Ly

ABSTRACT
The Illinois Junior Academy of Science
This form/paper may not be taken without IJAS authorization.
CATEGORY
SCHOOL
CITY/ZIP
SPONSOR
MARK ONE:

Earth Science
Niles North High School
Skokie, IL 60077
Christi Camel

STATE REGION #
IJAS SCHOOL #
SCHOOL PHONE #

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

NAME OF SCIENTIST*
NAME OF SCIENTIST
NAME OF SCIENTIST
NAME OF SCIENTIST

Amanda Ly

6
6038
847.626.2254

DESIGN INVESTIGATION
GRADE
GRADE
GRADE
GRADE

12

* If this project is awarded a monetary prize, the check will be written in this scientist's name, and it will be his/her responsibility
to distribute the prize money equally among all participating scientists.

PROJECT TITLE

Ice Core Analysis Year 2: Comparing Enrichment Factors and Linking to

Reference Horizons

The purpose of this experiment is to compare elemental enrichment factors (heavy trace
metals ratios) in order to determine whether annual trace element concentration changes are
anthropogenic or crustal.
Purpose:

Procedure:

Conclusion:
This form must be used. This form must be displayed on the front of the exhibitors display board. It may be reduced to half a
sheet of paper; 8.5 inches (vertical) X 5.5 inches (horizontal).

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Ice Core Analysis Year 2: Comparing Enrichment Factors

and Linking to Reference Horizons
Amanda Ly
Niles North High School

Table of Contents

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Abstract ... pg. 1

Title ................................................................................................................................... pg. 2
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. pg. 3
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... pg. 4
Purpose and Hypothesis .................................................................................................. pg. 5
Review of Literature ........................................................................................................ pg. 6
Materials and Procedure ................................................................................................. pg. 16
Calculated Data ................................................................................................................ pg. 17
Results ... pg. 20
Data Analysis ............................................................................ pg. 25
Experimental Error . pg. 28
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ pg. 29
Reference List .................................................................................................................. pg. 31

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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Christine Camel, Richard Thielson, and Susan Posnock for their
guidance and assistance. I would especially like to thank Susan Posnock for getting me in contact
with the Ohio Byrd Polar Research Center. Id also like to thank Jason Cervenec for sending me
the data on ice cores. Additionally, endless thanks to Dr. Paolo Gabrielli for helping me so much
with this project. Lastly, Id also like to thank my family and my sister for their love and support.

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Purpose: The purpose of this experiment is to compare elemental enrichment factors (heavy
trace metals ratios) in order to determine whether annual trace element concentration changes are
anthropogenic or crustal.

Hypothesis: If elemental enrichment factors are calculated over time, then the factor ratio will
be higher than its standard crustal enrichment factor. This will then correspond to reference
horizons (historical) and can undoubtedly be labeled as anthropogenic emissions.
Rationale: Because anthropogenic trace elements are a result of humans burning fossil fuels like
coal, in times of great industrial advancement, there would be a higher enrichment factor ratio
(compared to standard enrichment factor ratio) due to there being more of the specific element
being released into the atmosphere. Ratios that are higher than the standard prove that emissions
are anthropogenic because the concentration is above nature's normal concentration.

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Ice Core Analysis Year 2: Comparing Enrichment Factors and Linking to Reference Horizons
Review of Literature
Before there were written records, there was ice. Deep within earths coldest places are
layers of ice that could be miles long. Ice cores are physically preserved records that provide
scientists with a way to learn about environmental conditions in the past. Within each layer of an
ice core is an air bubble that traps gases and other trace elements that can be analyzed.
An ice core is a cylinder shaped sample of ice drilled from an ice sheet, an ice cap, or a
glacier (Grigholm, 2011). Each year snow falls and accumulates creating a new layer of snow. As
more time passes more layers build on top of each other resulting in a layer cake of snow
(Koffman, 2011). The snow that accumulates every year doesnt melt; it is compressed and
preserved as ice. From this scientists have an annual timeline of climate. Each year is
represented by a new layer formed on top of the ones from the year before (Finnin, 2008).
Because of the different weight oxygen isotopes trapped in each layer of snow, the layers of ice
are visibly distinct. These layers can be dated by simple starting at the surface and counting back
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the years. By comparing the thickness of each layer scientists are able to get a sense of how
much snow fell in each year. A thinner layer means less snow; a thicker layer means more snow.
Ice core records provide the most direct and detailed way to investigate past climate and
atmospheric conditions (Grigholm, 2011). Each layer of ice doesnt just tell the amount of
annual snowfall; each layer also contains trace elements such as debris from forest fires and
volcanoes, dust picked up by winds, pollen, and insects. But those are only the materials that can
be seen with the naked eye. What is really interesting about ice cores is what the human eye cant
see. Hidden in each layer of ice are concentrations or ratios of oxygen isotopes, sulfate, nitrate,
and carbon dioxide (Geerts, Linacre, 2002). By analyzing these physical and chemical properties
scientists are able to discover past variations in climate ranging from seasons to hundreds of

thousands of years. There is no other recorder out there that records both climate (things like
temperature and precipitation) but also the forcings of climate, the things that have cause climate
to vary in the past. Ice core records can be used to reconstruct temperature, atmospheric
circulation strength, precipitation, volcanic eruptions, atmospheric dust, and much more
(Zagorski, 2006).
To truly understand what ice cores really are and what they do one must go back in
history to the discovery of the first ice core. One of the main chemical properties in ice cores are
oxygen isotope ratios. These oxygen isotopes can be used to determine the temperature. Oxygen

