io-geographical Article Physical Factors Influencing World Distribution of Plants and Animals The enhanced green house effect, acidification and Ozone depletion are all examples of atmospheric pollution that have occurred mainly after industrialisation, urbanisation and deforestation. Also some metals like Zinc, Cadmium, Mercury and Arsenic released by burning of fuels and as industrial wastes are creating serious problems to environmental pollution Physical Factors influencing world distribution of plants and animals may be broadly classified tunder the following headings: () Climate (i) Physiographie (Gi Edaphic, and Gv) Biotic Climate does not act alone to set limits to plant growth; rather, exerts its influence in conjunction with the other factors. Yet its role is always important directly in its effects on plants and indirectly in its influence ‘on edaphic and biotic factors. ‘The direct influence of climate on plants is exerted by precipitation and soil moisture, radiation, humidity, temperature, sunlight and wind Moisture is the most important factor because water not only goes into the composition of plant cells but also serves as a medium for transport of nutrients to growing, cells and through evapotranspiration acts as a temperature control. Besides also ‘without water no one can imagine the life of animals. Whereas moisture provides the ‘medium for the processes of plant growth, heat provides the energy. Plants can grow only within certain temperature limits, although the limits are different for different plants and animals. Certain algae live in hot springs at more than 90°C, and desert lichens ean withstand 100°C; Arctic mosses and lichens survive -70°C. For each species and each variety there is a minimum below which growth is not possible, also there is a maximum beyond which growth is impossible. Most of the plant cease growth below 5°C (soil temp.). Free- Zing and thawing temperature are dangerous for plant growth. High temperature generally speed up the PD/December/2006/959/5 growth process. They rarely cause the death of plants, instead the increased evapotranspiration causes dehy- ration of plant cells. Wind influences vegetation dire- «iy by its physical action upon plants and indirectly by accelerating mois- ture loss. The rending and tearing action of high speed or gusty winds is 1 very common phenomenon. Trees are generally blown over or stripped of leaves and branches, Abrasion by wind blown sand, gravel or ice particle are also quite damaging. Under these conditions all spe- cies of vegetation have climatic optima under which their growth is most efficient. The fact that these ‘optima as well asthe extreme climatic limits are different for various plants accounting for the distribution of plants association on earth. Under constantly frozen condi- tion there is an ice or snow cover or barren rock with no vegetation. ‘Towards progressively warmer lima- tes Tundra and Taiga prevail. In still warmer regions adequate moisture becomes the dominant factor and there isa succession of desert, steppe, grassland, forest and rain forest rang- ing from arid to very wet climates. Each of these vegetation categories has its cool and hot subdivision. Thus there are cold deserts and hot deserts, prairie grasslands and savanna, subarctic rain forests and tropical rain forests. In each climatic region there is @ characteristic vegetation for- mation consisting of associated plant species which have become adapted to the climatic region. Forms and Functions of Eeos- ystem—The study of organisms in relation to their environment is known as ecology. The concept of ecosystem is very broad and flexible. Ecosystems are open systems, and, therefore, have flows of energy and —Rajeev R. Shrivastava material across their boundaries. Units of ecosystem are pond, ‘grassland, desert, forests etc. There are generally four basic ‘components of an ecosystem. First the abiotic part which is the non-living ‘environment. Second is the producers for autotrophs which covers the green plants who are capable of making their own food, using energy of sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. Third are the consumers or hetero- throphs. These are the animals which obtain their food by eating plants or animals. The heterotrophs may be divided into : Herbivorous : eat only living plant material (Camivorous : eat other animals (Omnivorous : eat both plant and ‘animal materials Detritivorous : eat dead plant and animal materials, The fourth component are the decomposers which include the bacteria and the fungi, who promotes the process of decay. The energy of sunlight fixed in food production by green plants is passed through the ecosystem by food chains oF food webs from one tropic level to the next. It helps in the flow of energy. Ex: of a food chain: Plants— herbivorous —> carnivorous = decomposes (eg. grass — vole weasel bacteria) Ex: of food web a ie bncrty “at \ L cg oie "Node “Pailures