Running head: TEACHING CHILDREN TO READ AND WRITE

Literary Skills: Teaching Children to Read and Write

Angelica Rinebarger
Northern Arizona University

TEACHING CHILDREN TO READ AND WRITE

Literary Skills: Teaching Children to Read and Write

Part 1 Literacy Development
The acquisition of language is the beginning process of literacy, the ability to read
and write. Language establishment begins at birth and occurs through an interaction
among genes, environment, and the childs own thinking abilities (Genishi, 2011).
Language is continuously attained when parents read, respond, sing, and talk to children
(Ready to Learn, 2008). Singing is especially conducive to building the language needed
to read. Parents encourage toddlers to form a foundation for writing by providing
opportunities for hands-on creativity, such as coloring, which strengthen the development
of fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination. Genishi (2011) explains the point of
learning language and interacting socially is not to master rules, but to make connections
with other people and to make sense of experiences.
Reading Development, Birth to School
An early foundation for reading is developed when parents sing with their
children. While the language children need to be able to read is developed through
conversations, listening, and imitating sounds, singing to children has a significant
impact. Singing with young children builds oral language skills by exercising the lips
and tongue, introducing phonemic awareness, and encouraging vocal imitation (The
Shepard School, n.d.).
The successful acquisition of reading in early childhood depends largely on oral
language skills. Canizares (n.d.) states,
Songs are both spoken and heard. Children do not have to be able to read in
order to learn a song. And because songs are filled with rhymes, alliteration, and

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different sound patterns, they actually celebrate the sounds of language. Singing
favorite songs over and over again helps children become consciously aware of
sounds and the way we can manipulate them break them apart, blend them
together, highlight certain ones, and minimize others. (para. 5)
When children are singing, they are practicing basic oral language skills and learning
how to arrange their mouths to imitate the sounds they are trying to make.
Singing songs develops the phonemic awareness foundation necessary for success
in essential reading skills. These skills are greatly enhanced by memorizing songs and
creating new verses to well-known song patterns (Edge, n.d.). When young children
listen to familiar words in songs, the neural transmitters in their brains are firing away,
and their brains are building connections to the sounds they are hearing and the words
they are singing (Silberg, n.d., para. 4). The rhyme, rhythm, and repetition of songs
make them ideal for supporting early reading experiences and teaching fundamental
reading skills.
While singing along with a parent, young children begin mimicking sounds.
Imitating the melody of a song prepares children for the vocal component of the reading
process. Song is a special type of speech. Lullabies, songs, and rhymes of every culture
carry the 'signature' melodies and inflections of a mother[s] tongue, preparing a child's
ear, voice, and brain for reading (Hill, 2011, para. 2). Singing advances the sound
awareness skills that are critical to learning to read successfully (Canizares, n.d.).
Writing Development, Birth to School
From early infancy, children develop basic skills needed for future writing.
Infants should be given opportunities that promote the advancement of hand-eye

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coordination and fine motor skills. Parents should also encourage children to
continuously draw and explain those drawings to illustrate marks on a paper are a form of
written expression.
Shear (n.d.) suggests play is vital for allowing a baby to learn how to reach and
grasp for objects, such as rattles and blocks. Reaching and grasping develop the handeye coordination needed for maneuvering writing utensils. Parents should also equip
their child with materials such as Play-Doh, buttons, stickers, and rubber bands that
enhance fine motor skills (Reimer, 2013). By physically handling objects and shaping
clay, children establish tangible dexterity needed for writing.
Steffani and Selvester (2009) acknowledge previous research has supported the
notion that children learn graphic elements through drawing; therefore, there are strong
similarities between the drawing process and learning the rules of written language (p.
127). Drawing includes grasping a writing utensil, holding the paper so it doesnt move,
and administering just the right amount of pressure with the utensilall at the same time.
When children scribble and draw they develop hand-eye coordination and fine motor
skills needed to hold a pencil. As children practice these skills, they become better
drawers and writers. Parents can also encourage children to draw by talking with them as
theyre drawing. By asking her questions about and commenting on her work, you help
her to understand that her marks on paper represent an object or an idea (Baby Writing,
n.d., para. 7).
Childrens proficiency in literacy skills depend largely on the opportunities and
assistance parents provide, such as singing and drawing with them. Early reading and

