Prof. Dr. Dib 5-1 Contents Contents, 5 Harmonics 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Fourier series and Fourier transform. 5.2.1 Overview. 5.2.2 Fourier Series 523 The Fourier Transform (or integra) . 5.2.4 The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and the Fast Fourier transform (FFT), 5.3 Quantitative description of harmonics. 5.4 Harmonic sources and their frequency spectra 5.4.1 Interharmonics 5.4.2 Overview of harmonic sources. 5.4.3 Fluorescent lamps 5.4.4 Arc furnaces.. 5.4.5 Power converter: Three-phase, six-pulse bridge rectifier. 5.4.6 Power converter: Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM). 5.4.7 Power converter groups 5.5 Effects of harmonics 5.6 Modelling Networks 5.6.1 Harmonic Sources... 5.6.2. Frequency dependence of R and L.. 5.6.3 Power lines .. 5.6.4 Transformer . 5.6.5 Induction machine (asynchronous machine) . 3.6.6 Synchronous machine. 5.6.7 Series resonant circuit 5.6.8 Parallel resonant circuits. 5.6.9 Loads 5.6.10 Network feeders. 5.7 Measuring Harmonic voltages and currents. 5.7.1 Basic elements of harmonic analysers 5.7.2 Sampling and digitising . 5.7.3 Shannon's sampling theorem... 5.7.4 Aliasing..... 5.75 Bebaviour of voltage and current transformers at 5.8 Measuring the network impedance 5.8.1 Methods for measuring the network impedance. 5.8.2 Example of special measuring equipment for low-voltage network impedance 5.8.3 Examples of low-voltage network impedance... 5.8.4 Examples of low-voltage and medium voltage network impedances. 5.9 Harmonie Standards and harmonic limits. 5.10 Filters 5.10.1 Types of filters... 5.10.2 Passive Filters. 5.10.3 Active filters 5.12 References mic frequenciesSPOCOSHHSHOHHSHSHHSSHHSHSHHHHSHSHSHSHHSHSHOHSHSHHHHOHHOSOHSOOSES Prof. Dr. Dib 5-2 5 Harmonics 5.1 Introduction Sources of harmonics ‘A purely sinusoidal power supply voltage applied to an equipment with a non-linear voltage/current characteristic will lead to harmonic currents in the power supply. Examples: Transformer: non-linear magnetising characteristic Power rectifiers (in computers, TV sets, for motor drives, etc.) : Harmonic currents on the DC and AC sides Power converters in industry (motor drives) Equipment with phase control ‘Are furnaces: non-linear characteristic of the electric arc (changing arc leads to a change in its, resistance: a non-sinusoidal current is the result despite a sinusoidal voltage) © energy saving lamps (electronically controlled current) 2 > gag 8.2 Fourier series and Fourier transform A detailed analysis of the Fourier series, Fourier transform and their theory is found in (5-1, 5-2]. 5.2.1 Overview Harmonics can be described by using the Fourier series and the Fourier transform (or Fourier integral). . ‘The Fourier series and the Fourier transform allow representing time dependent signals f(t) in the frequency domain, Itis important to note the difference between the different transformation methods Different transformation methods for different signal types Signal form Transform Properties | periodic Fourier series cosine and sine functions with | discrete frequencies which are integer multiples of the fundamental frequen nonperiodic (and windowed | Fourier integral or Fourier | continuous frequency | periodic) transform spectrum ‘sampled signal discrete Fourier Transform —_[N discrete frequencies WN samples) ul mor (DFT) ‘sampled signal ‘Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) |N discrete frequencies. Special (N samples) | case/method of the discrete [Fourier TransformProf. Dr. Dib 5-3 5.2.2 Fourier Series In order to apply the Fourier series to a function, the function must fulfil the following conditions: 1, The function must be periodic, that is: £(t)=£(1+T) where T is a constant time f(t) is said to be periodic with a period T. Theoretically: the periodicity must exist from <= until +o, Practically: the periodicity must exist for an observable interval of time, e.g. from the time a device (converter) is turned on until it is tumed off. "2, If the function has discontinuities, their number must be finite in any period. 353. The function must contain a finite number of maxima and minima during any period. A la. The funtion most be absolutly integrable in any pesiod, that is: 7 frcolat <0 a The conditions 2,3 and 4 are known as the Dirichlet conditions. A periodic signal f(t ) with the period T can be represented by a Fourier series according to the formula: fey (a, cos (nat) +b, sin (na,t)) a where: 0) =2nfy=2n/T ‘by amplitudes or Fourier coefficients (real value Fourier coefficients) % DC component (average of the function over T) o radian frequency T period fi fundamental frequency ‘The Fourier series is the sum of an infinite number of cosine and sine functions, whose radian frequency a is an integer multiple of «: The relation between the period and the fundamental frequency is: T=1/f, =2Wo, ‘The terms in the Fourier series are called the harmonics.Cocccccccccccccccedsoccccvccccccceceececcesens Prof. Dr. Dib 5-4 LT phe — Toh ey va | ara o | a2 -& Perlodictty--x() = x(t + 7). , '. Finite number of dlacontinultles. €. Fite number of maxima and minima. x) Ig! T 4. tntegrabie~ J Ico) dtc. Figure 5-1: A square wave meets all the conditions for applying the Fourier series (5-2) ‘The Fourier coefficients can be calculated from the original time function according to the following formulae: F(t)cos(nayt) dt ; n=0,1,2,... t d =F J ceysin nay ya ; n= 1,2,3,. You may choose any time interval of length T for the integration, as long as the function is periodic. The interval must not necessarily go from —T/2 until +T/2.Prof. Dr. Dib 5-5 Example: Fourier series for a square wave: f(t) = 2 (cosens- Foose + PeosSayt= 5608 7ant+.. Further examples of Fourier series are represented in graphical form in the next figure. The comparison between the rectangular signal with the instantaneous changes and the trapezium with a finite slope shows: The rectangular signal has a higher harmonic content. TUTTE Figure 5-2: Fourier series for different wave forms [5-3] The following figure shows how a signal can be regained by adding the corresponding harmonic parts, Increasing the number of harmonics increases the accuracy of reproducing the original signal. Odd functions (1 Mar ) ‘An odd function is described by the equation: £0 =- £00) Odd functions contain only sine terms in their Fourier series. In terms of the phase function, only values of +90° or -90° can exist.Prof. Dr. Dib 5-6 Nas Figure : Reproducing a rectangular signal by adding different numbers ofits harmonic parts (N) [5-1] Even functions fb) An even fiunction is described by the equation: A) = 1) Even functions contain only cosine terms in their Fourier series. In terms of the phase function, only values of 0° or 180° can exist, ‘The Fourier series can be calculated analytically for several waveshapes that are of interest. The Fourier series can also be represented by a sum of only cosine waves (or alternatively only sine waves): f() =A +)” A, cos (nat + 9) Sh howe a (Proof: Exercise 5-1) Complex form of the Fourier series The Fourier series can also be represented by using complex functions, using the Euler relationship:Prof. Dr. Dib 5-7 Euler ~2,-1,0,1,2,...