Introduction to Biomedical Engineering

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Chapter 17 Exercise Solutions

17-1
Any three of the following reasons would suffice: Noninvasive potential, electrical immunity, chemical passivity,
small size and weight, potential for high sensitivity, high bandwidth, and the potential for multiplexing.
Any three of the following reasons would suffice: Lack of specificity in-particular for noninvasive approaches,
inherently low signal-to-noise ratios due to weak signals from the body, greater analytical capabilities are
typically required for post processing the signals, and there can be an unpredictable nature of photon absorption
and scatter in the tissue.
17-2
Light polarization is changed by manipulating the E field of the light and this manipulation typical translates into
a rotation or birefringence based on the sample being tested. For instance some molecules within the body are
chiral and will rotate the light while some tissues are bi-refingent causing ellipticity of the light. When used with
appropriate optics these changes are converted to a change in light intensity.
Luminescence (fluorescence or phosphorescence) is an absorption re-emission process in which the light is
absorbed at one energy (wavelength) by the sample and re-emitted at a different energy (wavelength). The
emitted light is typically lower in energy and thus higher in wavelength.
Light absorption due to the sample is the process by which the light is absorbed (typically in the infrared region
for sensing) and transformed into heat and thus less light is projected onto the detector. Many biological samples
have specific absorption peaks that occur as a function of wavelength.
Light scatter occurs when the sample components simply deflect the light at the same wavelength (elastically) in
which it was incident on the sample while Raman scatter is in-elastic scatter and the light comes off the sample at
a shifted wavelength depending on the sample under investigation.
17-3
Using Snells Law:
ni sin(i) = nt sin(t)
thus
1.33sin(45)=1.5 sin(tg) or
tg = 38.8 degrees
Reverse the transmission:
1.5sin(45)=1.33 sin(tw) or
tw = 52.9 degrees
Yes, this makes sense since when you pass from a higher index material to a lower one the beam will tend
to bend away from the normal while the opposite is true if you pass from a lower index material to a higher one.
17-4
The following formulas must be used starting with Snells Law (ni sin(i) = nt sin(t))
R = [(ni cosi nt cost) / (ni cosi + nt cost)]

and
2

Rp = [(-ni cost + nt cosi) / (ni cost + nt cosi)]

1
Note: In the above formulation the following if statement0.9is required to accommodate for when total
internal reflection is reached (i.e. t = 90 degrees).
0.8
for n=1:158,
0.7
if t(n)>=pi/2;
0.6
t(n)=pi/2;
R (n)=1;
0.5
Rp (n)=1;
0.4
end
0.3
R-perpendicular
end
0.2
As can be seen total internal reflection is
reached at 41.8 degrees and all the light
0.1
R-parallel
is reflected. In addition the parallel
0
10 (the
20 point
30 at 40
70
80
component goes to zero at 33.7 degrees at what is known as Brewsters0 angle
which50only60E normal
is
reflected.

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Introduction to Biomedical Engineering

17-5
For this problem:
at r = 0
I(z) = Io Exp[ - z] , Q(z) = a I(z)
for 0< z< 0.0065 cm
= a + s = 0.1+10 = 10.1 [cm-1 ] , Io = 1
I(z) = Exp[-10.1 z], Q(z) = 0.1 Exp[ -10.1 z]
I( 0.0065) = 0.936
Q ( 0.0065) = 0.1* 0.936 = 0.0936

given

for 0.0065< z< 0.0365 cm

= a + s = 0.5+10 = 10.5 [cm-1 ] , Io = I (0.0065) = 0.936
I(z) = 0.936 Exp[-10.5 (z - 0.0065)],
Q(z) = 0.5*0.936 Exp[ -10.5 (z - 0.0065)] = 0.468 Exp[-10.5 (z - 0.0065)]
I( 0.0365) = 0.683
Q ( 0.0065) = 0.468
Q ( 0.0365) = 0.5* 0.683 = 0.3415
for 0.0365< z< 0.0445 cm
= a + s = 20+20 = 40 [cm-1 ] , Io = I (0.0365) = 0.683
I(z) = 0.683 Exp[-40 (z - 0.0365)],
Q(z) = 20*0.683 Exp[ -40 (z - 0.0365)] = 13.66 Exp[-40 (z - 0.0365)]
I( 0.0445) = 0.496
Q ( 0.0365) = 13.66
Q ( 0.0445) = 20* 0.496 = 9.92
Q
I

17-6
Biological Tissue with a=0.1 cm-1
( r ) = o exp( -r/) / ( 4 D r)
log [ ( r)/ o]= -r/ - [ log 4 + log + log D + log r ]
D=1/3t'
= D/a
s'= 1, 10, 50, 100 cm-1
r varies from 0.1-2cm
The MATLAB program to plot the logarithm of relative intensity versus radius for the four different scattering
coefficients follows:
% program to calculate and plot the fluence rate at %
% different distances 'r' away from the istropic source %

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Introduction to Biomedical Engineering

