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Introduction:
Imagine a world without electronics, cars, or any modern luxuries. This is a
world without copper. Copper is crucial in every aspect of todays life and as
such, the mass extraction and production of pure elemental copper is key to
modern life. One of the most important aspects in being able to quickly and
efficiently extract copper is being able to identify it. This is because copper is
usually bound to other materials when discovered. Being able to sort through the
unwanted materials and pinpoint copper will create a much faster extraction
process. Two methods of identification are the Specific Heat value and Linear
Thermal Expansion coefficient. This experiment allowed the researchers to
model this particular real life scenario with the identification of copper. In this
experiment, two sets of metals rods were used. One of the metal sets was
confirmed to be copper, while the other set was unknown and had to be tested on
to verify if it was indeed is copper or not.
For this experiment, the means of identification that were used were the
metals Linear Thermal Expansion coefficient and its Specific Heat value. These
methods are intensive properties and as such, are not affected by variables such
as mass or concentration of said metal. For example, if a 100 gram sample of
copper is tested on, it will produce the same data as a 10 gram sample.
The objective of this experiment is to determine if the identity of an
unknown metal sample is the same as the known metal sample, which in this
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case is copper. This goal will be fulfilled by calculating the unknown metals
Specific Heat value and Linear Thermal Expansion coefficient and comparing
that to coppers using a two sample T-test. The P-value obtained from the T-test
will then be analyzed alongside the percent error of the experiment to determine
if the unknown metal is indeed copper.
To measure specific heat, the metal sample is heated in a loaf pan and
then placed into a calorimeter where the equilibrium temperature is measured
using a Logger Pro device. As for the Linear Thermal Expansion coefficient, the
metal rod is again heated in a loaf pan, but then is inserted into a measuring jig
where the change in length is measured.
With the conclusion of the experiment, a better understanding of the
unknown metal as well as insight into how to correctly perform experiments
concerned with Specific Heat and Thermal Expansion will be gained.

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Background and Reviews of Literature:

The element copper has been used by humans for the past 11,000 years.
The Roman Empire mined most of their copper from the island Cyprus, which is
where the metal obtained its name (Gagnon). The Romans used copper for
things such as coins, tools, and pipes and countless other civilizations throughout
history would use copper to act as a base to their industries. However it was not
until the 1950s that the copper industry would explode into the multi-billion-dollar
industry it is today (Santos.) Today, copper, (Cu) is primarily obtained from the
ores malachite (CuO3Cu(OH)2), chalcocite (Cu2S), covellite (CuS) and bornite
(Cu6FeS4) (Gagnon). In order to extract the copper from these ores, a chemical
process must take place. One such way is pyrometallurgy, or smelting. This
begins when the ore is dried and fed into a furnace where it oxidizes and melts
(Bydalek). Then, the ore creates segregated layers of material in which copper
sinks to the bottom. All excess substance is removed and the hydrometallurgical
process takes place. This process takes the oxidized copper and leeches it in
sulfuric acid, (H2SO4 ) or a strong chloride based solution (Hamzah, Norita, Yui).
The example below shows an example of this process using sulfuric acid.
2CuFeS2 + 2SiO2 + 4O2
Cu2S + O2

Cu2S + FeSiO3 + 3SO2

2Cu + SO2

Figure 1. Chemical reaction for mining copper from chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) using
pyrometallurgy.

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Figure 1 shows how the chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is heated up and copper

(Cu2S) is formed. The excess material is then removed and the Cu 2S is hit with a
blast of air in order to produce about 98 - 99.5% pure copper (USEPA.)
The melting point of copper is 1084.62C. This helps it hold its shape
under extreme temperature. When compared to other metals such as gold,
whose melting point is 1064.18 C, it can be seen that coppers melting point isnt
too far off from the norm. The density of copper is 8.96 g/cm3, which is relatively
low. This can be compared to nickel, which has a density of 8.9 g/cm3. Both of
these metals are used in coins due to their resistant nature and low weight. As for
electrical conductivity, copper is second only to silver. Copper is measured to
have 5.96x107S/M (Siemens per meter) while silver is 6.30x107 S/M (UNCP).
Copper has an atomic mass of 63.546 amu, 29 protons and electrons, and
35 neutrons. Copper breaks the rule in electron configuration where lower sub
shells are filled first. Coppers electron configuration is below:
[AR] 3d10 4s1.
Figure 2. Copper Electron Configuration
Figure 2 shows Coppers electron configuration. Copper is a special case
because one would expect a configuration as seen in figure 3 below.
[AR] 3d9 4s2
Figure 3. Expected Electron Configuration of Copper
Figure 3 shows what Coppers electron configuration would be if it
followed the general rule.

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This occurs because the 3d sub shell becomes more stable due to the
repulsion force between paired electrons. Coppers electron configuration plays
the largest role in its conduction of electricity however. When many copper
atoms combine, they arrange in a face centered cubic formation with bonds that
lack a covalent character and are relatively weak. This leads to low overall
hardness in the metal and high ductility. This then plays off of the missing 4s
electron when current is run through it as each copper atom becomes a positive
copper ion and these free floating electrons allow electricity to easily conduct
through it (UNCP). The peculiar arrangement of electrons in copper also effect
its color by giving it a reddish hue because of the electrical transitions between
the full 3d shell and half empty 4s shell. These electrical differences correspond
to orange light and result in copper having an orange appearance. The high
electrical and thermal conductivity of copper make it favorable for many things in
modern industrial design (Copper Development). The modern applications range
from uses in wires for automotives and other electrical appliances, to pipes for
plumbing because of its relative abundance and high electrical conductivity
(Copper Development). More specifically, copper can be used as an antimicrobial
plating or as a serum to prevent Osteoporosis and improve bone density
( Bahrami, Bekheirnia, Hossein). Another application for coppers antimicrobial
and antibiotic properties is its use as a fungicide when encapsulated with certain
polymers. Copper works as a fungicide because when copper is combined with
these polymers, the chemical makeup of these substances disrupt the fungus cell
division and ultimately kills the fungus

( Amany, Ayana, Yosreya).