+00 no, Figure : Explanation of the coefficients nis a complex number which can be represented by amplitude and phase angle or real and imaginary part. Between cy and aq (real number) and by (real number) there is a simple relationship: (Proof: Exercise 5-2)SPOHOSHHSSHSSHSHHSESHHSHHOHHOHHOHSSHHOOHSHOCOOOHCOO OS Prof. Dr. Dib 58 f(t) can hence be represented by an infinite number of rotating complex phasors, where cy and ¢., are conjugate to each other and rotate in opposite directions. The sum of every pair cy and ¢-y with the same value of n is a real number, more precisely a real sine (or cosine) function. Physically there are no negative frequencies, there are only positive frequencies. But mathematically there is no problem defining negative frequencies. The negative frequencies can be interpreted as follows: each sine (or cosine) signal with a certain amplitude can be thought of as two signals, one with a positive frequency and one with a negative frequency, each with half the amplitude of the original signal. Lous oat cosat = cosa +5 cos(-ct) sinat =} sinat++sinat = sin ot-1sin(-ax) 2 2 2 2 Two possible graphical representation: = Amplitude and phase spectrum (function of the frequency) © Frequency spectrum of the real and imaginary parts. Gibb’s Phenomenon For waveforms with a discontinuity in the original waveform, Gibb’s phenomenon is true: When all terms (infinité number of terms) of the Fourier series are added up, the original form of the function will be obtained at every point except at the discontinuities. At each discontinuity there will always be overshoot. This overshoot is referred to as Gibb’s phenomenon, and it is always equal to 8.95% of the discontinuity amplitude, 2 Se Figure : Gibb's phenomenon for a rectangular signal for h = 1 to 49 [5-1].Prof. Dr. Dib 5.9 Practical considerations In practice there are no zero rise times. Furthermore, asymmetries and distortions from the ideal form may occur. If the actual waveform approximates the ideal waveform, then the Fourier series for the ideal form will give some good estimate of the real frequency spectrum. Many signals, e.g, a square wave, have a spectrum whereby the amplitude of the harmonics decreases strongly with increasing frequency, e.g. proportional to I/n, The corresponding power, which is proportional to i? or u’, decreases even more rapidly. In such cases, higher frequency harmonics may be neglected, unless there is a significant resonance at one of theses frequencies. A signal f(t) can have a DC component (mean average of f(t)), even in an AC network, e.g. if there is an asymmetry in a circuit producing a square wave (different time lengths of the positive and negative signals). In general, signals without sharp edges and without instantaneous signal changes have a smaller frequency bandwidth than signals with sharp edges and instantaneous signal changes. 5.2.3 The Fourier Transform (or integral) The Fourier Transform for nonperiodie signals ‘The Fourier transform is defined for nonperiodic signals. Nonperiodic signals can be interpreted as periodic signals with an infinitely long period: feghernn tt Nonperiodic signal = periodic signal with: T > co A periodic signal with the period T has frequency components at the frequencies fi, ff... where the distance between two frequencies is f,=1/T. Thus for a periodic signal, the distance between the frequency components goes to zero as T goes to infinity. Therefore, a nonperiodic signal has zero spacing between the frequency components and it has an infinite number of sinusoidal components. Hence a nonperiodic signal has a continuous frequency spectrum. ‘The Fourier transform (or integral) can be derived from the Fourier series to yield: Fo)= frame jot dp The conditions for calculating the Fourier integral are: The function must be nonperiodic and subject to the Dirichlet conditions (see previously: a finite number of maxima and minima, finite number of discontinuities, the function must be integrable in the range from -<0 to +o) F(o) is, in general, a complex function, which can be represented by: > amplitude and phase angle, or © real and imaginary part. F(@) = Re(F(o)) + jlm(F(@)) =|F(@)|-e |F(@) : Fourier spectrum or amplitude spectrum @(@) : phase spectrumProf. Dr. Dib 5-10 "HTD 3 tt wa, er 7 “y q = a a billet a ae aH fs Figure 3-2 As the period, T, goes to infinity, the discrete spectral lines become closer. When T becomes innit, the Spacing between lines i zero and a continuous spectrum exists. Figure : Transition from the Fourier series to the Fourier integral (5-2) ‘The inverse Fourier transform is calculated according to the following formula: t= frcore"deSOHSHHSHSHSHSHOHHSHSHHSSHHHESHHSHHHHSHOHOHHHSHOHOHHCOOSECOO OS Prof. Dr, Dib 5-11 Notice: © Avery slowly changing function f{¢) will have an amplitude spectrum with very high densities at very low frequencies. The amplitude density goes quickly (with a steep slope) towards zero. © A fast changing function f(t) has an amplitude spectrum which spreads very widely over the frequency axis. f(t) Fw) } phew ~~ | set verq BAA freee a 3 £() Fw) Seal 4 — , \opbe Very Wig freomele t Figure : Comparison between the frequency spectra of fast and slow time functions {5-1} The Fourier Transform for periodic signals In order to obtain the Fourier transform for a periodic signal, it must be , windowed first, which ‘means looking at it through a definite time window. Mathematically this means itis multiplied by a function, which has the value one in a certain time interval, and which is zero outside this time window. Window functions with values different from one are also used. (meme 1 Long, nonperiodic signals zeeby Long nonperiodic signals can be considered as periodic signals with an infinitely long Period T. —! Long means: we only measure a certain time interval, although the signal form outside this time interval may be different from the form inside the measured interval. Thus the frequency spectrum cannot be obtained exactly. There are two methods of describing such signals (approximations). In both cases a long time interval T is considered. 1. The signal is considered to be zero outside T. In this case a continuous spectrum is the result. ‘The signal is considered to repeat itself with the period T.. In this case the result is a discrete line spectrum. Al frequencies are an integer multiple of the frequency 1/T. If the original signal is composed of a periodic fundamental signal of fundamental period 7 and of superimposed and nonperiodic signals, then it is reasonable to choose a T which is an integer multiple of T). In this case the fundamental frequency f, will appear in the line spectrum, The lines which are not an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency: will appear as interharmonics (fi > f1) or as subharmonics (fy < fi).Prof. Dr. Dib 5-12 Both methods will practically give the same results, Usually method two is used (including windowing). Properties of the Fourier transform 1. Even functions transform to real parts only (they have only cosine functions). 2. Odd functions transform to imaginary parts only (they have only sine functions). 3. Any arbitrary functions can be decomposed into even and odd functions. The Fourier transform of such a function contains both a real and an imaginary part. 4. The Fourier transform is linear, that is: the sum of signals is transformed into the sum of the Fourier transforms of these signals: x(t) > X() yO) > YO x+y > X(H+ VO 5, Tiime scaling affects frequency and amplitude scaling. If X(f) is the transform of x(t), and x(t) is scaled in time by a nonzero factor k, then the transform of x(kt) is given by: x(t) > (0K) / ke This means: - A time-scale expansion corresponds to a frequency-scale compression and increased frequency domain amplitude. - A time-scale compression corresponds to a frequency-scale expansion and decreased frequency- domain amplitude. 