are finger posts on the road to achlevement."All these concepts of energy dry summers and mild, wetter deserts share at least part of their transfers are based on laws of winters. It is also known as boundary. The steppe are generally thermodynamics. The first law of sclerophyllous forest. In this the found in Africa. Asia Minor, Plateau which says energy can neither be leaves are small, thick and waxy in of South Africa, and around the ‘created nor destroyed. It can only be nature. For example : Oak in periphery of Australia desert. Some transferred from one sort to another. Southern Europe and California mid latitudes steppe are North For ex : Light energy to food energy Dense thickest of Shrubs and bushes American Great Plains, wetter (as in photosynthesis). Similarly the known as maquis in Europe, and Patagonia of Argentina. energy in the food chain and food Chaparral in California. Distinctive grasslands known as web is transferred from one source to (ji) The broad leaf and mixed _praries, border the steppes on their another and itnever get destroyed. broad leaf coniferous forest : It wetter margins in some areas. Tall Foussts flourish where there is moderate grass prairie plants are deep-rooted aa temperature and plentiful summer and reach heights of one to three In the rainy tropics the vege- rainfall. Itis also known as temperate metres under natural conditions. tation in the tropical rain forest is or mesophytic forests. Representative Short grass praries merge with that of characterized by many species of trees of this forest are oak, ash, steppes. Most of the world praries tall broadleaved evergreens with hickory, magnolia, gum, pine and have been plowed up so that few FEreng mteckng owns Here spruce. These are found in Eastern examples of the atural plant seems to be concentrated largely United States, British Isles, Central association remain. The principal com the treetops, where monkeys and part of erstwhile USSR. Korea, areas in which prairie grasses were many types of birds are the Japan and easter China. In southern the native vegetation are east of the Prominent representative species. In hemisphere it is found in southern Great Plains in North America, North the densest rain forest, the canopy of Brazil, southern Chile, Natal area of of the steppes in USSR. Central the overhead growth inhabits the south Africa, SE part of Australia, Manchuria, the pampas of Argentina fore Has eae tie te New Zealand etc. and eastern part of South Africa. Where thevall tose ae more wigely, ___ i) The Coniferous forest: They Marine Ecosystem are found along the Pacific coast of spaced a dense ander story of smalr Canada and the United States. Here _It is the most largest and stable Herne een fae veetauen abundant rainfall has permited extra ecosystem. Major oceans and thet ake at tropical rain forest with fir as connecters posses about 70% of the due to absence of sunlight. Some Gominant species. In the taiga the earth's surface. Physical factors species are present to restrict the oefapeie are cand aproce with mainly waves, en corrente, Carer os food only sear the some larch and pine. Enclaves of salinities temperature, pressures and 3 Me deciduous birch ‘and as per also light intensities largely determine the leopical pete and the mangrove cana. life in the ocean. Here the food chain to tidal flats. Tropical : fs : s begins with the smallest known rainforest or selva is found in the Grassland be Ree ‘Amazon Basin, Congo Basin, and The major grassland formations e's ke gan fish guid oad most of the islands of South East are savanna steppe and praine. Here | animals Asia. tall grasses are dominant with On drier margins, the tropical scattered drought-resistant trees and _ Marine provides largest, thickest ee ee elec oe ee associations or scrub and thom forest. wet and dry tropical climate. The ofBanisms exhibit an incredible array Plant growth isnot so luxuriant and example of savanna are the lanes off @daptations, ranging from flotation the individual species are adapted the orinoco valley. Campos of Brazil devices that Keep the tiny plankters 2 ‘Sudan thin the upper layers of to lower effective precipitation or and. etc. e Gag ee eae Seasonal drought. Dense forests are Here also. the proportion of Geepac oh hat veins dark cold generally found along watercourses. trees varies with the proportion of SSP patente Typical Semi deciduous forest Bas 2 moisture. Along the stream course, Sod far between, Coninestal shelf ‘more open stan dense growth of trees called galerias SPs js - Selva, and sunlight penetrates to the are found. Away from the water ne Eee eee sround to support a thick impene- Sipplies tree becomes well adapted Produced here an important source {table undergrowth known asjungle. to dry conditions such as thick (hh jes sees aad Most characteristic animal life may Jeathery leaves which reduces the te Most Productive areas and lagest include many types of insets ants, oss of