Research(Methods(

It(is(actually(way(more(exci5ng(than(it(sounds!(

Why(do(we(have(to(learn(this(stu?(
Psychology(is(rst(and(foremost(a(science.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
Thus,(it(is(based(in(research.(
You(should(be(aware(of(three(hurdles(that(tend(to(skew(our(logic.((

Overcondence(

We(think(we(know(more(than(we(do.(
82%(of(U.S.(drivers(consider(themselves(to(
be(in(the(top(30%(of(safe(drivers.(
81%(of(new(business(owners(felt(they(had(
an(excellent(chance(of(their(businesses(
succeeding.(When(asked(about(the(success(
of(their(peers,(the(answer(was(only(39%.((
In(History:((

We(dont(like(their(sound.(Groups(of(guitars(
are(on(their(way(out.(Decca(Records,(who(
turned(down(The(Beatles(in(1962((
Computers(in(the(future(may(weigh(no(
more(than(1.5(tons.(Popular(Mechanics(
1949((
The(telephone(may(be(appropriate(for(our(
American(cousins,(but(not(here,(because(we(
have(an(adequate(supply(of(messenger(
boys.(Bri5sh(Expert(Group(

Hindsight(Bias(
IWknewWitWallWalong(
phenomenon((

AMer(the(Chris(
Brown/Rihanna(
incident.my(
friend(said(she(
knew(Chris(Brown(
was(a(violent(kid!((
Did(she(really?(

Monday(Morning(
Quarterbacking!!!(

Cri5cal(Thinking((
We(must(prac5ce(cri5cal(thinking(because(
intui5on(isnt(always(right:((
If(I(drop(a(bullet(from(3(feet(o(the(group(at(the(
same(5me(that(I(shoot(a(bullet(straight(ahead(3(
feet(above(the(group,(which(will(hit(the(ground(
rst?((
Is(it(bePer(to(s5ck(with(your(original(answer,(or(
switch?((
Is(one(gender(more(emo5onal?((

Applied(V.(Basic(Research(
Applied(Research(has(
clear,(prac5cal(
applica5ons.(
You(can(USE(it(
Research(on(
therapies(for(
drug(addicts(has(
a(clear(purpose.((

Basic(Research(explores(
ques5ons(that(you(may(
be(curious(about,(but(
not(intended(to(be(
immediately(used.(
(
Studying(
how(kissing(
changes(
when(you(
get(older(is(
interes5ng
but(that s(
about(it.((

Terminology(

Hypothesis(
Educated(guess(
Testable(ques5on((
Statement(of(
rela5onship(between/
among(variables.(
Generated(aMer(reading(
other(published(studies(
A(variable(is(anything(
that(can(vary(among(
par5cipants(in(a(study.(
Par5cipa5ng(in(class(
leads(to(bePer(grades(
than(not(par5cipa5ng.(

Opera5onal(Deni5ons(
Denes(what(the(observer(
will(be(dening(and(
manipula5ng.((
How(will(the(variables(be(
measured(in( real(life (
terms.(
How(you(opera5onalize(the(
variables(will(tell(us(if(the(
study(is(valid(and(reliable.(
Ensures(that(we(can(
replicate(the(study(and(get(
the(same(results.((

Let s(say(your((hypothesis(is(that(
chocolate(causes(violent(
behavior.(((
What(do(you(mean(by(
chocolate?(
What(do(you(mean(by(violent(
behavior?(

Case(Study(

A(detailed(picture(
of(one(or(a(few(
subjects.(
Tells(us(a(great(
storybut(is(just(
descrip5ve(
research.(
Does(not(even(
give(us(correla5on(
data.(
Brocas(Area((

One(famous(case(study(is(John(and(Kate(Plus(8.((
Really(interes5ng(but(what(does(it(tell(us(
about(families(in(general?(

Naturalis5c(Observa5on(
Watch(subjects(in(
their(natural(
environment.(
Do(not(manipulate(
the(environment.(
Can(never(really(
show(cause(and(
eect.(

Survey(Method(
Most(common(type(of(
study(in(psychology(
(
Measures(correla5on(
(
Cheap(and(fast(
(
Need(a(good(random(
sample(
(
LowWresponse(rate(
Wording(Eects((

Agree(or(Disagree(with(this(statement:(
I(enjoy(driving(with(the(windows(down.(
What(percentage(of(people(in(this(room(probably(
also(enjoy(driving(with(the(windows(down?(((

False(Consensus(Eect(
How(many(people(overes5mated(the(
consensus(in(the(room?(((

Sampling(
Iden5fy(the(
popula5on(you(want(
to(study.(
The(sample(must(be(
representa5ve(of(the(
popula5on(you(want(
to(study.(
GET(A(RANDOM(
SAMPLE.(
Random(Sampling(vs(
Random(Assignment(

Correla5onal(Method(
Correla5on(expresses(a(
rela5onship(between(
two(variable.(
Does(not(show(
causa5on.(

As(more(ice(cream(is(
eaten,(more(people(
are(murdered.((
Does(ice(cream(cause(murder,(or(murder(cause(people(to(eat(ice(cream?(