609

% for scattering = 1,10,50,100 %

clear all;
s=['+','*','^','o'];
for j=1:4
if j==1
musprime=j;
elseif j==2
musprime=10;
elseif j==3
musprime=50;
else musprime=100;
end;
mua=0.1;
i=1;
for r=0.1:0.1:2
mutprime=mua+musprime;
D=1/(3*mutprime);
delta=sqrt(D/mua);
phi(i)=exp(-r*delta*0.001)/(4*pi*D*r*0.001);
distance(i)=r;
i=i+1;
end;
figure(1)
x(j)=plot(distance, log(phi), s(j));
title('plot of relative intensity versus distance for u_s''=1,10,50,100');
xlabel('distance r in m');
ylabel('log(phi(r)/phiinitial)');
hold on;
end;
hold off
legend(x,'u_s''=1','u_s''=10','u_s''=50','u_s''=100');

plot of relative intensity versus distance for u s '=1,10,50,100

log(phi(r)/phiinitial)

13
12

us '=1
us '=10

11

us '=50
us '=100

10
9
8
7
6
5
4

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8
1
1.2
distance r in m

1.4

1.6

1.8

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Introduction to Biomedical Engineering

17-7
If heat conduction is ignored, then temperature rise can be estimated as
T Q t / C = Fl / C
The fluence Fl = C T = C ( Tab - To)
Tab = 150 oC = (150+273) o K
Assume initial temperature To = 37 oC = (37+273) o K
a = 30/cm
water thermal properties
k = 0.609 [W/ m o K]
C = 4180 [J/ kg o K]
= 1000 [ kg / m3 ]
Fl = 472.34 [J / cm2 ]
17-8
The equation for velocity is:
v = (f/f) (c/(2n cos())) = (f*)/(2n cos()))
Thus
3

-9

v = [(63*10 )(632.8*10 )]/[2 (cos(60)) (1.33)] = 2.997 cm/s

This is reasonable for an averaged sized vessel (33 cm/s in the aorta, 0.3 mm/s capillaries).
17-9
-9

(a) Assume =0 then

2(nt na) L cos() = m or
2(1.33-1)L=20(780*10 )
Thus
L = 23.64 micrometers and yes it will have a long enough range since the tissue is only
20 micometers thick and with the system we can measure 23.64 micrometers.
Using the same equation as in (a) but solving for mmin and mmax for both 2 and 20 micrometers yields:
-6

-9

mmin = [2(0.33)(2*10 )]/780*10 = 1.69

-6

-9

mmax = [2(0.33)(20*10 )]/780*10 = 16.9

or rather

1 fringe

or rather

17 fringes

Thus the system must be able to discern between 1 and 17 fringes without being redundent in order to quantify
the 2 micrometer slices across the 20 micrometer range.
17-10
The Michelson is as good as the Fabry-Perot only for a system with low reflectivity, in which only the first two
beams of the Fabry-Perot contribute to the interference. A Fabry-Perot, however, is in general designed for high
reflectivity and works better because you get multiple beam interference and thus narrower peaks.
17-11
Given a molecule in some state which absorbs an incident photon, it will rise to a higher state and then
immediately emits a scattered photon with less energy than originally absorbed then this difference goes to
exciting the molecule to a higher vibrational energy level with a higher wavelength than the incident wavelength
and these are known as the stokes bands. If the initial state is excited, the molecule after absorbing and emitting a

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Introduction to Biomedical Engineering

611

scattered photon may drop to an even lower state than the initial state, meaning some of the vibrational energy of
the molecule has been converted to radiant energy and thus the shift in wavelength is below the incident
wavelength and these are known as anti-stokes bands. Typically, since the Stokes bands are at higher energies,
they are used for sensing. The main challenges for Raman sensing are high tissue auto-fluorescence backgrounds
in the presence of very low Raman scattered signals as well as the confounding effect of water and other analytes
in the medium.
17-12
Assume the eye can be treated as a plain test cell (i.e. ignoring index of refraction mismatch problems), then the
following equation can be used:

100
L

-3

-1

100(15*10 )/[(.8*10 )(41.89)] = .448 g/dL = 448 mg/dL

This is reasonable but considered high since normal is around 90 mg/dL. Thus assuming this is a fasting glucose
level then the patient would be considered diabetic.
17-13
Using the following equation the concentrations can be determined:
A = ln(T) = ln(Io/I) = z = z i Ci
z = 2 cm
1 = 0.293 cm

-1

2 = 0.1704 cm

32 = 1.123 mM cm

22 = 0.702 mM cm

= i Ci

u=[0.2930, 0.1704, 0.1903]'

0.2930
0.1704
0.1903

cdo_co_ub=e\u
0.1600 or rather :
0.0400
0.0300

Cdeoxy = 0.1600 mM
Coxy = 0.0400 mM
b

-1

-1

-1

1.5330 0.4440 1.0000

0.7020 0.7020 1.0000
0.7210 1.1230 1.0000

cdo_co_ub =

-1

-1

-1

e=[1.533, 0.444, 1; 0.702,0.702,1;0.721,1.123,1]

u=

-1

31 = 0.721 mM cm

Solving three equations with three unknowns in MATLAB yields:

e=

-1

-1

21 = 0.702 mM cm

or

-1

-1

-1

12 = 0.444 mM cm
Unknowns:b, Coxy, Cdeoxy

z = z i Ci

3 = 0.1903 cm

-1

11 = 1.533 mM cm

Thus

-1

= 0.0300 cm

-1

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This does make sense from a physiologic point of view since the blood filled tissue has a hemoglobin
concentration of 0.2 mM, with 20% oxyhemoglobin and 80% deoxyhemoglobin. In addition, the background
-1

absorption is reasonable and low at 0.03 cm .

