eaweproleyy Jette young s Basel Glace well Hed ‘Sod le as Origin and morphology of limestone caves Mylene Luiza Berbert ARTHUR N. PALMER Deparment of Earth Sciences, Site University of New York, College at Oneonta. Oneonta. New York 13820-4015 OrasleSper ABSTRACT Limestone caves form along ground-water paths of greatest discharge and solutional g- fresvenes. Flow routes that acquire fresing.dicharge accelerate in growin, while others languish with negligible growth, Is dscharg inreaes, a maximum rate of tral retreat Is approached, typically about 01-0. em/yr, determined by chemial eiics bu veary unaffected by. farther Cree in discharge The ime required to reach the maximum rae is nearly independ tot of Kneis and varies divctly with Tow Gitance and temperature and inversely with facture with, discharge, gradient tnd Poy Msi caves require 104 = 108 yr to reach traversable' Se. Thelt_paltems depend on the mode of ground-waler re. charge. Sinhole recharge forms branching caves with wbutries that jon downstream as Highergter passages, MASE eaves form where (1) $te2p gradients and great undersat Uralon alos: many allerat paths to enlarge smile rates or (2 discharge or renewal tnderaturation uniform slong many ale tate routes, Flood water can form angular networks in fractured. rocky anastomotic izes along low-angle partigs, or sponge- work where intergranlar pores af¢ dom fant. Diflse recharge also forms networks tad spongework, often aided by inning of chemically diferent waters: Rafoym caves, wih sequen! cutward BEMERGS ee formed mainly by rising thermal or Sch water, Disoation rates in cooling water in crease with discharge, CO; conten, temper ture, and thermal gradient, but only at thermal gradients of more than 0.01 °C/m can normal ground-water CO; form caves without the ad of hypogene acids or mixing Ansan flow has no inherent tendency To form maze caves. Geologie structure and ste. Sgraphy influence cave orientation and ex- ent, but alone they do not determine branch- work verse maze character INTRODUCTION Karst landscapes, in which dissolution of bed- rock by water is one of the dominant geo- ‘morphic process, occupy ~10%-20% of the Earth’ land area Nearly all major surface karst features owe thet origin to internal drainage, subsidence, and collapse triggered by the deve- ‘opment of underlying caves. An understanding of cave development is esenti logic or geomorphic interpretation of any kart id in assessing aquifer yield, contami- ind sol and bedrock sabiliy Dissolution pivdsses are also important to such topics as carbonate diagenesis, the origin of Petroleum reservoirs, and the emplacement of hydrothermal ores. Ta the past few darades, the amount of field and laboratory data related 10 limestone caves has increased enormously. Caves have been in- terpreted in terms of ground-water chemistry and hydrology (Thralkll, 1968), geomorphic setting and lithology (Powell, 1970), aquifer ‘ype (White, 1969, 19772), geologic structure (Ford, 1971), potential fields (Ewers, 1978; Ford and Evers, 1978), hydraulics and geologic structure (Palmer, 1973), and solution kinetics (White, 19776; Palmer, 1981, 1984; Drey- brodt, 19812, 19815, 1987, 1988). Broad re- views ofthe subject have been given by Jennings (1985), White (1988), and Ford and Wiliams (1989). ‘This paper focuSeson the origin ofthe basic ‘ave pattems and on rates of cave enlargement. ‘Coverage is limited to the solutiona origin of caves in carbonate rocks, particularly limestones. Cave deposits are discussed only where they r- late to cave origin. Although much of this paper i analytical, its conclusions are supported by previous field work in ~500 caves in all com- ‘mon geomorphic settings (see Palmer, 1975, 1984, 1987). This information is supplemented by published data on several thousand other caves. Weighted by length, the relative fre- ‘quency of major cave pattems in the invest fated sample matches, within 1% that of all (tologal Society of America Bulletin, v. 103, p. 1-21, 25 fig | table, January 1991 known caves in the world more than 3 km long (Courbon and Chabert, 1986); therefore, this sample is representative of all major solutional CAVE MORPHOLOGY Pre-Solutional Openings Solutional caves form where there is enough subsurface water flow fo remove dissolved bed rock and keep undersaturated water in contact with the soluble walls. This is possible only where a pre-existing network of integrated open- ‘ngs connects the recharge and discharge areas, (Of the tol length of cave passages in the ob- served sample, 57% were guided by favorable beds or bedding-plane partings, 42% by promi- T nent fractures, and only 1% by intergranular -— pores. : (Passages influenced by bedding-plane part: | | ings are sinuous and curvilinear (Figs. 1a and 1c), Closely spaced joints within favorable beds may produce a similar pattern (Powell, 1976). Solutionally enlarged_ joints and_high-angle faults tend to produce Fissure-Tke pesages with | esticular cros sections and angular ners: tions. Where joints are prominent, they can de~ termine the pattern of nearly every passge in & eave (Fig, 1b). Faults usually exert only Toca control of cave passages and determine the over- origin only in ref limestones and poorly instones. Cave Patterns All but the simplest caves consist of arrays of imersecting passageways that form distinctive pattems (Fig. 1), The fundamental patera of a ‘ave can be identified from field observaton or plan-view maps, unless too litle of the cave is accesible. Different parts of the same cave may possess different patterns, and more than one pattem can be superposed in a single location.2 . ‘AN. PALMER 100m RAMIFORM AND ‘SPONGEWORK ANASTOMOTIC Figure 1. Common patterns of solutional caves: (a) branchwork: Crevice Cave, Missouri (Joachim Fm); (b) network: part of Crossroads Cave, Virginia (New Scotland Fm), (@) anastomotic: part of Halloch, Switzerland (Cretaceous Schrattenkalk), (4) ramiform and spongework: Carlsbad Cavern, New Mexico (Capitan Fm). E = entrance. Because of their ‘small width-to-length ratio, passages ina and bare shown as solid lines. Maps reproduced with permission of (a) Paul Hauck, (b) H. H. Douglas, (c) Alfred Bégli, (d) Cave Research Foundation. 2 Network caves are: se is of intersect ing fissures formed by the widening of nearly all ranchwork caves const of page tat a) ja nan es Land 2), They are by \, aggregate passage length. While forming, ech firstorder branch serves a8 a conduit fr water ‘fed by a rather discrete recharge source Water far the most common type, representing 57% of major frctures within favorable areas of soluble ‘the caves observed for this study and 659% of the’ rock (Figs. 1b and/3). They include 17% of the observed sample, both in_numt length ae common at “Gaight, relatively high and narrow passages orm a pattern like that of city streets. Some PO thew EE © ‘Gonvergs ints Berard passages Cat be tome fewer and generally Ler Timer getwerks cost of a” a0 7 =a ince (et os Seer ray of dead-end ures rth fe closed loons Srtee water sbenlonr is oil routes fave ~ Such sues ack the individual recharge sour ew ont and reoinsikora.communialing” ces of branchwork caves. —__-tagtdo igre downey Banchwork vet oma ver cou Crvnar face hydrologic equivalent of den- Gubes Jhat intersect in a braided pattern with ride river channels In ecetras. the folowing [many Figs Le acd 4) They oss four are maze caves typified by many closed eae Ty Torm a two-dimensional array “Tvorable parting of low-angle fracture: Rare ‘of synchronous origin three-dimensional variants follow more than ‘one geologic structure, Fracture-contolled seg- pattem Anasiomotic mazes are Waly super: posed on branchworks and rarely constitute en- tire caves. Only 3% of the observed caves are, predominantly anastomotic, Predominantly anastomotic, bul anastomotic _ “pases ssn for 08 of te alae ‘Spongework caves consist of interconnected ‘solution cavities of varied size in a seemingly random three-dimensional pattern like pores in “asponge (Figs. 1d and 5). They represent 5% of the observed sample but less than 1% of the aggregate length. Most appear to have formed _by coalescing of intergranular pores and minor Tate TRamiform (or ramifying) caves in plan view