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comes in isotopes that are classified as heavy or light (Riebek, 2010). Light oxygen-16 is
the most common isotope in nature as opposed to the less common heavy oxygen-18. In 1952
Willi Dansgaard discovered that the amount of heavy oxygen isotopes in precipitation correlates
with the temperature at the location where the precipitation is formed (Hanson 2008). Dansgaard
realized that by analyzing the ratio of heavy oxygen isotopes stored in layers of old precipitation
stored in ice caps he could gather information on past climate conditions. Information about the
temperature when the snow fell can be retrieved by analyzing the ratio between the light
Oxygen-16 and heavy oxygen-18 isotopes. Typically, larger amounts of oxygen-18 means
warmer atmosphere and a lesser amount of oxygen-18 means a colder atmosphere. This is a
result of differing evaporation rates (fractionation) of oxygen-18 which is dependent on the
surrounding temperature. (Readinger, 2006). Because it indirectly estimates the temperature the
oxygen isotope ratio is often used as a temperature proxy.
Oxygen among other things are trapped in the layers of ice cores. Each property provides
scientists a glimpse of the past. For example, dust concentrations tell scientists about how dry the
atmosphere was upwind of the glacier (Moore, Beaudon, Kang, Divine, Isaksson, Pohjola, van
de Wal, 2011). Dust also provides scientists season details specifically in the Northern
Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere dust tends to peak in the spring season. Ice cores also
give details of volcanic eruptions and combustions of fuels high in sulfur. In each layer of an ice
core the sulfate concentration can be found.
Although oxygen isotope ratios ice cores can be used to indirectly record temperatures in
the past, currently, a more important concentration is being measured throughout the world.
Scientists are focusing on measuring the concentration of greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) (Berger, 2008). The bubbles within the ice make the
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concentrations measurable. Greenhouse gases are believed to be the main cause of global
warming. Gases like carbon dioxide and methane absorb energy which ends up slowing or
preventing the loss of heat to space (Advancing, 2010). The Earth the becomes warmer than it
would otherwise be because the greenhouse gases act like a blanket covering the Earth.
Ice cores analyzed from Antarctica show that the concentration of CO2 was stable over
the last millenium until the early 19th century. Starting in the 1800s it started to rise, and now its
concentration is almost 40% higher than it was before the industrial revolution (Ice, 2010). Other
measurements like isotopic data confirm that the drastic increase is due to CO2 emissions from
fossil fuel usage and deforestation. The fact that its changing isnt unusual; theres always
change. Earth has shifted through many climate changes over its 4.54 billion year lifespan.
Whats compelling is the rate of change we have not seen in 2000 year history (Zagorski, 2006).
Measurements from older ice cores confirm that both the magnitude and rate of the recent
increase are almost certainly unprecedented over the last 800,00 years (Ice, 2010). To really get
a sense of how much CO2 concentrations have increased one must look at the oldest ice cores.
The fastest large natural increase measures in an ice core is around 20ppm (parts per million by
volume) in 1,000 years (Berger, 2008). During this period Earth had just come out of its last ice
age. As the climate became warmer CO2 and CH4 (methane another greenhouse gas)
concentrations increased which helped to make the climate even warmer. Within the last 11
years, the CO2 concentration has increased by the same amount. The CO2 concentration
increased by more than a factor of 90. Over the last two centuries CH4 (greenhouse gas) also
showed a huge increase. Its current concentration is more than 2 times its pre-industrial level due
to an increase in emissions from agricultural fields and landfills (IPCC, 2010). The Earth is
warmer today than it has been for at least the last 2,000 years and likely the last 5,000 years.

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As a whole it has been well established that the temperature on Earth is increasing due to
greenhouse gas emissions. What scientists are really trying to learn more about are short term
regional environmental changes. This can be done by measuring anthropogenic aerosol
compositions. Anthropogenic aerosols are tiny specks of matter that are a results of humans.
(Voiland, 2010). In contrast to the globally-mixed greenhouse gases, aerosols have
heterogeneous regional patterns and likewise have the potential to cause more localized effects
(Ramanathan, Carmichael, 2008). Aerosol studies can tell which anthropogenic emissions need
to be regulated. Because aerosols have a lifetime of only a few days to a month, targeting
emissions would be an effective strategy to relieving environmental change on a regional scale.
The most important part of aerosols are trace elements (Pacyna, 2001). A portion of Hg
and Se is emitted as gas, but most trace elements are emitted on fine particles. While being
transported through the air over long distances, trace elements are deposited in various
environmental compartments (ice cores). These trace elements can drastically change ecosystems
depending on their toxicity (Merian & Clarkson, 1991). Because of possible toxicity it is
important to assess what trace element concentrations are from natural emissions or of
anthropogenic origin (burning fossil fuels). Anthropogenic trace element concentrations reveal
the current level of environmental contamination by these pollutants. This information can then
be relayed to organizations who can take actions to preserve ecosystems and protect human
health.
The study of trace element emissions has been dominated throughout the continent of
Asia because emissions have been most prominent in that region. One part of Asia that hasnt
really been analyzed is the Third Pole, a region in the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau (Qiu, 2008).
The Third Pole is particularly exposed to trace element contamination because of the recent,