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Next, the experiment that was conducted to determine if the unknown

metal was indeed copper or simply an unknown metal using Linear Thermal
Expansion is outlined. In order to conduct this experiment, background research
had to be performed to gain a more complete appreciation for what Linear
Thermal Expansion is and how it can be used to determine the identity of an
unknown metal.
When heat is added or removed from an object, a change in length that is
proportional to the addition or removal of heat can be observed (Duffy). When an
object expands after the introduction of heat, without going through a phase
change, then it is said to have undergone linear thermal expansion. Most
materials expand when heated because it raises the overall kinetic energy of the
atoms that make up the material. This in turn leads to a greater degree of
separation between the atoms and an increase in size can be observed (Hester).
Linear thermal expansion is measured in meters per degrees Celsius. Since
every material has a different expansion coefficient, or how much an objects
length changes based on the amount of heat added to it, linear thermal
expansion is an intensive property (Webster). This makes it very useful for
identifying unknown materials. To calculate the change in length the formula
L=L T

can be used (Hester). In this formula,. L is the change in length, L is

the initial length of the object (in meters) and, T is the change in temperature
(in Celsius) (Hester). The formula can be manipulated in order to calculate the
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expansion coefficient. This formula adds an additional use to linear thermal

expansion in the fact that it allows the expansion coefficients of different
materials to be calculated precisely and quickly. This in turn means that
adequate room may be given for the expansion of metals or other building
materials in architecture.
In an experiment designed by Clemson University, a caliper is used to
determine the length of a metal rod before and after heat is added to it. It
provides strategies on how to accurately use the caliper in order to produce the
most accurate results possible. The designers suggest using steam as the
source of heat to be applied to the metal rod. This provides an alternate way to
perform the experiment. Also, in the procedure, the creators provide a table that
lists some accepted thermal expansion values for metals. Among these metals is
copper which is what the researches are testing for. This creates a good starting
point as well as provides a comparison to other metals (Clemson).
In an experiment designed by Appalachian State University, the creators
provide multiple ways in order to determine the temperature change of a system.
In one of the experiments they outline how to use a thermometer properly to
record the temperature change. This is important to our research because this
experiment outlines a basic procedure on how to conduct a process involving
linear thermal expansion with materials that are cheap and easily associable.
The accuracy of each method is also commented on and will allow the
researchers to use the more efficient method in order to produce the most
accurate results (Pegram).
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Although the linear thermal expansion coefficient of an object is an

intensive property it is never wise to rely solely on one source to come to a
conclusion. As such a second portion of the experiment in which the specific
heat value for the unknown and know metal was found and compared must be
conducted. Similar to linear thermal expansion background research and
information from previous experiments was used to gain a more complete
understanding of just what specific heat was and how it could be used to
determine the identity of an unknown metal.
Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one
gram of a material by one degree Celsius or kelvin (measured in J/gC) (Bond).
Since this property does not depend on the quantity of a substance, it is said to
be intensive. On a molecular level, when a material is heated up, the molecules
speed increases as well as its kinetic energy. This is one of the concepts of The
Kinetic Molecular Theory as well as the first law of thermodynamics. Metals
usually have a low specific heat because the atoms are closely packed together
which allows for easier transport of energy. Specific heat is useful when trying to
identify an element because each metal has its own energy requirement in order
for its temperature to be raised one degree Celsius.
Specific heat is measured in J/gC. It calculates the heat energy released
or absorbed, q, by multiplying the specific heat, s (in J/g*K), the mass, g (in
grams), and the change in temperature, t.
sm t=sm t

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First, an experiment outlined by Howard Universitys general physics

handbook and designed by D.D.Venable, A.P.Batra, T.Hubsch,
D.Walton&M.Kamal demonstrates how to calculate specific heat. In the
experiment, the identity of an unknown metal is determined by using specific
heat. The experiment was carried out by creating a calorimeter out of coffee cups
because they will create and isolated system in turn shielding the system from
the surroundings and thus improve the accuracy of the experiment (Venable,
Batra, Hubsch, Walton, Kamal). Once the coffee cup calorimeter is constructed,
the unknown metal mass is weighed and then heated in boiling water and
allowed to reach equilibrium with the water. After the metal is heated, it is then
placed into the calorimeter and the temperature change of the water inside the
calorimeter is recorded. This data is then used to calculate specific heat and
determine the unknown metal. This is relevant because it gives insight on how to
use specific heat in a classroom environment, as well as a practical way to create
a calorimeter.
Secondly, an experiment developed by Davidson College displays how to
calculate specific heat for copper. The accuracy of the calorimeter is checked in
this experiment. This is important because not all calorimeters are equal in their
ability to insulate the system from the surroundings (Davidson). This means that
by finding and correcting the faults of the calorimeter the accuracy by which a
metal may be defined is improved. This is performed by using the calorimeter to
determine the specific heat of a metal and then comparing it to the known
specific heat of that metal. Since the researchers original metal was copper, this
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experiment gives valuable information on how to determine if the mystery

element is copper, as well as ways to increase the accuracy of a calorimeter.

Problem:
To reaffirm the belief that the identity of the unknown metal is copper by
testing the Specific Heat and the Linear Thermal Expansion coefficient.
Hypotheses:
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After testing the unknown metals specific heat and linear thermal
expansion coefficient, the identity of the metal will be determined to be copper
within 1 percent margin of error.
Data:
Specific Heat is measured in J/gC. To calculate this, the equilibrium
temperature needs to measured in Celsius, using the Logger Pro device. Also,
the mass of the rods, in grams, will be recorded using a scale. The change in
temperature will collected using the Logger Pro device as well. The mass of the
water in calorimeter is 1 gram for every 1 ml of water.
Linear thermal expansion is measured in m/c (meters per degree
Celsius). The initial length of the rod will be measured in millimeters using a
TESR Caliper 00530085. The temperature of the water in the loaf pan will be
measured in Celsius using a thermometer. The room temperature will also be
measured in Celsius using a thermometer. Finally, the change in length will be
measured in millimeters using a Linear Thermal Expansion jig.