Correla5on(
People(who(eat(Oatmeal(
are(more(likely(to(get(
cancer(than(those(who(
eat(Frosted(Flakes.(((
The(degree(of(obesity(
rises(2%(for(each(hour(of(
tv(watched(by(kids(
between(12(and(17(years(
of(age.(((
There(is(a(posi5ve(
correla5on(between(milk(
consump5on(and(
incidence(of(cancer(in(
most(socie5es.((

Types(of(Correla5on(
Posi5ve(Correla5on((aka(
direct(correla5on)(
The(variables(go(in(the(
SAME(direc5on.(

Nega5ve(Correla5on((aka(
inverse(correla5on)(
The(variables(go(in(
opposite(direc5ons.(

Studying(and(
grades(
hopefully(has(
a(posi5ve(
correla5on.(

Heroin(use(
and(grades(
probably(
has(a(
nega5ve(
correla5on.((

Correla5on(Coecient(
A(number(that(
measures(the(strength(
of(a(rela5onship.(
Range(is(from(W1(to(+1(
The(rela5onship(gets(
weaker(the(closer(you(
get(to(zero.(

Which(is(a(stronger(
correla5on?(
W.13(or(+.38(
W.72(or(+.59(
W.91(or(+.04(
(

Illusory(Correla5on((

perceived(order(in(random(events(
You(can(nd(your(birthday(in(Pi.(
A($10.00(total((is(just(as(likely(at(McDs(as($10.97.(
Picking(lePers(in(Scrabble(that(spell(your(name(is(just(
as(likely(as(picking(lePers(that(spell(any(other(word.((
An(event(that(happens(to(but(1(in(1(billion(people(
every(day(occurs(about(6(5mes(a(day,(2000(5mes(a(
year.(
A(truly(unusual(day(is(one(in(which(nothing(
extraordinary(happens.(

Experimental(Method(
Looking(to(prove(
causal(
rela5onships.(
Cause(=(Eect(
Smoking(causes(health(issues.(

Within(Group(Design(vs(((((((((((((((
Between(Group(Design(
A(research(design(that(
uses(each(par5cipant(as(
his(or(her(own(control(is(
called(a(within.subjects!
design.((
For(example,(the(
behavior(of(an(
experimental(par5cipant(
before(receiving(
treatment(might(be(
compared(to(his(or(her(
behavior(aMer(receiving(
treatment.(Two(
treatments(might(be(
tried.((

If(two(treatments(are(
used,(the(order(of(the(
treatments(could(cause(
an(eect.(
To(eliminate(the(
possibility,(psychologists(
use(counterbalancing,(a(
procedure(that(assigns(
half(the(subjects(to(one(of(
the(treatments(rst(and(
the(other(half(of(the(
subjects(to(the(other(
treatment(rst.(

Random(Assignment(
Once(you(have(a(
random(sample,(
randomly(assigning(
them(into(two(
groups(helps(control(
for(confounding(
variables.(
Experimental(Group(
v.(Control(Group.(

Independent(Variable(
Whatever(is(being(
manipulated(in(
the(experiment.(
Hopefully(the(
independent(
variable(brings(
about(change.(
If(there(is(a(drug(in(an(
experiment,(the(drug(is(
almost(always(the(
independent(variable.(

Dependent(Variable(
Whatever(is(being(
measured(in(the(
experiment.(
It(is(dependent(on(the(
independent(variable.(

The(dependent(variable(
would(be(the(eect(of(
the(drug.(

Beware(of(
Confounding(Variables(

If(I(wanted(to(prove(that(
smoking(causes(heart(
issues,(what(are(some(
confounding(variables?(

The(object(of(an(experiment(
is(to(prove(that(A(causes(B.(
A(confounding(variable(is(
anything(that(could(cause(
change(in(B,(that(is(not(A.(

Lifestyle(and(family(
history(may(also(eect(
the(heart.((

Other(Confounding(Variables(
Placebo(eect(W(any(
cases(when(
experimental(
par5cipants(change(
their(behavior(in(the(
absence(of(any(kind(of(
experimental(
manipula5on.(
Order(Eects(

Social(Desirability(Bias(
the(tendency(of(
Is(Mrs.(Curtright(doing(a(
research(subjects(to(
good(job(teaching(AP(
give(socially(desirable(
Psychology?(((
responses(instead(of(
(Do(you(think(Mrs.(
choosing(responses(that(
Curtrights(teaching(will(
are(reec5ve(of(their(
have(a(posi5ve(or(
true(feelings(
nega5ve(aect(on(your(
AP(Psych(exam(score?)(
Best(to(do(this(ques5on(
without(Mrs.(Curtright(
present.(

Experimenter(Bias(
Another(confounding(
variable.(
Not(a(conscious(act.(
DoubleWBlind(Procedure.(

Hawthorne(Eect(
But(even(the(control(group(
may(experience(changes.(
Just(the(fact(that(you(know(
you(are(in(an(experiment(can(
cause(change.(

Whether(the(lights(
were(brighter(or(
dimmer,(produc5on(
went(up(in(the(
Hawthorne(electric(
plant.(