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writing development is essential to a childs cognitive function and preparation for formal
schooling.
Part 2 Literate Environment
The intentional selection and use of materials is central to the development of the
literacy-rich environment (Creating a Literacy-Rich Environment, n.d., para. 2). A
literacy-rich environment encourages reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
Teachers can promote better reading performance by reading to children daily and by
having them interact with books through the extensive use of classroom libraries
(Neuman, n.d., p. 1). A print-rich environment of wall displays allows students to see
language and images related to the topics being studied. The classroom library and the
displays on the walls are fundamental elements that help students develop literacy.
Classroom Library
In a literate environment, the library is the center of the classroom. An effective
library offers a wide variety of high-quality books that are strategically organized and
displayed. All students have easy access to books for learning and enjoyment.
A wide selection of books is an essential aspect of having a successful classroom
library. Reading material should include a variety of genres, cultures, topics, and reading
levels. Availability of selections for students reading at, above, or below grade level is
critical, including many books easy enough for students to sail through independently
(Catapano, Fleming, & Elias, 2009, p. 62). Fountas and Pinnell (2001) stress the
importance of building a varied collection so students can develop their reading skills as
well as expand their worlds. Books that reflect the diverse, multicultural nature of our
society help children learn about themselves and others. Students should have access to

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texts in which they see themselves and their experiences represented and valued, as well
as texts that represent a diversity of characters, settings, and stories reflective of our
broader society (Catapano, Fleming, & Elias, 2009, p. 63). Genres should include
fantasy, mystery, poetry, realistic, and informational texts. Include books that represent
future topics in the curriculum so that students will start to form ideas about what they
will learn and so they can offer what they already know about the topic as they begin a
new project or theme (Catapano, Fleming, & Elias, 2009, p. 66). Classroom libraries
should also incorporate a range of books that encompass students interests. Students
are more likely to read for pleasure when their interest in reading is fostered regularly
with texts that pique their curiosity and value their experiences (Catapano, Fleming, &
Elias, 2009, p. 69). An extensive variety of books in the classroom library contribute to a
literacy-rich environment.
To spark childrens interest and enthusiasm about reading, books must catch
childrens attention, captivate their imaginations, and make them want to return to their
pages again and again. Only high-quality books will achieve these goals (Neuman, n.d.,
p. 4). Catapano, Fleming, and Elias (2009) advocate being choosy and building the
library collection gradually because it is more important to have high-quality books than
to simply have a great number of books. Students should be reading high-quality
childrens literature that is likely to prompt thinking and discussion, have believable,
compelling characters, who talk the way real people talk, do things real people do, and
deal with real childhood issues (Catapano, Fleming, & Elias, 2009, p. 63). Wellstocked, high-quality classroom libraries generate interest and motivation for reading and
help students develop expert reading skills. When students know they can choose any

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book from the library and enjoy reading it, students will become motivated to read more
often. Research shows that students in classrooms with high-quality classroom libraries
read 50 percent more than students who do not have access to a library in the classroom
(Catapano, Fleming, & Elias, 2009, p. 60).
The message from a well-organized, labeled classroom library is that reading is a
valued part of the curriculum (Catapano, Fleming, & Elias, 2009, p. 63). Organizing the
books within the classroom library should allow for the majority of books to be displayed
with their covers visible for simple selection. By strategically placing bins on the
bookshelves, books can be faced forward for ease of viewing. The bins can be organized
by genre, author, reading level, series, topic, or theme. Easy-to-read labels with icons or
pictures of the topic or genre will help students navigate the collection. A special
display section should be set aside for the books most recently read aloud by the teacher
so students can explore the book on their own, securing their understanding of the
sequence of the story, and supporting their connection between the illustrations and their
understanding of the story (Catapano, Fleming, & Elias, 2009, p. 66). Every few weeks
those books should be rotated. Regardless of the organizational goals of the classroom
library, the key is to inform the students how the books are displayed and why
(Catapano, Fleming, & Elias, 2009, p. 67).
Wall Displays
Effective classroom displays are one of the most powerfuland overlooked
tools for teaching (Clayton & Forton, 2000, para. 1). Displays should coincide with
both teaching and learning. Wall displays that are relevant to current lessons support
literacy when they are easily accessible to students and utilized during daily instruction.

