HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

Nervous System
The central
nervous
system is
the complex
of nerve
tissues that
controls the
activities
of the body.

The central nervous system is the processing center for the nervous system. It
receives information from and sends information to the peripheral nervous
system.

The brain is the control

center of the body. It consists
of three main components:
the forebrain, the brainstem,
and the hindbrain. The
forebrain is responsible for a
variety of functions including
receiving and processing
sensory information,
thinking, perceiving,
producing and
understanding language, and
controlling motor function.
The midbrain and the
hindbrain together make up
the brainstem.This region of
the brain is involved in
auditory and visual
responses as well as motor
function.
The hindbrain extends from
the spinal cord and contains
structures such as the pons
and cerebrum. These regions
assist in maintaining balance
and equilibrium, movement
coordination, and the
conduction of sensory
information.

The spinal cord is a

cylindrical shaped
bundle of nerve fibers
that is connected to the
brain.Spinal cord nerves
transmit information
from body organs and
external stimuli to the
brain and send
information from the
brain to other areas of
the body.
Neurons are the basic
unit of the nervous
system.All cells of the
nervous system are
comprised of neurons.
Neurons contain nerve
processes which are
"finger-like" projections
that extend from the
nerve cell body. The
nerve processes consist
of axons and dendrites
which are able to
conduct and transmit
signals.

Neuron
A nerve impulse travel along a neuron in the dendrite, through the soma, down the
axon, into multiple terminus to travel across a synapse, here ion channels bring in
calcium ions and potassium so the impulse can pass through and this repeats until
the impulse reaches its destination.

Reflex Response

Immune System
The Immune System protects the body from
foreign substances and pathogenic.

Viruses, bacteria and parasites are living organisms that are found all around us. They exist in water and soil,
on the surfaces of foods that we eat and on surfaces that we touch, such as countertops in the bathroom or
kitchen. Some bacteria live in our bodies and do not cause problems. Other kinds of bacteria (as well as
parasites and viruses) can make us quite ill if they invade our bodies. Bacteria and viruses can live outside of
the human body (for instance, on a countertop) sometimes for many hours or days. Parasites, however, require
a living host in order to survive.Bacteria and parasites can usually be destroyed with antibiotics. On the other
hand, antibiotics cannot kill viruses. Children with viral illnesses can be given medications to make them
comfortable, but antibiotics are ineffective against treating these infections. An example of this is diarrhea.

Fungi are ubiquitously present in

air, water, soil and organisms, or on
organism surfaces. Fungi are very
diverse taxonomically with many
different species. They are diverse in
size from invisible yeasts, which are
only several microns in diameter, to
extremely large polypores, which
may grow up to several meters in
diameter.Fungi secrete digestive
enzymes onto a food source nearby,
dissolve it to smaller soluble
molecules and then inject them into
cells.

Protists are eukaryotes that are

not members of the plant, animal,
or fungi kingdoms Today's
protists include groups whose
ancestors were among the very
last to split from the organisms
that have rise to plants, animals
and fungi. Some protists move by
changing their cell shape, and
some move by means of
specialized organelles. Other
protists do not move actively but
are carried by wind, water, or
other organisms.An example of a
single celled organism in the
protist kingdom is the Paracium.

The first line of defence includes physical and chemical barriers that are always ready and prepared to
defend the body from infection. If the pathogens are able to get past the first line of defence, for
example, through a cut in your skin, and an infection develops, the second line of defence becomes
active. Through a sequence of steps called the immune response, the immune system attacks these
pathogens.The second line of defence is a group of cells, tissues and organs that work together to
protect the body. This is the immune system.

In most viral infections, the immune system has the opportunity of attacking viral particles in some
stages of the infection. It may also take place in infected cells during the protein production or viral
assembling phase. During these stages, antigens that appear in the membrane of the infected cell can
activate the immune response.. In some cases, such as endogen porcine retroviruses or herpes viruses
(Aujeszkys disease),infection can last for long periods of time without the presence of any viral
particles or surface antigens being expressed in the membrane of infected cells. When this happens,
the immune system is unable to fight the infection, because there are not viral peptides to flag its
presence. But eventually infection is reactivated and new infectious virions are liberated.

How a person acquires immunity?

The Immunity acquired after exposure to a pathogen. A pathogen is any type of organism which has the ability
to make us ill; bacterial, viral, fungal etc. Acquired immunity develops when we acquire antibodies to specific
pathogens in one of two ways:
1. we contract an infection, usually viral, (red measles, chicken pox, German measles - rubella), or a
bacterial infection, like whooping cough - pertussis.
2. we are immunized by vaccines, usually injected.
When people contract viral illnesses, ( chicken pox, German measles etc). or bacterial illnesses, i.e. whooping
cough, they usually developed life-long immunity. Circulating 'memory' white blood cells work together with
lymphocytes to create antibodies which persist for long periods and confer immunity to those illnesses.