Experimental Design:
Specific heat:
Materials:
Thermometer (0.1C accuracy)
Scout Pro Electronic Scale (.01 accuracy)
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Half Inch Diameter PVC Pipe

PVC Pipe Insulator (Therma-cel seam-seal pipe insulation)
PVC Cement
PVC half inch Diameter Caps
(2) Unknown Metal Mass
(2) Copper (Cu) Metal Rod
Tap Water
Ti-Nspire Calculator
Logger Pro
Tongs
Hot Plate
Stopwatch
Graduated Cylinder
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Using the Ti-Nspire calculator, randomize 15 trials. (See Appendix A).

Construct the calorimeter (See appendix B).
Set up Logger Pro (See appendix C).
Fill the calorimeter with 20 ml of tap water for the unknown metals and 30

ml for the known metal.

5. Fill the loaf pan up with 500 ml of tap water.
6. Measure metal mass in grams using the scale. Record to hundredths
place
7. Set the hot plate to the max setting and place the loaf pan of water on it.
8. Using the Logger Pro, measure the water until it is at 100C (boiling) once
the metal mass has reached thermal equilibrium with the water, carefully
remove the metal using the tongs and place it in the calorimeter (assume
temperature will be equal after 2 minutes).
9. Seal the calorimeter using the PVC pipe cap.
10. Using the Logger Pro, insert the measuring probe into the calorimeter, stir
the probe, and record the temperature of the water (record equilibrium
temperature).
11. Use the highest recorded temperature for further calculations.
12. Remove the lid of the calorimeter and remove the metal mass.
13. Empty the calorimeter
14. Repeat steps 1-14 for 15 trials.

12

Loaf Pans

Beaker

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Copper and unknown metal rods,

Tongs, and Temperature Probe
Logger Pro
Hot Plate
Calorimeters
Scout Pro
Electronic
Scale

Ti-Nspire Calculator
Figure 4. Materials Used for the Specific Heat Trials
Figure 4 shows the materials that were used in order to conduct the
Specific Heat Trials

Linear Thermal Expansion:

Materials:
Thermometer (0.1C accuracy)
(2) Unknown metal rods
(2) Copper (Cu) metal rods
Tap Water
Ti-Nspire calculator
Tongs
Hot Plate
Stopwatch
TESR Caliper 00530085
Loaf Pan
Linear Thermal Expansion Jig
Procedure:
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1.
2.
3.
4.

Using the Ti-Nspire calculator, randomize 15 trials (See Appendix A).

Fill the loaf pan up with 500 ml of tap water.
Set the hot plate to the max setting and place the loaf pan of water on it.
While the water is heating up, use the caliper to measure the metal rod in

millimeters, this is the initial length. Round to hundredths place.

5. Once metal rod is boiling (100C), use the tongs to place the metal rod in
the water.
6. Let the rod remain in the water for 2 and half minutes, then use the tongs
to remove the rod and place it in the Thermal Expansion Jig. Make sure to
quickly maneuver the rod into the jig because any mistakes could skew
the data.
7. Mark the initial reading on the jig in millimeters.
8. Let rod remain in the jig for 2 minutes (after 2 minutes it is assumed that
the metal rod will be at room temperature) and then record the change in
length in millimeters to a 0.01 accuracy.
9. Use data to calculate the expansion coefficient
10. Repeat steps 1-8 for 15 trials.
Loaf Pan and
Hot Plate
Linear Thermal Expansion Jig
Ti-Nspire
Calculator
and
Thermometer

Stopwatch, Tongs, and Copper

and unknown metal rods
TESR Caliper 00530085
Figure 5. Materials Used for Linear Thermal Expansion
Figure 5 shows the materials that were used to conduct the Linear
Thermal Expansion trials.

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Data and Observations:

Table 1. Unknown Metal Specific Heat Data Table

Trial

Ro
d

Initial Temp
C
Water Metal
26.4
100

Equilibrium
Temp (C)

22.5

98.3

49.9

21.4

97.5

49.3

23.4

98.3

47.3

21.4

98.0

48.5

20.2 100.1

27.1

19.4

97.5

27.5

20.5

97.1

53.2

23.6 106.9

44.8

10

20.7

98.0

45.9

11

20.9 100.2

45.9

12

25.7

51.3

99.0

30.5

Change In
Specific
Temperature
Mass (g)
Heat
(C)
(J/gC)
Water Metal Water Metal
4.10
-69.5
30 28.37
0.261
106.9
27.4
-48.4
30
0
0.665
107.0
27.9
-48.2
20
0
0.453
107.0
23.9 -51.00
30
0
0.550
107.0
27.1
-49.5
20
0
0.428
106.9
6.90
-73.0
20
0
0.074
106.9
8.10
-70.0
20
0
0.091
107.0
32.7
-43.9
20
0
0.583
106.9
21.2
-62.1
20
0
0.267
106.9
25.2
-52.1
20
0
0.379
106.9
25.0
-54.3
20
0
0.360
106.9
25.6
-47.7
20
0
0.420
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13

22.5

99.0

39.8

17.3

-59.2

20

14

26.2

99.4

44.2

18.0

-55.2

20

15
Average

22.7
22.5

98.7
99.2

53.2
43.9

30.5
21.4

-45.5
-55.31

20
22

106.8
0
107.0
0
106.9
0
101.7

0.229
0.255
0.525
0.369

Table 1 shows the data collected for the 15 trials for the unknown metal
when specific heat was performed. The specific heat was calculated by using the
data collected for each trial (See Appendix D for sample calculation).

Table 2. Unknown Metal Observation Table

Trial Rod

Calorimeter

Date

Observation
Researcher 1 performed the trial. When the
metal was transferred into the calorimeter,
water splashed out of it which caused the
4/18/2013 amount of water to decrease

4/18/2013

4/18/2013

4/18/2013

4/18/2013

Researcher 1 performed. The water level

was lowered so water did not splash out
when the rod is placed in it.
Researcher 2 performed the trial. Rod was
easily transferred to the calorimeter with no
problem.
Researcher 2 performed the trial. The
intensity of the hot plate was turned down to
9 in order to maintain a more constant
temperature.
Researcher 2 performed the trial. Trial went
smoothly without any problems.
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4/18/2013