water. Various types of Meats tarred up by apweli spiders and some larger animals. animals feed on Savanna grass or on Currents. For example: Peraviag The mid-latitude forests are tree leaves. upwelling region is one of the most divided into three broad classes— ‘The steppe consists of more or productive natural areas in the world. () Mediterranean Scrub : It is less continuous mat of grasses with The vast stretches of the deep sea, made up of broadleaf evergreen shrubs. They occur in mid-latitudes however are mostly semi desert with scrub type that are adapted tothehot as well as in the tropics. The dry considerable total energy low. The PD/December/2006/960 “Fall seven times, stand up eigat”autotrophic layer (Photic zone) is so small in comparison with the heterotrophic layer that the nutrient supply in the former is limiting The shelf area adjacent to country’s land territory should be extensively exploited but the width of shelf sometimes create problems. But sometime it becomes more expensive to exploit in the shelf region. So marine or sea ecosystem is more important as a life support and climate regulator than simply imagine that itis a supply depot of ‘minerals oil and natural gas. Mountain Ecosystem ‘The boreal or mountain forest is a vast expanse of Coniferous, evergreen forest extending North ‘America and Eurasia on the Southern margins of the Tundra zone in a belt of approximately 500 miles breadth from North to South. This area has been subjected to severe glacial or periglacial activity in the past. Here the conditions for life are very harsh due to adverse climatic conditions. Growing seasonis only of 34 months. ‘Temperature remains low throughout the year. In the winter Permafrost extends into the northem edge of the forest. Precipitation ranges from 400 to 700 mm per annum, mainly in the form of snow, causing severe damage to the trees. Here the coniferous trees form a dense canopy which intercepts a great amount of light and preci- pitation forming darkness beneath. It provides very little opportunity for the plants to grow there. Species of Pine, Spruce, Fir dominates in the region. These are all evergreen trees but due to short ‘growing season, primary productivity is low as compared to other types of forest. ItTeads to very low amount of energy for use at the secondary level, and there is very small amount of animal biomass as well as a lack of diversity. At the herbivore level the invertebrates are predominant, the vertebrate herbivorous only becom- ing numerous in areas where foliage is thicker. Here Carnivorous, such as wolf and lynx, and Omnivorous such as the black and grizzly bears, which need a lot of food to maintain themselves, are scarce. ‘The combination of coniferous dominants which are low in nutrient demand the lack of diversity, and the climatic conditions results in slow impoverished nutrient cycles. In this ecosystem few nutrients would be taken and few would be returned to the soll. Here due to evergreen trees, leaves fall throughout the year but bacterial activities are very slow, this makes the soil acidic in nature. Bio-Diversity And Its Depletion ‘Through Natural and Man-Induced Causes Tropical rain forests are found in equatorial Africa, Central America, South America, South and South-East Asia. Human occupation of tropical rain forests began in South-East Asia and the Pacific 25000-40000 years ago, in the Amazon 10,000 years ago and ‘about 3000 years ago in Africa. These forests now provide millions of people with shelter, food, clothing, fuel, medicines, building materials and many other resources. A large ‘umber of people reap the economic and environmental benefits of rain forests without living near it. Timber is the most important economically valuable resources of the forest, although other products such as nuts fruits, rattans, medicinal plants, and rubber are also other important plants providing economic returns. Rain forests are extremely rich in species. Around 282000 km? (02% of the earths land surface), area contained 34400 endemic plant species. Tropical forests also contain high concentrations of other endemic species also. Here the damage caused to bio- diversity of this region by natural ‘means were not so severe. But real damage started when people began ‘to migrate from China to South-East Asia, and from Europe to Africa and South America and started intro- ducing new crops and agricultural methodologies. After the 17th ‘century. forests were cleared to make ‘way for cash crops. For ex: rubber in Indonesia and Malaysia, coffee in Brazil tea in India and China, sugar in Carribbean Islands and tobacco, palm oil in Asia. Most dangerous destruction has taken place within the past 50 years to provide land for agriculture and vital export earning were used from the sale of timber and minerals. Land also cleared to build dams, roads and cities to meet the needs of a growing population. Timber trade has cause ‘maximum damage to the