x30! J2,.3RS REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Second Edition W. F. Stoecker Professor of Mechanical Engineering University of Minow at Urbana-Champaign J. W. Jones Associate Professor of Mechantcal Engineering University of Texas at Austin McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York St. Louis San Fracisco Auckland Bogots (Caracas. Lisbon London Maisid Mexico City Milan ‘Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore ‘Sydney Tokyo Torontowi conTENTS: 240 a 212 243 aaa Das 2416 27 218 219 2.20 221 222 2.23 Chapter 3 34 32 33 34 35 Chapter 4 44 42 43 “4 45 46 47 48 49 Isentropic Compression — Bernoulli's Equation Heat Transfer Conduction Radiation Convection ‘Thermal Resistance Cylindrical Cross Section Heat Exchangers Heat-Transfer Processes Used by the Human Body Metabolism Convection Radiation Evapor Problems References Psychrometry and Wetted-Surface Heat Transfer Importance Psychzometric Chart Saturation Line Relative Humidity Humidity Ratio Enthalpy Specific Volume Combined Heat and Mass Tranafer; the Straight-Line Law [Adiabatic Saturation and Thermodynamic Wet-Bulb Temperature Deviation between Enthalpy and Wet-Bulb Lines Wet-Bulb Thermometer Processes Comment on the Basis of 1 kg of Dry Air ‘Transfer of Sensible and Latent Heat with a Wetted Surface Enthalpy Potential Insights Provided by Enthalpy Potential Problems References Heating- and Cooling-Load Calculations Introduction Health and Comfort Criteria ‘Thermal Comfort Air Quality Estimating Heat Loss and Heat Gain Design Conditions ‘Thermal Transmission Infiltration and Ventilation Loads ‘Summary of Procedure for Estimating Heating Loads 40 40 40 a2 a 43 4a 46 47 48 49 50 St 3 33 54 55 56 582 410 at 412 413 414 pada eee ae arararrdes > Chapter 6 6 62 63 4 65 66 or ‘Components of the Cooling Load Internal Loads > Solar Loads through Transparent Surfaces Solar Loads on Opaque Surfaces ‘Summary of Procedures for Estimating Cooling Loads Problems References Air-Conditioning Systems ‘Thermal Distribution Systems Cassie Single-Zone System Outdoor-Air Control Single-Zone-System Design Calculations Multiple-Zone Systems Terminal-Reheat System Dual-Duct or Multizone System Variable-Air-Volume Systems Water Systems Unitary Systems Problems References Fan and Duct Systems Conveying Air Pressure Drop in Straight Ducts Pressure Drop in Rectangular Ducts Pressure Drop in Fittings ‘The ¥2p/2 Term Sudden Enlargement ‘Sudden Contraction ‘Tums Branch Takeofts Branch Entries Design of Duct Systems ‘Velocity Method Equal-Friction Method Optimization of Duct Systems ‘System Balancing (Centrifugal Fans and Their Characteristics Fan Laws Air Distribution in Rooms Circular and Plane Jets Diffusers and Induction Problems References Pumps and Piping, Water and Refrigerant Piping Comparison of Water and Air as Heat-Conveying Media CONTENTS vil 1 1 B ” a 85 86 38 88 39 90 92 95 95 96 7 100 101 101 102 103 103 103 106 109 109 110 i 1B na 16 17 ut 118 19 120 120 123 14 12s 7 127 129 130 130 1316 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING tional vehicles, tractors, crane cabs, areraft, and ships. The major contstutor 7 tional ing loadin many of these vehics is heat from yolar radiation, and, jn he ure of public transportation, heat from people. The leads are also characterized Sa rapid changes and by a high intensity per unit volume in comparison fo building air conditioning. 116 Food storage and distribution Many meats ish, frat, and vegetable are perish aes eet hei storage life can be extended by refigeraticn. Fruits, many vegeta: apie cexsed meat, such 35 sausages ae stored at temperatres just slighty shove rae ere'te prolong ther life, Other meats, fish vegetables, and fits are fronen 20 eer e cay months at low temperatures until they are defrosted and cooked by the “ire jozen-food chain typically consists of the following links: freezing, strase sn cofngerated warehouses, display ina reigerated case a food markets, and Finally ar regen the home freezer or frozenfood compartment of s domestic rfsges\0r Home tay attempts to feeze food resulted ina product laced with ie crystals Freeing Jos dscovered that the temperature must be plunged rapidly throvah, ihe Hreering vone. Approaches!