resemble ink blot or Rorschach patterns. Irregular rooms and galleries wander three- ‘dimensionally wit branches extending outward from the main areas of development (Fig. 1d) Passage interconnections are common, produc- "ing a continuous gradation with spongework and network caves, Abrupt variations in gradient and cross secon are ypical. Unlike ‘oranchwork, ramiform pasiges are_not con- Vergent tnbutares ra mes surface recharge Tistead, many have served as Sequential outlet for ground water, Ramiform caves consitute 4% of the observed sample and Bh ofthe aggregate length ‘Singlepasage caves are merely radimen- ‘tary forms of the types described above, a- though some reach large size. They include 14% ofthe observed caves but less than 1% ofthe aggregate length Passage Types Many eatly theorists assumed that caves tein the phreatic zone and are later in- vvaded and enlarged by vadose water. The active parts of most caves, however, are well adjusted to the present pattern of recharge from the land ° ‘surface, and 90 itis clear that few are precondi- "tioned by an independent pbreatic upstream Teaches of = Typical cave passage form| inthe vadose zone at the same time the down- stream parts form in the phreatic zone. The ‘question posed by early workers (for example, Davis, 1930: Swinnerton. 1922; Brev. 1942028 to whether caves onginate above, at. oF below irregular and_discontinuous ‘variations in the size and distr ad in he amenet of wer ‘walertable concept aust be Tansmi ‘used with caution at the scale of individual caveORIGIN AND MORPHOLOGY OF LIMESTONE CAVES Figure 3. Intersecting fissures ina network cave (Wind Cave, South Dakota). ‘conditions. Common (1989). “The cave was formed cof a perched surface which now flows into daring wet seasons an of infiltrating water Only a few pasages m/sec, During high Figure 6 isa map and protile ofa ypical ca ‘a rudimentary branchwork with focal anasto- otc sections, which forms a continuous series sf conduits Linking surface recharge points 10 & Single spring in the nearest entrenched valley passages yet it snarl alovays posible te From passage morphology whether 2 particu each of cave originated under vadose oF phreatic passage types are shown in Fage 6 and are discussed in deal by Palmer (1984a), White (1988), and Ford and Williams 4 ‘by underground diversion sseeam draining 35 km? the cave entrance (A) only 1 loods. During low flow, ft sinks several hundred meters upstream and teners the mapped area through a water-filled fvure at G, A tributary passage (C) originated te an earlier route forthe main stream but is mow fed only by seepage through soil. Trckles ter ata few other points remain perennially water filled. Flow through the cave varies fom several hundred liters/see to a maximum of several flow, the entire cave fils th water, with a 23-m head difference be tween entrance and prin, Passages of vadose origin are formed by sravi- tational flow and tren 1 continuously downward Song the steepest avaiable openings (Fis, 6 ‘A-E), Most vadose assages are canyon-like. ath floors entrenched below the initial route by, Famurlase steams (B,C). They may be wear ‘where entrenchments Tim ime) Water d ‘5Casicen longa Tare oF a by reTaRT DS Ver descending vertically ster of intersecting fac~ along Tastre ora cluster of fuves may form a shaft, a well-iKe ord with renwal rupted in BSs TypisT Vadose as- Phreatc passages origivate along routes of yestst Hyaulic eieney (est expends, enc “Sr ead per unit share). Such 2 pass ‘anges solutionally es eit a ‘usually acquires # rounded or Tenticular cross. secon Most area %) and fissures (G), Jar passages (Fie. 6, Fane although some phreatic i fon-AT assge along the water ble may Pe. watet Filled only during high flow and still meet the ‘Giteia for phreatic origin; Many have undula= tory profiles containing one or more downward oops that extend be! only the high points ward tothe water table (Fig. 6, J: Ford, 1971 {ary in the solutional History of «karst aquifer, 1 above the fuvial base ow the water table, with ofthe loops reaching uP the water tble lies wel ef; with only a small amount of enlargementy sage consists of inclined canyons or tubes int mm y has.ALN, PALMER Figure 4, Junction of anastomotic passages formed along a dipping bedding-plane parting, y j $ |. Seema Cane New Yer Se Me pres dy xehne jowever, a phreatic passage transmits water so diy that the hydraulic gradient within it be- ‘comes very ow. The low-gradient irregular pro- file downstream from F in Figure 6 is typical of passage of phreatic origin. ‘With time, a the fluvial base level drops rela- tive to the local strata, water in a phreatic pas- sage aoquites a free surface and may entrench ai the floor, forming a keyhole-shaped cross sec tion, More often, the water abandons the pas- sage entirely in favor of a lower route. The ‘original transition from vadose to phreatic con- ‘original transition from vadose to phreatic coe 500. N, = prR/ where p and y= wale densi and veloc. In ths popes Nw caleuated sing dealer is aer than pipe diameter, 0 that apples foal conduit shapes Solutional Capacity of Ground Water ~260 m below the water table, have lite effect 00 the equilibria. These C, values do not apply precisely 10 all limestone bedrock because of diferences in composition from the pure calcite used in laboratory experiments, ‘The “saturation concentration (C,) of dis- ‘solved calcite in water at various temperatures and Peo; was determined by iterative calcula- ‘ion of all relevant equilibria, including those {or ion pairs, while observing electroneutrality, stoichiometric balance, and corrections for ion activiy. Carbonate equilibrium constants were ‘aleulated with the empirical equations of Plummer and Busenberg (1982). Other equiib- fia hete and elsewhere in this paper were 4 If equation 5 is integrated and combined with the rlation- ships V/t= Qand A’=2 3 rLina tube and 26L, in a fissure, the saturation ratio at the down- stream end of a passage segment of length (all ‘other terms held constant) is oe, pL k(a-1) —n PERV. eye yen) [ come a ie where n# 1 Laboratory and Field Measurements of Limestone Dissolution In their experiments, Plummer and Wigley (4976) and Plummer and others (1978) used crushed leeland spar suspended in turbulent water, Values of n and k in Table | are derived from this work, and their validity in typical karst ground water must be shown before equations '5-7 can be applied to cave origin. Rates estimated by equation 6 compare well ‘with those measured in artificial tubes in lime ‘sone and dolomite by Rauch and White (1977) Lonunila tion SemUrenion Wxamrond qSolution rate of oceanic carbonate sediment at high C/C, was measured in artificial sea water by Morse (1978). His data (Fig. 10) agree wel with equation 6, which gives evidence that onic strength has ite influence on limestone dissolu- ton ate Laboratory measurements of dissolution rate in laminar Now through arial factures in iinestone were made law C7Csby Howse and Howard (1967). Their experimen ap- ‘roach spparent equilibrium at -coneente- ton aly 90% of at shown in Figue 7, which SuggS Tat The slowing of disolulion rate Shown in Figure & also occurs in laminar ow. Mesuremens of calsie_disol in vaterims by Bubmamn_and_Dreybrodt (19856) agree well with those of Howard and Howard: Rates ate about half those of equation 6; but the functional relationships described here ase nt afectd Field measurements combining enlargement rate with mean-annual water chemistry are al ‘most non-existent. Limestone reteat has been measured with mounted indicator dials in eave streams (High, 1970; Coward, 1975) Direct comparison with equation 6 sdficult without continuous chemical records, but their meas- urements of .04-0.08 em/yr are compatible withthe predicted rats. EVOLUTION OF A SINGLE CAVE PASSAGE Its necessary to examine the evolution of a single conduit before the pattern of a complex ‘eave can be understood. Consider a system of presolutional fractures and partings deep be- neath the surface. Hydraulic gradients, dis- charge, and dissolution rates are at frst negl- sible, but they increase as fluvial entrenchment expotes the soluble rock. For now, the complex- ities of recharge are ignored and attention