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rapid economic growth in Asia. The increased demand for electricity and heat by the use of fossil
fuels release trace elements such as Hg, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Mo, Pb, Sb, and Zn into the
atmosphere. From J. Pacynas recent study, he concluded that nearly 50% of the total
anthropogenic trace elements released into Earths atmosphere come from Asia (Pacyna, 2001).
In 1995, Asia alone emitted to the atmosphere 50% of the total Cu, 61% of Zn, 49% of Cd, and
43% of Pb (Pacyna and Pacyna, 2001). From previous trace element studies, researchers have
concluded that emissions from Asia are not only larger but also on the rise. Other continents like
Europe and North America have reduced emissions of trace metals because of improved
efficiency of emission controls.
Scientists have attempted to create a timeline using the trace element concentrations of
ice cores. By taking annual trace element concentrations over a period of time, periods of
increases and decreases in the specific elements concentration are analyzed. They are then
linked to reference horizons (historical events). Typically, the largest spikes in concentrations are
due to industrial advancement resulting in the burning and usage of heavy metals.
However, there lies many problems with just looking at trace element concentrations. For
almost all elements even heavy trace metals there is some amount natural in the world; therefore,
it cannot be concluded that all emissions are anthropogenic. For that reason, additional
calculations and analysis need to be done. One such way to determine whether a trace element is
crustal (natural in world) or anthropogenic is to compare its enrichment factor to its standard
crustal enrichment factor.
Using trace element concentrations one can analyze enrichment factors. Enrichment
factors are used to describe bodies of mineral ores and heavy metals. It is defined as the
minimum factor by which the weight percent of mineral in an orebody is greater than the average

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occurrence of that mineral in the Earth's crust. By analyzing enrichment factors one can
determine whether specific trace elements are crustal or anthropogenic. This tells scientists
whether a specific trace element is natural or being emitted by humans burning fossil fuels.
Using standard crustal enrichment factors and comparing them to enrichment factors calculated
from an ice core one can determine whether there is an abundance of a specific element thus
being able to conclude that the increase in concentration of that specific element is
anthropogenic. Specifically, each trace element is compared to a reference element (typically
iron, lead, silicon, or aluminum). The result of this ratio can then be compared to the current
standard enrichment factor. The true calculation comes down to four components (([ ] sample/[ ]
reference in environment) / ([ ]reference element/[ ]reference element in environment) (Likuku et
al., 2013).
The distribution of these aerosols and trace elements contribute to the analysis of crustal
dust. Similar to enrichment factors crustal dust calculations are made by a ratio of one trace
element to another. As the climate changes and as the dust travels these ratios will increase or
decrease. Crustal dust concentrations are based largely on climate and region. In very rural areas
the concentration is homogeneous and low compared to industrial areas which have an increase
of crustal dust. However, during climate changes both areas experience a shift in the crustal dust
measurement. During the hotter times of the year crustal dust tends not to disperse as widely
because there are less winds. Because of the heating caused by aerosols creating brown zones
the concentration of the dust increases and stays at a high level for longer periods of time. Many
trace elements are toxic and when they accumulate over time, they have a big impact on the
surrounding lives.
By analyzing ice cores drilled from the Third Pole, scientists can almost recreate the trace
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element fallout to the other glaciers of the region. By measuring the deposition of trace elements
scientists can compare to other trends like industrial production and consumption.
Higher concentrations of crustal dust in an ice core show that areas surrounding it also
have higher concentrations of the dust. This will have a dire effect on the human and animal
population surrounding them because it shows the increase in toxic elements in the environment.
Ice cores allow scientist to take these ratios and compare them to see whether there are increases
or decreases in the concentrations.
The comparison of the calculated enrichment factor to the standard crustal enrichment
factor can then also be compared to determined reference horizons. During the period (year/time)
of increase of concentration found in concentration vs time graph one can look at the enrichment
factor during that period (enrichment factor vs. reference element graph). If the ratio of the
enrichment factor during that period is higher than the standard then it can be concluded that the
increased concentration is due to anthropogenic emissions because it is higher than the average
crustal concentration. After this conclusion, one can look to see if reference horizons match up
with it. During the period of high enrichment factors the concentration vs time graphs should
have corresponding peaks. This not only proves accurate dating of the ice core, but also that the
trace element concentrations found within them are definitely a result of unnatural emissions.
Until recently all prior ice core studies of the Third Pole have come from the same
drilling site, the Col of the East Rongbuk glacier. In an ice core study conducted by Kaspari S.
and others discovered increases in the concentrations of Bi, U, and Cs starting in the 1950s and
S and Ca in the 1980s (Kaspari S. et al., 2009b). In a study of an ice core from the same site, S.
Hong discovered As, Mo, Sn, and Sb emissions began increasing in the 1970s (Hong et al.,
2009). The ice cores from the Col of the East Rongbuk show that the highest glaciers of the

