Matthew Mulloy

EE 230, Section D
With Alex Haynes and Sarah Files
Final Design Lab
Introduction
For this final lab, the three of us designed a circuit to turn on or off two lights
over a wireless signal. Using the outline of the lab, we individually designed
each section of our two circuits and placed them together as we needed. In
the end, although we were able to get the lights to turn on and off as
required, we could not get the distance required nor did we fully understand
why the circuit was distance dependent.
Design
Transmitter
We first designed our transmitter circuit. The full design follow.

For our oscillators, we used comparator based electronic relaxation

oscillators. For the top oscillator, using the equation f =

1
2 ln ( 3 ) RC

for R =

15000 and C = 10 nF, our calculated frequency is 303 Hz. When

implemented, due to the error inherent in all actual devices, our measured
frequency output was 2.3 kHz. There is obviously a very large discrepancy
between our calculated and measured frequency. The cause of this is likely
the values of our other two resisters. One was put significantly larger than
the other to attempt a gain increase. However, since this in no way effected
a continuous frequency output, it was left and used the larger of the two
frequencies.

For our second, lower oscillator, the same equation f =

1
2 ln ( 3 ) RC

was

used. This time,

R = 1 and C = 10 nF. As before, our calculations were faulty because the
other two resistors did not match. If they did, our calculated frequency would
be around 3 MHz. Instead, when the potentiometer was inserted, our output
frequency held steady at 33 Hz. This is a vast and contradictory difference.
We also found that by increasing the resistance of the potentiometer, the
frequency of the signal would also increase. This is in direct opposition to the
inverse nature of the frequency equation given. However, since the
frequency held steady again, we used it. I have been trying to understand
why this inverse nature would reverse itself, but have been unable to solve
the conundrum.
The oscillators were then placed in parallel, connected by a switch, to an LED
transmitter and 1 k resistor. This provided a steady output signal of our
choosing with stable, frequencies. The

V cc inputs were set at 15 V .

The measured voltage output of this circuit at the LED transmitter was found
to be saturated at 13.1 V.
The difficulty with the oscillators came from a lack of understanding. We
build this section of the project before the lectures on oscillators were given.
So we used the internet to find information, combined with experiences in op-

amps. This is why the other resistors do not match. We were under the
impression that a gain could be used an in other circuits. Again, I must stress
that all output voltages and frequencies held steady. We found no problem
with this circuit. There were never any burnt op-amps in this circuit. We
have no idea why our results as contradictory to equation measurements.

Receiver
The receiver circuit was designed as follows

Firstly in our circuit the signal form our transmitter was acquired by the LED
receiver. Immediately after that, the signal was fed into an op-amp designed
for voltage gain as shown below. This was because the detected signal was
very weak. We wanted a very large gain to maximize the effectiveness of our

receiver. The equation for the gain is A =

1+

Rf
Rs

where

Rf

= 470 k and

V
Rs =330 . So our calculated gain was 1425
V . This was more than
enough for our signal to reach saturation. With a

V cc inputs of 15 V ,

our saturation occurred at 26.9 V. So any signal received would be useful.

Next, we designed two filters to discriminate between our two frequencies as

shown below. Since our signals had a varied frequencies, only one high pass
filter (bottom) and one low pass filter (top) were required. We used first order
non-inverting filters. For the low pass filter, the bandwidth frequency was

calculated using the equation f =

1
2 RC

for R = 100 k and C = 10 nF.

Our calculated bandwidth frequency was 159 Hz.

For our low pass filter, we again used a first order non-inverting filter. Again,

the bandwidth frequency was calculated using the equation f =

1
2 RC

for

R = 3.3 k and C = 100 nF. So our bandwidth frequency was 482 Hz. In
hindsight, this is a little low. It is a relic of our manipulation with our
oscillators and was never changed. If the resistor was replaced with a
1 k, the cutoff frequency would have been 1592 Hz and would have been
much more efficient.

After that, the filtered signal was passed through a simple rectifier as shown
below. The point of this rectifier was to alter the output voltage something
resembling DC voltage. The rectifier would output a positive half wave signal
if the signal detected by the receiver was low and a negative half wave signal
if the signal was high. Creating a pure or cleaner DC signal was not
necessary as the comparator used would not switch saturation unless the
voltage switched from positive to negative, something the rectifier was
designed to make impossible.

Lastly, the comparator form part 2 of lab 7 was used to compare the output
voltage from the rectifier. When the voltage was negative, one of the LEDs
attached in parallel to the comparators output would be on and the other off.
When the output voltage was positive, the current through the LEDs would
switch direction and the other one would turn on. The circuit for this
comparator follows.

Implementation

The receiver circuit did not perform well. It would only perform when the two
circuits were held at a certain distance from each other. If they were too
close, only the LED lit by the low signal would turn on. If they were too far
apart, only the LED lit by the high signal would turn on. If they were near the
distance, then the LEDs would oscillate. Either that, or one LED would
always be on and the other would always be off. Determining which of the
last two outcomes would happen was impossible as it appeared random. So
our receiver circuit was distance dependent.
I believe that the rectifier is to blame in the receiver. I did not understand
fully how to implement this particular design. If I has used a full wave
rectifier as shown below, I believe I would have had better results. Switching
the direction of the diodes in the circuit below would invert the signal and
create either a positive or negative voltage as required.

When displayed, we were instructed by the TA to remove the rectifier and

comparator. This solved most problems. However, as previously mentioned,
the high pass filters cutoff frequency was set too low, and our result was
imperfect. Had the high pass filter been designed better, I believe the
receiver would have worked, though the signal would not have been DC. This
means, since our low frequency signal had such a small frequency, that it is
likely that the LED attached in series to the low pass filter would have rapidly
blinked instead of held constant. But the LED attached to the high pass filter
would have appeared to be on because the frequency was high enough. This

was observed with testing. The point at which the LED appeared to stop
blinking when an AC signal was passed through it was about 150 Hz.
Conclusion
This lab was challenging. It definitely made me question what I knew about
rectifiers and comparators. It also showed me that I need to study oscillators
more. I do understand how they work, but do not fully understand how to
implement them. The easiest part of this lab was by far the filters. Each
filter could be a first order, so not much was required. And since only two
signals were being sent, only a low pas and high pass were needed. We just
forgot to alter our filter when we settled on our transmitter frequencies. I
believe that with one more day in a lab, my partners and I could have gotten
this circuit to work.