17-14
The analytical solution of the heat conduction equation is
(, t) = (1/ B ) { 2B 0.5 ierfc[ / 2 0.5 ] - exp[ -B] + 0.5(exp[ -B] erfc[B 0.5 - / 2 0.5]
- exp[ -B] erfc[B 0.5 + / 2 0.5] )}

= (T - To)/ (Tab - To)

= ( Io C / k L) z
B = ( kL / Io C) a
= C ( Tab -To) / L
= ( Io C / k L) (Io/ L) t
water thermal properties
k = 0.609 [W/ m o K]
C = 4180 [J/ kg o K]
= 1000 [ kg / m3 ]
L = 2.26 x 106 [J /kg]
at surface z = 0, so above equation can be reduced as
T = To + (Io/ k a ) {(2/0.5) ( k a/ C) ( C t/ k )0.5
+ erfc [( k a/ C) ( C t/ k )0.5 ] - 1}
Fl = C T = Q t = 472.34 [J / cm2 ] , a = 30/ cm ( from exercise 10)
t = 1 ms
Q = a Io
so Io = 472.34/ (0.001* 30) = 15744.7 [W / cm 2 ]
If heat conduction is ignored
T = To + (Q / C) t = To +113000 t
with conduction

without conduction

T [oC]

T [oC]

t [s]

t [s]

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Introduction to Biomedical Engineering

613

17-15
Given:
Pulsed Laser Coagulation T= Tinitial + mt
Tinitial=37C
m=1000 C /s
R is the universal gas constant = 2 cal/gm-C
Required:
T_c ( critical temperature at which point omega=1)
Assumptions:
The temperature curve is linear.
Values of ln A and E are approximated to pig tissue values of 102.72 and 74000 respectively.
Equation:
t

(z, t) = 0 exp ( ln A - E/(RT(z,t))) dt

t

1 = 0 exp ( ln A - E/(R(Tinitial +mt)) )dt

t

1 = 0 exp ( 102.72 - 74000/(2*(37 +1000t))) dt

(1)

Now, estimating values of t, the trapezoidal rule is used to evaluate the integral on the RHS of equation 1 until it
equals the LHS.
The value of t at which the value of omega is 1 was found to be 0.07 s
The value of the critical temperature is 37 + 0.07*1000 = 37 + 70 = 107C
In the constant temperature case for the same duration, the critical temperature was found to be 96.75C.
Hence, the value of critical temperature is found to be LESS in the constant temperature case as compared to the
linear heating case.
17-16
B = (2/0.5) B ab 0.5 + exp[ B2 ab ] erfc[B ab 0.5 ]
plot B ab 0.5 vs B
B

B ab 0.5

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Introduction to Biomedical Engineering

for the large values of B , the slope is 1.11 2/0.5
a = 100/cm
Io = 1000 w/cm2
Tab = 150 oC = (150+273) o K
Assume initial temperature To = 36 oC = (36+273) o K
water thermal properties
k = 0.609 [W/ m o K]
C = 4180 [J/ kg o K]
= 1000 [ kg / m3 ]
L = 2.26 x 106 [J /kg]
B = ( kL / Io C) a
= C ( Tab -To) / L
ab = ( Io C / k L) (Io/ L) t
Plug values into B, and ab
B =0.329, =0.213 then B = 0.07

The numerical value of B ab 0.5 is 0.295, so the time for the onset of ablation t = 7.05 [ms].
17-17
A 0.5 m photon has the following energy:
h = h c/ = 6.6261034 J/s 3108 m/s / 0.5106 m = 3.971019 J
Eout = Ein exp(100 5)
exp(500) may overflow on a calculator
Set
x = exp(500)
log10(x) = 500 log10e = 500/ln10 = 217.1
x = 10217 100.1 = 1.2510217
Ein = h exp(500) = h x = 3.971019 1.2510217 = 5.0 10198 J
Eearth = mc2 = 61024 (3108)2 = 5.41041 J << Ein
17-18
P = 10 mW

1
=0.033 cm
3[ a s (1 g )]

eff

=1.74 cm-1

r = 5 cm

(r )

P
exp(eff r ) =8x10-4 mw/cm2
4 Dr

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Introduction to Biomedical Engineering

17-19
P = 10 mW

1
3[ a s (1 g )]

eff

=0.033 cm

=1.74 cm-1

r = 5 cm

(r )

P
exp(eff r ) =8x10-4 mw/cm2
4 Dr

(r )4 r 2 =0.25 mW
17-20
The phase is related to the average path length of detected photons.

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615