is fo- ‘cused only on a series of interconnected openings that eventually enlarge into a single cave passage, For convenience, the conduit is considered entirely water filled during its early stages of evelopment. The equations for dissolution rate derived earlier are valid whether the system is ‘open or closed with respect toa CO gas phase. Perfectly closed systems are rae in nature, but ‘watered conduits provide a fair approxima tion. Atthe upper end of such a conduit cous CO} is in equilibrium with the gas phase cg) EFFECTIVE UNDERSATURATION oissowveo caco, \Biewe i \Chemical evolution of cave water wider open and closed conditions. The effective saturation concentration of dissolved calcite (C,’) drops as dissolution proceeds tunder closed conditions, and so rates are less than in open systems of similar initial condi- tions. Cjy and Cj, = saturation concentra tions in purely open and purely closed ‘systems, respectively. At concentration A, Cy’ B and the effective undersaturation is C. ‘Water flowing from an open to a closed sys- tem evolves along a line similar to D-E. From ‘a closed to an open system, it first follows 2 line similar to F-H, and then the open-system line. Line F-G is the ideal, never achieved, in which the uptake of CO; in the open system is instant taneous. ww! ‘upstream from jt. The dissolution rate at the) beginning of the closed section is equal to that i| comparable open system, but as C increases} downsteam, the disolved CO; content de creases inthe closed conduit, causing an appar. ent decrease in C;, The effective value (C,’) decreases toward the C; for the closed system (Fig. 11), Dissolution is slower than in an open system, where C, remains constant. The de crease in C; is not quite linear with increasing CC, but less than 10% error is incurred by assum-| ing tha itis. C, values for calcite in open and| closed systems are shown in Figure 7. Equations 2 and 7 allow the growth rate of } any water-filled passage tobe calculated. Results {for Co =0 and inal Peo, = 0.01 atm at 10°C are showa ia Figure 12. The curves for i/L (hy- partial pressure at the upstream end and a isa coefcient controlled by temperature and type of system. At 10°C, % 10-1? for closed systems and 1 » 10°"? for ‘open systems. Deviation from these lines occur (only at fqar< 100 yr oF when the time or length increments are inappropriately large. The (maxi Algo influenced by lithology, mixing, cRemical ‘actions within the water, disoluion-nbibitng fons (for example, phosphate), and microbial COp production. Figure 13 was determines with np= 4, Although varying nz between 3 and 6 causes fqaet0 vary a8 much as 5O%, there is no change in functional relationships, showing that carly growth rate are only poorly dependent on Kinetics, Typical i/L values in karst ground ter ae 10°30 10-7 emt sng to more than 10"? during foods in caves fed by sinking streams. Field observations in Hungary sug ‘gest 0.001 em as the minimum wo for cave crigin (Bécker, 1969), a value compatible with Figue 13. ‘Comparison of equation 8 with equation 3 and Figure 7 shows tht faa is proportional t0 (L6/QpP%o,) VLTi, where Qo * initial dis- charge. Most early cave enlargement is a C/C, Se Te sure is shown in Figure 14. Two phases of cave aaa pee SE per eae Se ae4 loawfen) “1 eves Meare aon vers Give age ay a Seraees ierearpene et = ‘enon kinetics but almost independent of dis- ALN. PALMER ) 7m a RFF | csaronn crow gs 8 & ee /C. AT DOWNSTREAM END ay FLOW DISTANCE (m) Contains lowing water. Discharge and water ve- sen 1982) fin he past 730,000 yr since the ast mag. Tate reversal, at last thre separate passage lev-| Oh cls have formed wit figere ‘onditons assumed in constructing Fig Say ‘wes 12-14 ate far simpler than those of naturals con systems. The hydraulic gradient (i), Cp, and C, Kant vary with time in a real conduit (see Sma, Sa 1988, on the influence of hydrologic variation Seve. 60 karst evolution). The initial fissure width sone not constant ove its length, The distribution of fev g flow among interconnecied paths changes asthe he openings undergo differential growth. Few favor round-water systems are truly closed. Ci by th dioxide generated by oxidation of organic mate: 4 ‘al may augment dissolution rates deep within. ere the conduit (Bray, 1572; Atkinson, 577; Wood (10% and Peraits, 1984), In many places. CO3 sg solub carried into the system by infiltrating wate? So charge. A typical cave passage probably spends ‘more than half of 5 soluional history at very slow enlargement rates near saturation. The \wansiton fom (I) to (2) takes place over a relatively short ime span. Until the fissure has nearly reached the max- imiom dissolution rate over is entire length, a “trav aeagement kes plas nike oetosy War the width varies only about 05-1 ‘m over the downstream 90% of the passage ‘engih, This taper is quickly obscured by the ier Tre passage dono aro mean he tooduit develops wide funnel shape ha tore apy conieed pt ofthe kart sae tte than of heave nsatmaned tate Side vata seston remain fled wih sol ae El tet cave seams st sbi abe Tae param prof mos guages develop ace Fant! fow eels disnabig Roo tac wil Bedrock and the nie of sass Seema os "The ainur eluent nie canbecaloe nd om equation 6 wi Cp outed fr i mist be eonieed 2 weighted mean ac that igre saonal vane Seasonal fac tues fans ed cbeiary unser lve compared with te tine tale renee, velopment and we of nal mens jie, Abnsion by seam bome slime can dre feaehgertar ate sie (Newson, 1570 Sedimenary depest have ver ay shield ie Testor Toes Tsioe ‘ind Timit_pasage growth. After_a_ passage rezhe Re maim anual element, its size depends mainly on the length of time it Wei ave ob seconday imporanee whos ing Gwar ant ROO Tee 7S ser he Wer sure aie surat wall ruling yt all betwen he exrencrad ica exposed to Goation vars with Tow —palyeper raid and ‘oad, Enlargement tes genealy doses asi wien hgeBESInG ANSTRIMTERT, CONTROL OF CAVE PATTERNS Sirs on CO arlene uae Waa! BY GROUND-WateR ees Bran Bier & cave afer psig trou high Py es Combining the experimental rate data and A tering a0 neat saturation will deposit aver analytical iterpreatons of cave goth wih ffs ing Soe cave reams are supeatuied dur field obserions mates poses same ing all but he wees pers, when overnd [two of the most hndanenal mesos aoe] | ow dts the water trom difie inputs The, leave origin, Why docely ves ct he ona | Oo 2 se sonal sagan Goosiou lint operngnimedone enuge morse | Cod ‘mst of the yar, with growth burs during_|What determines the tsi cave patra? fu foods cons seriall eqvemteas fel the rune fom noscrbonate rocks a andca” Localization of Caves within a ter ‘aied year ound-and-elpe atiaes Sma to Carboate Aguiee one thos in Figur TZ The mar pow of sea, a a6 ends wien is wate divers to lower route, Caves form by the selective enlargement of en bat periodic Nooding may alow fine incr” onlyatewaite many acivicncresn ~ Sam mittent growth, Dreybrodt (1988) independently computed the enlargement history of fissures in a manner similar 10 that used here (also see Palmer, 1984b, 1988). Assuming fixed first-order and fourth-order kinetics, he obtained sharp breaks in fissure width that differ from the sniooth ‘curves of Figure 14, but his fggr values are com- patible with those shown here for open systems. Figure 13 shows that under favorable condi tions a cave requires a minimum of ~10:000 {Grits Tia phase. Several thousand years more ‘re required for it to reach traversable size (eq. 6; Fig. T2)-These rates Rave been verified by radi- ometric dating of travertine in Bahamian caves by Mylroie and Carew (1987). Rates in typical ‘round water are probably slower by an order of ‘magnitude. Passages in Mammoth Cave, Ken- tucky, have been dated by geomorphic relation the host rock. Even maze caves occupy small v areas surrounded by eaively noncrvemus mos Tock Mon early cave enaremeatperormed cave by smal amounts of wate tavelng ong dal tunes though narrow openings and soe yp development begins ow onthe rats in gure fe 12.Ony howe routs tat gainretage sully ton at the expense of their GREDRT pow fit tnough o frm ira aves Al other languish pl wih ow and general diminishing dislaon Be ce = The most favorable flow paths for cave de- hol