® to freezing food ineiode atrblast freezing, Where 8 ronunately -30°C is blown with high velocity over Fackages of food stashed Oy arr wallets; contact freecng, where the food is placed between metal plates 8 or Timmersion freezing, where the food is placed n ¢ lowtemperatre brine: sees od icezing, where the individual particles are cased along 3 convey" Dek ae in suspension by an upward-drected stream of sol ir (Fig1-S)iand free dng with eryogenie substance such as nitrogen of carbon dioxide. ening peas on a fidied bed conveyor ball (Lewis Reieaion Compan) Figure 1SAPPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 7 Figure 1-6 A refrigerated warehouse. (International Assocation of Refrigerated Warehouses) Storage Fruits and vegetables should be frozen quickly ater harvesting and meats frozen quickly after slaughter to maintain high quality. Truckloed and rallearioad lots are then moved {o refigerated warehouses (Fig. 1-6), where they ae stored at -20 to -23°C, perhaps for many months. To maintain a high quality is fish, the storage tem perature is even lower. Distribution Food moves from the refrigerated warehouses to food markets as needed to replenish the stock there. Inthe market the food is kept refrigerated in display cases heldat 3 t0 °C for dairy products and uifiozen fruits and vegetables at approximately 20°C for frozen foods and ie eam. In the United States about 100,000 refrigerated Aisplay cases ae sold each year. The consumer finally stores the food in a domestic refrigerator or freezer until used, Five milion domestic refrigerators are sold each year in the United States, and for several decades styling and first cost were paramount considerations in the design band manufacture of domestic refrigerators. The need for energy conservation, how: ‘ever, has brought back the engineering challenge in designing these appliances.{8 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 1:7 Food processing Some foods need operations in ion 9 freezing and refriger- 17 sEeoage ana these processes ental refrigeration 2892) ep produers ‘The chief dairy product are mils 8 Oar ‘and cheese. To pas- Dairy Pek se temperature is elevated to approximately "73°C and held for about 20 tea that process the mik is cooked and ultimately refiigerated to 3 or 4°C for Sorage, In manufacturing ice cream’ the iapesion ot first pasteurized and thor- roy ned. Then, refrigeration equipment cooks He to about 6°C, whereupon aaa aa freezer. The freezer drops the temperature ~5°C, at which temperature i ent ffens but remains fuid enough to flow fro a conlsine- From this point une rece cream i stored below freezing temperatures, he fs evatpundreds of varieties of cheese, cach pera BY © Aifferent.process, tut typical steps include bringing the temperate ‘of milk to about 30°C and then but Seal cubstances, including 2 cheese starter ont sometimes rennet. Part of adding tore alii into the curds, from which the awit ‘whey is drained. A curing evo’ in refigerated rooms follows for most cheeses at temperature of the order of 10°C. 1 aes Refrigeration is esenial in the production of such beverages as concen Beverage ye, beer, and wine, The taste of many drinks cP ‘be improved by serving, them cold nce qoenteates are popular because of thes hich geal and reasonable cost this le expensive to concentrate the jue close 601 orchards and ship it in its fro res ce than to sip the raw fruit, To preserve the Oe ‘of juice, its water must be serena a Low temperature, requiring the entre Poses 1° ‘be carried out at pres: sores much below atmospheric sree brewing industry refigeration controls the ferment reaction and pre: serve, some ofthe intermediate and final products. ANY eet fn the production of seal is Fermentation, an exothermic reaction, FOr producing a lagertype beer Fr sleoion should proceed at 8 temperature between ® fand 12°C, which is maintained ty refdgeration. From this point on in the Prosi he beer is stored in bulk and wlti ~ wy bottled or kegged (Pia, 1-7) in sfrigerated space: pear reason fr cefigerating bakery products 1% provide a better match ‘perween production and demand and thus prevent ‘Many breads and pastries are betwee lowing baking to prowde a longer shel! 1% ‘before