Circulatory and Respiratory System

The system that circulates blood and lymph

through the body, consisting of the heart, blood
vessels, blood, lymph, and the lymphatic

The system for taking in oxygen and giving off carbon

dioxide; in terrestrial animals this is accomplished
by breathing.

They work together by inhaling and exhaling . The heart pumps blood into the lungs where the blood is oxygenated. The
blood is then returned to the heart and the newly oxygenated blood is circulated to the rest of the body. The respiratory
system performs a process known as gas exchange that releases carbon dioxide from the body and brings in oxygen.
This occurs in the lungs and the circulatory system then transports the oxygen to tissues that used internal respiration
to burn fuel in the form of adenosine triphosphate for energy, thus creating more carbon dioxide.

Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium. It flows through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle. Contraction of the ventricle then closes the tricuspid valve and forces open the pulmonary valve. Blood
flows into the pulmonary artery. This branches immediately, carrying blood to the right and left lungs. Here the
blood gives up carbon dioxide and takes on a fresh supply of oxygen. The capillary beds of the lungs are drained by
venules that are the tributaries of the pulmonary veins. Four pulmonary veins, two draining each lung, carry
oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.

From the left atrium, blood flows through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. Contraction of the ventricle
closes the mitral valve and opens the aortic valve at the entrance to the aorta. The first branches from the
aorta occur just beyond the aortic valve still within the heart. Two openings lead to the right and left
coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart itself.

here are four main components in the blood. Red blood cells
carry haemoglobin, which transports oxygen around the
body. The white blood cells defend the body against invading
pathogens. Platelets help wounds to heal, by forming scabs,
while the blood plasma is a solution in which dissolved
nutrients, hormones and carbon dioxide are transported
throughout the body.

Endocrine System

How does the Endocrine System work?

The hypothalamus
makes hormones that
control the pituitary
gland and hormones that
are stored in the pituitary
gland.
The pituitary gland
produces hormones that
regulate many of the
other endocrine glands
and some organs.
These four glands
release parathyroid
hormone, which
regulates the level of
calcium in the blood.
During childhood, the
thymus releases
thymosin, which
stimulates T cell
development and proper
immune response.
The adrenal glands
release hormones that
help the body respond to
stress.

The endocrine system is made of eight major glands,

which are groups of cells that produce and secrete
chemicals. A gland selects and removes materials from
the blood, processes them, and secretes the finished
chemical product for use somewhere in the body.
Almost every organ and cell in the body is affected by
the endocrine system.

The pineal gland

releases melatonin,
which is involved in
rhythmic activities, such
as daily. sleep-wake
cycle
The thyroid produces
thyroxine, which
regulates metabolism
throughout the body.
The pancreas produces
insulin and glucagon,
which regulate the level
of glucose in the blood.
Ovaries produce
estrogens and
progesterone.
The testes produce
testosterone, which is
responsible for sperm
production and the
development of male
secondary sex
characteristics

The pancreas produces hormones in its endocrine cells. These cells are gathered in clusters known as islets
of Langerhans and monitor what is happening in the blood. They then can release hormones directly into
the blood when necessary. In particular, they sense when glucose levels in the blood rise, and as soon as
this happens the cells produce hormones, particularly insulin. Insulin then helps the body to lower blood
glucose levels and store the sugar away in fat, muscle, liver and other body tissues where it can be used for
energy when required.

The pancreas is very close to the stomach. As soon as food is eaten, the pancreas releases digestive
enzymes into the bowel to break food down. As the food is digested, and nutrient levels in the blood rise,
the pancreas produces insulin to help the body store the glucose (energy) away. Between meals, the
pancreas does not produce insulin and this allows the body to gradually release stores of energy back into
the blood as they are needed.

Negative Feedback
Sweating, reduced water intake, and
urination reduce blood volume.

LESS ADH
No thirst

Hypothalamus senses low or

high concentration of water
in blood and signals pituitary
Drinking(response to thirst) and decreased
kidney action increase blood volume.

MORE ADH
Thirst
sensation

Reproductive System
The Reproductive System are organs and
tissues involved in the production and
maturation of gametes and in their union and
subsequent development of offspring.

Male Reproductive System

Sperm originates in the testes. Inside a part of the testes called

the seminiferous tubules the sperm is formed. It then travel
through the epididymis, through the vas deferens which meets
up with the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct, and
finally through the urethra.

It is released from the ovaries into the Fallopian tubes. It travels

through the Fallopian tubes and into the uterus. It is fertilized, the
egg will implant on the lining of the wall of the uterus and begins to
grow. If not, the lining will shed. This along with the egg will travel
out of the body through the cervix and vagina in the period.

Menstrual Cycle