics, and also challenge any deficit views they may hold on deafness.
I believe my work would be effective and sustainable because it is centered on
challenging and changing the mindsets of hearing and oral deaf people who internalize audism.
When their views are transformed and internalized, the intrinsic value of sign language and Deaf
education will be recognized. These people will also start to educate others around them about
Deaf culture and awareness. Consequently, more Deaf children will have access to quality
education in their native sign language and communication barriers will be addressed in school
and at home. These children will grow up to be Deaf adults with a strong sense of Deaf pride and
identity, and achieve their full potential. They will then become advocates of the Deaf
communities which they belong, and ensure even more positive outcomes for future generations
of Deaf children by continuing the fight for language rights and equality with hearing people.

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