6. Frequency scaling affects time and amplitude scaling. If X(f) is the transform of x(t), and X(f) is scaled in frequency by a nonzero factor k, then X(kf) inverse transforms into: (Kd) — x(k) [kt 7. Time shifting affects phase only, that is: x() > X() x(t-T) > X(f)e274T 8, Frequency shifting causes time-domain modulation. Xf) —x() X(f-F) a x(te!2*"*COHSOOOOOOHOHHOOHEOHOOHOOH OOOOH OOHOHOOCOEOO ES Prof. Dr. Dib 5-13 5.2.4 The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and the Fast Fourier transform (FFT) The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is practically the Fourier integral applied to functions, whose values are only known at discrete times. It is thus the discrete form of the Fourier integral. The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is a special algorithm for calculating the DFT which is extremely fast. The condition for applying the FFT is that the number of samples must obey the equation: N=2?, where p is an integer number. ‘Number of numerical operations for a sample of N values: = DFT:~N* > FET: ~N-log,N Note: © A time-limited signal has an infinitely wide Fourier transform function, that is: there is an infinite number of frequency components, all frequency may be present. © Using sampling, only a finite number of time values are available. The DFT and the FFT will, in this case, yield a Fourier Transform function with a finite number of frequency components. ‘There is a loss of information. To reduce the loss, more samples are required. No fa = aSienne Me oi = Yif(mjePri"/N a f(k) signal value at the time t, f{m) signal value at the time tm tk =k-at tn =m-At At time between samples, or sampling interval N- total number of samples being considered The Buler relationship can be applied to split g into its real and imaginary parts. 5.3 Quantitative description of harmonics Harmonic voltages and currents are often described by their relative values, ¢.g,: Relative harmonic voltage Uy apt U, Bo h order of the harmonic frequency uh _telative harmonic voltage of the harmonic of order h, usually in percentSPPCOHOHHHOSHOHOHHOOHOOCOHHOOOHOHOOSO HCOOH SEOOOEE SE Prof. Dr. Dib 514 Up _ absolute harmonic voltage (Line-Earth) in Volt Un _base value, usually the network nominal voltage at the corresponding node Root-mean square (rms) value The total root-mean square value of a voltage U is given by: f Iu2 Un YUP FU TUR u, ‘“~7~S* “fins value of the fundamental voltage U2, Us,.. mms of the voltage at the harmonic of order h Total Harmonic Distortion THD ‘The distortion factor or harmonic factor or total harmonic distortion is defined by: {ue+u;+ THD = (%) ee Jer danet of or: [xu for voy THD = \j 5 -\(3) (2) tu. (%) yu WU UY ‘This factor is defined for voltages as well as for currents. 6.4 Harmonic sources and their frequency spectra 5.4.1 Interharmonics Interharmonics will be described as a whole in this chapter [5-4]. Definition a neminat Interharmonics are frequencies which are not a whole integer multiple of the fundaméatal network frequency. They can appear as discrete frequencies or as a wide-band spectrum. Summation effects of interharmonies are not likely and need not be considered, Interharmonies occur ifthe fundamental frequency of the signal being analyzed is not identical with the network fundamental frequency. Sources of interharmonics The main sources are static frequency converters, cyclo-converters, subsynchronous converter cascades, induction motors, welding machines (low-voltage networks) and arc furnaces (medium-Prof. Dr. Dib 5-15 voltage/high-voltage networks only). Thus, the sources of interharmonics can be found in low- voltage networks as well as in medium-voltage and high-voltage networks. There is also low-level background noise superimposed on the low-voltage curve, even in the absence of a local source of interharmonics. Notice: The signals of mains signalling systems could also be considered as interharmonies in the broadest sense, but it is thought preferable to deal with these separatety. Statie frequency converters Static frequency converters transform the mains voltage into an a.c. voltage of frequency lower or higher than the mains frequency. They consist of two parts, namely an AC-DC rectifier and a DC- AC inverter. The DC voltage is modulated by the output frequency of the converter and as a result interharmonic currents appear in the input current, causing interharmonic voltages to be generated in the mains voltage. Static frequency converters are used mainly for variable frequency drives and are developing rapidly. Small drives up to some tens of kW are connected directly to the low-voltage network, larger drives are connected to the medium-voltage network via dedicated transformers. Similar converters are used to supply medium-frequency furnaces. Several forms of static frequency converters exist with different characteristics. The harmonic and interharmonic frequencies are given by the following formula: &=[(pi-m)£1]-fi£[po-n]-F where — pi pulsenumber ofthe rectifier netweal_| \ oe pulse number of the converter [+ ene 0, 1, 2, 3 ...(integer number) i 0, 1, 2, 3 ...(integer number) i pe fe _ output frequency rc fundamental frequency of the supply voltage (e.g. 50 Hz or 60 Hz) produced harmonic or interharmonic. PROUD EY ‘The combination of p; and m gives the harmonics. These harmonics in combination with pa, n and F give the interharmonics. Cyclo-converters Cyclo-converters are electronic converters of high rating (several MW) which draw symmetrical three-phase power ftom the power system to produce a three-phase or single phase output of low frequency (generally less than 15 Hz) for large slow motor drives. They consist of two or more controlled rectifiers connected as a bridge. The formula which gives the harmonic and interharmonic frequencies is the same as for static frequency converters. ‘Subsynchronous converter cascades ‘The purpose of the subsynchronous converter cascade is to control the speed of an induction motor while reducing the losses when the motor is operating out of the rated conditions. The usual resistors connected to the rotor terminal of the wound rotor motor are replaced by a frequencyProf. Dr. Dib 5-16 converter connected between the rotor terminal and the lines that supply the stator of the motor. Interharmonic emission is often low. Induction motors Induction motors may give rise to an irregular magnetizing current due to the slots in the stator and rotor - possibly in association with saturation of the iron - which generates interharmonics in the low-voltage network. At the normal speed of the motor, the disturbing frequencies are practically in the range 500 Hz to 2000 Hz but during the starting period they run through the whole frequency range up to their final values, Such motors can be disturbing when they are installed at the end of long overhead low-voltage lines (1 km). Interharmonic voltages of up to 1% of the nominal voltage have been measured. These interharmonic voltages have disturbed ripple control receivers in a few cases. Are welding machines Welding machines also generate a continuous wide-band frequency spectrum. Welding is an intermittent process with the duration of the individual welding actions varying between a second and several seconds. Welding machines are mostly connected to the low-voltage network. At present no measurements of interharmonic voltages produced by welding machines are available, However, due to the intermittent character of the welding process and the high power involved, the impedance of the supplying networks has to be quite low in order to avoid disturbing flicker effects. It seems that the limits imposed thereby on the network impedance reduce interharmonic voltages sufficiently. Are furnaces Are furnaces produce continuous but randomly varying interharmonic frequency spectra due to the irregular input current. These devices have a high rating (50 MVA to 100 MVA) but are always connected to the medium-voltage/high-voltage network. In order to avoid excessive voltage fluctuations and flicker disturbances the network impedance should be low. Consequently interharmonies emission is also low. The highest interharmonic voltages occur during the starting phase of a melting process. Background noise Background noise appears as a Gaussian noise, with a continuous regular frequency spectrum between the harmonics. Up to now little detailed investigation has been carried out. Typical voltage levels seem to be in the range of: © 40 mV to 50 mV (= 0,02 % of Uy) when measured with a filter bandwidth of 10 Hz; & 20mV to 25 mV (~0,01 % of Ux) when measured with a filter bandwidth of 3 Hz. Effects of interharmonics An effect of interharmonics is the perturbation of ripple control receivers by discrete frequencies. This effect