velopment are those with the smallest fane (Fg ee 13).AS tga proportional o (L8/0y Pag) the VEZi, the shortest routes of greatest etoo bar and CO, content are selected. Peo, usually does fos Dotter greatly among neighbonce flow paths, |e but Q varies enormously. Fissure widih is hy far ake ‘the most important variable in determining how. che3 ‘5: Aeaiable low is dist : hreatie water can sacrifice a great Raga ve, 4 a3 i a on ee aE ley 3 is 2 rater , S57 Figute Ie ORIGIN AND MORPHOLOGY OF LIMESTONE CAVES omaae® Ce ommenreats Melee origin is enhanced where surface rk FI Lm oe *, Sect no sal reas of nfiaton feetween cave pattern and g a ose tis uncon butte se [ype of recharge into the so aT Toroay_alecavel carbonate aquifer for the “Feopment underway. Wal sis forall cavesinthe observed, 9 z| 2 es ect ple. Total number of 28 (Zep eres and comacts betweeninsal caves = 427; total Fength | = ear rocks. The imponance of of caves = 2315 km, gl ‘roe rE ela : ma a abatiog of eaves in the observed sn- be Be iy a Peis sill af SA, ond 18% PLY “Tot by length) are located at contacs between akle and insoluble rock, Of the remaining, Aya of the length consti of hypogenic caves, dch a Carshad Cavern (Figs 1d and 5), which gioated independently of surface recharge, und the rest are mainly relict fragments out of Sdjusment with their present setting. - a meable_and_usually insoluble rock,_which sabes nearly anfor-amous of ow to ‘each major Fracture inthe limestone, or (3) re juvenated aggressiveness ‘many interconnected openings by mixing of wa- charge, Network and spongework caves f ‘under abroad range of settings, including Ml ‘water, diffuse recharge, and hypogenic condi Branchwork versus Maze Patterns ‘A large phreaticpasiage transmits water 20 fice that ts head, despite large Now isles fon in surrounding openings. Water in adjacent aos ames ade et icing a brgchwork patter. Bu if hydraulic olution quickly reaches a maximum rate (near ( aioe ane rapist Fig. (2) along many ) erate paths, Grow in all but the smallest “mpeings sae uniform, reales of se, producing. _maze cave. The samme eee fchieved each fasure ia an array Teoaes ‘ake llr recharge Fig. T2B) ure of ground-water recharge isthe most important factor in deermining whether a cave will bea banchwork ora maze Akhou influenced in tara By I ijpe Bo Sate ground-water recharge i he ‘al pit rough wiih all ine Sens 3" ios efer Ter control on cave patterns. Figure 1S shows the relationship between recharge and fag the caves inthe observed sample. following sections examine each cave type. ORIGIN OF BRANCHWORK CAVES Branchwork caves exceed in number and ag- regate length all other caves combined, and so ‘isnot surprising that they are formed by the ‘most common type of karst recharge. Aggressive ‘water concentrates in and beneath karst depres- sions and penetrates the aquifer at discrete points. Branchwork caves are formed by the convergence of stream passages, both open channels and closed conduits, mainly tubes, can- yons, and shafts. Small depressions in bare, ‘ighly fractured rock can have a spatial fre- ‘quency greater than 1,000/km?. A single large depression may drain many square kilometer Each point source has the potential to form a firstorder tributary ofa branchwork cave. Low= ‘order passages join to form those of higher order and usually larger size. The outlet is commonly a single spring, although overflow springs may le, sink es are smallcaichment sources (for exa holes) eypial of a karst su formed by ei i soluble rock either as sinking seams or as ‘nk "Sage riven. d foods, producing hydraulic gradients see San RT tm psp enargemen along many alternate flow routes, (2 dif re-* se raph eyo Owen pe cv OF CAVES OF EACH PATTERN ‘occur where the main spring has been partly blocked. Large rooms form only at passage in- tersections, of where extensive collapse material tas been removed in solution and as detritus by cave streams. ‘Blue Spring Cave, inthe Mississippian Salem Limestone of Indiana, is 2 well-documented ex- ample of a branchwork cave (Fig. 16). More than $0 tributary passages join to form a single large stream passage draining toa spring on the trenched East Fork of White River. As the river deepened its channel, many cf the passages ‘were abandoned by their low in favor of lower routes, Abandoned passages, identified on the map by dashed lines, carry water only during floods. The maze sections shown in the insets were superposed on the branchwork pattern by flood-water activity. Evolution of Karst Depressions and the Epikarstic Zone ‘The large amount of ground-water circulation required to form a branchwork cave is usually triggered by the entrenchment of major surface rivers, Small influent tributary streams lose ‘water to the subsurface, forming the earliest de- pressions, whereas entrenched rivers serve as ground-water outlets. In the earliest phase of ‘eave development, solutional aggressiveness is ‘consumed mainly atthe bedrock surface and in the first few meters of flow. Dissolution at depth is extremely low. Karst depressions form concurrently with caves, Asa passage enlarges, increasing amountsALN, PALMER, paver were evs PR . ® Tren om t aa wl generally be Yes than hy although the r= eieay tee funag cote of fos ‘Scme water wil leak through C, depending on and sae magn se ching = a EC rapidly than B, the resulting passages wil con- serge. Head diferences berneen low paths ae ole 4 He iginam mane om grog, and confluence i favored in those areas, ules structural variations dete otherwise ‘Whether convergence achieved depends on which route, C of B, has the sale nae. Both are fed by the same source, and therefore the inal chemistry and temperature are identical. The smaller tng wil be inthe route having the areatr value of !2(/L)!37 (cq 8) igus lesinC, convergence ofthe resulting pases is vill cea. When either B or C approaches ‘is maximum disoltion rat, it will grow rap idly, while the ther mains no more than a ew millimeters in average width and usualy ales. The less favorable roue might also elarge 1 cave size i time, but is ty lengthened 50 uch by the diminishing Bydraulic gradients that iis unlikely to do s0 before being aban ned ently by a drop in water table. Figure 16. Map of Blue Spring Cave, Indiana, in promi tly jointed Salem Limestone (Mississippian). The enlargements show a network maze bypassing a collapse in the main Passage (a), and an anastomotic maze in an area of interbedded chert (b). Map from Palmer (1975). ‘of detrital material are removed from the feeder sinkholes by subsurface low, enlarging them. AS sinkhole catchments grow, greater amounts of water feed the major drain passage in a self accelerating manner, robbing nearby openings ‘of much of their flow (Fig. 17), Dissolution, subsidence, and collapse all contribute to the ‘origin of depressions. Some have open holes at the bottom that feed runoff diretly into underly ing caves, but most are floored with regolith. Recharge through sinkholes is more complex than it appears from the surface. Typically the ‘upper few meters of limestone contain a myriad of soluionally widened fissures, which form the epikarstic (subcutaneous) zone (Williams, 1985), Most are soi filed. These openings result from epigenic dissolution at its most aggresive Many competing flow paths enlarge at similar ‘ates near the tops of the graphs in Figure 12 ‘The fissures narrow rapidly downward, and therefore during wet periods, water moves through them with a large lateral component and empties into the relatively few openings that penetrate to greater depth as caves. In this way, dispersed recharge from a karst surface is f0- ‘cused subcutaneously into essentially point sources. Development of Convergent Passages Gravitational vadose water consists of dis- ‘rete streams that have no hydraulic continuity With one another. Each passage of vadose origin follows an independent route with no inherent tendency to converge with its neighbors. Vadose ‘canyons can extend parallel to one another for {reat distances without joining (Fig. 6, Band C), They are, however, commonly forced to con- verge by geologic structures suchas intersecting joints or by synctines and basins in perching horizons. In passages of exclusively vadose