4/18/2013

4/18/2013

4/18/2013

10

4/18/2013

11

4/21/2013

12

4/21/2013

13

4/21/2013

14
15

B
A

A
A

4/21/2013
4/21/2013

Researcher 1 performed the trial. Logger pro

data collection was started a few seconds
late.
Researcher 1 performed the trial. The rod
was in the water for 5 seconds too long.
Researcher 2 performed the trial. The water
had to be refilled in the loaf pans.
Researcher 2 performed the trial. No
problems were encountered.
Researcher 1 performed the trial. This trial
produced the lowest percent error.
Researcher 1 performed the trial. The
Equilibrium temperature took longer than
usual to be reached.
Researcher 2 performed the trial. There was
trouble trying to remove the rod from the loaf
pan.
Researcher 2 performed the trial. No
problems were encountered.
Researcher 1 performed trial. Temperature
probe rubbed against rod during
measurement.
Researcher 2 performed trial. No problems

Table 2 shows the observations taken when specific heat was performed
on the unknown metal. The data of each trial was taken into consideration when
these observations were written.
Table 3. Unknown Metal Thermal Expansion Data Table

Trial

Rod

1
2
3
4
5
6

B
A
B
A
B
A

Origina
l
Length
(mm)
118.3
129.03
118.33
118.08
118.51
118.15

Change
Initial
in
Temp.
Length
(C)
(mm)
0.04
100
0.06
100
0.03
98.7
0.03
98.6
0.03
98.4
0.03
98.9

Final
Temp.
(C)
35.0
30.0
38.5
35.6
35.7
23.0

Change
in Temp.
(C)

Alpha
Coefficient
(1/C)

-65.0
-70.0
-60.2
-63.0
-62.7
-75.9

5.202E-06
6.643E-06
4.211E-06
4.033E-06
4.037E-06
3.345E-06
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7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Average

A
B
A
B
A
A
B
A
B

118.33
118.06
118.2
118.24
118.41
118.36
118.26
118.22
118.58
119.00

0.01
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.03
0.03

98.8
98.6
98.6
98.0
98.4
98.5
98.8
98.7
98.2
98.7

22.0
23.0
22.1
22.0
22.1
21.6
21.6
21.6
21.6
26.4

-76.8
-75.6
-76.5
-76.0
-76.3
-76.9
-77.2
-77.1
-76.6
-72.4

1.100E-06
4.482E-06
2.212E-06
3.338E-06
3.321E-06
1.099E-06
3.286E-06
5.486E-06
3.303E-06
3.673E-06

Table 3 shows the data collected when performing thermal expansion on

the unknown metal. The table includes the values needed to calculate the alpha
coefficient such as the change in length and the change in temperature (See
Appendix E for sample calculation).

Table 4. Unknown Metal Thermal Expansion Observation Table

Trial

Rod

Date

Observation
Researcher 1 performed the trial, the trial was
4/19/2013 executed with minimal errors

4/19/2013

4/19/2013

4/19/2013

4/19/2013

Researcher 1 performed the trial, the metal rod

was dropped during the phase where the rod
has to be inserted into the jig
Researcher 1 performed the trial, had to let
metal cool down because it was not fully
submerged
Researcher 2 performed the trial, the water had
to be refilled, but the trial had almost no error
Researcher 1 performed the trial, the trial had
almost no error and the window was closed

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4/19/2013

4/19/2013

4/19/2013

4/19/2013

10

4/19/2013

11

4/19/2013

12

4/19/2013

13

14

15

Researcher 2 performed the trial, the window

was open during this trial and as such the room
temperature fluctuated
Researcher 2 performed the trial; Room
temperature was lower due to a window
opening.
Researcher 1 performed the trial, Difficulty
placing rod straightly in the jig
Researcher 1 performed the trial, the water had
to be refilled because of evaporation
Researcher 1 performed the trial, the jig was
soaking wet by now and results may have been
affected by this.
Researcher 2 performed the trial, the trial was
executed with minimal errors
Researcher 1 performed the trial, the trial was
slower than usual and the window was open

Researcher 1 performed the trial, due to a

strong wind coming in from the window the
4/23/2013 room temperature fluctuated a lot
Researcher 2 performed the trial, room
4/23/2013 temperature seemed to stabilize
Researcher 2 performed the trial, no problems
4/23/2013 were encountered

Table 4 shows the observations taken when thermal expansion was

performed on the unknown metal. Procedure set up and fluency of the trial was
taken into consideration when the observations were written.
Table 5. Known Metal Specific Heat Data Table
Initial Temp C
Trial

1
2
3

Rod

A
A
A

Water

Metal

22.7
22.4
28.0

99.1
99.1
98.9

Equilibrium
Temp (C)

Change In
Temperature
(C)
Water

24.9
27.4
32.9

2.2
5.0
4.9

Metal
-74.2
-71.7
-66.0

Mass (g)
Water

Metal

30
30
30

27.94
28.40
28.48
19

Specific
Heat
(J/gC)

0.133
0.308
0.327

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4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

A
A
B
B
B
A
B
A
A
B
B
A

Average

31.8 98.6
23.9 99.8
26.4 98.6
23.3 101.2
21.7 98.7
23.1 99.3
21.5 99.0
29.7 99.3
21.5 98.5
23.3 101.2
27.2 99.9
23.3 101.3
24.7 99.5

25.2
28.5
30.6
24.4
27.8
26.9
27.4
27.5
28.8
26.6
26.5
28.3
27.6

-6.6
4.6
4.2
1.1
6.1
3.8
5.9
-2.2
7.3
3.3
-0.7
5.0
2.9

-73.4
-71.3
-68.0
-76.8
-70.9
-72.4
-71.6
-71.8
-69.7
-74.6
-73.4
-73.0
-71.9

30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30

28.47
28.30
28.34
28.50
28.40
28.30
28.37
28.46
28.49
28.50
28.36
28.40
28.38

0.396
0.286
0.274
0.063
0.380
0.233
0.365
0.135
0.461
0.195
0.042
0.303
0.260

Table 5 shows the data collected when specific heat was performed on the
copper metal samples. The averages for the data are presented. The specific
heat was calculated by using the data that was received from each trial. Each
trial was randomized.