rain forest. Logging has 2 direct impact on the forests and indirect damage is caused bby timber companies opening up large areas of forest to invasion by settlers and shifting cultivators. In some regions poverty, population ‘growth and unequal land ownership encourage peasants to move out of highly populated areas into less developed, usually forested areas. Mining and oil companies also leave destruction in their wake. Pollution is a major cause of concer, ‘and the roads built by oil and mining, ‘The rate of depletion has incre- ased tremendously in the last 20 years. FAO has estimated that the loss is greatest in Central Ameria, South-East Asia and West Africa. Improvement in satellite imagery and its interpretation based on ground surveys are helping to increase the accuracy of assessments of forest area and forest loss. Ecosystem Management ‘The widespread concem over the status of ecosystem is the result of 2 movement that has slowly been gathering momentum over the last hundred years or so. Earlier efforts at the conscious management of biological resources often arose out of ‘economic necessity. The disappea- rance of forest and its products prompted the human being to save it for their present and future gene- ration. The conservation movement 2s such was born in the United States. ‘Currently it has become much wider issue than the maintenance of natural biological systems. ‘One of the important aspect of ecosystem management is the preservation and protection of wild life or of natural habitats from modification and depletion by man. It may be carried out for a number of reasons such as ethical, scientific, aesthetic et. For this wild ie refuges and sanctuaries have been set up all over the world. But such an ‘experience of East Africa were not good as population of elephant PD/December/2006/961 “Pallures are lke skinned knees painful but superficial”hippo and buffalo increased to such fan extent that they caused wide- spread devastation of their habitat But one factor that has been overlooked in the past is that ‘ecosystem cannot simply be d it dynamic in nature and also man is an important habitat the ecological niche eccupied by man cannot suddenly be left vacant One of the newer aspect of ecosystem management, is the maintenas eld from ‘organic resource idea was first applied to the maintenance of the ‘breeding stocks of marine animals and to tice. Tt is also Teiplict in the principles of all conservation, the aim of which is to ‘sustain agricultural fertility. Many people are of the belief that itis the most important aspect of ecosystem management in the face of growing, pressure on food resources. Modern environmental manage- ment policies attempt to reconcile preservation and productivity. “Multipurpose schemes are now being opted, Management of forest which has a variety of use such as for timber, wildlife, water supply recreation, medicinal plants, gum, la, these early i the moxinuni une of biological resources, crneistent with the maintenance of the greatest diversity ‘of organic Hie Ozone Depletion As we know that increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases and acidification have already initiated the process of environmental change. human activities have caused changes in the «zone layer in the stratosphere and increasing concen. trations of atmospheric pollution causing real damage to it. It has caused acid rain in the 1960's in northern Europe, the United States and Canada leading to large scale destruction of forests and lakes. ‘These have significant implications ‘on human health as well as on the ozone in the The presence of stratosphere is very important ‘because it filters out the incoming ultraviolet (UV) radiation and thus acts a5 a sereen against ultraviolet B (UV-B) which can cause some forms of Skin Cancer, Catracts and other eye diseases. It also suppress body defence mechanism which increases vulnerability toa variety of infectious. discases. ‘The problem of ozone depletion ‘as first identified in 1970s due to the advent of Supersonic aircraft which fly in the lower stratosphere and hich emit nitrogen oxides. But it was latter known that major cause of ozone depletion is the freons of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These are non-toxic, non-flammable and chemically inert gases. These properties. make them useful in a large no, of applications including aerosol propellants, refrigerants, cleansers for electronic components fine retardant, solvents, and in the production of foamed plastics. The CEC gases do not rapidly degrade and after passing through tropo- sphere they come into contact with stratosphere (due to depleted ozone layer) where they are subjected to intense ultraviolet radiation. This radiation is absorbed by ozone. Chlorine destroys ozone and oxygen from azone also get destroyed. Each chlorine atoms released can over time destroys upward of 10,000 Ozone molecules, ‘The first significant data about