origin, the branchwork pattern, if any, is inher- ent inthe earliest low. Phreatic passages create zones of low head that attract phreatic water from surrounding ‘openings. Much convergence is present even in presolutional openings, owing to differences in hydraulic efficiency, and the branching pattern of the resulting passages is simply inherited Other branches develop by readjustment of low paths as the head distribution changes with time ‘This evolution is shown schematically in Figure 18. Two adjacent flow routes ina presolutional fissure system are connected by route C. If route Ais hydraulically more efficent than route B, hy Linkages of this kind at various times throughout the aquifer help to determine the layout of branchwork caves. Ewers (1982) has simulated this process with salt, gypsum, and Plaster models. He injected aggresive water under pressure into the planar contact between the soluble material and a transparent pressur- ized bladder, through which the developing 30- lution conduits were observed. In the models, the steep hydraulic gradient, high aggressive: ‘ess, and initial anastomotic pattems simulate flood-water conditions (described below) rather than pure branchwork cave development. Al- though quantitative results cannot be extrapo- lated 10 the field because of differences in solution kinetics, this work illustrates how a sin ale large conduit ean draw water from surround- {ng immature ones to form a branchwork. ‘The models showed a cascading effect, in Which the linkage of each tributary 10 a pre- existing passage caused a sudden drop in hy- raulic gradient within the tributary and a ‘rearrangement of the surrounding potential fed In nature, ths effect is les pronounced, because ‘most passages become linked while stil in thei intial sages of development, and because gr dents are much smaller and more uniform than in the models. Influence of Physical Setting on Branchwork Caves ‘The broad variety of geologic settings and climates in which branchwork caves occur sup-LUMESTONE: EPKARST Figure 17. Evolution of the epikarst and atypical solutiona sinkhole. The lightly shaded bed isa visual aid in comparing stages. pons the premise thatthe branching pattern de- fends only on the presence of depression Fecharge. Other variables merely control the Shape and orientation of individual passages. A few examples are described below. ‘Prominent joints are often cited as the cause ‘of network caves. On the contrary, some of the ‘most prominently jointed rocks, such as the Salem Limestone of Indiana, contain branch- work caves almost exclusively, but very few retworks, most of which are superposed on branchwork caves. Joints impose an angular passage pattern onthe branchwork layout. Parts Of Blue Spring Cave (Fig. 16) follow single joins for more than 200 m with passage widths ‘of less than 3m, [a coatrast, prominently bedded rocks contain curvilinear passages. Carbonate rocks of high primary porosity coniain mainly spongework caves, but crude beanchworks form if there is sufficient flow. For cxample, the Rio Encantado Cave, Puerto Rico, tn porous Teriary limestone, consists almost en- ly of a single stream passage more than 10 ‘Water enters through numerous tiny openings, but only a few short tributaries are uraversabe 'A panial cover of impermeable rocks limits the surface area available for direct recharge to underlying caves. Branchworks are sil favored, but they have few tributaries. An example is MeFail's Cave, New York, which is capped in all but its northern end by impermeable rocks And glacial tll (Fig. 19a). Its mapped length of 10 km consists essentially of two passages: a down-dip canyon and a tube oriented nearly parallel to the strike Strata dip exert a strong influence on pas- sage trend, Most vadose passages, because they are formed by gravitational water, ate dip o- iented, Phreatc passages follow the most effi- cient paths, which are usually at or just below the water table because of diminishing fissure ‘width and frequency with depth (compare with Ford, 1971), I well-bedded rocks, most are nearly parallel othe strike, draining in the direc- tion of the nearest entrenched valley. Specific passage orientations differ, but the overall ‘branchwork pattern is present regardless of dip ditection or angle. Figure La shows a cave in rocks dipping gently to the northeast t less than 1, Vadose passages converge northeastward Figure 18, Development of a branchwork under phreatic conditions. Convergent pas- ‘sages develop only if C grows faster than B. See text for details. ‘ORIGIN AND MORPHOLOGY OF LIMESTONE CAVES B toward southeastward-oriemed passages of ‘phreatic origin, In steply dipping strata (Figs. 6 And 19b), vadote passages descend abruptly in short direct paths to phreatc passages, most of which are highly linear along the strike, unless ‘prominent fractures impose other trends. Branchwork caves are well adjusted to the ‘geomorphic history ofthe valleys to which they ‘drain. During fluvial entrenchment, water in base-level cave steams tends to divert wo succes sively lower levels. Where many passages have been abandoned by their original flow, the branchwork pattern of active passages is ob- scured on cave maps (Figs. 16 and 196). In a multi-level cave, the largest passages are those that have remained active for the longest time. ‘They generally correlate with periods of nearly static base level (fr examples, ee Powell 1970; and Palmer, 1987). ‘Climate affects cave patterns only indirectly, by controling the rate and character of recharge. In arid climates, branchwork caves are uncom= ‘mon because of limited surface recharge. Hypo- genic acids, if present, are likely to dominate cave origin. Tropical caves formed at high Po: ‘may enlarge faster than caves in other climates, ‘but their morphology is oot significantly differ- ‘ent. At high temperatures, the rapid dissolution rate actually increases the time required for a ‘ave passage to form (Fig. 13), because dissolu- tion is concentrated at the upstream ends of pas sages. The opposite i tre in alpine and arctic karst. In alpine karst the typical cave isa steeply descending shaft-and-canyon series with many ‘small vadose inlets fed by bare, seasonally sow- covered bedrock surfaces. Their branching pat~ ter, although sill present, is commonly masked ‘because many unconnected vadose passages terminate in sumps, collapse materisl, “or perched springs. Because of high reli and in- tense fracturing, the water table may lie more than 1,000 m below the surface. The deepest known eaves in the world, with vertical extents as much as 1,600 m, are located in mountain ranges such asthe Pyrenees and the Alps. ORIGIN AND MODIFICATION OF CAVES BY FLOOD WATER Characteristics of Flood-water Recharge ‘Caves fed by sinking streams are exposed to intense flooding during periods of high rainfall or snowmelt, Rapid infiltration in large catch- ments of bare alpine karst and bank-flooding adjacent to rivers can havea similar effect. Dur- ing periods of high runoff into open depressions, the water level in major cave passages rises faster than in surrounding fractures and pores. The normal hydraulic gradient roward the passages isAN, PALMER, > TUBE suMP IMPERMEABLE COVER MEAN DIP 1.2 DEG CANYON & TUBE. f t 16 km TO SPRING a EXPOSED LIMESTONE | ze ‘CANYON, 4 19km TO SPRING ‘200m Ee SINKING STREAM SINKING STREAMS NL IP 3 ~ 45 DEG ~ RELICT PASSAGE Figure 19, Stratigraphic and structural influence on branchwork caves: (a) Map of MeFail's Cave, New York, showing how an insoluble caprock limits recharge without interfering with the branchwork pattern (map by A. N. Palmer, E. H. Kastning, and J. Schweyen (b) Ludington Cave, West Virginia, showing the effect of steeply dipping beds (map courtesy of West Virginia Association for Cave Studies). temporarily reversed, and water is injected under steep hydraulic gradients into adjacent ‘openings. This process most extreme where an active passage contains local impediments of collapse debris, insoluble beds or sediment Gill (Palmer, 1972, 1975) ‘The head loss across such a constriction varies withthe square of the discharge. Flooding can produce discharges several orders of magnitude greater than that of low