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Third Pole are indeed affected by contamination from anthropogenic trace elements.
Many studies have calculated enrichment factors for additional analysis but only a few
have linked them back to reference horizons and concluded that specific trace element emissions
were anthropogenic. One of these studies was conducted by J. R McConnell et. al. In
McConnells study the enrichment factor of lead was used and compared to the factors of 23
other elements from 16 different ice cores. McConnell and his colleagues concluded that the
increased enrichment factors were a result of lead pollution from Australia. Trace elements and
other dust particles were being deposited to Antarctica during Australias time of
industrialization. Another study conducted by Yaping Liu and his colleagues also yielded similar
results. In Lius study trace element records of an ice core were analyzed in order to determine
whether their contributions were natural or anthropogenic. Liu realized that many of the
concentrations varied little with each other over the time period analyzed; however, their
enrichment factors showed significant differences. Liu ended up concluding that the recent
increases in the enrichment factor comparison can be attributed to anthropogenic emission such
as metal smelting. This was linked to Eurasias sudden industrial and population growth in the
1980s.
Anthropogenic combustion of fossil fuels contributes to trace elements such as Zn, Sb,
Ni, V, Se, and Pb. (Stone et al., 2007). Trace elements are not only harmful to people and the
ecosystems but they are also contributing to global warming. A mixture of aerosols (black
carbon, sulfate, nitrates, dust) containing these trace elements results in atmospheric brown
clouds (Ramanathan & Carmichael, 2008). First observed during the Indian Ocean Experiment
intensive field observation in 1999, brown clouds are believed to increase the warming trends in
Asia. Brown clouds form throughout Asia in hot-spots of trace element emissions. Due to the

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winter monsoon season trace elements and other pollutants remain in the atmosphere because
there is little precipitation to remove them. Because of brown clouds solar absorption many
regions in Asia are warming (Ramanathan et al., 2007). About half of atmospheric heating can be
attributed to brown clouds. Aerosols like black carbon that accumulate on snow and ice can
increase the amount of solar radiation (Xu et al., 2009). This in addition to the warming from
brown clouds results in a warming of about .6C per year (Ramanathan et al., 2007). Glaciers of
the Third Pole are rapidly retreating because of the warming as a result of brown clouds; in the
future the loss of these glaciers will impact available water resources for millions of people (Xu
et al., 2009). By studying trace elements scientists will be able to learn more about brown clouds
and which trace elements are causing the most harm.
Ice cores allow scientists to unearth the past to protect the future. Properties within ice
cores tell scientists a lot about past climate change. Among the most important properties within
ice cores are trace elements. Scientists focus on measuring trace elements because they are toxic
to ecosystems and humans. Trace elements also contribute to global warming; mixtures of
aerosols (many trace elements) form brown clouds that heat up the atmosphere. The dramatic
changes in climate are causing glaciers to retreat and will eventually impact available water
resources for millions of people. Analysis of which trace element emissions are anthropogenic or
crustal gives way to new bans being put on fossil fuel consumption in the future. Having the
proof that humans are truly polluting the world with extremely toxic chemicals will lead the
world into a new era where these problems will be on their way to being fixed.

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Materials

Microsoft Excel

Data from Byrd Polar Research Center

Computer with Internet access

Procedure
1. Receive data from Byrd Polar Research Center
2. Calculate each trace elements enrichment factor
3. Calculate crustal abundance of each trace element
4. Graph data (Enrichment Factor & Concentration vs. Time)
5. Analyze data to see enrichment factors over 1 and corresponding spikes in trace element
amounts
6. Find if corresponding reference horizons match increases in enrichment factors
7. Conclude if anthropogenic or crustal

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Calculated Data
Calculated Crustal Abundance
Eleme
nt
Sb
Ba
Pb
Cd
Bi
U
Al
Cu
Zn
As

%
iron
y=
0.0000
2
6.3 3.1746E-06
0.00053968
0.0034
6.3
3
0.0009
0.00015714
9
6.3
3
0.0000
2.38095E15
6.3
06
2.50E06
6.3
3.97E-07
0.0001
2.85714E8
6.3
05
1.28571428
8.1
6.3
6
0.00107936
0.0068
6.3
5
0.00123809
0.0078
6.3
5
0.0002
3.33333E1
6.3
05

Calculated Enrichment Factors

age
A.D.