the depletion of ozone layer was presented by Farman (1985), the leader of the British Antarctic survey, who said that an ozone hole has ‘occurred in the stratospheric ozone layer over Antarctica since 1977. About 90% of the Antarctica is covered by the ozone hole which has expanded also over ovean areas. For the period 1977-84 the concentration of ozone has decreased by 40% subsequently Kerr in 1988 also reported the decline of ozone layer over Arctic atmosphere. But itis more significant than Antarctic ozone hole phenomena since any destruction in the northem hemisphere ozone hole ‘would be more destructive as density of population is more there. Problems of Pollution Early man with his small numbers and primitive ways of life lived in the ecosystem without significantly modifying it. When he learnt the use of fire and latter developed art of cultivation, his interference with the ecosystem started with the increase of population and civilized way of life, man’s interference with nature greatly increased. With the increase in population. demand for foodgrains increased considerably and with the development of newer and newer technologies to exploit more and ‘more to the natural resources, it led to far-reaching effects upon the natural ecosystems. ‘The modification and destruction of natural ecosystem through human intervention can be demonstrated by keeping the facts in mind that man has cut, but and destroyed millions of square miles of forestland, he has allowed overgrazing to his flocks and herds which has led to the destruction of vast areas of natural pastures; he has instigated large soil erosion by his disturbance or removal ofthe natural vegetative cover he has hunted many species of wild life to the point of extinction; he has used pesticides. insecticides, weedicides in such a way that plants became highly polluted with it, he has polluted water by sewage, factory waste and agricultural chemicals ete. Now we would go: through briefly how the ‘environmental degradation has occurred and how it has affected us ; (@ Land Spoilation—OF the total surface area only 29% is dry land and only a small fraction of this is fertile and productive agriculturally. Forests are being cut and grasslands are being overgrazed this led to increase in the erosion of soils. Associated with soil erosion is the surface and underground removal of minerals with their associated waste keeps and sometimes subsidence has led to change in terrain. With these we find all kinds of ecological problem. With this there are many forms of misuse of land or soil as one might like to say. For ex, In modem agriculture, the use of pesticides and insecticides are very common. This results not only in interruptions of the eco- logical processes but also in contamination ofthe soils. Poisonous substances keep an accumulating, effect on the soils and they might result incomplete loss of fertility PD/December!2006/962 “Tear offltare must never be a resson not to try something”‘Loss of vogeiation and geass lands ‘alan cause increase in eun-off which, leads odecreasein he ground water (ji) Water Pollution—Water is ‘one of the essentials of life, for both plants and animals. Apart from this ‘man has. great use of water in industry aso. Inthe olden days, the amount of debris thrown into the ‘water bodies was not mach it would be either consumed by some orga- ‘ams or it would sete at the bettom., ‘But now adlays the rte of addition of matter to water bodies bas increased fat an ever faster rate, Consequently the absorption and decomposition hhas not kept pace with adalition and waters have become increasingly polluted. [neweased concentration of toxic substances in the water have resulted sometimes in the increased concentration of toxic substances in fish and they have become unit for ‘human consumption, Also increased amount of ‘organic substances in water results in decreed availabiiy of oxygen in the water, thus making. all lifes sltfcult, Plankton fails to grow and Iigher forms of life starve and di, Contamination of marine econystem from cil spllsis well documented, (ii) Atmoypherie Poltution— Many of the waste products. are liwetly alowed (0 0 Wal also the ‘gases emitted after the combustion of fossil fuels for energy production; some also arises a8 a result of ‘hemical industries and sls from the production of aerosols as propellants In spray eaves and in aerosols forms ‘of metals, Ozone, 2 byproduct of photochemical ait pollution drifts out Into rural areas from cities and is known to affect many plant; its mode of action principally affects closure of stomata and to damage the palliside and cells of leaves. The Uitect of CO2 (which is produced de to oxidation of CO) in production of ‘eazboxy haemoglobin is well under= stood since it reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin. ‘A better known contaminant of atmosphere i sulphur moan the form ef sulphur dioxide ($02) which form sulphur acid with water, thus