flow; water therefore feadily ponds on the upstream side ofeach con- striction. In some areas, peak flows of several tens of cubic meters per second in a single con- duit ae fairly common. Overflow of food water from cave streams into higher-level openings, and its eventual slow release. can attenuate lood ‘peaks at karst springs (Mangin, 1975). The waterable rise during a flood can be viewed as a temporary retum of phreaticcondi- tions to otherwise vadose domains; but the re= sulting proceses are quite diferent from those of normal phreatic wate. Hydraulic gradients and flow rates are larger, and the water is much more aggressive. Caves grow rapidly ator near the maximum rate shown at the tops of the graphs in Figure 12, Values of i/L greater than 0.001 cm”! are common, especially where col- lapse has nearly obstructed an active stream pas- sage. From Figures 12 and 13, itis apparent that in these conditions all ractures wider than about (0,005-0.01 cm will enlarge at or near the max- imum possible rate without having to pass through an initial phase of slow dissolution. Ifa ‘competing openings are fed by the same water source, they have virtually identical Cy and C, values. Simultaneous enlargement of many open- cenings produces a maze of intersecting passages. Although flood-water processes operate only generated by the reaction with carbonates is retained in solu- tion, When two saturated solutions (A and B) imix, the resulting solution (C) is undersaturated swith respect to calite or dolomite. The sytem is closed, and 30 dissolution of each additional mole of calcite consumes a mote of CO2 of HS. Each mole of dolomite consumes two of CO2 of HS. The second dissociation of carbonic and Inydrosulfuric acid is negligible except at high pH, and so each essentially donates only a single proton, Each millimole of gs is therefore able to Aissolve ~01037 em? of calcite or ~0.032 cm? ‘of dolomite, The final saturation value of calcite for mixtures is found by projecting a line of slope -0.037 (-0.032 for dolomite) from the ‘mixing point (C) tothe saturation curve (D)- Dissolution by mixing is favored by a largediflerence in equilibrium gas content between the two solutions, especially if one gas concen. tration is very low. I the flow ates ofthe two sources are known, the annual increase in pore volume can be estimated from a simple mass balance without regard for kinetics, because ‘most of the aggressiveness appears t0 be con- sumed at and near the mixing ste. For this rea- son, Figure 20 shows volumetric rather than mass concentration, to allow more direct field application. Values for discharge and C, are not ‘easily obtained, and they tend to vary with sea- son, rainfall oF tides. Two water sources rately ‘mix in nearly equal proportion. Usually one is ‘much less abundant, and its rate of inflow into the larger source controls the dissolution rate. In small openings with laminar low, mixing takes place mainly by diffusion of chemical species, rather than by hydraulic mixing. Caves of ‘mixing origin represent 8%-10% of the sample number but less than 3% of the total length. Typical patterns are shown by Palmer (1984a) and Mylroie (1988) and are summarized in the diagram at the end of this paper. Most are spongeworks, networks, or ite fegular rooms modified by breakdown and travertine. Individual solutional pores are strong- {y aligned along bedding or fractures but collec- lively tend to form tabular zones limited to the ‘areas of most intense. mixing. Subborizontal spongework in porous seacoast limestones indi- cates former stands of Pleistocene sea level where fresh infiltrating water mixed with sea Water. Mylroie (1988) described cave origin in the Bahamas at both the vadose/phreatc mixing zone and the fresh-water/salt-water interface, (Caves are subhorizontal in the former zone and inclined downward away from the coast in the latter. Most Bahamian caves form close to, and subparalle! to, the coastline, where ground- water flow and mixing are greatest. Some are ‘rude branchworks formed by converging water, bbut most branches terminate headward and cannot be followed to their diffuse sources. The karst surface is highly porous, but few of the ‘openings connect via traversable_solutional ‘routes to underlying caves. Acces 1o most caves is through collapse sinkholes or at random. sections with the eroded land surface. Recharge through Permeable Insoluble Rocks Of the nerwork caves i the observed sample, 15% are capped by thin permeable sandstone Where these same sandstones ate thicker or ‘grade laterally into less permeable facie, the underlying caves, if any, have a branchwork pattern (Palmer, 1975). In upland settings, the sandstone transmits aggressive but diffuse re- ‘charge to the underlying limestone. All major fractures inthe limestone receive nearly uniform recharge of similar chemistry, allowing them all ALN. PALMER to grow at comparable rates (Fig. 12b). About ‘5% of the caves in the sample (7% ofthe total length) show evidence that they were formed, ot at least initiated, inthis way. Fracture enlargement may begin while the sandstone/limestone contact is below fluvial base level nitially the sandstone has the greater Permeability, and most of the ground water flows through it. The small amount of water entering the limestone gradually widens fsures solutionally, however, until the limestone ac- uires the higher permeability. Much or most of the water then flows through the limestone, as the total resistance to flow is less than in the sandstone alone. Discharge to each fissure varies logarithmically with fissure width and so is rather insensitive to width variations (Palmer, 1975), All fissures receive comparable amounts of flow regardless of width, and they grow at similar rates. This process continues after the cave becomes air filled. For example, Crossroads Cave, Virginia (ig. 1b) in the Devonian Helderberg Group, is ‘capped by thin Oriskany Sandstone. It contains «rectilinear network section in which aggresive ‘echarge sill enters through the sandstone, mod= ifying the cave walls with vertical Mites. Most ‘aves of this type, however, are exposed atthe surface by fuvial entrenchment and are greatly enlarged by flooding from adjacent rivers after the skeletal outline ofthe caves has been estab- lished by diffuse infiltration. The zone of maxi- ‘mum enlargement is therefore not necessarily immediately below the sandstone. Much ofthe water infiltrating through an in- Soluble caprock is isolated from soil carbon dioxide. When it reacts with carbonates within oF below the caprock, it does so under nearly 107 em/sec, the two branches are competitive at any value of Co/C,, but such a high g/L is ‘normally achieved only in flood-water condi tions. In atypical aresian aquifer, q/L ranges from about 10°8 to 10-!® cm/sec. Under these conditions, the two branches are competitive ‘only at saturation ratios so high that a traversable ‘ave could not form within a geologically feasi- ble time. Evidently the slow rates of low and dissolution typical ofan artesian aquifer are least likely to form closed loops. Maze caves in arte sian aquifers must originate by some other mechanism, either by diffuse recharge through insoluble semi-confining beds, or by simultane- ‘ous production of aggressiveness along many a. ftemate flow routes. The latter process is discussed below. HYPOGENIC CAVES Fewer than 10% of the caves in the observed sample have a proven or suspected hypogenic ‘origin, but they include some of the world's NT IIE PT por eer\ INITIAL [CO,1 = 001 600 S a 2 3 3 23 23 L=BRANCH LENGTH Ly "2 5 Ss; Bo MAX So /S4] $8 «= (g/ & (ar & g 400 é > 5s gE is a ge Zw 200 3 cao a g 5 8 ae 2 J 3 s 8 ogee 00] Figure 21. Comparison of enlargement rates between the branches inn vlosed loop. where branch 2 is 1.5 times wider than branch 1 INITIAL H2S TN OXIDIZING ENVIRONMENT (atin) Poo, 00200304 (mol/L) 10s oth branches are equal in length (L) and height (b). Values for 4/1. ettnove inthe wider branch, The two branches have similar growth, Figure 22, Dissolution of calcite in an 1x80, system at {COs}, = 0.001 M (calculated inthe same manner a Fig. 7) conditions. largest. Exarination of drill cores indicates that accesible caves