has been observed with induction motors and arc furnaces, though it could be caused by the other types of equipment referred to above.SPCOKOHSSHOHOHSHSOHOSHOHOHSHHHHSHHOHHHSOHHOCHHSHOOHOEO CE Prof. Dr. Dib 5.17 AA flicker effect could also appear with discrete frequencies close to the fundamental frequency. ‘These frequencies may produce amplitude modulation of the fundamental current and this would be particularly perceptible if the modulation frequency were close to 10 Hz. 5.4.2 Overview of harmonic sources Industry Power converters @ arc furnaces © induction furnaces Generation, transmission and distribution equipment Generators in power stations do not produce a pure sinusoidal wave, therefore their voltage contains a low amount of harmonics. Reason: © Finite distribution of the winding Freps i 5 © variations in the air gap. Facts, proche mang borane The harmonics of generators are usually neglected. The source voltage of a network is considered to contain harmonics due to the other non-linear loads outside the considered network portion. Transformers have a non-linear magnetising characteristic (iron core saturation). Applying a sinusoidal voltage will lead to harmonics in the current, The magnitude of the harmonics depends on the level of saturation reached during the transformer operation (V-i operation point on the magnetisation curve). Static compensators and frequency converters also generate harmonics. Offices / homes (residential loads) > Computers (power supply) © lamp dimmers _. © gas discharge lamp (fluorescent lamps) There Lave to vectsfieck > TV sets ‘TV sets: rectifier with a high smoothing capacitor: current drawn from the network consists of short impulses and contains a high percentage of harmonics. Characteristics of residential loads: © low power rating of the single equipment © large number of equipment per distribution network © often used simultaneously, e.g. TV sets, lighting © often harmonics add arithmetically and not geometrically: no compensation in network Uncontrolled rectifiers, especially with capacitive smoothing (e.g, used in TV sets, frequency converters, etc.) generate significant harmonic currents in the network because these harmonics are in phase to each other and there is no compensation in the network.SOCHOHSCHSSHSHHOHHSSOHOHHHHOSHHOHOOOHOOOOOCOHOHOES OE Prof. Dr. Dib 5-18 Table Harmonics due to a non-linear voltage/eurrent characteristic ‘b: number of the harmonic (harmonic order) Charac- aT) 7% Cause teristic _|Examole h=2 | h=3 | n=4 | h=5 | h=7 small motors 3-10 15 i saturation %p [transformer 25-55 8-30 [2-10 magnetising current hehe (0,02- 0,07) In ig, | fluorescent lamp 12 | 820 23 | 12 ps distage| tA | Jare fumace 5-12 | 6-12 | 25 | 37 | 13 rectifier with | 42 3 resistive load “ one-way i rectfier with | _'t | | power supply, eg. capacitive el ee 70-90 | 40-60 | 35-50 | 25-50 | 12-25 load two-way, it rectifier with LL. |power supply, e.g. foes meee eco capacitive T TV sets " . " load 1 =Prof. Dr. Dib 519 5.4.3 Fluorescent lamps Fluorescent lamps in households can have two construction forms and thus totally different harmonic generation: Fluorescent lamp with conventional control gear ‘They are characterised by a non-linear arc characteristic and a non-linear inductor (saturation of iron core) in series (limits the current of the discharge). They produce low-frequency harmonics, especially the third harmonic. The use of different products of such lamps will lead to a certain degree of geometric compensation of the harmonics. 201 oom oot Figure : Measured voltage and current for a fluorescent lamp (18 W) with a conventional control ‘ear (inductor), Different types may lead to different current curves and harmonics. Fluorescent lamp with electronic control gear (electronic ballast) These contain mainly a series connection of a radio interference suppression filter (high-frequency filter due to the following HF generator), a rectifier with a smoothing capacitor, and a high frequency generator which supplies the fluorescent lamp with. Transistors act as fast switches and produce a rectangular AC voltage with a frequency of, for example, 35 kHz. It is this high frequency which leads to a higher luminous efficiency and to less losses in the control gear. A small inductance (due to the high frequency) limits the current through the lamp. In comparison to the conventional fluorescent lamps, they are lighter (less weight), smaller, and have a higher luminous efficiency and less losses in the control gear.Prof. Dr. Dib 5-20 ov Figure : Electronic control gear for & fluorescent lamp. These lamps generate also high-frequency harmonics because they operate in a high frequency range (up to 20 kHz or 50 kHz), The harmonic spectrum depends strongly on the type of electronic control used. a 1000 ago 0.004 000s 0008 oer ant? 20 _ 0016 ws Wear MESSUN sj; fj ©] _| 2300 200 2 200 300 $00 |_ 0000 01002 9004 0.005 0.008 01 oorz D014 0016 va Figure : Measured voltage and current for a fluorescent lamp (15 W) with an electronic control gear ‘and high-frequency generator), Different types may lead to different current curves and harmonics.© OOOO OOOOH HHHHHHOHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHOHHHHEES CE Prof. Dr. Dib 5-21 The current curve of an electronically controlled fluorescent lamp shows the following behaviour: The high current peak occurs periodically around the supply voltage peak due to the periodic charging of the capacitor in the rectifier. This charging occurs only during about 20 % of the time (voltage period), whereas during 80 % of the time there is no current flow. This means that the peak load is much higher than the average load of the lamp. The current peaks of different manufacturers may vary a little, but in general, there is practically an arithmetic addition of the currents of different lamps. Figure : Comparison ofthe harmonic currents produced by diferent electronically controlled fuorescent lamps (15 W) (5 Figure : Comparison of the current wave forms of an incandescent bulb and an electronically controlled ‘luoreseent lamp. Influence of (many) electronically controlled lamps on the supply voltage [5-5].Prof. Dr. Dib $-22 6.4.4 Arc furnaces The arc burns irregularly, there is no stationary state. The current is therefore not periodic. The current has a continuous spectrum with harmonics and interharmonics. The low-frequency harmonics dominate over the interharmonics. ‘Are furnaces may be represented by a harmonic current source with an internal impedance consisting of an inductance and a damping resistance. Arc furnaces (for melting and refining metal) have a non-linear characteristic of the electric arc: Changing arc leads to a change in its resistance: a non-sinusoidal current is the result despite a sinusoidal voltage. The are might change from one cycle of the supply voltage to the other, especially when boring into new steel scrap. The arc current is nonperiodic and contains a continuous spectrum of frequencies, of both integer and noninteger orders. Measurements show that integer-order harmonic frequencies predominate over the noninteger ones. Particularly the low-order harmonics starting from the second and ending with the seventh harmonic are of importance. As the pool of molten metal grows, the arc becomes more stable, resulting in much steadier currents with much less distortion and less harmonic activity. The current becomes symmetrical around the zero axis, thus eliminating the even harmonic orders and noninteger harmonics. Are furnaces produce: © Voltage fluctuations (light flicker) © Voltage unbalance due to partly unsymmetrical currents © Harmonies Compensation of arc furnaces therefore includes: © Reactive power compensation for reducing the voltage fluctuations (light flicker) © Reducing the asymmetry > Reducing the harmonics (DC are furnaces behave differently because they are supplied by a rectifier). Table : Harmonie content of the arc furnace current at two