Review of Correlation

Sta5s5cs(
Recording(the(
results(from(our(
studies.(
Must(use(a(
common(language(
so(we(all(know(
what(we(are(
talking(about.(

Descrip5ve(Sta5s5cs(
Just(describes(sets(of(
data.(
You(might(create(a(
frequency(distribu5on.(
Frequency(polygons(or(
histograms.(
(

Central(Tendency(
Salaries(of(employees(at(
Dunder(Mien(Paper(in(
Scranton:(
$25,000.Pam!!!
$25,000.!Kevin!
$25,000.!Angela!
$100,000.!Andy!
$100,000.!Dwight!
$200,000.!Jim!
$300,000.!Michael!
median(salary(=($100,000.(
mean(salary(=($110,000.(
mode(salary(=($25,000.(
(
Great(place(to(work?(
(
Living(in(Scranton(is(kind(
of(cheap(

Mean,(Median(and(Mode.(
Watch(out(for(extreme(scores(or(
outliers.(

 In(a(normal!
distribuGon,(
the(mean,(
median(and(
mode(are(all(
the(same.(

Distribu5ons(
Outliers(skew(distribu5ons.(
If(group(has(one(high(score,(the(curve(has(a(posi5ve(skew(
(contains(more(low(scores)(
If(a(group(has(a(low(outlier,(the(curve(has(a(nega5ve(skew(
(contains(more(high(scores)(

Other(measures(of(variability(

Range:(distance(from(highest(to(lowest(scores.(
Standard!DeviaGon:(the(variance(of(scores(around(the(mean.(
The(higher(the(variance(or(SD,(the(more(spread(out(the(distribu5on(is.(
Big(vs(small(SD(

Other(measures(of(variability(
American presidents:
mean height = 71.5 in.
SD = 3.3 inches.
Johnsons z-score = 1.67.
Miami Heat players:
mean height = 80.0 in.
SD = 3.3 inches.
Shaqs z-score = 1.52.
Lyndon Johnson is taller
(relative to other
presidents) than Shaquille
ONeal is (relative to his
teammates).

Shaq(is(71(
and(Johnson(
was(63.(
(
Who(stands(
out(as(taller(
in(his(
profession?(

(Scores(
A(unit(that(measures(
the(distance(of(one(
score(from(the(mean.(
A(posi5ve(z(score(
means(a(number(
above(the(mean.(
A(nega5ve(z(score(
means(a(number(
below(the(mean.((

signicant(dierence(
In(an(experiment,(a(dierence(that(is(unlikely(
to(have(occurred(because(of(chance(alone(and(
is(inferred(to(be(most(likely(due(to(the(
systema5c(manipula5ons(of(variables(by(the(
researcher ((
Video(on(Hypothesis(Tests((
Video(on(Sta5s5cal(Signicance((

Inferen5al(Sta5s5cs(

The(purpose(is(to(
discover(whether(
the(nding(can(be(
applied(to(the(
larger(popula5on(
from(which(the(
sample(was(
collected.(
PWvalue=(.05(for(
sta5s5cal(
signicance.(((
5%(likely(the(
results(are(due(to(
chance.(

APA(Ethical(Guidelines(for(Research(
IRBW(Internal(
Review(Board(
For(humans(and(
animals.(

Animal(Research(
Clear(purpose(
Treat(humanely(
Acquire(legally(
Minimize(suering(

Human(Research(
No(Coercion((voluntary)(
Informed(consent(
No(signicant(risk(
Anonymity(
Must(debrief(

Ex(Post(Facto(
Study(that(falls(between( Researcher(may(put(the(
introverts(in(one(group(
a(correla5onal(study(and(
and(the(extraverts(in(the(
an(experiment.((
one(group(and(then(
Researcher(examines(
determine(how(many(in(
preexis5ng(subject(
each(group(choose(a(
variables(by(forming(
certain(food.((
groups(based(on(the(
Unlike(experimental(
dierences(
research,(the(researcher(
in(the(Ex(Post(Facto(
study(does(not(
manipulate(anything.(

Longitudinal(research(
studying(the(same(group(
of(individuals(over(an(
extended(period(of(5me.((
Data(is(rst(collected(at(
the(outset(of(the(study,(
and(may(then(be(gathered(
repeatedly(throughout(the(
length(of(the(study.((
In(some(cases,(
longitudinal(studies(can(
last(several(decades.(

CrossWSec5onal(Study((
People(of(dierent(ages(are(examined(at(the(same(5me.((
Usually(done(with(cohorts,(so(researchers(can(examine(
how(people(of(dierent(ages(perform,(behave,(or(respond(
to(a(par5cular(func5on.((
Ex:(Give(one(
type(of(test(to(
children(in(the(
3rd,(4th,(and(5th(
grades;(examine(
the(dierences(
in(performance(
across(these(age(
groups.(

Cohort.sequenGal!Study(
A!research!method!in!which!a!cross!secGon!of!the!
populaGon!is!chosen!and!then!each!cohort!is!
followed!for!a!period!of!Gme.(