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Wall displays should support current lessons or they may become ineffective.
After displays have been up for a couple of weeks, students generally stop looking at
them (Anderson, 2011, para. 2). Items should be rotated regularly unless they are used
throughout the school year, such as word walls. When a unit of study is introduced, the
classroom displays should reflect the new topic. Displays relevant to only the current
curriculum prevent children from becoming overwhelmed and keep their interest high
(Clayton & Forton, 2000, para. 11).
Print-rich environments are necessary for children to learn literacy (Allington &
Johnston, 2002, p. 23). Print-rich environments can be individualized to meet students
needs and enhance understanding of a concept through a teachers intentional decisions
and use of classroom displays. Students should also be involved in deciding what is
displayed on the walls. Including students work on the classroom walls gives them a
sense of pride and accomplishment. Seeing their own work on display not only boosts
students sense of belonging and significance in the room, but also helps them learn from
their classmates and see a greater purpose behind their work (Anderson, 2011, para. 17).
By creating displays that recognize effort rather than perfection, children perceive
learning as a process of growth, not just a process of mastery (Clayton, 2002). When
students are involved in creating displays for the classroom, or of their own work, they
will learn more about spelling and grammar and will absorb the content of the subject
(Clayton, 2002).
Wall displays should be intentionally placed where they are easily accessible to
all students. For example, when word walls have small letters or are placed too high,
students learn not to depend on them. Word walls should be placed where they are

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conveniently seen so students can reference the words when they are reading and writing.
A mobile word wall that can be moved throughout the classroom could support childrens
learning because of its visibility and maneuverability. As with word walls, displays
about specific topics should be referenced throughout the school day as they better
understanding through visualization as well as improve students reading and writing.
Teachers should intentionally select and use materials in their classroom to
promote a literacy-rich environment. Classroom libraries with accessible, organized, and
high-quality books encourage children to continuously read. A print-rich environment of
visible and relevant wall displays support student learning. The development of a
literacy-rich classroom necessary for learning is the obligation of the classroom teacher.
Part 3 Methods and Strategies for Literacy Instruction
The focus of instruction in the primary grades is on teaching children how to read
and write. In the intermediate grades the focus of instruction emphasizes the application
of literacy skills to understand the world. Students are taught skills in the areas of
decoding, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension, and writing. Effective literacy teaching
and learning is established through the methods and strategies used by instructors.
Decoding
Decoding is the ability to apply the knowledge of letter-sound relationships to
correctly pronounce written words. To teach this skill instructors should use a variety of
phonemic awareness activities that offer the foundation required for the introduction of
phonics. Making Words, clapping syllables, and alliteration are examples of activities
that promote the skill of decoding. While clapping syllables and alliteration focus on

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phonological awareness, the Making Words activity is designed to teach students

phonemic awareness while introducing beginning aspects of phonological awareness.
The phonemic awareness and phonics skills practiced in the Making Words
activity are rhyming, blending, and segmenting. Students also learn letter names, sounds,
and the most common rhyming patterns. Making Words provides different degrees of
structure through a number of different formats. ReadStrong (n.d.) describes,
For each lesson, the teacher selects a group of letters that the students will use to
build words that ultimately lead up to a mystery word at the end. Making
Words lessons may take on different degrees of structure, depending on the needs
of the students and instructional purposes of the teacher. Teachers may lead
students in a pre-determined sequence to build specific words, or students may
form words on their own. (para. 2)
ReadStrong (n.d.) states that the Making Words activity offers a structured way for
students to investigate how the sounds of language are put together while they
experiment with words. When students understand the concepts of rhyming, blending,
and segmenting they can be introduced to phonics activities such as clapping syllables.
Clapping syllables, or chunks, is essentially clapping each syllable of a word to
demonstrate the break between sound chunks. When students divide words into syllables
it helps speed the process of decoding. Associating syllables with a beat can help
students to better learn the concept of syllables within words (Syllable Games, n.d.,
para. 5). This kinesthetic connection allows children to become actively engaged with
recognizing word sounds, allowing them to continue on to activities such as alliteration.