stages of the melting eycle [5-7] Ty/T in % depending on the furnace condition Harmonic order | Initial melting] Refining (active are) | (stable arc) 2 17 0.0 r 3 5.8 2.0 4 2.5 0.0 5 4.2 21 7 31 [ 0.0Prof. Dr. Dib Figure: Are furnace Figure: ren au AF Perce 4 he Y 4a} [I ae H Bid 8 ~ Einpol oid der Kompenssttonsaniage SYHSTAB mit icnbogencten 1 = New 3 T NeBogenoten ace fumace 3 T Kompersasonsaniage —“Canaertes Ness 52's Beartor 30 = Wechselstromstolar 4c = Fillor fr dia Absaugung von Oberschwingungen, (belspielsweise 2. bis 7. Ordnung), je bestehend aus Kondensator und Drosselspule mit Damptungswider- stand isystem, bestehend aus: combol 4a = Messbiock 4 = Recnendiock 4c = Regier 5 = Olentranstormator & = Transformator 2u Kompensationsanlage i. = FUnrungsgrésse fir Reaktorstrom = Reaktorstrom-istwert 4, = Spannungsautschaltung compensation equipatent, simplified single-phase diagram (5-6) -40: ho | 1234867891011 13 —=> ‘Continuous harmonic spectrum of an arc furnace with typical peaks at integer multiple of the fundamental frequency [5-6]Prof. Dr. Dib 5-24 5.4.5 Power converter: Three-phase, six-pulse bridge rectifier al LI Figure: Threephate,sicpuse bridge retifer with thy Harmonic analysis of the three-phase, six-pulse bridge rectifier can be done with different degrees of simplification (Figure , a, b,c). a) ») ot ° at Figure : Different assumptions (models) for calculating the harmonic currents Model 1 : Idealized circuit This means assuming: L,, = 0, Lp «0, The direct current is constant (ideal smoothing due to infinite inductivity, no ripple). There is immediate commutation from one thyristor to another and therefore no overlap.Prof. Dr. Dib 5.25 Further assumptions are: > The three-phase alternating network voltages are purely sinusoidal (no harmonics), balanced and of positive sequence. © The valves are ignited at equal time intervals of one-sixth cycle, that is, at constant delay angle a measured from the zeros of the respective commutating voltages. The line current is rectangular (Figure ...a)). It contains the following harmonics: Only characteristic harmonics of order h appear, where: if <3 if ee a bh Tammonic order ofthe harmonic current P pulse number of the converter (here p = 6) (the pulse number is the number of nonsimultaneous commutations per cycle of fundamental alternating current) k integer number: 1,2 3... The harmonic currents have the rms values: I [ore h __ harmonic order (multiple of fundamental frequency) 1, harmonic current of order h (rms) 1, __ magnitude of the fundamental current (rms) Changing the trigger delay angle «: will have no influence on the harmonics as Figure shows. It will only have influence on the phase displacement between voltage and current and thus it will affect the power consumption (P, Q).SSCOOSHSHSHHHSHHHOHHOHHHOHOHOHHOCHHOOHOOOHOOOEOOO EE Prof. Dr. Dib 5-26 to) ano ani50" Figure : Line current as a function of the trigger delay angle « (5-8] Notice: Different trigger delay angles ot lead to different phase shift angles between © the fundamental current and the network voltage © the harmonic currents and the network voltage. Model 2 : Conventional analysis This means assuming: L, > 0, Lp ~»o, The direct current is constant (ideal smoothing due to infinite inductivity, no ripple). There is a finite commutation period from one thyristor to another. The current has approximately a trapezoidal form. Referring to the Fourier series of the rectangular and trapezoidal signal forms shows: The trapezoidal signal has less harmonic content. Thus: The effect of overlap is to decrease the amplitudes of the harmonics. This influence can be calculated analytically, but is usually given in form of curves (diagrams).Prof. Dr. Dib 5-27 Figure : Definition of the trigger delay angle a and of the overlap angle u (commutation interval) (a, b, phases, a: neutral) [5-9} Notice: The overlap angle u is a function of the trigger delay angle c, the network voltage U, the inductance L_ and the direct current Ip. The harmonic currents therefore depend on all these parameters. The following figures show examples for the variation of the harmonic currents with and u. Figure :[y/ Ijin percent as a function of the overlap angle u withthe trigger delay angle a 23 ‘parameter {5-8}. ly is the rms fundamental alternating current with no overlap.SPOCHHHOSHSSHSHHHSHSHSHHHHSHOHSOHSOHSHSHOHHSHHOSOHHSSEOOSD ES Prof. Dr. Dib 5-28 ° ° 30 COverap ange w, den Figure : Ii / Ti in percent as a function of the overlap angle u with the trigger delay angle a as a DarRinéter [5-8]. [ys the rms fundamental alternating current with no overlap. Model 3 : Accurate analysis This means assuming: Li > 0, Lp Worst-case analysis: the harmonics of the same order are added arithmetically. > Deterministic approach: If the technological process in a plant is well known and thus the operation of the converters is also well known, then the harmonics for each converter and operation point can be considered with their respective amplitudes and phase angles. They thenProf. Dr. Dib 5-33 can be added geometrically. This approach is usually applicable to industrial plants with a few and large converters. The disadvantage is that the higher order harmonics are usually not very well predictible, due to the dependence of their amplitude and phase angle upon the operation point, Different situations must be studied in order to obtain results that are on the safe side. © Statistical simulation: This method is applicable to converters that operate independent of each other and whose operation may be considered as a stochastic process. The harmonics of a certain order will add up geometrically, and the sum may be considered statistically. It is important to note, that there will always be a risk that the anticipated total harmonic current will be exceeded. Therefore probabilities have to be considered. Figure shows an example for this method. If the damage due to a seldom case is high, then one will not apply the statistical method. #3 5 berogener Summenvektor — os Ww 30 30 — Bd 93. Staistische Betrachtungsweise der Oberschwingungen bei einer Stromrichter- uppe. 2M Anzabl der Stromrichter (eowa gleicher Leistang) a Normalvertelung der Amplitude und Phase ' Gieichverteilung der Amplitude und Phase Erwartungswert des Summenstroms iy mit der Wahescheinlichkeit 99.9%, Figure : Statistical approach for the analysis of a group of converters {5-10}: average of the sum of harmonic currents for a probability of 99.9 %. Example: During the operation of 10 converters there will be a risk of 0.1 % in exceeding 50 % (curve b) of the maximum harmonic sum. 'M:: number of similar converters of (approximately) equal power a normal distribution of the amplitudes and phase angles b: constant distribution of the amplitudes and phase angles 5.5 Effects of harmonics The possible effects of harmonics are: The effects can be subdivided into: > Instantaneous effects: Failures, malfunctions or downgraded performance of devices through displacement of zero crossing of the voltage wave. > Long-term effects: Additional losses and overheating result in excessive ageing or even damage to capacitors and rotating machines.SCOEOHSOHOHSSHOOSOHOOSSHOEHOHOOHHOHOOESHOOHSOOOES OSE Prof. Dr. Dib 5-34 Examples: © Defective operation of electronic equipment, regulating devices, control systems, clocks, ete. (e.g. shifting the network voltages and therefore affecting the triggering of thyristors) © Computer systems including peripheral equipment (data storage systems): There is a need for a constant supply voltage for the electronic circuits, and motors might be affected by changing or even oscillating torque. Malfunction of ripple control and other mains signalling systems, protective relays, etc. Additional losses and heating in network elements, e.g. in capacitors and rotating machines Influence on the torque in rotating machines (torque reduction, oscillating torque) ‘Damage to equipment in case of resonance, ¢.g. to