Sb
Cd EF

EF

Ba
EF

Pb EF

Bi EF

U EF

1939.767

53.81298

65.60222

88.4432

9.285887

117.3603

4.061422

1939.767

66.78442

76.33279

22.02447

14.71808

188.5471

6.367234

Al EF
0.80012
8
0.94292
7

Cu EF
14.7527
3
45.4152
9

Zn EF
25.3284
3
16.3958
9

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As EF
34.51517
46.1574

Ly
0.62802
6
0.63723
1
0.71969
7
0.59422
7
1.73552
7
1.61962
4
0.63387
4
0.65636
9
0.55416
1
1.18582
9
1.30573
1
1.29935
1
1.00808
7
1.74669
8

1939.659

11.07657

18.79195

8.349363

4.228548

42.32119

1.337244

1939.552

6.05058

15.89663

13.71036

7.216134

48.43312

2.909024

1939.458

16.30911

45.46767

11.60819

8.418847

120.916

4.780647

1939.351

9.070262

14.48054

10.9042

4.605735

51.85597

1.900767

1939.243

274.8381

228.2609

24.82275

20.62373

164.0631

16.49774

1939.136

3995.747

576.4706

30.13546

30.70414

301.4699

9.965881

1939.028

11.35621

21.33954

11.89251

10.31713

90.89631

2.973114

1938.949

6.154817

6.694294

14.29341

6.12055

57.51963

2.141979

1938.882

20.05149

15.0081

11.84268

4.784429

53.53886

4.069278

1938.812

441.854

265.3749

21.08674

20.92528

776.027

4.972882

1938.704

114661.8

9147.727

92.80035

228.7654

1065.557

19.11252

1938.674

3331.142

2043.893

45.03373

76.88923

273.9862

5.796539

1938.604

1870.803

1203.785

21.56275

79.01306

108.9018

3.809064

1938.535

4044.764

2033.37

38.7394

80.53808

247.1273

6.858735

1938.466

3565.538

1661.538

30.04652

42.96688

203.2834

5.781797

1938.396

1430.665

1204.128

30.11786

39.08276

302.3377

10.75776

1938.354

298.1863

118.6111

12.66821

10.22172

113.3844

7.800463

1938.301

43.6569

49.21875

13.53013

8.263299

139.5759

5.170417

1938.301

43.6569

49.21875

13.53013

8.263299

139.5759

5.170417

1938.221

126.682

191.1988

16.23565

8.746188

200.1177

5.667436

1938.221

126.682

191.1988

16.23565

8.746188

200.1177

5.667436

1.05931
1.71574
8
0.60040
1
0.70734
4
0.70734
4
0.66081
4
0.66081
4

1938.141

45.20517

75.87314

9.324301

5.579097

103.7186

3.018579

0.70092

1938.141

45.20517

75.87314

9.324301

5.579097

103.7186

3.018579

1938.061

4.494789

15.58097

13.74691

7.400238

61.45281

3.082702

1938.061

4.494789

15.58097

13.74691

7.400238

61.45281

3.082702

1937.967

5.787445

5.302006

16.5529

6.434145

54.74693

2.521943

1937.967

5.787445

5.302006

16.5529

6.434145

54.74693

2.521943

1937.831

33.75687

34.81945

15.9432

9.846237

93.71755

3.761019

1937.831

33.75687

34.81945

15.9432

9.846237

93.71755

3.761019

1937.695

27.14811

31.15727

10.07642

5.928296

85.38637

2.976254

1937.695

27.14811

31.15727

10.07642

5.928296

85.38637

2.976254

1937.56

23.00652

25.44084

11.46336

8.493963

118.5371

3.597401

0.70092
0.52077
1
0.52077
1
0.54495
2
0.54495
2
0.73909
8
0.73909
8
0.66232
7
0.66232
7
0.74730
8

7.72881
7
2.80576
2
22.5068
7
3.68484
5
141.473
1
159.347
1
2.99306
5
1.90774
8
3.07073
9
59.8486
4
882.409
9
394.284
7
143.075
2
426.845
390.080
9
233.612
9
19.4304
9
15.1474
2
15.1474
2
55.0318
2
55.0318
2
16.0618
4
16.0618
4
1.7089
1.7089
1.60083
1.60083
13.9446
3
13.9446
3
11.1538
8
11.1538
8
5.02528
7

13.0452
2
3.78282
8
15.3547
9
5.25060
1
123.925
7
513.182
9
4.16057
1
2.72583
8.50370
2
158.418
4
2739.29
1
1327.71
6
388.862
2
1136.09
7
1129.17
6
600.022
3
136.406
8
32.5572
2
32.5572
2
66.5209
3
66.5209
3
23.0668
2
23.0668
2
2.63785
2
2.63785
2
2.64073
7
2.64073
7
15.5179
9
15.5179
9
13.6121
7
13.6121
7
8.33072
6