Table 6. Known Specific Heat Observation Table

Trial

Rod

Calorimete
r

4/20/201
3

4/20/201
3

4/20/201
3

4/20/201
3

4/20/201
3

Date

Observation
Researcher 1 performed the trial, the trial
took longer than the average time for other
trials
Researcher 1 performed the trial, the trial
was executed without a flaw
Researcher 1 performed the trial, the trial
was executed without any major
interruptions
Researcher 2 performed the trial, this trial
was executed perfectly with the window
being closed
Researcher 1 performed the trial, the
water had to be refilled

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4/20/201
3

4/20/201
3

8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Researcher 1 performed the trial, when

the metal was placed in the calorimeter a
small amount of water splashed out
Researcher 2 performed the trial, this trial
had a few errors such as a delay in the
temperature probes insertion into the
calorimeter

Researcher 2 performed the trial, this trial

was executed almost perfectly
Researcher 2 performed the trial, no
A
B
problems encountered
Researcher 1 performed the trial, the trial
4/20/201
B
A
was conducted without any major errors or
3
flaws
4/20/201 Researcher 1 performed the trial, water
A
B
was refilled
3
4/20/201 Researcher 2 performed the trial, Time
A
B
delay when placing rod in calorimeter
3
4/20/201 Researcher 2 performed the trial, Logger
B
A
pro had a delayed start time
3
Researcher 1 performed the trial, the
4/20/201 water level was very low on this trial,
B
A
3
however the metal was still submerged in
the water
4/20/201 Researcher 1 performed the trial, water
A
A
was refilled
3
Table 6 shows the observations taken when the specific heat procedure
B

4/20/201
3
4/20/201
3

was performed on the known metal copper. The trial set up and fluency was
taken into consideration when the observations were written.
Table 7. Known Thermal Expansion Data Table

Trial

Rod

1
2
3
4
5

B
B
A
A
A

Original
Length
(mm)
129.09
129.03
129.27
129.30
129.41

Chang
e In
Length
(mm)
0.08
0.06
0.01
0.03
0.03

Initial
Temp.
(C)
98.5
98.6
98.7
98.3
98.5

Final
Temp.
(C)
23.0
30.0
31.7
27.8
23.1

Change
Alpha
in
Coefficient
Temp.
1/ C
(C)
-75.5 8.208E-06
-68.6 6.779E-06
-67.0 1.155E-06
-70.5 3.291E-06
-75.4 3.075E-06
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6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Average

A
B
A
A
A
B
A
B
B
A

129.32
129.03
129.12
129.39
129.37
128.90
129.33
129.11
128.92
129.40
129.20

0.06
0.01
0.06
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.05
0.08
0.04
0.06
0.05

99.2
99.2
99.4
98.7
96.1
98.5
97.5
98.2
98.2
97.5
98.3

27.6
27.6
22.7
23.4
24.1
25.5
22.9
25.3
22.9
22.5
25.3

-71.6
-71.6
-76.7
-75.3
-72.0
-73.0
-74.6
-72.9
-75.3
-75.0
-73.0

6.480E-06
1.082E-06
6.058E-06
7.800E-06
8.159E-06
8.077E-06
5.182E-06
8.075E-06
4.120E-06
6.182E-06
5.582E-06

Table 7 shows the data collected when the specific heat procedure was
performed on the known metal copper. The alpha coefficient was calculated by
using the data collected from each trial.

Table 8. Known Metal Thermal Expansion Table

Trial

Rod

Date

4/17/2013

4/17/2013

4/17/2013

4/17/2013

4/17/2013

4/17/2013

Observation
researcher 1 performed the trial, Rod
had to be adjusted into jig
researcher 2 performed the trial,
trouble extracting rod from water
researcher 2 performed the trial, the
trial went well besides a window being
open that could of skewn data
researcher 1 performed the trial, the
trial went better than the previous trial
but the window was still open
researcher 2 performed the trial, the
rod had to be reheated because it was
dropped on the table
researcher 2 performed the trial, the
water had to be refilled
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4/17/2013

4/17/2013

4/17/2013

10

4/17/2013

11

4/19/2013

12

4/19/2013

13

4/19/2013

14

4/19/2013

15

4/19/2013

researcher 1 performed the trial, no

problems
researcher 1 performed the trial, rod
was fluently transferred
researcher 2 performed the trial, the
trial was carried out without a problem
researcher 2 performed the trial, the
window was reopened and room
temperature was lower
researcher 1 performed the trial, the
window was closed and room
temperature increased
researcher 2 performed the trial, an
unusually low room temperature was
recorded
researcher 1 performed the trial, the
water was refilled and the trial was
executed quickly and without error
researcher 2 performed the trial,
trouble placing rod in jig
Researcher 1 performed trial. No
Errors

Table 8 shows the observations taken when thermal expansion

Table 8
was performed on the known metal copper. The set up and fluency of
each trial were taken into
Data
consideration.
Analysis and Interpretation:
In this experiment, the researchers performed two procedures to
determine if two sets of metals were the same. In one procedure, the specific
heat was calculated. In order to measure the change in temperature, a Logger
Pro device was used. The temperatures for the water in the calorimeter and loaf
pan were measured using a standard thermometer. As for linear thermal
expansion, the original length of the rod was measured using the Caliper. Like
Specific Heat, the loaf pans water temperature was measured using a standard
thermometer. In order to calculate the change in length, the rod was placed in a
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jig that would track the length of the rod for every 0.01 millimeters as it cooled
down. The data collected is considered to be valid due to the box plots and
normal probability plots shown below.

Table 9. Percent Error for Known Specific Heat

Trial

Rod

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
A
B
A
A

Known Specific
heat
-65.40251141
-19.94569165
-15.0106788
2.970449729
-25.67514555
-28.94531265
-83.61528822
-1.231726814
-39.53406178
-5.303952029
-64.89931904
19.85325518
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13
14
15
Averag
e

B
B
A

-49.3962789
-89.03653197
-21.37131632
-32.43627401

Table 9 shows the percent errors for known specific heat, the range of
error varied from -89.037 to 19.853. The percents are somewhat close to each
other with the exceptions of trials 7 and 14. According to the data, in these trials
the change of the water temperature was significantly lower than the rest of the
trials.