compensation capacitors if not well planned (filters) © Additional noise from motors and other apparatus > Overloading the neutral line in case of excessive sequence harmonic currents > Telephone interference (refer to CCITT): noisé $i Voice-frequency telephone lines ‘The influence on induction-disc electricity meters is not discernible. ga08 5.6 Modelling Networks Modelling networks for harmonic studies is not as simple as modelling networks for load-flow and short-circuit analysis. Some of the reasons are: ‘Unbalanced loads especially in low-voltage networks Asymmetry of network elements, especially of overhead lines Influence of capacitances (cables, compensation, filters,...) Frequenoy-dependence of R and L due to skin and proximity effects Complicated models as the frequency increases, even small capacitances in loads may be important at higher frequencies Injected harmonic currents can be a positive-, negative- and zero-sequence system Varying operation of harmonic sources, thereby varying injected harmonic currents Wave behaviour of lines due to frequencies above 50/60 Hz Detailed knowledge of loads required, but seldom available BR0RR goaG 5.6.1 Harmonic Sources 5.6.1.1 Equivalent circuit Figure : Equivalent circuits of harmonic sources: 1) Motor drive with power converter b) Equivalent circuit for a rectifier with eapacitor (capacitive smoothing) «) Equivalent circuit for a6- or 12-pulse bridge rectifierSOCHHOHSHSHSHSHHSHHHSHSHHSHHSHHOHHHHHOHHOHOHHHOHHOOHOHEOES EE Prof. Dr. Dib 535 5.6.1.2 Phase angle of the harmonics © In some cases the currents have a fixed phase shift in comparison to the network voltage, e.g.: simple diode rectifiers with capacitive load (TV sets, computers, fax machines, etc.): Arithmetic addition of all currents. © In some cases the currents have a variable phase shift in comparison to the network voltage, e.g.: controlled thyristor rectifiers: Geometric addition of harmonic currents. Assumptions concerning the (resulting) phase currents: © identical currents in all three phases © phase shift 120° kK ‘. Jr /N fr \ SX /\ 90 @, 90 720 150 184 210 740 270 ap babionsoe Figure : The third harmonic as a zero-sequence currentSOCHHHSHSSHHSHSHSHHSHSHHSHHSHHHSHHHHOHHOHHOHOOHOOSOOSCE Prof. Dr. Dib 5.36 ‘The harmonic currents will have the following symmetrical components: Table : Symmetrical components of harmonic currents ‘Harmonic order Symmetrical component (&: integer number) 0,3, 6,9, 12, a3 k zero-sequence 1,4, 7,10, 13, 2. 3 KT positive-sequence 2, 5,8, 11, 14.3 KL nnegative-sequence 5.6.1.3 Zero-sequence currents © Example: 3“ harmonic, caused by: transformer saturation, fluorescent lamps, arc furnaces, simple rectifier and diode bridge rectifier with capacitive load (TV sets). = Network with neutral: Zero-sequence currents add arithmetically and flow through the neutral. © Network without a neutral: Zero-sequence currents flow through line-to-earth capacitances and through neutral-point capacitances. © Dy-transformers do not transform the zero-sequence currents. 5.6.1.4 Positive-sequence and negative-sequence currents © Power lines and transformers: Positive-sequence impedance and negative-sequence impedance are identical. © Rotating machines; Positive-sequence impedance and negative-sequence impedance are different. © Rotating machines: Additional losses especially due to the negative-sequence currents. 5.6.2 Frequency dependence of R and L Skin effect Alternating current in a conductor > magnetic field > influence on current density distribution > R increases and L decreases Proximity effect Conductor in the magnetic field of other conductors > magnetic field along the surface of the conductor influences the current density distribution in the conductor > R increases and L decreases The skin and proximity effects are present in all conductors, e.g. in power lines, transformers, motors and generators. Frequency dependence of R and L R(Q)=Ry (1+AR (f/f, -1) BR) L()=L, AL (f/f) BLProf. Dr. Dib f frequency fj fundamental frequency R(f) resistance at frequency f Rj resistance at frequency fl L(f) inductance at frequency f Li inductance at frequency fl ROS J 500 1000 1500 Frequenz Hz Figure : Frequency dependence of the series R and L of powerlines. Examples: 2000 2500 5-37 ~ Cable: 20 kV, NEKBA 3x1x70 (paper-oil isolation, cupper conductors, each phase with its own lead sheath, metal armour); ~ Overhead line 20 kV ‘Table : Factors for describing the frequency dependence in the range from 50 Hz until approximately 5 kHz Equipment [Pe AR [BR AL [BL Generator 10,5 kV; 1750 kVA os fi2 |i [or Generator 21 KV; 825 MVA a1 (0,9 |i |-003 Transformer 20/0,4 KV; 250 kVA o2 fis ft |-003 ‘Transformer 108/10,5 KV;40 MVA 02 (ia [i [002 Overhead line 20KV or fos {1-007 Cable 20 kV; NEKBA 3x1x70 or [09 |i |-0,65 Cabie 110 kV; NOKUDEY 3x1x240 or (09 {1 |-025 Induction machine [6 KV, 400kW 02 [ie {1 |-0,02 Induction machine [6KV; 3,9MW 03 (13 [1 |-0,04Prof. Dr. Dib 538 5.6.3 Power lines Model depends on the frequency (wavelength) considered. > "Electrically long lines" are lines whose length is in the order of the wavelength: the wave theory must be used. © "Electrically short lines" are lines whose length is much shorter than the wavelength: simplification using lumped parameters is possible. © With increasing frequency the skin effect and the proximity effect must be considered. ve ze esa l a oan Figure : Positive-sequence equivalent circuits of a power line 1) lumped parameters for low frequencies . b) based on wave theary for higher requencies = buxd \ccetencres derpriciume shut Equivalent circuit according to the wave theory (preferred): Zw = RF} Wai LVG+j2zFC) - Wer beanecios mo py depen shit gos |(R+j2afL) G+] 22fC) Zn =Zw sinh(g) Zo =Zw con(8) R’ ine series resistance per unit length L’ ine series inductance per unit length C’ ine shunt capacitance per unit length G' ine shunt conductance per unit length s fine length Zw wave impedance (characteristic impedance) of the power line g propagation constant sinh hyperbolic sine function coth _hyperbotic cotangent functionee SOSCOCHHSHHHHHHHOOHEHOHEHOHOOCOHOOHOOCOOOSELOCO SE Prof. Dr. Dib 5-39 5.6.4 Transformer > 2 2 ° Different models depending on frequency range and accuracy requirements. Frequency dependence of series R and L: Dependence on construction data. With increasing frequency: Influence of capacitances (coupling capacities between high-voltage and low-voltage side, earth capacitances “> resonance. Transformation ratio changes during operation, ok NI Figure : High-frequency model of a winding including capacitances Whe i Ry te ot pe Figure : Low-frequency (up to approximately 3 kHz) models for transformers with series and shunt impedances.SOSCHOHSHSOSHHSHSHHSSHSSHHHSHSHSHHHOHSHSHOHOHSHSOSCHOSSESOO EE Prof. Dr. Dib Example: 5-40 ee I | | | | sige ey Ce Gyg!2 Figure : Transformer model for medium frequencies of up to approxi R(f) LCF) — Gg! Gg! hy 20 KEL. Figure : Simplified transformer model for low frequencies (up to approximately ‘3 kHz) , without core losses and core magnetisation. Table : Typical data for distribution transformers (data partly calculated, e.g. capacitances), eg. DynS; 1,6 MVA; 20 / 0,4 kV (information from Siemens) Cyp/2 [220 pF Coe /2 425 pF Cy 40F Cuz 1300 pF Cx 85 pF [Li 2,7345 mH Lae 8,2 uh (Lin 13860 -pto-pir (Vs/Am) H Ri 1,62 R 420 pO Ree 200kQ Wi 11386773. We 16SSCHOHSHHSSOHSSHSHSSHOHHHHSHHSHSHHHHSHHSHSSHHHHOSHHSSESEO CE Prof. Dr. Dib 5-41 Notice: Lin varies depending on the magnetising characteristic of the iron core, It can be expressed as a function of the magnetic induction B. Measurements for the above given transformer yielded a curve from which only a couple of points are represented below: Table [B/ Tesla (T= Vs/m’) Ho: He / (Vs/Am) 07 0,04 im 0,048 15 0,032 1,7 (Saturation region) i 6.6.5 Induction machine (asynchronous machine) Ry X46 X5 R, Ry stator effective resistance Xie __ stator leakage reactance Rre core loss resistance Xin magnetising