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Alliteration is the identification and production of words that begin with the same
initial sound. Alliteration is an important literacy concept for children to learn. It
requires that children listen intently and are able to discriminate the repetition of an initial
sound (Schiller, n.d., para. 1). Alliteration can be introduced by reading books that
contain alliteration. Teachers and students can also create an alliteration book for the
class to practice the concept. The teaching of alliteration strengthens decoding skills
because students begin to recognize initial sounds of words.
Instructors should use a variety of activities to teach decoding that include both
phonemic and phonological awareness. Alliteration, clapping syllables, and Making
Words are examples of activities that support the skill of decoding.
Vocabulary
While decoding instruction enables childrens ability to read words, vocabulary
instruction attempts to develop their understanding of word meanings. Teachers develop
students vocabulary through the instruction and use of high frequency words and word
walls. Coulombe (2014) explains,
High frequency words, or sight words, are words that often have very little
meaning on their own (for example, of). They are often considered service
words or connector words because they link words with more concrete meanings
together. (para. 2)
In order to teach high frequency words, Coulombe (2014) recommends that instructors
should choose approximately five new words a week to introduce to students. Teachers
can select these words from the students writing or from common high frequency word
lists. After teachers have selected the words for the week, they should write each one of

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them on a different colored index card in order to help students differentiate between
similarly spelled words when the words are displayed. In order for children to learn high
frequency words, they must have a lot of practice reading them. Coulombe (2014)
suggests,
Show the word, say the word, use the word in a sentence, and have the students
write the word on paper or on a wipe off board. Engage the students in saying
and spelling the word through multisensory activities such as clapping each letter
or jumping up and down as they say each letter. Do a fun activity with the words
each day to reinforce their use. (para. 4)
Teachers should hang the words on the word wall at the end of the week. Word walls
serve as a visual reminder and a reference tool for students to use throughout the school
year. Through the instruction and use of high frequency words and word walls, teachers
develop and improve students vocabulary.
Fluency
Fluency is the ability to read text accurately and quickly. Three effective ways to
teach students to read fluently are modeling, repeated reading, and independent reading.
Modeling fluent reading is the beginning stage of teaching reading fluency.
Modeling fluent reading means showing students how fluent reading sounds.
Teachers model fluent reading by reading aloud to students on a daily basis. When
reading aloud to children, teachers must use appropriate phrasing, expression, and pacing
in order to model fluent reading. Modeling fluent reading is important because, Many
young readers do not intuit the pace at which they must read to comprehend a text.
Similarly, expression and phrasing may not be readily apparent to them (Brummitt-Yale,

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2008, para. 2). Once students understand how fluent reading sounds they can begin to
practice their own fluency through repeated readings.
Repeated reading is a fluency method that involves repetition of the same text.
Repeated reading can be integrated into a regular classroom reading program and
modified to include assisted or unassisted repeated reading techniques with whole groups,
small groups, or individuals. Structured Repeated Reading (n.d.) describes,
In assisted repeated reading, the teacher models fluent reading of the passage,
including vocabulary and content discussion after the reading. The class then
practices the text chorally as a whole group. Students will practice the passage
independently until they have reached the desired fluency or have read it a certain
number of times. (para. 2)
During unassisted repeated reading, students are given short reading passages that
comprise familiar words at their independent reading levels. Structured Repeated
Reading (n.d.) states,
The passage length should be between 50 and 200 words. Passages can be taken
from different types of reading materials, including basals, trade books, the
Internet, or poetry. Each student orally reads his or her passage several times
until he or she reaches the predetermined level of fluency. Students can record
and chart their progress. Studies indicate that students benefit from orally reading
the passage three to five times. After they reach their goal, they can move on to
another piece of text. (para. 1)
Once students understand the aspects and importance of reading fluently they can begin
practicing their own fluency through independent reading.

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Independent reading is the reading students choose to do on their own. Programs

such as Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) give children a daily opportunity to read and
discover the pleasure of reading. During SSR, Each student chooses a book and the
entire class reads for a set period of time each day (Developing Reading, n.d., para. 14).
Sustained Silent Reading has been shown to lead to more positive attitudes toward
reading and gains in reading achievement when peer discussion groups discuss the books
they read (Developing Reading, n.d.). Although research has not yet confirmed that
independent reading improves reading fluency, it is important that students be given time
to apply their reading skills, such as fluency, through silent reading with a book at their
independent reading level (Fluency, 2001).
Instructors should use an assortment of effective methods to teach fluency skills.
By using methods such as modeling, repeated reading, and independent reading,
instructors assist students in developing essential reading fluency skills.
Comprehension
Comprehension is the ability to understand what is being read. Teachers should
engage students in before, during, and after reading activities to develop comprehension.
Applicable activities include making predictions, generating questions, and summarizing.
In order to engage students before reading, teachers and students can make predictions.
Predicting is a strategy in which readers think about what they are going to read
based on clues from the reading. Making predictions keeps the students actively
engaged in the reading process, and being engaged is key to comprehension. By
constantly thinking about their predictions to confirm or revise them, readers remain
motivated and focused (Guisinger, n.d., para. 3). Before reading, students can make