Table 10. Unknown Specific Heat Percent Error Values

Trial

Rod

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
A
B
A

Unknown Specific
Heat
-32.20589723
72.65521358
17.58023649
42.78945903
11.20933819
-80.78194343
-76.47280155
51.30747948
-30.58912846
-1.656410845
-6.389747673
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12
13
14
15
Averag
e

A
B
B
A

9.120117027
-40.52778884
-33.76148435
36.29241265
-4.095396395

Table 10 shows the unknown Specific Heat errors. The errors ranged
from -80.782 to 72.655. Unknown specific heat had jumped in error for trials 2, 6
and 7. This could be due to the fact that the change in metal temperature was
lower than the other trials. When the error values for both known and unknown
Specific Heat are compared, there is a range of 44.547 percent. Due to the
quality of the materials used, this range is somewhat insignificant and the data
can still be used

Table 11. Percent Error for Known Thermal Expansion

Trial

Rod

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
A

Known Thermal
Expansion
-0.503
-0.589
-0.930
-0.801
-0.814
-0.607
-0.934
-0.633
-0.527
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10
11
12
13
14
15
Averag
e

B
A
A
B
B
A

-0.506
-0.510
-0.686
-0.511
-0.750
-0.625
-0.662

Table 11 shows the known Thermal Expansion errors. The values seem to
have a constant range from -0.934 to -0.503.

Table 12. Percent Error for Unknown Thermal Expansion

Trial

Rod

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
A

Unknown Thermal
Expansion
-0.684733413
-59.73955518
-0.744761635
-0.755589186
-0.755310817
-0.797249558
-0.933310115
-0.728386424
-0.865949901
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10
11
12
13
14
15
Averag
e

B
A
A
B
B
A

-0.797670459
-0.798755328
-0.933413719
-0.800849163
-0.667538985
-0.799830873
-4.72019365

Table 12 shows the error values for unknown Thermal Expansion. The
percents range from -59.740 to -0.668. There seemed to be a problem with trial 2
because the original length of the rod is much higher than the others. This could
have been done to one of the researchers reading the caliper incorrectly (See
Appendix F for sample calculation of percent error).
It was determined that a two sample T-test was the most appropriate test
to assess the data collected during this experiment. This is because the
population mean and standard deviation were unknown. In order for this test to
be ran, some assumptions had to be met, the first being that the two samples
were from two independent populations. This means that the known metal trials
did not influence the results of the unknown metal trials in anyway and vice
versa. The next assumption that had to be met was that the two samples are
simple random samples (SRS). This assumption is met due to the fact that the
metal rod, calorimeter, metal pan, and the researcher performing the trial were
chosen at random for each and every trial. The final assumption that had to be
met was that the two samples are normally distributed. In most situations, a
sample is normally distributed if thirty or more data points are collected, however
due to time restraints, thirty samples could not be collected. Instead, examining a
28

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normal probability plot of the data as well as a box plot, can assess the normality
of the data.

Figure 6. Normal Probability Plot For Known Metals Specific Heat

Figure 6 shows the normal probability plot for the data collected from the
known metals specific heat trials. The data is said to be normal if it exhibits a
linear slope. As shown in Figure 1, the data follows a linear slope and as such
can be considered normal even though thirty trials were not collected.

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Figure 7.Normal Probability Plot for Unknown Metals Specific Heat.

Figure 7 shows the normal probability plot of the data collected from the
unknown metals specific heat trials. Again this data is considered normal
because of the linear slope it displays even though less than thirty data points
were collected
Another way to look at the normality of the data is to examine a box plot of
the data and scrutinize the inner quartile range of the data as well as looking at
the median and comparing that to any outliers.

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Figure 8.Box Plots of Known and Unknown Metals Specific Heat.

Figure 8 displays the box plots of the Specific Heat data collected for the
known and unknown metals. The black line represents the median value which
is 0.286 for the known metals and 0.379 for the unknown metals. The inner
quartile range was 0.23 for the known metals and 0.27 for the unknown metals.
No outliers were recorded for either trials and the inner quartile ranges were
relatively small, which in turn points to the validity of the data recorded. Next, the
box plot itself for the known metal is fairy symmetrical meaning that the median is
not primarily on one side of the inner quartile range, as such this is further
evidence that the data is normally distributed. Next the box plot for the unknown
metal is fairly symmetrical as well with the median value being close to centered
in the inner quartile range. This in turn is related to the validity and normality of
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Nunez - Serraiocco

the data. When the two box plots are compared, the unknown metals median is
greater than that of the known. Also, the unknown metals have a slightly larger
inner quartile range. Despite this there is some overlap in the data suggesting
that similar results were achieved.
The observations recorded from the median values and inner quartile
range values of the plots allows a hypothesis to be formed about the identity of
the unknown metal however in order gain more certainty on the topic further
testing must be conducted.
The first step to this further testing is to form a hypothesis about the
two metals and then perform a two sample t-test and reject or fail to reject the
null hypothesis based off of the p-value obtained from the t test.
H o : Known =Unknown
H a : Known Unknown

The null hypothesis, H0, is that the mean specific heat value of the
unknown metal will not be significantly different from the mean value of the
known metal (copper). The alternative hypothesis, Ha, is that the mean specific
heat value of the unknown and known metals will be significantly different.
A two-sample T-test was used to determine if the data was significant or
not. The formula for a two-sample T-test is shown below.

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A two-sample T-test requires two SRSs from two distinct independent

populations. These populations must be normally distributed and the population
mean and standard deviation must be unknown. All of the criteria were met to be
able to conduct the test, which was done on a TI-NSPIRE CX calculator software
(See Appendix G to see a sample calculation).

Figure 9. Results of the Two Sample T Test for Specific Heat

Figure 9 shows the results of the two sample T-test. In the figure above,
the alternative hypothesis was that the two sample means would statistically
different (not the same). The T value was -1.97672 and this is the test statistic
for the test. The p value is the percent chance of getting results this extreme or
more extreme or could be looked at in a ay such as how much available room is
left after T standard deviations away from the population mean. Df is the
33

Nunez - Serraiocco

degrees of freedom.

is the sample mean with

mean of the known metal, while

metal.

and

standing for the sample

stands for the sample mean of the unknown

stands for the sample standard deviation with the 1 and

2 being assigned to the known metal and unknown metal respectively. Finally

and

is the total number of samples with the 1 and 2 going to the known

and unknown metals respectively.