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13.84894
19.73872
43.71495
12.18569
220.842
63.49206
25.77519
10.03891
7.441658
44.53003
3.607504
81.78844
38.39824
73.46046
84.77237
120.1398
28.30688
29.19889
29.19889
53.66903
53.66903
22.23389
22.23389
19.04285
19.04285
9.443124
9.443124
31.00793
31.00793
18.44262
18.44262
26.01551

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1937.56

23.00652

25.44084

11.46336

8.493963

118.5371

3.597401

1937.424

24.20592

31.11111

22.02195

4.509857

48.67401

2.376238

1937.424

24.20592

31.11111

22.02195

4.509857

48.67401

2.376238

1937.289

4.291019

9.964645

10.4036

7.648181

98.56785

2.980992

1937.289

4.291019

9.964645

10.4036

7.648181

98.56785

2.980992

0.74730
8
0.55735
2
0.55735
2
0.50210
3
0.50210
3

1937.153

14.05493

15.96553

12.91864

10.33738

99.3515

4.640964

0.57477

1937.153

14.05493

15.96553

12.91864

10.33738

99.3515

4.640964

1937.018

9.790326

9.131121

12.65423

6.162187

70.1011

3.48259

1937.018

9.790326

9.131121

12.65423

6.162187

70.1011

3.48259

1936.913

3016.975

995.3532

36.21552

31.06323

665.8602

9.201908

1936.913

3016.975

995.3532

36.21552

31.06323

665.8602

9.201908

1936.813

1401.116

959.3909

53.86034

42.76649

442.227

9.133369

1936.742

1035.253

821.7391

26.79038

29.8938

294.1111

8.993826

1936.642

59.88316

265.5427

10.74142

10.39063

601.0979

4.288666

1936.548

154.146

319.2568

25.27307

25.94039

312.954

9.55883

1936.454

15.4595

51.41458

9.161826

10.40797

150.5664

6.425539

1936.36

41.33813

34.16486

7.871073

4.671002

117.1852

3.858659

1936.266

49.28805

81.9601

12.50153

24.59088

157.7721

5.123627

0.57477
0.60446
2
0.60446
2
1.30376
8
1.30376
8
3.72652
8
2.28774
5
0.77186
1
1.61860
4
0.55892
5
0.61077
5
0.89633
2

1936.172

5.902303

9.267432

11.29088

6.775883

60.59654

2.585601

1936.078

16.30571

22.20395

14.17657

7.15275

68.66481

2.277228

1936.015

3.058292

22.06479

9.204211

7.534908

92.91421

2.801561

1935.91

6.270933

12.43245

11.07261

5.247596

65.14753

3.598475

1935.756

27.89238

32.89817

22.74702

7.975505

104.1864

2.968903

1935.293

37.80205

28.43923

11.44317

6.573935

77.65816

1.956981

1935.102

5.25574

11.75841

12.79486

6.437148

204.3494

4.314717

1934.976

4472.625

232.4723

21.12835

18.70448

190.8202

6.904295

1934.862

501.3398

611.6505

44.74189

43.34121

441.3232

11.45323

1934.727

430.3033

250.6631

24.05377

20.78107

385.1434

11.40881

1934.581

170.7446

128.5714

24.14594

8.882707

157.9159

7.811579

1934.434

82.56592

58.14192

15.21716

20.16949

74.53913

3.204229

1934.245

21.43373

17.95749

12.78485

12.5055

93.29633

1.74509

1934.088

5.691036

5.108019

11.9738

5.432444

47.7987

1.957618

0.66523
0.70756
4
0.53070
2
0.55505
1
0.72234
7
0.66069
4
0.56653
4
0.88819
6
2.71757
3
1.51437
3
1.02296
3
0.69891
5
0.54079
1
0.55263
6

5.02528
7
7.75664
5
7.75664
5
1.53287
1.53287
3.95874
5
3.95874
5
2.19393
6
2.19393
6
242.748
4
242.748
4
231.925
5
149.518
4
26.1240
7
78.8610
6
7.91350
6
13.6104
2
23.8988
1
1.84330
6
6.42277
1.26172
5
2.04037
9
8.70147
4
5.70379
7
2.46613
6
66.1597
6
169.842
1
94.6620
8
45.8267
3
15.8632
1
5.89208
7
1.45913
9

8.33072
6
13.5324
7
13.5324
7
2.63096
4
2.63096
4
7.35176
2
7.35176
2
5.09715
9
5.09715
9
1184.76
7
1184.76
7
1157.52
9
594.205
4
45.2139
2
123.856
7
14.0750
5
13.8694
1
19.8942
3
4.16617
8
11.1339
3
2.35131
9
5.17936
3
24.3612
2
34.1870
2
10.8569
4
127.268
7
383.147
6
249.782
9
63.1752
78.4690
4
8.92759
1
2.39678
4

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26.01551
13.84244
13.84244
15.21167
15.21167
23.08283
23.08283
14.52347
14.52347
57.90678
57.90678
91.78946
133.2313
70.563
144.7876
32.78991
14.52588
53.43204
14.12856
18.25154
21.47479
18.0534
32.17083
14.50981
11.16516
56.00949
91.01942
96.11659
27.51662
30.41727
34.04003
7.749441

