Sociological Theory

October 23, 2014

Submitted for Extra Credit for Sociology 1101
Annicka Fischer
afische7@uncc.edu

Sociological theories are an important part in the organization of particular social

phenomena within sociology and other social sciences. There are three major types of theoretical
perspectives in sociology which include structural-functional, social conflict, and symbolic
interactionism. Within the social conflict theory there also is gender conflict and race conflict
theories. (Macionis, John J.)
Structural functionalism is the theory that views society as a complex system but features
are an interconnected system where each part works together which aims to promote stability and
to function as a whole. There have been many noted functionalists in the history of society which
include Emile Durkheim, Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer and many more. Spencer and many
other functionalists believed that if a structure existed, then that structure was a necessity to the
society. Functionalists today do not believe this because of events in history that have occurred
that were unnecessary such as slavery, the holocaust, and 9/11. (Macionis, John J.) An example
of structural functionalism is a football team. Each player has their role to play, the kicker kicks
and the quarterback throws the ball, but when working together, the team can score touchdowns
and win games. There are four essential elements of structural functionalism which include
social structure, functions, shared norms and values, and that society is interdependent and
interrelated. Social structures are the stable patterns in daily lives. Functions are the purposes
and responses to the society. Communities and organizations are held together by shared norms
and values which help society flow without interruption of disagreement on values. Society is
interdependent and interrelated because one part of society affects many other parts of society.
(Macionis, John J.) Take the football team, for example, when the quarterback throws an awful
throw, the receiver catching the ball will miss it. The player who missed the ball will then cause
the team to be unable to score a touchdown, causing the team to lose the game. Because social

functionalism focuses on the society as a whole, critiques argue it is not a reasonable theory
because of the lack of focus on smaller communities. Critiques also disagree with this theory
because it reasons that norms and values are shared by all, but many societies have communities
within itself that believes in different values than the community over. Social functionalism is a
theory that many have believed in, and yet many have argued against it. For most though, there is
some explanation to society through this theory but not everything is always explainable through
social functionalism. (Macionis, John J.)
Conflict theory, while believing that society is a complex system such as structural
functionalism, believes that society is formed by different groups with different levels of power,
such as a hierarchy who competes for scarce resources. These limited resources include money
and jobs, along with many others. Conflicts are created because the different groups must "fight"
for the resources being that they are scarce. Those with the power hinder the possibility of the
lower groups to rise. Lack of power leads to inequality that often causes social conflicts in the
society. Karl Marx is the principal conflict theorist who influenced the ideology of the conflict
theory. Marx was a staunch supporter of capitalism that allowed the oppressed to be considered
equal in society. Factories were an area he focused heavily on, calling a workers revolution. The
workers were always oppressed by the owners of the factories, and he believed that private
ownership caused inequality. Today, conflict theorists focus on the forms of oppression found in
society today, such as the economy, race, and sex. While many support this theory, especially
capitalist countries, it is criticized because it completely ignores the downside of rapid social
change. The emphasis of this theory is put on social change, and it supports an egalitarianism
that may not always be the best way to go in certain societies. (Macionis, John J.)

A significant social conflict theory is the theory of gender-conflict, also known as the
feminist theory. This theory focuses on the inequality and conflict found between men and
women, not only today, but throughout history. Because of the focus on gender inequality, many
times this theory is directly linked to the feminist movement, which is the support of social
equality for women. Society around the world has always been a patriarchal one, and today some
are more so than others. History reports men as being the head of their households with their
wife doing the cleaning, cooking, and child rearing. It also explains that women in the workplace
are almost always lower in the hierarchy of the office and having lower incomes. As the media
has expanded in the past century, women are not always portrayed equally, and stereotypes about
women have exploded, such as women not being able to be hip hop artists or good actresses.
Many women throughout time have fought for justice in society such as Harriet Martineau, Jane
Addams, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Martineau was a writer documenting the evils of slavery
and argued for laws to protect factory workers. She also fought for education rights for women in
the 19th century. (Macionis, John J.) Addams opened up settlement homes in Chicago for
immigrant families. Addams also wrote, publishing many books and articles about immigration
and her pursuit for peace. Addams was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. (Jane Addams)
Elizabeth Cady Stanton was one of the many women who fought for the 19th amendment,
allowing women to vote in political elections. (Tuohy, Kate) Gender equality has come far even
in the last century but needs to be continuously pursued to allow men and women to be equal
members of society.
Another social-conflict theory is the race-conflict theory, which is the focus of inequality
between people of different racial and ethnic backgrounds. Similar to men overpowering women
in society, whites have many advantages in life compared to the people of color. On average,

most whites have higher incomes, more education, better health and longer life expectancy.
Many people of color have contributed to the development of sociology such as Ida Wells
Barnett. Barnett was born a slave but eventually grew to become a teacher, a journalist, and a
newspaper publisher. She fought for her whole life for race equality and for the practice of
lynching to end. (Macionis, John J.) William Du Bois also fought for racial equality. Du Bois
was born into a small, poor, farming family but eventually rose to become a sociologist with a
doctoral degree from Harvard University. He studied black communities around the United
States and brought forth social issues black communities face. Struggles included limited
education, the practice of lynching, and the unfair political system where people of color could
not vote. (W.E.B. Du Bois) Barnett and Du Bois are only two of many sociologists that fought
for racial equality in not only for America, but also the world.
The third major type of theory is symbolic interactionism. Symbolic interactionism is the
examination of how people construct their subjective reality to connect with their social
interaction. In other words, society is the result of how people live their daily lives and how
people interact with other members of society. In this theory it is thought that we create our own
reality which will in the end define out surroundings, our view of others, and will shape our
personality and identities. This theory is more micro level oriented, focusing on the members of
society. Symbols are the center of the world humans live in, and everything is attached to the
meaning, which makes social interaction with one another possible. The theory states that we see
everyone with the subjective theory instead of the objective theory like we should. In other
words, we respond to others by how we interpret them, not necessarily by who they truly are as a
person. This theory came from Max Weber who believed there is a need to know a setting from
the point of view of the people in it. Weber also emphasized verstehen, which is the importance

of empathy in order to understand each other on a personal level. Since Weber, sociologists have
evolved the theory of symbolic interaction. George Mead, for example, explored the idea of how
humans personalities develop due to our social experience. Erving Goffman described how
humans in society portray actors on stage and their audience. Many believe though that the
theory of symbolic interaction is too focused on the individuals of society and not society as a
whole. (Macionis, John J.) Symbolic interaction in the end believes that a society is an ongoing
process, people communicate and socialize using symbols such as language, and the type of
reality people experience is evolving.
Our society is for sure a complicated one to understand, but sociologists have done well
in the theories they have formed. Society will never be able to be explained by one definition but
many because of how by every generation certain values change, and styles of living have
changed.

Works Cited
"Jane Addams." Jane Addams Hull-House Museum. UIC College of Architecture and Arts, n.d.
Web. 23 Oct. 2014.
Macionis, John J. "Chapter 1- The Sociological Perspective." Sociology. 15th ed. N.p.: Pearson,
2014. 16-22. Print.
Tuohy, Kate. "Scholastic News: Constitution Day." Scholastic News: Constitution Day.
Scholastic Inc., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2014.
"W.E.B. Du Bois." Bio. A&E Networks Television, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2014.