Figure 10. Density Curve for Specific Heat

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Nunez - Serraiocco

Figure 10 shows the p value obtained during the two sample T-test for
specific heat. As shown in this figure, the p value obtained was almost two
standard deviations away from the mean with a P-value of 0.0590. The shaded
area in the figure is the visual representation of the percent chance that results
as extreme or more extreme than those obtained during this experiment would
occur again based off of chance alone if the null hypothesis is true.

The null hypothesis was rejected because the p-value was equivalent to
0.058999 which is much less than the alpha level of 0.1.there is convincing
evidence that the unknown metal is not copper based off of this p value.
According to the determined p value there is an estimated 5.8 percent chance of
obtaining results as extreme or more extreme than the results accumulated
during this experiment if the null hypothesis is correct.
As stated before, it was determined that a two sample T-test was the most
appropriate test to assess the data collected during the experiment to determine
the linear thermal expansion of the metals. This is because the data meets the
three assumptions for a two sample t test and as such the test could be carried
out to analyze the data.

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Figure 11. Normal Probability Plot of the Known Metals Expansion Coefficient

Figure 11 shows the data collected for the known metals expansion
coefficient plotted on a normal probability plot. Due to the linear slope of the data
it can be said to be normally distributed even though 30 separate data points
were not collected

Figure 12. Normal Probability Plot of the Unknown Metals Expansion Coefficient

36

Nunez - Serraiocco

Figure 12 displays the data collected for the unknown metals expansion
coefficient plotted on a normal probability plot. Unlike the previous distribution
this data takes on a far less linear slope. This in turn means that the normality of
the data may be questionable and as such could affect the reliability of further
tests. However, due to the fact that the data does form a slight linear slope the
data is slightly normal and for the purposes of this test it will suffice.
Another way to look at the normality of the data is to examine a box plot of
the data and scrutinize the inner quartile range of the data as well as looking at
the median and comparing that to any outliers.

Figure 13. Box Plot of Data for the Known Metals Expansion Coefficient

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Nunez - Serraiocco

Figure 13 displays the box plots of the different expansion coefficients

obtained for the known and unknown metals during the thermal expansion
portion of the experiment. The median value obtained was 6.182x10 -61/C for the
known metal and 3.345x10-6 for the unknown metal. The inner quartile range for
the known metal was large for the data set at 4.784x10 -6C while the inner
quartile range of the unknown metal was relatively small at 1.196. An inner
quartile range this large for the known value shows that there was much variation
between the trials however with no outliers in the data; the data is still credible
and valid for use in further testing. An inner quartile range that is as small as the
one displayed by the unknown metals indicates that there was little variation
between the trials. However there is a problem with the data collected for the
unknown metal. This problem is that the data is skewed to the right which in turn
means that the data is not normal and as such the validity of said data and any
results taken from the two sample t test must be questioned and any conclusions
taken from these results must be carefully scrutinized.
Even with the data for the unknown metal being non-normally distributed a
two sample t test was still used to analyze the data. As stated before, a
hypothesis must be formed in order to conduct the two sample t test.

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The null hypothesis, H0, is that the mean expansion coefficient value of the
unknown metal will not be significantly different from the mean value of the
known metal (copper). The alternative hypothesis, Ha, is that the mean expansion
coefficient of the unknown and known metals will be significantly different.
A two-sample T-test was used to determine if the data was significant or
not. The formula for a two-sample T-test is shown below.

A two-sample T-test requires two SRSs from two distinct populations,

independent samples, normally distributed populations, and unknown population
means and population standard deviations. All of the criteria were met to be able
to conduct the test, which was done on a TI-NSPIRE CX calculator software.

Figure 14. Results of the Two-Sample T Test

39

Nunez - Serraiocco

Figure 14 shows the results of the two sample T-test. In the figure above
the alternative hypothesis was that the two sample means would statistically
different (not the same). The T value was 2.48579 and this is the test statistic for
the test. The p value is the percent chance of getting results this extreme or
more extreme in this case the p value was .020538.

Figure 15 Density Curve for Linear Thermal Expansion

Figure 15 shows the density curve for the p value obtained during the two
sample T-test on thermal expansion. In this figure the shaded regions are the
visual representations of the area left in the density curve after x standard
deviations away from the mean. These small shaded regions on the far end of
the curve are also the visual representations of the chance of getting results as
extreme or more extreme than those obtained during this experiment if the null
hypothesis is true.
The null hypothesis was rejected because the p-value was equivalent to
0.020538, which is much less than the alpha level of 0.1.there is convincing
40

Nunez - Serraiocco

evidence that the unknown metal is not copper based off of this p value.
According to the determined p value there is an estimated 2.1 percent chance of
obtaining results as extreme or more extreme than the results accumulated
during this experiment if the null hypothesis is correct.

Conclusion:
To recap, the purpose of this experiment was to determine if an unknown
set of metals was copper by test its Specific heat value and Linear Thermal
Expansion coefficient. The researchers hypothesized that the unknown metal
would be identified as copper within a 1% error margin. After the conduction of
the experiment, the hypothesis was rejected because the unknown metal was
indeed not copper. This conclusion is based off two two sample T-tests that were
run on the unknown metals Specific Heat value and Linear thermal Expansion
coefficient. After the T-tests were conducted, a p-value of 0.058999 was
obtained for Specific Heat and a value of 0.020538 for Linear Thermal
Expansion.
The data did not support the hypothesis because the p-values were lower
than the alpha level of 0.1, there is significance evidence that the unknown metal
was not copper. The experiment proposed was well designed given the
equipment available, time constraints and lab conditions. While testing, problems
are bound to occur. One such problem was how there was many researchers
41

Nunez - Serraiocco

performing experiments in the lab which caused the room temperature to

fluctuate greatly. This could have affected the data because if the room was
hotter at one point then another, it could cause the rod to cool down slower, thus
affecting the data. Also, a window was opened from time to time which
contributed to the fluctuating room temperature. Next, some trials had to be
discarded because of how the rod was transferred to either the calorimeter or
Linear Thermal Expansion Jig. The rod would slip out of the tongs and hit the
table or floor which caused the temperature to change drastically, thus the trial
had to be discarded. For the Specific Heat trials, the unknown metal contained
much more mass than the known copper, so when it was transferred to the
calorimeter, water would sometimes splash out of the container onto the table
which could have affected the data because the procedure called for 20 ml of
water, and if some of that splashes out, a higher Specific Heat value will be
produced. This is due to the fact that since there was less water, it would heat up
to a higher temperature.
In order to improve the accuracy of this experiment, the metals should be
allowed more time to heat up as well as cool down. However, due to time
constraints, this was not possible. Also, the water that is being boiled should be
kept in an isolated system to maintain a constant temperature. The quality of the
materials used can be improved to achieve more accurate data because the
equipment could read to more significant figures to give a more exact answer.
For example, the materials used to build the calorimeter can be greatly modified
to achieve a more isolated system. The way in which the rods were transferred to
42