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1933.927

33.75322

38.19108

14.4137

6.331946

106.6918

3.833461

1933.744

39.78572

47.82691

30.75496

8.097004

151.0896

5.651711

1933.627

8.855415

11.33064

12.35191

5.688759

43.97597

3.351679

1933.496

4.333565

7.617282

7.764751

3.505518

42.66862

1.474744

1933.313

376.6647

367.3469

46.66333

21.77218

345.8005

19.98418

1933.131

5.556383

16.83153

12.57478

6.309741

76.17498

2.402076

1933

242.7652

156.7164

20.83215

12.0897

270.7365

10.33027

0.58213
7
0.75906
0.53112
1
0.48904
3
1.31486
1
0.48594
3
1.12730
2

6.35480
2
19.6482
1
3.63349
5
1.88204
9
63.7568
8
1.98261
6
35.0978
4

12.9180
7
25.7322
1
3.7715
3.59880
5
430.026
8
3.07947
6
75.8081
4

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19.82094
27.82866
19.05329
10.70522
140.04
29.43304
50.31025

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Results (* Many values appear as if they are 0 due to the large interval of graph but none are 0. Detailed values above)

Graph 1
Graph 2

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Graph 3

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Graph 4

Graph 5

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Graph 6

Aluminum Enrichment Factor & Concentration vs. Time

4

300000

3.5

250000

3
200000

2.5
Enrichment Factor

150000 Axis Title

1.5

Al EF
Al (ppt)

100000

1
50000

0.5
0
1930

1935

1940

0
1945

Year

Gr
aph 7

Copper (Cu) Enrichment Factor & Concentration vs. Time

1000

900

900

800

800

700

700

600

600
Enrichment Factor

500

500

400 Concentration (ppt)

400

Cu EF
Cu (ppt)

300

300
200

200

100

100

0
0
1930 1940 1950
Year

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Graph 8

Zinc (Zn) Enrichment Factor & Concentration vs. Time

Enrichment Factor

3000

3000

2500

2500

2000

2000

1500

1500

1000

1000

500

500

Concentration (ppt)

Zn EF
Zn (ppt)

0
1940
1930 1950
Year

Graph 9

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Arsenic (As) Enrichment Factor & Concentration vs. Time

250

120.0
100.0

200

80.0

150

60.0

Enrichment Factor 100

40.0

50

Concentration (ppt)

As EF
As (ppt)

20.0

0.0
1940
1930
1950
Year

Graph 10
Data Analysis
In Graph 1 (Cadmium) both the enrichment factor and concentration increases seem to peak at
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relatively similar times. Both increases were seen to be the largest in the middle of 1938.
Cadmiums highest enrichment factor was recorded at 114661.8 (middle of 1938) which is more
than 100,000 times the crustal abundance of Cadmium. Even the lowest recorded enrichment
factor 3.058292 (1936) is 3 times above the average abundance of Cadmium in the earths crust.
In Graph 2 (Antimony) both the enrichment factor and concentration increases seem to peak at
relatively similar times. However, the enrichment factor and concentration of Antimony seemed
to experience many more peaks that the other trace elements. Both increases were seen to be the
largest in the middle of 1938 just like Cadmium. Antimonys highest enrichment factor was
recorded at 9147.727 which is more than 9,000 times the accepted crustal abundance of
Antimony. Even the lowest recorded enrichment factor (5.108019 in 1934) is 5 times above the
average abundance of Antimony in the earths crust.
In Graph 3 (Barium) both the enrichment factor and concentration increases seem to peak at
relatively similar times. However, the enrichment factor of Barium was very sporadic, meaning
that over time, there was not really a noticeable trend. Like many of the other elements Bariums
concentration experienced a peak in 1938; however, there was not as noticeable of a peak in its
enrichment factor like with many of the other elements. The highest enrichment factor was
recorded at 92.80035 (middle of 1938), but that was only 92 times the average abundance of
Barium. Elements like Cadmium and Antimony had spikes that were thousands times larger. The
lowest recorded enrichment factor for Cadmium was in 7.764751 (middle of 1933).
In Graph 4 (Lead) both the enrichment factor and concentration increases seem to peak at
relatively similar times. However, the enrichment factor of Lead did not have its greatest peak at
the same time as the concentration. From graphing the concentrations and enrichment factors
there seemed to be a very noticeable trend. The lines and points could almost be superimposed to