being sold to the con: ftonen tq practice that provides freshly baked produc (and the enticing aroma as saranda supermarkets but achieves some Of OF advantages of high produc weld prepare the dough ina central locaton, fez fand then transport it to the Supermarket, where it is baked as needed rath geal and (006 products ae preseted Dy fm ‘rying, in which the produet frozen and then the water i remonee OY ‘ublimation (direct transition from rod water vapor), Te process takes place in a CHU “while heat is carefully appli vee svprodvet to provide the heat of sublimation. Some manufacturers of instar Ceaiee use the freeze-drying proces. 118 Chemical and process industis The chemi] ang PISS industries include th 18 ufacturers of chemicals petroleum refiners, ‘petrochemical plants, paper and pul martes, ete. These industsies require good engineering for their refrigeration sin. [APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 9 Figure 1-7 Refrigeration is eset in such beverage Indust a Drewes. (Anhewser Busch | Company, Inc) almost evry installation is diferent and the cost of each instalation is so high. Some important functions served by refigeation® in the chemical and process industries | are) separation of gases, (2) condensation of gases, (3) solidification of one sub- Stance in's mixture to separate it from others, (4) maintenance ofa low temperature Statored lguid so that the pressure will ot be excessive, and (S) removal of heat of reaction. "A mixture of hydrocarbon gates can be separated int its sonstituents by cooling the mixture so thatthe substance with the high-temperature boiling point condenses and can be physically removed from the remaining gas. Sometimes in petrochemical plants (Fig. 18) hydrocarbons, such as propane, are used asthe refrigerant. Propane Ir telauvely low in cost compared with other refigerants, andthe plant is completely equipped to handle flammable substances. In other applications separate refrigeration Units, such asthe large packaged unit shown in Fig. 1-9, prove refrigeration forthe proces. 419 Specal applications of reftigeation Other uses of refrgetion and air condition ing span sizes and capacities from small appliances tothe large indostal scaleAND AIR CONDITIONING 10 REFRIGERATION ‘ompresior house. cal Corp) a1 29°C, (Refrigeration et tergeation iit for condensing COp Figure 1.9 Twostage packs Enpneering Corporation).[APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 11 Drinking fountains Small refrigeration units chill drinking water for storage and use ss needed, - Denumdigiers An appliance to dehumidify air in homes and buildings uses a refriger- aavmvnit by fist passing the air to be dchumidifed through the cold evaporator col ae system, whefe the air is both cooled and dehumidified, Then this ool ar lows ver the condenser and is discharged tothe room. se anes ‘The production of ie may take place in domestic refrigerators ice makers wee ng restaurants and motes, and lage industrial fe makers serving food processing and chemical plants sre gurng rinks. Skaters, hockey players, and curlers cannot rely upon the weather to weevide the cold temperatures necessary to freeze the wate in ther fee nis, Pipes rng cold refrigerant or brine are therefore embedded infil of sid or sawdust ver which water fs poured and frozen." aoe vitrton: Refrigeration is sometimes used to freeze sol to fclitate excavations. A Coiresee of refrigeration is in cooling huge masses of concrete! (the chemical rea snwhich occurs during hardening gives off heat, which must be removed so that it vio we cguse expansion and stress the concrete) Concrete may be cooled by chilling sears gravel wate, and cement before mixing, asin Fig, 140, and by embedding chilled-water pips in the concrete saimieny of seawater One of the methods available for desalination of seawater’ is aeine edatwely saltire ice from the seawater, separate the ice, and remelt it to redeem fish water. 140 Precooling materia for concrete in a dam. (Sulzer Brother. Ine)12. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 1410 Conelusion The refsgeration and air-condition industry is characterized by Ttay growth. It isa stable industry in Which replacement markets join with new ap- plications to contribute tits health. tons cot of energy since the 1970s hss een a Seni factor in stim- lating technical challenges for te indvidual nest Innovative approaches to wating elficieney which once were considers) impractical now receive serious imprcving co and often prove to be economically jstied. A example is the re cosy of low-temperature heat By elevating the femesrame level of this energy with coreey Sump (which is cefiigeration system). THe Gaye ‘of designing the system of snest st cost with lite or no consideration of the oPaLN cost now seem to be past. REFERENCES 1. “ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals Volume Ames £008 of Heating, Reaigeratns, as Conditioning Engineers. Atlanta, Ga 1981 ana ten nope Fundamental” Asdemic New Yo 2 ae tnt iE, Woods: Development of « Hostal Ensy Management Index, MIRAE Trans, vol. 84 pt 2, 1978. ASHRAE Dont priation of Hah emer Iie Sones Hee systers, 3. SiRAb Trans, v0l. 82, pt 1, pP- 31-37. 1976 ASTRA ral nnd Pans, Symp. PHA191, ASHRAE Trans, vol 85. Pt} pp 307-333, 1978. 6: meaohmental Conta fr the Research Laboratory SYP Ag-18-3, ASHRAE Trans. Gaept 1. pp. $11-860, 1978. 1 eRe tabmal Consideration for Laboratory Asim SYP 1B0-15-8, ASHRAE Tron. vol 81, pt. 2, 1975. 0. eke Rooms, ASHRAE Syme. DE-ST-= Cae pdivoning Engncets, Atlanta, Ga 1967, 9 eat Simulation sfdeling of Automobile Com Fw 17, no. 5, pP- 53-85, May 1975 vo oe Prcguct Dect, Applications Volume” P33 society of ‘Handoeuating and A-Condioning Enon Ane 1998, 11 Raed. th Wats Down on, Refligatan, nd AE ‘Conditioners, Symp CH-77-13, RAE Trans, vo. 83, 1s PP. 793-838, 1977 IRAE Tr roa itor, Appcaons Votunes oP: Sg Society of a roe snd nirCondioning Engines, Attn C22 9278 rating ad No mil Mocs ins,” 4th oy McGraw NO American Society of Heating, Reftissating, a8 fort Cooling Requirements, ASHRAE Heating, 13, RN. Shreve an ‘York, 1977. a AETE ana wrotuct Dietor, Apbntions Yann et 55, American Society of “ranabon Tig and AurCondonig Ege Mans Oo 15, Brn Bar Conte Costing on Dam Consrvcton fs WoHls ingest Hydrosectie Power | een Tech. Rev, Yo. 61-80: 1,PP. 319.1979 16, WE, Johnson: Survey of Desain m1 ering Status and Potent, Nel, Water SuP- Ny inpran Aure J rok 40: 2,RP 2-14 Za 197 ; pefore 1981 the actual place of pubeaton for ASS material was New York, batt | queda sare sien for he conennce of readers who HAY Mth wo order from the society. |~ CHAPTER TWO Ohl. THERMAL PRINCIPLES 21 Roots of refrigeration and air conditioning Since a course in air conditioning and {efvigeration might easily be titled Applications of Thermodynamics and Heat Trans- fer, iti desirable to begin the technical portion of this text with a bref review of the basic elements of these subjects. This chapter extracts some of the fundamental prin- Ciples that are important for calculations used inthe design ané analysis of thermal Satems for buildings and industrial processes. The presentation ofthese principles is ittended to serve a very specific purpose and makes no attempt to cover the full range fof applications of thermodynamics and heat transfer. Readers who feel the need of a tore formal review are directed to basic texts in these subjects.‘~* "This chapter does, however, attempt to present the material in a manner which establishes a pattern of analysis that will be applied repeatedly throughout the re- mainder of the text. This process involves the identification of tie essential elements of the problem or design, the use of simplifications or ideaizations to model the sys tem to be designed or analyzed, and the application of the appropriate physical laws to obtain the necessary result. 