reactance Ri stator effective resistance Xie __ stator leakage reactance ns —_ synchronous (rotation) speed (rpm) of the stator field 2 (rotation) speed (rpm) of the rotor Synchronous speed due to a harmonic 3-phase current (magnetic field) of order b: © positive-sequence current: h ns} & negative-sequence current: -h ns,SPHOHOHSHSSHHSHSHSHSSHSHSHSHSHSHHSHSHHSHSHSHHHSHHHHHHSHHOHHSSHOEOCO Prof. Dr. Dib 5-42 Approximation: ( spel forh>> 1) ‘Comparable to locked-rotor current state (starting motor). wire Sb queccls Impedance U; rated voltage P, rated (mechanical) power a efficiency arly relation between locked-rotor current and rated current R/X approximate values e.g, in VDE 0102 Notice: + Passive element in contrast to load-flow and short-circuit analysis |< the equivalent R is not determined by the load (real power) but by the previous equation ‘usually R/X < 1: predominantly inductive © ifX>>R > no significant damping of harmonics (power consumption) ‘<> R, L: effected by skin and proximity effects R(f) L¢f) —l—, Figure : Simplified equivalent cireut of an induction machine with frequency dependent R and L.SSCOSCHOHHSHSSSSHOSSHSOHHOOHOHOHOOHHOHOHEEOOHOSOCOO ESE Prof. Dr. Dib 5-43 5.6.6 Synchronous machine Figure : Equivalent cireuit ofa (synchronous) generator Equivalent circuit: (2 passive {& subtransient reactance Xq" } © positive-sequence impedance = negative-sequence impedance [© frequency-dependence of R (and L) 5.6.7 Series resonant circuits Examples: f > filters © resonance phenomena in a network | } fa series resonance Figure:SHCSSHSHSHSSOHSSHSHSSHHSHHHSHSHSHSHSHSHSSHOHSSSOHHOSHOSOCO CE ¥ U,=0, LT.=U, \ Ue= \ | Prof. Dr. Dib if /Q id Z=R+j(oL-— ° ( | a) b) Yox0 Figure : Series resonance circuit and is impedance focus es eT Ueg Boal @,CR U, = QU, resonance frequency quality factor damping factor| Prof. Dr. Dib 5-45 A series resonance circuit can cause further resonances with parallel circuit elements, because it behaves: © capacitive for f < fy © inductive for £> fy Filters and series resonant circuits: Q ~ 10 ... 100 Filters (detuned filters, off-resonance filters) Q 20 ... 30, Manufacturing tolerances and temper = lead toas re influence: , in the resonance frequency fy © this can be compensated by using coils with taps, e.g. at -5% and +5% Fluctuation of the network frequency © frequency of the harmonics h fj shifis relative to the resonance frequency of the filter fy Estimation of the series resonance frequency of a transformer with capacitive compensation ‘Transformer rated apparent power Qc1 | Compensation reactive power at nominal frequency fundamental frequency Ux Short-circuit impedance of the transformer (imaginary part) Ug = Ue fy fundamental frequency (nominal network frequency) fy Resonance frequenc; £1 i a fi ty Qa fy, Sar V "Sar VY" SarProf. Dr. Dib 5-46 0 20 40 60 80 100 Qci/SnT (%) fr/f1 5.6.8 Parallel resonant circuits Examples: © audio frequency (AF) ripple control blocking filter © resonance phenomena in a networkProf. Dr. Dib 5-47 PC CA MO ORP NF TR Figure : Simplified model of « network with parallel resonance (losses neglected) Parallel resonance cireuit and i impedance locusSOCHHHNHSHSSHSHHOHSHSHHHHHHSHSSHOHHHSHSHSHHSHSHHSHHSCHEOCHSCEHOO SCE Prof. Dr. Dib ¥=G+j(oc--L) oL 1 f= 2aVLC 1_LR [Cc ale Rog cr=r | era” Ve Ris in general frequency dependent f, + resonance frequency Q quality factor 4 damping factor U,=L,R 1,=1.R—-=Q1, ERO Ah Iq = 1, Ra, C=QI, 5-48 A parailel resonance circuit can cause further resonances with other circuits that are in series with it, because the parallel resonance circuit behaves: © inductive for f< fy > capacitive for f> f Estimation of the parallel resonance frequency of capacitive compensation Si." ___ |Short-circuit apparent power of the network feeder (Ssc) | " Qc1 ‘Compensation reactive power at nominal frequency By « fundamental frequency (Sgc) fy fundamental frequency (nominal network frequency) fr Resonance frequenc; foe Qe fi Qa 8,"Prof. Dr. Dib 5.49 fr/f1 eon ds aRBRBR QC1/Sk" Oot 01 a4 | 5.6.9 Loads The following properties of loads may lead to modelling problems or uncertainties: Incomplete load data, Loads may be composed of many different and small single loads. Global data are not sufficient (see below). The total real power may contain motors and ohmic loads, which are to be modelled differently. The total reactive power may be the result of inductive and capacitive loads, which are to be modelled differently. ‘Loads in the form of electronic power converters must be modelled as harmonic sources. Capacitive power may be achieved by mere capacitors or by filters (e.g. L and C in series), which are to be modelled differently. Especially compensation will affect the resonance frequency of the network. Resistive loads and the losses in all elements (motors ete.) will influence the damping of resonances. > Loads are turned on and off. Their impedance therefore changes with time. This also leads to a change in the resonance frequency and the damping factor. A variety of loads situations may have to be considered. Possible model: Statistical modelling of loads. > Loads might be unsymmetrical, e 84448 a8 aaSOCHOHHSHOSHSHSHSHHSHSSHHSHSHHSHHSSHHOHHSSHSHSCOSSHHOS CE Prof. Dr. Dib 5-50 © Low-voltage loads often are single-phase loads (especially in public networks supplying households). > Induction furnaces might have a Steinmetz which leads to a symmetry for 50 Hz, but not for other frequencies. ‘Types of loads The following examples differentiate between loads, depending on their different ohmic, inductive or capacitive behaviour: © Resistive (ohmic) loads: electric ovens, electric water heaters, and other electric heating systems using resistances, incandescent lamps. © Resistive/inductive loads: Motors in households (vacuum cleaner, refrigerator, lift), and in industry (induction motors and synchronous motors, single-phase and three-phase motors) © Capacitive loads: fluorescent light in offices (C for compensation of L), single-phase motors with capacitor, motors with capacitive reactive power compensation (e.g. for lifts). Categories of loads in public low-voltage distribution networks: Residential areas: © Resistive loads predominant > Compensation is seldom © High buildings: Condensors in fluorescent lamps and lift motors © In Germany: off-peak storage heating (electrical) is switched on during the night (and parts of the day); stronger resistive component. Rural areas (countryside) © Home appliances as in residential areas, plus: Compensation of motors and of fluorescent lamps (farms: in stables, street lighting) © Farms supplied by a long overhead power line (inductive series resistance) and having compensation: resonance, City centre > Compensation of fluorescent lights and motors (refrigeration in stores, ventilation, lifts) in shops and office buildings © Off-peak loads may differ considerably from peak-loads, e.g. due to the switched-off compensation Areas dedicated to small businesses, manufacturing, crafts, trade: © Frequent use of compensated motors, fluorescent lamps = Peak load: more loads and condensors are switched-on > damping increases and the resonance frequency decreases > Off-peak load: as in rural areasProf. Dr. Dib Zuleitung Last Kompensation ‘Ohmsche Last SS eee Figure: Simple representation of low-voltage distribution networks Possibilities for modelling fluctuating loads: > Statistical approach with probability distributions of impedances and harmonic generation © Multiple calculations with peak-load, off-peak load © Representation of impedances by impedance areas instead of single values. Table : Typical values for the relative compensation ower (Germany, 19-eighties) Load type QP Household =O Farms, agriculture 0,1... 0,3 Industry 3s Small businesses 0,5 Super markets Or. Offices 0,9..1,3 5.6.10 Network feeders For a detailed analysis and discussion refer to [5-8, 5-11, 5-12]. 