represent only a tiny fraction of the porosity formed in this way. The, most abundant hypogenic acid are carbonic acid and hhydroslfurie acid (aqueous hydrogen sulfide). Solutonal pores and caves form where these acids move from insoluble rocks into carbonate focks, of where water becomes aggresive be= ‘cause of mixing, oxidation of HS, or a drop in temperature, The last three processes are the ‘mos important in forming hypogenic caves. Mixing of HyS-rich Waters Renewed aggressiveness caused by the mixing of waters of different HS content is shown in Figure 20. Ths process probably more impor- tantto the evolution of carbonate petroleum res- trvoirs than to cave origin. Solutional caves filled with stagnant H;S-rich water have been ‘encountered in mines (Warwick, 1968). Some ae associated with hydrothermal ores, such as those in lead-zine mines in the Picher Field of ‘Oklahoma-Kansas (McKnight and Fischer, 1970). tis not certain whether mast such caves ae formed by mixing or by acids generated lo- cally by hydrothermal processes or reduction of sulfates. Oxidation of Sulfides Sulfuric acid can form directly or indirectly by the oxidation of HS. It has been shown 10 orm caves where aqueous or gaseous HS rises to the water table from sedimentary basins (Egemeier, 1981; Davis, 1980; Hil, 1987). The sulfide-ich Nuids ate ether released slowly over Tong time periods by deep circulation of meteoric ‘water of rapidly in short-term evens. The latter ‘an include migration of basin brines into mar- ginal areas by compaction of sediments, rising of fluids in thermal plumes generated by igneous activity, oF release of deepseated water and gases from overpressured zones by hydraulic fracture or tectonic activity. Figure 22 shows the saturation concentration “of calcite in HS and H,SO, solutions t 25 °C. tis assumed that the water is frst saturated with ‘calcite below the water table in the presence of HS and COp; then when the water rises to the ‘water table, all HyS oxidizes to HzSOy, and a ‘Rew calcite equilibrium is reached. An initial ‘aqueous CO; concentration, (CO3}, of 0.001 M (4 mg/L) is assumed. Conversion of HS t0 1,80, provides a sudden burst of dissolution, bat the effect i attenuated if there is degassing of CO; generated by the HSO4-CaCOs reaction. ‘Asn other mixing situations, a simple mass bal ‘ance is perhaps the best way to quantify dissolu- tion rates, because the understuration depends ‘on 100 many uncertain variables to allow caleu- fation of meaningful rates via kinetic equations. Large rooms and corridors form at the water table, as in Carkbed Cavern (Figs. Id and 5). Narrow fisures i their floors, now clogged wit secondary deposits, represent the original uP ‘Ward paths for H,S-rich water. A single conduit Torms where water enters at one point and flows rapidly to a spring (Egemeier, 1981). Diffuse jnflow to many intersecting fissures may form @ ‘network, Regardless ofthe nature ofthe input if the ‘water becomes sufficiently underaurated, ‘numerous alternate flow routes can be enlarged ft comparable rates as in a lood-water cave, forming networks and spongework. If the concentration of dissolved sulfate is reat enough, itcan replace the limestone wall Tock wit gypsum (Queen, 1981). Gypsum crys18 tals on the walls of the Kane Caves along the Shoep Mountain Anticline in Wyoming have formed in this way (Egemeier, 1981). In con- trast, massive gypsum blocks in caves in the Guadalupe Mountains of New Mexico. are primary deposits formed in wate supersaturated with calcium sulfate soon after the main phase of cave dissolution (Davis, 1980; Hil, 1987), Certain cave rooms show evidence for having been enlarged or modified by HS that has de- ‘rssed from underlying water and which rises into cave pools having no outlet, Oxidation to H,S0, allows dissolution of limestone in and above the pool, releasing CO>, Alter the acid ‘has been neutralized, the final C, of the water depends on the Po; ofthe air above the poo. If the Po, returns tots original value, the water tends to precipitate the limestone dissolved by the H,S and H,SO,, The cave room is enlarged at and above the poo! level, but the floor and ascending fissures are occluded by carbonate Drecipitates. The local cave volume may show no net increase, Sulfuric acid is also produced by oxidation of Pyrite, but the process is usually t00 slow and the pyrite too dispersed to create more than local pores. A few small caves have been attributed to this process (Morehouse, 1968). Dissolution by Rising Thermal Water Because of the inverse relationship between ‘alcite solubility and temperature, even at con- sant CO levels (Fig. 7), decreasing temperature in rising thermal waters can maintain or create solutional aggressiveness. To test the effective. ness of this proces, fnite-dfference analyses were conducted in which COprich water was allowed to rise through @ 100-m-long fissure in limestone, cooling inthe direction of flow. The ‘water was assumed to be completely saturated with calcite when it began to rise. The fissure as divided into 100 uniform length increments, {and the dissolution rate in each was calculated using equations 2 and 7 with m= 4, and k ad justed continuously as the saturation level changed (see Table 1). The change of C, with ‘temperature was determined with the equations {or equilibrium constants given by Plummer and ‘Busenburg (1982). Within the range of k and n values in Table 1, the shapes of the resulting sraphs were so consistent that it seemed justii- able to extrapolate their tends to 50 °C to Figure 23 shows the results of several runs with temperature drops from 50 to 45 °C and. from 25 to 20 °C at [COzh = 0.005 M (220 mg/L). These conditions are typical ofthe well-documented thermal caves of Budapest (Takécs-Bolner and Kraus, 1989), although ALN. PALMER eee LOG (w/a) (emyyr) 700 30 DISTANCE OF FLOW THROUGH LIMESTONE (rm) igure 23. Rate of fissure widening by ing thermal water: (a) cooling from 50 to 45 °C and (b) from 25 to 20 °C. [CO;) = 0.005 M. ‘mixing with shallow ground water enhances the development of those particular eaves, Solutional Widening rates increase in the direction of flow, leveling off to constant valves only at very small discharge. The low C, at high temperatures is offset by large & values, causing enlargement ‘ates to increase with temperature, Doubling either the thermal gradient of {CO;} allows a potential increase in growth rate of approxi ‘mately ten times, with no change in the shape of the curves. No rate increase canbe fly realized without a proportional increase in g, however. Most significantly, increasing g causes the en- largement rate to reach a maximum curve, be- yond which any further increase in q has 90 effect. As a result, enlargement of fisures by cooling water reaches a maximum rate that is independent of discharge. Regardles oftheir size ‘or flow, if many fissures receive thermal water of similar character, they will all enlarge at the same rate, forming a network maze. Such ‘networks as Wind Cave inthe Black Hills may have been formed or modified by this process (Fig. 3; Bakalowice and others, 1987). ‘Only under the most favorable conditions can dissolution by cooling of thermal water produce ‘aves of traversable size. Even then times on the ‘order of 105 to 10° yr are required, Most ther- ‘mal cave origin probably requires the presence of hhypogenic acids or mixing with meteoric water from nearby sources. Sollderived CO alone rarely exceeds 0.0025 M, which would provide growth rates only 10% of those in Figure 23, ‘The equilibrium Peo, of rising water is usu ally greater than that ofthe atmosphere of the cave into which it emerges. Degassng of CO> takes place as the pressure drops, causing calcite to precipitate. This proces i usually limited 1 depths within a few meters of the water i and so precipitation of calcite rapidly diminishes with depth and gives way to bedrock dissolution, Recognition of Inactive Hypogenic Caves ‘Most accesible hypogenic caves are now ine active relics whose origin must be deduced indi. rectly. The main clue is a lack of genetic Felationships to recharge from overlying ot immediatly adjacent surfaces. Most entrances ‘are random intersections of the caves by surface