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predictions based on the features of a book. The title, author, and illustrations of a book
can all help construct student predictions of what the book might contain. These
predictions provide a foundation for generating questions while reading the book.
Generating questions involves students asking themselves questions as they read.
By asking many different types of questions students learn how to monitor their own
reading and comprehend the text through a deeper, more thoughtful approach. Instructors
teach students how to generate questions by asking them to write down any questions
they have while reading. After writing questions, students should look for answers to
their questions and write those down as well. Comprehension Strategies (n.d.) states,
Many children dont understand where to find the answers to the questions they
ask. They need to know that some questions can be answered by looking in
one specific place within a book, while others are answered by taking information
from several places often spread over several pages. Some questions require
combining text information with personal knowledge and experience, while others
rely only on the personal knowledge of the reader. Help the child decide on the
type of question and where the answer can be found. (para. 6)
The questions students generate while reading also provide a reference for summarizing
after reading.
When readers summarize they are restating what the author has said in their own
words. Summarization allows children to distinguish between main ideas and minor
details. Summarizing is an important strategy because it can enable readers to recall text
quickly. It also can make readers more aware of text organization and how ideas are

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related (Key Comprehension Strategies, 2002, para. 13). Key Comprehension Strategies
(2002) illustrates,
Effective summarizing of expository text may involve such things as condensing
the steps in a scientific process, the stages of development of an art movement, or
the episodes that led to some major historical event. Effective summarizing of
narrative text can involve such things as connecting and synthesizing events in a
story line or identifying the factors that motivate a characters actions and
behavior. (para. 14)
Summarizing builds comprehension by having students recall information of a text in
order to make sense of what they read.
Before, during, and after reading activities develop students comprehension.
Activities such as making predictions, generating questions, and summarizing help
facilitate student comprehension.
Writing
Students in the primary grades participate in shared writing activities in order to
learn how to shape letters and compose simple stories. In the intermediate grades, the
writing process is formally introduced to guide students writing. While the writing
process focuses on independent writing, shared writing involves the teacher.
Shared writing is when the teacher provides full support by writing down what the
children dictate. The writing is usually done at an easel or on a large chart where the
class is gathered around the teacher as she uses markers to compose the message. Shared
Writing (n.d.) describes,

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Shared writing can cover a wide variety of forms, purposes, and genres. The text
can serve a specific purpose governed by what is going on currently in the
classroom, or the teacher and students can brainstorm and negotiate these
decisions together. Some possible topics and forms include a narrative describing
a recent event in the class, a retelling of a favorite story, process writing
describing how a project unfolded and what was learned, a summary of or
reflection on a book read as a class, a list of types of entries that could go into a
writers notebook, and so forth. Compositions can be short and completed in one
session, or they can be longer and extend over several sessions. (para. 2)
The purpose of shared writing is to model the thought process involved in writing and
allow students to engage and focus on the process (Shared Writing, n.d.). Acting as the
scribe, the teacher frees students from the writing aspect so they can focus solely on the
thinking involved in writing. Shared writing is also an effective method for direct
teaching of important skills and concepts needed in the writing process.
The writing process involves five stages, each of which focuses on the overall
design and purpose of the final product. The first stage of the writing process is
prewriting. During this stage students brainstorm ideas for writing and organizing their
thoughts using visual webs or outlines. Teachers can help students during this stage by
giving them writing prompts and asking questions to direct their thoughts. The second
stage of the writing process is drafting. Throughout this stage students begin writing a
rough draft of their piece before giving their draft to the teacher for comments and
revision. Revising is the third stage of the writing process. In this stage, the writer
revisits the text and evaluates the content, organization, form, and mechanics of the piece,