5-51 Simplifying a network will lead to errors. The more details are modelled the more accurate will be the result. Often nothing is known except the short-circuit apparent power. In such cases a simple model is used. A better model uses the capacitance of the network, e.g. due to cables.Prof. Dr. Dib 5-52 x s x R Figure: Equivalent circuit of» network feeder 5.7 Measuring Harmonic voltages and currents §.7.1 Basic elements of harmonic analysers Harmonic Analysers usually contain the following components: current! all analog! analysis, voitage |») anéiatasing |_.1 aigita Fast Fourier display, transformer | converter om memory Figure : Basic structure of a harmonic analyzer coupling the signal amplifier, in order to make full use of the ADC (analog digital converter), see quantizing error Antialiasing filter sample an hold sometimes a multiplexer (MUX) is used to switch between the different input signals v(L1), V(L2), «(LD ... im case there is not an ADC for every signal analog digital converter (ADC) CPU (central processing unit) unit for generating the sampling frequency and for controlling the measuring equipment calculation algorithm, usually FFT (fast Fourier transform) data storage device and memory (disk drive, memory card, etc.) communication ports, e.g, serial port (RS 232: Recommended Standard) keyboard display GIGGG GRIGLIGG Some of these components will be discussed in the following chapters.Prof. Dr. Dib 5-53 5.7.2 Sampling and digitising Input sign: continuous signal (value and time), e.g. u(t). Output signal: binary value at discrete times, to be saved and manipulated by a microprocessor. Components of an analog/digital converter (ADC): = Sampling: takes samples at equal time intervals. © Hold: holds the sampled value until it has been digitized. © Quantizer (digitizer) and encoder: convert the analog value into a digital value. A quantizing error occurs due to the limited number of bits (usually 12 to 16 bits). The digital values can be saved in memory and processed by a microprocessor. Example: 12 Bit means: 2'? = 4096 quantizing levels 16 Bit means: 2'* = 65536 quantizing levels analog signal sample hold quantize encode _digital signal fo Lf ie = 4 Fi 14 ca} ry | [IES poole 7 | | ih clock frequency (sampling frequency) — Figure : Analog-to-digital conversionSHSHHHSSHHSHSSHSHSHSSHSSSSSHSHHESOHHOSHSHSHSHOHSEOHOSEE CE Prof. Dr. Dib 5-54 §.7.3 Shannon's sampling theorem A periodically sampled signal can be fully reconstructed if the Shannon theorem for sampling is taken into consideration. The Shannon sampling theorem or the Nyquist sampling theorem says: ‘The sampling rate must be at least twice the frequency of the highest frequency component in the waveform being sampled. If this theorem is not complied with, there will be aliasing (see later). ‘The Nyquist criterion means that there must be at least two samples per cycle for any frequency component one wishes to measure [5-13, 5-14, 5-15]. fa> 2 fina 1 aT< Z fax fnax highest frequency in the signal fa sampling frequency AT sampling interval ‘The Nyquist frequency is half the sampling frequency. Thus for a given sampling interval AT the Nyquist frequency is the highest frequency that can be obtained. It is given by: 1 fry = Jap 5.7.4 Aliasing Optical Aliasing Effect: The wheels of fast moving wagons in Western films seem to rotate backwards. Reason: The number of frames per second (single film shots per second) of the recording camera is too small compared to the rotation speed of the wheels. Consequence: Wrong representation of the rotation. Analogy in measuring harmonics or signals in general: The number of frames per second corresponds to the sampling rate in measuring signals. If the sampling rate is too low compared with the frequencies present in a signal, then one will obtain a wrong frequency spectrum. Simple example: A single sinusoidal wave is sampled at a rate which is too low. Reconstructing the signal gives a wrong result: a sinusoidal wave with a low and wrong frequency.SPOCHOHOHSHSSHSHSHSHSHSHSSHHHHSHHHHSHHHSHHHHHSHOHHHHOHSOOECE Prof. Dr. Dib 5-55 a camera o a o ‘OCOOOCOO O OO @ > camera Go a OCOOOCGOO © GC Figure : Optical aliasing effect The alias can be determined by using the folding diagram (Figure ). First, the sampling frequency must be divided by half, which gives the Nyquist frequency (called F in the folding diagram). In the Figure, a sampling frequency of 200 Hz and thus F~200 Hz / 2 = 100 Hz was chosen as an example. {A frequency (to be measured) of 25 Hz is thus represented at % the length of the horizontal axis. A frequency of 1025 Hz is given by: 1025 Hz= 10x100 Hz + 25 Hz and is thus represented at the horizontal line for 10F and at a distance of 4 of the horizontal line. ‘The vertical line at 25 Hz thus can be interpreted as follows: With a sampling rate of 200 Hz, equivalent to a Nyquist frequency of 100 Hz, all the frequencies such as: Lx F475 Hz= 175 Hz 2x F +25 Ha= 225 Hz 3xF+75 Hz=375 Hz 4x F +25 Hz= 425 Hz 10 x F +25 Hz= 1025 Hz fold to the same 25-Hz frequency, and thus will yield an alias of 25 Hz.060000 HOHOHHHHOOHHOHHOHHHHHHHHHOHOHHOOHECOEEEO Prof. Dr. Dib 5-56 MOF ef tip Fe oe — oF 2F ——_ oF on ie 25 Hz diagram to calculate the aliases (5-19]. Here F=100 Hz. To solve the problem: Antialiasing filters [5-19] must be used (analog or digital). If a signal is not sampled with the necessary rate, or if an antialiasing filter is not used, then the following effect results: all frequencies above the Nyquist frequency will be ,,folded and appear in the range between 0 Hz and the Nyquist frequency. The result is: © One does not recognise the frequency spectrum above the Nyquist frequency. © The results between 0 Hz and the Nyquist frequency are partly wrong due to the folded frequencies. Alias" means another name for the same thing. Here meaning another and wrong frequency. Avoiding aliasing by using very high sampling rates is not feasible, because: > higher costs for the hardware = longer calculation times because of the larger data volume An antialiasing filter is in principle a low pass filter, which cuts off the high-frequency components before sampling. This has the effect of limiting the measured signal to the low-frequency band. al al Figure Aliasing effect demonstrated using a single sinusotdal waveProf. Dr. Dib 5-57 Explanation of the Figure: a) A pure sinusoidal signal with the frequency fis sampled using the frequency f, = 0,8 £. The sampled points are represented near the original signal. b) Sampled points. ©) Reconstruction of the signal from the sampled points gives a wrong sinusoidal signal. 5.7.5 Behaviour of voltage and current transformers at harmonic frequencies Conventional (inductive) voltage and current transformers (VT, CT) are designed and built for 50/60 Hz. They are only partly useful for measuring harmonic voltages and currents. Problems when measuring harmonics: © Small amplitudes: Harmonic voltages are usually in the range of a few percent of the nominal network voltage. Harmonic currents may be as high as a few tens of percent of the nominal currents. The transformation ratio is frequency dependent due to resonances in the transformer. Errors in the magnitude (amplitude) of the measured harmonic currents and voltages. Error in the phase angle influences the measured power and the direction of energy flow (searching for disturbing harmonic generators in a network). oO8 Capacitive voltage transformers Capacitive voltage transformers according to the below diagram are usually not good for measuring harmonics. They possess several resonance frequencies, the first may be as low as about 100 Hz. Their behaviour can be made better, if only the capacitive partis used. In this case the transformer can be used up to about 100 kHz or 150 kHz. The load of the transformer must have a high impedance. Figure : Capacitive voltage transformer for high voltages C1 High-voltage capacitor Cy ‘Low-voltage capacitor L Coil R Damping resistor T Transformer for the electrical isolation between the high- and low-voltage circuits