erosion, mining, or quarrying. Nearly all rami- form caves appear to be hypogenic. Network, spongework, and single-passage caves are alo ‘common. True branchwork pattems ae vitally non-existent. Anastomotic caves can form in highly acidic water, particularly in zones of HS ‘oxidation, Cave profiles are highly irregular, exe cept where aggressive water Fses to the water lable and flows laterally along it, Variations in ross section are extreme, and cave ceilings may Contain rounded, domeclike alcoves, Solutionsl scallops and coarse detrital sediment are rare and generally represent invasion by surface water. Air and water low between entrances at di ferent levels, typical ofepigenic caves, is lacking {in most hypogenic caves. Thermal gradients are therefore high inthe later, and itis common for warm moist ai to rise from deep passages and ‘cause moisture to condense on the colder sur- faces of upper-level passages. Condensation water formed in the COp-rich air of a cave is very aggressive, Surfaces exposed to condensa- tion exhibit high porosity anda friable weather- ing rind, The water generally seeps back 10 lower levels by capillary and gravity low, where itevaporates once more, depositing its dissolved load as speleothems. These evaporative deposits ‘ypically include botryoidal calcite, aragonite ‘needles, and hydrated carbonate minerals. Floor sediment consists mainly of powdery, disinte- arated carbonate rock and insoluble residue Crystal linings of calcite deposited by CO; de- ‘gassing from water surfaces may coat the bed- ‘rock walls of lower levels as at Jewel Cave and pans of Carisbad Cavern, Such deposits are commonly low in 180/160 relative to other ‘eave calcite (Bakalowicz and others, 1987), Hypogenic cave patterns, like those of epi- aenic caves, are controlled by the mode of re- charge tothe soluble rock. Single-passage caves, and simple ramiform caves are formed by point sources of recharge entering the soluble rock from below. Network, spongework, and com- plex ramiform pattems are formed by diffuse flow through underlying insoluble rocks, renewal of aggressiveness within numerous joints by mix- ing or oxidation, and decreasing temperature ofoe iin ae aie ae im {gssures. Some hypoger networks, like targed fs jc counterparts, appear to have a hee ie nee enue) a or nr Cand, New Mesa se ave ome y 8 ad te eh Ms or teperghy rhb. as i i veer ees ei in ioe tet Cr one be ig rin 2 Cayo evel now sea oni onthe ly ttn: (2) 8 ws spre ao nn ne nate, mh wre Sone decion ova te a tt an (9) io eee ecco, wi oa in ocr lo towel es Pow 2 i ee simen, wih PA ced vi a tr Hoh er a awe ceveopne Te oir PLAN VIEW Figure 24. Map and profile of Hicks Cave, New Mexico, 3 hypo ‘About half the surveyed passages have been omitted for cla Inactive hypogenic caves are mest dificult 10 Aistinguish in humm climate. Invading surface ‘water tends to overwhelm the deep-seated proc ‘esses, of to modify the caves s0 that theit pre~ existing hypogenic features are masked. In arid freas, where the inflow of water is minimal, Inypogenic caves can survive with ttle modifica tion by surface proceses. In humid climates, there must be many caves initiated by deep- seated processes that have aot yet been suspected of having such an origin. Prime candidates are certain network caves in the Appalachians that show no evidence for flood water or diffuse re- charge. One of the major goals of future cave research will be to identify the relative influence ‘of shallow versus deep processes in such areas. CONCLUSIONS “The morphology ofa cave is controlled by a Ihierarchy of influences: (1) Its location, extent, and over-all rend are controlled by the distribu- tion of soluble rocks and of recharge and dis- charge points. (2) The passage pattern (for txample, branchwork or maze) depends on the ‘mode of ground-water recharge. (3) The orien- PROFILE NW FENCE CANYON ORIGINAL SOURCE OF HS-RICH WATER i. B = carbonate breccia; M = micritic imestone and doto ORIGIN AND MORPHOLOGY OF LIMESTONE CAVES 19 tation of individual passages is controled by the peologic structure, vistribution of vadose and Dheatic flow, and geomorphic history. Atypical ‘ave passage develops in two stages a lengthy period of slow dissolution near saturation, fol owed by rapid dissolution at lower saturation ratios. The time required for the cave to com> plete its first stage of development varies directly with low distance and temperature and inversely with discharge and Peo; It is only slightly ependent on chemical kinetics. Later rapid frowth ates, however, depend mainly on Kinetics. Branchwork caves are formed by re= charge through an overlying or adjacent karst surface, which evolves. in conjunction with underground conduits, Maze caves, formed by the simultaneous enlargement of many com peting openings, require ether (1) steep hydrau Tie gradients and low saturation ratio, as in ‘eaves exposed to flood waters; (2) uniform re- charge 10 many fissures in soluble rock through an adjacent porous but insoluble formation; or {G) uniform production of aggressiveness in each Fissure, asim rising thermal water. Condition 1 also accounts for the numerous interconnecting solutional openings in the epikarst. ‘ALT. (m) 128 ENTRANCE genic cave in Permian back-reef carbonate rocks (no vertical exaggeration) ite: P = pisolitic pau nal Si Kevestone and dolomite. Numbers refer to stages of development desribed i text. Plan view (rom surveys by the Cave Research Foundation. Profile by M. V. Palmer.» Aw PALMER TYPE OF RECHARGE VIA KARST DEPRESSIONS DIFFUSE HYPOGENIC FLUCTUATION FLUCTUATION) seni ta DISSOLUTION By ACIOS OF swcoona | CRatonane | woe owes eusnacn “coh pane (USUALLY SEVERAL LEVELS) “USUALLY WITH THE FURTHER BY RECHARGE (MOST CAVES FORMED BY waren seca | cause, | eavenetrssisees | "tno oon SSMS é a) * ¥ Ne we \ / >|2 zl : x G ‘ \ ISOLATED FISSURES: ig PASSAGES — | IRREGULAR NETWORKS FISSURES. NETWORKS NETWORKS SINGLE PASSAGES, FISSURES| Ole _ ‘PROFILE: o/s aa os i a|2 ie i wis 1 2/2 ' F/a] * s |SHAFT ANO CANYON RAMIFORM CAVES, i _ coe een ne Ser A OE & PASSAGES ANASTOMOTIC MAZES ‘SOLUTION "ANASTOMOTIC CAVES ’ ord - =/3 g\z o|é _ § > ~ N arancrworks | SPONGE |SPONGEWORK SPONGEWOF ‘CAVES Figure 25. Summary of cave patterns and their relationship to types of recharge and porosity. Maps are plan views unless otherwise noted and are generalized to represent typical caves in each category. Many exhibit rudimentary forms, multiple stages of development, or combina tions of more than one type. Individual passages differ in specific layout according to the local physical setting. CCave patterns are summarized in Figure 25 in relation to the recharge and geologic conditions that control them. Each category includes several stages of development: rudimentary single pas- sages, caves with fully developed patterns from a single stage of development, and multi-stage ‘caves consisting partly or entirely of inactive rel~ jet passages in which the basic morphology is ‘obscured by interconnecting passages of dffer- ‘ent age. Solutiona caves are far more divers in origin and morphology than is generally realized, and the processes that form them play a signii- cant role in many geologic fields. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS | thank Margaret V. Palmer for her contrbu- tion to the mapping, feld work, and laboratory analyses on which many of the ideas in this paper are based, Field work was supported in part by the Research Foundation of the State University of New York. The National Park Service and Cave Research Foundation provided facilities and assistants in various national parks and monuments. Many thanks to Derek C. Ford, Henry W. Rauch, William B, White, and Noel Keothe for helpful editorial suggestions. theese wee ese ecco eee! iaiecee 0 adeno Yeti Drobo Wa ane dana el ptORIGIN AND MORPHOLOGY OF LIMESTONE CAVES 2 eset mal G31 268 208 imeem eat a ers Fe nua fw ey Sopa atone nee ah Cave Speearorecs rot in ae ok sre oe se 0 Ct oma We Kare mpg a by: ee ten eee pee see tea GRE Eeaarmiecmrss ee ee eee smear amas Te I ewan Pec ‘ee digest antes Goepe Seo Reta oe 1 ot Na Nevo Win 3 Sr “EER we Seether chee ‘Sedge Cngen a, ge, Yasin Potne. 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