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the measuring devices could be handled in a more professional way. One such
way could be a machine that can flawlessly transport the metals to its
destination. This would ensure that there is no outside source affecting the rod.
Other experiments that could be done include calculating the density of
the two metals and comparing them. In order to calculate density, the mass and
volume of the rods are needed. To measure the mass of the rod in grams, a
scale is needed. As for volume, a caliper can be used to measure the diameter
and length of the rod. Density is a reliable source to compare metals because
each metal has its own set density value. This means that if the two samples
density values did not match up, it could suggest that the metals were different.
Finally, although this experiment was conducted under heavy time
constraints and with sub-par materials, the results achieved are reliable. Even
though the percent error varied between the trials, the range received was small
enough to conduct a two sample T-test. The mining industry can benefit greatly
from this data because when metals are mined, many materials can be attached
to the ore that was mined. In order to identify the contents of the ore, the Specific
Heat value and Linear Thermal Expansion coefficient can be calculated. Another
way to determine if a substance is copper is to perform the pyrometallurgic
process. In this process, the ore would be fed into a furnace where it would
oxidize and melt. Then, segregated layers of materials would be formed in which
copper sinks to the bottom. After that, the hydrometallurgical process takes
place. This happens when the oxidized copper is leeched in sulfuric acid and the
final product is received. Also, auto manufacturers use copper in the electronic
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Nunez - Serraiocco

devices in cars. Plumbers benefit from this because copper pipes are used in
majority of home appliances because copper conducts heat very well and resists
corrosion. Finally, copper is a crucial material in todays world and this data can
be used to further the research of the applications of this metal.

Acknowledgements:
The researchers would like to thank Mrs. Jamie Hillard for her guidance
throughout the experiment as well as allowing the researchers to use her
equipment.
Thanks to Mr. Mark Supal for helping the researchers construct the
calorimeters as well as help with the formatting of this paper.
Thanks to Mrs. Christine Kincaid-Dewey for her guidance on the
interpretation section of this paper.
Finally, the researchers would like to thank their parents for their love and
support throughout this experiment.

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Appendix:
Appendix A: Randomizing Trials
1. Using the Ti-Nspire calculator, open a calculator page and press the menu
2.
3.
4.
5.

button.
Select the Probability option.
Choose the Random option.
Select the Integer Option.
Enter the number 1 followed by a comma on the keypad on the

calculator. Then enter the number 2.

6. Determine mentally which rod represents which number (i.e. the A rod is
1 and the B rod is 2).
7. Hit enter to randomly choose a number.
8. Repeat step 7 for the desired amount of trials.

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Appendix B: Constructing the Calorimeter

1. Cut the PVC pipe to be 6 inches long in length.
2. Drill a 1/8th inch hole into one of the half inch PVC pipe caps
3. Apply PVC pipe cement to the bottom of the pipe as well as the inside of the
undrilled cap.
4. Attach the undrilled cap to the bottom of the pipe and allow the cement to dry
overnight.
5. Place the drilled cap on top of the pipe.
6. Cover the pipe and bottom cap in PVC pipe insulation. Make sure to leave the
top cap uncovered.
Pipe Caps

Insulation

Calorimet
er

Figure16. Calorimeter
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Figure 16 shows a picture of the calorimeter, insulation, and pipe caps.

Appendix C: Setting up the Logger Pro

1. Connect the temperature probes to the Logger Pro device and insert them
into the calorimeters.
2. Select the home button on the screen and choose the LabQuest App.
3. Choose the Length option on the sidebar and change the settings to 180
seconds for data collection length and the rate to 2 samples per second.
4. When it is time to start the data collection, hit the green play button in the
bottom right hand corner. If you wish to finish collection before the time
limit, hit the red stop button.
5. Save the trial hitting the black floppy disk button towards the top right, and
save the file by going to the top and clicking file, save.

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Appendix D: Specific Heat Sample Calculation

To calculate specific heat, the following formula must be used:

In this case, s is specific heat in J/gC, m is mass in grams, and

is the

change in temperature in C. Below is a sample calculation for the first trial of the
known specific heat experiment.

Figure 17. Specific Heat Sample Calculation

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Figure 17 shows how to calculate specific heat using the data collected
from the first known metal trial. It should be noted that the specific heat of water
(4.184), is used in this equation.

Appendix E: Linear Thermal Expansion Sample Calculation

To calculate Linear Thermal Expansion, the following formula must be
used:

In this equation,

is the change in length in millimeters,

coefficient which is measured in 1/ C,

millimeters, and

is the alpha

is the initial length of the rod in

is the change in temperature in C. Below is a sample

calculation using the data collected from the first known metal rod trial.

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Figure 18. Linear Thermal Expansion Sample Calculation

Figure 18 shows the step by step process when calculating the Linear
Thermal Expansion alpha coefficient for the first trial for the known metals

Appendix F: Percent Error Sample Calculation

To calculate percent error, the following formula is used:

In this equation, the experimental value is the results received from

running the experiment while the true value is the accepted value of any

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particular data. Below is a sample calculation for the first trial of the known Linear
Thermal Expansion.

Figure 19. Percent Error Sample Calculation

Figure 19 shows a step by step process calculating the percent
error for the first trial in the Linear Thermal Expansion known rod set.

Appendix G: Two sample t-test Sample calculation.

The T statistic is calculated using the following formula:

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In this equation,

is known metal sample mean, while

is the

unknown metal sample mean. Below is a sample calculation for specific heat.

Figure 20. Statistical Test Sample Calculation

Figure 20 shows a step by step process to calculate the T value
with the data collected from the specific heat trials.

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