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and makes necessary revisions. During this stage the student should also meet with the
teacher in order to receive feedback and clarify any confusion. Teachers need to be
sensitive to the writers feelings and perspective about the written piece and offer
suggestions as to how the piece can be improved. The fourth stage of the writing process
is the editing stage. Throughout the editing stage, the student works on correcting and
proofreading the writing for usage, mechanics, and spelling. The teacher should provide
instruction on sentence formation, word usage, and use of dictionaries and other reference
materials to help students in mechanics and spelling. The fifth and final stage of the
writing process is the postwriting stage. The postwriting stage focuses on the publication
and sharing of students writing with an appropriate audience. Teachers should not
overlook this stage because its particularly important to the writing process since it
provides feedback to writers and motivates them to continue writing. The writing process
breaks down each stage of writing so students are actively involved in the process as the
teacher guides them towards successfully expressing themselves through their writing.
In the primary grades children engage in shared writing activities to learn how to
shape letters and compose simple stories. Skill instruction increases in complexity
throughout their schooling as they learn to write independently through the introduction
of the writing process.
Part 4 Assessment of Literacy
Literacy is assessed in order to evaluate and communicate student achievement,
determine the effectiveness of instruction, and establish instructional goals for students.
Decoding, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension, and writing are the five areas of literacy
teachers evaluate throughout the school year. Although there are standardized tests

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available for evaluating these areas, most teachers also use a variety of other methods to
assess literacy.
Decoding
The assessment of decoding ability is performed through the reading of nonsense
words as well as the reading of grade level texts. Through the reading of nonsense
words, students learn the skills needed for decoding real words in grade level texts.
Nonsense words, or pseudowords, measure a students ability to decode
individual phonemes and blend the sounds together to read words. According to
research, Pseudoword decoding is the best single predictor of word identification for
both poor and normal readers (Rathvon, 2004, p. 138). During a nonsense word
assessment, the student is given a page of nonsense words (e.g., fic, wap) and is asked to
read the words. Some students are able to read the whole word, while others just say the
sounds (e.g., /f/ /i/ /c/), and some use onset-rime (e.g., /w/ /ap/). The assessment lasts
one-minute and the evaluator records sound errors as well as if and how the student
blends the sounds. The students score is recorded and then compared to a set standard
for the students grade level. Using this score, the teacher determines if the students
ability falls within the benchmark (doing fine), strategic (requires additional instruction)
or intensive (significantly at-risk) range. The reading of nonsense words prepares
students for the decoding of real words in grade level texts.
The reading of grade level texts provides teachers with a clear understanding of
where the student performs in decoding. In order to assess students abilities in decoding
through grade level text, the instructor chooses an appropriate grade level text and has the
student read the text aloud. To receive the most accurate results, the teacher must choose

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a text that is neither above nor below the students reading level or else the results may be
flawed. The teacher records any mistake made and uses the information to determine the
kind of instruction or intervention the student needs.
Decoding ability assessment is accomplished through the reading of grade level
texts as well as the reading of nonsense words. Students learn the skills needed for
decoding real words in grade level texts through the reading of nonsense words.
Vocabulary
Cloze passages and context-rich sentences are two methods teachers use to assess
student acquisition of vocabulary. While context-rich sentences involve detailed writing,
cloze passages only require the student to write one or two words.
Cloze passages are short screening assessment passages drawn from reading
materials. Teaching and Assessing (2009) explains,
Cloze tests have key words deleted and replaced with a blank line. Students are
asked to read the cloze passages and fill in missing words based on what they
believe makes sense using context clues. Students guess the missing words based
on knowledge of a subject, understanding of basic syntax (word order
relationships), and word or sentence meaning (semantics). (p. 241)
Cloze passages are suitable for use at all grade levels because the teacher determines the
sentence as well as which words are deleted. Cloze passages also involve context clues,
which introduce students to context-rich sentences.
Context-rich sentences are sentences that provide rich clues to help students
uncover difficult words. In order to teach this skill, Cohen and Cowen (2011) suggest,