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form one line showing that they experienced a similar trend. Like many of the other elements
Leads concentration had an increase in 1938; however, this is not where it had its highest
recorded enrichment factor. Like the previous elements mentioned, Lead also experienced a
dramatic increase in its enrichment factor in the middle of 1938 (228.7654). Like Cadmium,
Leads lowest recorded enrichment factor was in 1933 at 3.505518, still 3 times the average
crustal abundance of Lead.
In Graph 5 (Bismuth) both the enrichment factor and concentration increases seem to peak at
relatively similar times. Like many of the other elements Bismuth experienced its greatest
enrichment factor peak in the middle of 1938 with a recorded factor of 1065.557. Like Barium,
Bismuth had relatively sporadic enrichment factors. Bismuths enrichment factors had increases
however the peaks were never as dramatic as the other elements. This is clear because not all the
points are clearly seen to be above one. Bismuths lowest recorded enrichment factor was
recorded in 1933 at 42.
In Graph 6 (Uranium) both the enrichment factor and concentration increases seem to peak at
relatively similar times. This elements enrichment factors were one of the strangest of the
analyzed set. Unlike a majority of the other elements, Uranium experienced its greatest increase
in enrichment factor in 1933 and not in 1938. It had an enrichment factor of 19.98 during this
time. However, in the middle of 1938 Uranium also experienced and peak in its enrichment
factor similar to the other elements; it was just a slightly smaller peak than in 1933. Additionally,
the enrichment factors of Uranium were not as drastic as compared to other elements. The factors
only ranged until about 25 times the normal amount which compared to Antimonys 9,000, the
increase is relatively small.
In Graph 7 (Aluminum) both the enrichment factor and concentration increases seem to peek at

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relatively similar times. Like Uranium, Aluminum was an outlier in terms of its enrichment
factors. It experienced an increase it concentration in 1938; however, the large increase in
recorded enrichment factor was in 1936 (3.7). Additionally, Aluminum was the only element that
had enrichment factors that were below 1. Interestingly enough, more than half of the recorded
enrichment factors were below one. Of all the elements Aluminum was the only one to range
within 5 of each other showing that the abundance did not increase as dramatically as with other
elements.
In Graph 8 (Copper) both the enrichment factor and concentration increases seem to peek at
relatively similar times. Like Lead, Coppers enrichment factor and concentration over time
seemed to follow a specific trend. Both could be superimposed and have the same line. Similar to
a majority of the elements, Copper experienced its highest enrichment factor peak in 1938
(882.4099).
In Graph 9 (Zinc) both the enrichment factor and concentration increases seem to peek at
relatively similar times. Like almost all the other elements Zinc also experienced its biggest
enrichment factor peak in the middle of 1938. However, it also experienced the other outlying
peaks that other elements experienced like in 1936 and 1938. The greatest recorded enrichment
factor (recorded in 1938) was 2739 which is more than 2,000 times the average crustal amount.
In Graph 10 (Arsenic) both the enrichment factor and concentration increases seem to peek at
relatively similar times. Arsenic was the only element to have its greatest enrichment factor peak
during 1939. During this time it had a recorded factor of 220.4. Many of the enrichment factor
peaks corresponded with the concentration peaks showing a trend.
Experimental Error

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Because ice cores are so old, measuring the age is only accurate to a certain degree. As more and
more snow is compressed, it is hard to distinguish one layer from another. It is possible that the
age/years of the ice core are slightly inaccurate. This would be a problem because corresponding
reference horizons could be wrong. In terms of trace elements, the ones measured in this
experiment were classified as anthropogenic meaning they came as a result of human activity,
based on whether their enrichment factors were greater than 1. However, at the start of the time
of analysis (1933) most, if not all the enrichment factors were already greater than one. This
technique of comparing crustal abundance to current abundance may have been more accurate if
applied to an ice core that was much, much older. Due to human emission levels already being
extremely high, the enrichment factor test for the given data set was only relatively accurate.

Conclusion

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The purpose of this project was to determine whether trace element emissions were
anthropogenic (emissions from humans) or crustal (natural earth concentration). All the graphs
showed that enrichment factors and concentrations had some type of trend. Both seemed to
increase and decrease with each other. The fact that all the calculated enrichment factors were
over one shows that the trace elements were anthropogenic. This can be concluded because the
concentration in the ice cores was greater than that of the earth. The hypothesis was that by
analyzing the enrichment factors, those that had an EF of over one would be considered
anthropogenic. The hypothesis was proven correct because the reference horizons matched the
increases of the enrichment factors. This means that during times of increased industrial activity
the calculated enrichment factor was much greater than one, proving that the increase in
concentration was a result of human emission. This study gives scientists insight of
anthropogenic annual trace element concentrations around Asia. More than 50% of all trace
elements in the atmosphere can be attributed to Asias inefficient burning of fossil fuels. By
analyzing which trace elements are being released, scientists are able to determine which
anthropogenic emissions need to be regulated. Regulation is necessary because many trace
elements are toxic to both humans and ecosystems. Some of the common trace elements are
radioactive known to cause cancer as well as birth defects. Regulation of anthropogenic
emissions is also necessary because mixtures of trace elements result in brown clouds which heat
up the Earth. About half of all atmospheric heating can be attributed to brown clouds. As a result
of warming, glaciers are retreating which will eventually result in a loss of availability to many
water resources for people. From this study it is clear that anthropogenic emissions are greatly
increasing the amount of trace elements in the atmosphere; therefore, they must be regulated for
the safety of people, ecosystems, and the Earth as a whole.

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