causing acidic rain, The effect ofthis Acidic tain is very dangerous for both plontsas wellas anima, PD/Decemver/2006/963 “Pongo about the eonsoquane “The oxides of nitrogen (N20) have also very serious impacts on hhuman respiratory systers. Plants srovth ilo affected by it (iv) Disturbance to Biota—The biotic component ofthe exoxysvem is the most seriously affected part ofthe human activity. This disturbance can be of direct as well as indirect in nature, Both plants and animals have been exploited or hunted tothe point fof no return or extietion and this is uve for terrestrial as well es maine biomass. Extinction of a species oF Introduction of a new species in an unknown area result it interrupted. food chains and thus accumulations as well asshortage of energy; The indiredt effects upon the biota are triggered off by the altsraions caused by. man in thelr natural environment or habitat. Deforestation results in loss of rot conly plant species but also the dependent species of animals. Contamination of land, air nd water alo takes its tl in numerous way, a8 ‘thas been already explained Conservation of Natural Resources—Our resources are meant not only for the uilization of the present generation but aloo for the future generation. Therefore. a balance between the growih of population and the utilization of Ferources la absolutely necoseaty. ‘This balance may ensure the continuity of human rece, Any imbalance in either of the two may disrupt the continuity of our eco nomic, social and cultural develop- ments We cannot imagine the cenwvirenment without human begs as they are integral part of the environment, The modem awareness bout the preservation and cons vation of resources and environment thas been created duet the ear ofthe situation which may arise oa result ‘of large acale destruction of natural resources: Now we would Unough diiferent mechanisms for conser vatons briefly (Soll Comervation—Due to physical factors like lard slope, inensty of rainfall, velit of wind, drift of glaciers etc. and cultural factors like deforestation, over utilisation of soils, overgrazing and tuncentifc agricultural practices the ‘erosion in po occurs ature” To get td of thes sltfvulties ‘various measures that can be adopted are terracing, contout-ploushing, controlling the shifling cultivation, Moreton plugging the lies and controling the hoadward extension ofthe gullies which van be adopted Filly and mountainous teat a0. In the desert reglorsplanttin of trees can be of immence help. After the harvesting of crops stems ane lt or about 301050 em, heyght they help reducing aeolian erosion, Fartility Is one of ihe most characteristic quality of soil. The reduction in fertility causes decrease Inpreductivity. The sol fetlty may bbe replenished and renewed by Intensive —manuring, applying fertilizers and gypsum, cropretation and leaving the fds fallow i) Water Conservation—Wates Is the basis of life. Two tte of the toval earth's surface is covered with water, Tt aupports all orms of lie vegetative, animal and hun lie i water is utilized judiciously, its supply should be suficlent. However, In dome parts of the world water is scarce, otherssuafer irom flood due to very heavy rainfall, This woter can be Impounded by making dams on rivers and ean be used in deticient areas. Water is maximum used for Insigalng erope. seepage lovee from Inngation eanals can be minimised by linning them, Sprinklers provide very ‘effective ancl efticient technique fe: Invigetion. Drip or trickle irigation technique helps in conserving water through evaporation because the water is provided through unde ground perforated pipes near the roots. (ii) Air Conservation—Existence fof life in dependent on aie, though ome natural impurities ae present in alt many are added by human beings. Coal, mineral oil ete. after burning emits a large number of gases, wore may be poisonous which causes excessive damage to the environurent, Wis extremely dittcult to keep the air pare, It car be attempted in two ways—firatly by developing proper techrology and secondly by Imposing heavy tox on polluting Continued on Page 1003 persons/ authorities, If scrubbers are ‘sed in chimneys ther it may reduce the amountof pollution. (iv) Conservation of Forests and ‘Wild Lite—The large scale utilization of frestoin response to the increasing demand of growing population, diseases of trees, and forest fires are ‘the major causes for the degradation of forests, ‘ASforestation isthe best measure to stop its degradation. Besides it, preventing the immature and young trees and creating avearencss among Iocal people atout the importance of forests may help in. conserving forests. Using insecticides ané by preventing forest fire, forests ean be conserved, Due to loss of forests and hunting activity of human being, wild animals are at the verge of shment of national ist the conservation of wildlife, Passage of ddiferent restrictive lars can also help in this aspect.