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The teacher should model this strategy with many different sentences. He or she
can gather context-rich sentences with challenging words from literature or
textbooks that the students are reading and model the strategy with the first
sentence. The teacher can then have groups or buddies work together to try to
figure out the unknown words using the four types of clues (structural, phonic,
semantic, syntactical). When the groups are finished, they should share how they
uncovered the meaning of the words and what specific clues helped them to be a
detective. (p. 250)
After practicing this skill, students can begin to write their own context-rich sentences
using content words in order to demonstrate mastery of word meanings.
Context-rich sentences and cloze passages are two strategies teachers use to
assess student acquisition of vocabulary. Context-rich sentences require thorough
writing, while cloze passages involve the writing of only one or two words.
Fluency
Formal assessments of fluency include word count per minute measures and the
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) oral reading fluency scale. While
the NAEP oral reading fluency scale is a more in-depth assessment, word count per
minute (WCPM) measures provide a simple, quick way of evaluating fluency.
WCPM is a measure of oral reading fluency. To collect WCPM data, students
are asked to read aloud, often for 1 minute, as the examiner scores errors. After students
have finished reading aloud the examiner calculates both words correct per minute and
errors per minute (Hale, 2007, p. 9). The data collected is then compared to grade level

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averages or the childs previous scores. To receive a more thorough calculation, teachers
can use the NAEP oral reading fluency scale.
The NAEP oral reading fluency scale is a four-level scale teachers use to rate
students fluency while reading a given passage. Hasbrouck (2006) describes,
This scale focuses on the level of skill a student demonstrates in phrasing and
expression while reading aloud. After listening to an individual student read
aloud, the educator rates the students reading according to the level that best
describes the students overall performance. (para. 3)
Students in levels one and two are considered non-fluent readers whereas students in
levels three and four are considered fluent readers.
The NAEP oral reading fluency scale as well as word count per minute measures
are formal assessments teachers use to evaluate fluency. WCPM measures offer an
immediate way to assess fluency whereas the NAEP oral reading fluency scale provides a
more detailed evaluation.
Comprehension
Summarizing text and Blooms Taxonomy are methods used to assess
comprehension. Blooms Taxonomy uses various levels of questioning, including
summarization.
Teachers use summarization to both build and assess comprehension. To use
summarization as an assessment, teachers simply ask students to retell what they read. In
order to effectively summarize, the reader needs to state only the main ideas of the text,
and not retell every detail. Teachers grade the accuracy of summaries by focusing on

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23

whether or not the student is able to restate only the main ideas. Summarization would
fall into understanding, the second level of Blooms Taxonomy.
Blooms Taxonomy contains six major levels based on the hierarchal order of
learning: remembering (list or recite), understanding (explain or summarize), applying
(dramatize or determine), analyzing (infer or compare and contrast), evaluating (critique
or support), and creating (write or create). Teachers use Blooms Taxonomy to assess
comprehension based on the types of questions they ask. For example, if the teacher is
giving a lesson on the environment she could ask students to explain how cars pollute the
air and assess their comprehension based on how well they are able to explain their
answers. Teachers should design questions that begin with requiring knowledge and then
progressively require higher levels of thinking from students so that comprehension can
be both acquired and assessed.
Blooms Taxonomy and summarization are both strategies teachers use to
evaluate comprehension. The second level of Blooms Taxonomy includes
summarization and is therefore addressed during comprehension assessment.
Writing
The 6+1 writing rubric is the most frequently used form of judging writing. In
addition to the 6+1 writing rubric, writing can also be scored using a holistic method.
While a holistic method approaches scoring writing as a single score, the 6+1 writing
rubric scores each area of writing specifically.
The 6+1 writing rubric is based on common characteristics of good writing.
Writing Assessment (2010) illustrates,

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The rubric uses common language and scoring guides to identify what good
writing looks like. The 6+1 traits within the model are: ideas, organization, voice,
word choice, sentence fluency, conventions, and presentation. For each trait,
theres a scale with descriptors for scoring. (para. 4)
Scoring writing using a 6+1 writing rubric can be very time-consuming and teachers
should use it sparingly throughout the school year. To provide students with a simple,
overall review of their writing improvements, teachers can use a holistic method.
Holistic scoring is a method of evaluating writing based on its overall quality.
Holistic Scoring (n.d.) explains,
Holistic scoring gives students a single, overall assessment score for the paper as
a whole. Although the scoring rubric for holistic scoring lays out specific criteria,
teachers do not assign a score for each criterion in holistic scoring. Rather, they
balance strengths and weaknesses among the various criteria to arrive at an
overall assessment of success or effectiveness of a paper. (para. 1)
Holistic scoring is a quick way to assess writing and gives an accurate depiction of
students writing performance.
Teachers use both holistic methods and 6+1 rubrics to evaluate student writing.
While the 6+1 writing rubric scores each area of writing individually, a holistic method
assesses writing with a single score.

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