2-2 Concepts, models, and laws Thermodynamics and heat transfer have developed from a general set of concepts, based on observations of the physical world, the spe- cific models, and laws necessary to solve problems and design systems. Mass and nergy are two of the basic concepts from which engineering science grows. From our ‘own experience we all have some idea what each of these i but would probably find it difficult to provide a simple, concise, one-paragraph definition of either mass or en- ergy. However, we are well enough acquainted with these concepts to realize that they fare easental elements in our description of the physical world in which we live, ‘As the physical world is extremely complex, itis virtually impossible to describe it precisely. Even if it were, such detailed descriptions would be much too cumber- some for engineering purposes. One of the most significant acccmplishments of engi neering science has been the development of models of physical phenomena which, although they are approximations, provide both a sufficiently accurate description and 8 tractable means of solution, Newton's model of the relationship of force to mass land acceleration is an example. Although it cannot be applied universally, within its ‘ange of application it is accurate and extremely useful 1314 REFRIGERATION AND AIK CONDITIONING Models in and of themselves, however, ae of lite value unless they can Be © presed in appropriate mathematical tems. The mathemati! expressions of modes Provide the basic equations, or laws, which allow engineering science 40 xPsin Pretict natural phenomena, The fint and second laws of thermodynamice and {he preaitunafer rate equations provide pertinent examples her. In this text we shall be Meing the use of these concepts, models, and laws in the description, desi, and “analysis of thermal systems in buildings and the proces industries * 443 Thermodynamic properties Another essential element in the analysis of thermal 23cm i the identification of the pertinent thermodynamic properties. A ropen) is 2s characteristic or attribute of matter which can be evaluated quantitatively. Ye sataure, pressure, and density are all properties. Workand heat transfer can bs eal aersn eerms of changes in properties, but they are not properties themselves. property i something matter “has.” Work and heat traf are things that a “Con rrorerim to change its properties. Work and heat can be measured only ‘he Koundary of the system, and the amount of energy transfered depends on how = siven change takes place. "a thermodynamics centers on energy, all thermedynamic properties are related to engy, The thermodynamic sate or condition of asystem is defined by the vali ose weoperties. In out considerations we shall examine eqlibium states and Find hat eo imple substance two intensive thermodynamic properties define the ste rae ree teture of substances, e., dry alr and water vapor, its necessary to define thace thermodynamic properties to specify the state, Once the state of the substance rae se Jetermined, all the other thermodynamic properties can be found since they are not all independently variable, "the thermodynamic properties of primary interest in this text are temperature, pressive, density and specific volume, specific heat, enthalpy, enteopy, and the gut ‘vapor property of state Tonperoure ‘The temperature + of a substance indeates its thermal sate and 4 eine to exchange energy with a substance in contact with it, Thus, a substance with a iigher temperature pases energy to one with a lower temperature. Reference point aes Celsos scale ae the freezing point of water (O°C) and the boiling point of water (100°C). " Geolute temperature Tis the number of degress above absolute zero expressed sn kelvine (K); thus T=1°C +273, Since temperature intervals on the two sles are lddential, differences between Celsius temperatures are stated in kelvins srenuie’ pressure p is the normal (perpendicular) force exerted by a fluid per wit area against which the force is exerted. Absolute pressure i the measure of PrESSS sibove sero: gauge pressure is measured above existing atmospheric pressure, “The amit used for pressure is newtons per square meter (N/m), also called @ ‘pascal (Pa). The newton i a unit of force ‘Standard atmospheric pressure is 101,325 Pa = 101.3 kPa. Pramuves are measured by such instruments as pressure gauges Or manometers, shown schematically installed in the air duct of Fig. 2-1. Because one end of the ma aoa open to the atmosphere, the deflection of water in the manometer indicates gauge pressure, jut asthe pressure gauge does.Figure 24 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 15 Manometer Lt Deflection (PY) resi se Air indicating the gauge pressure of air 2 duct with a pressure gauge and a manometer Density and specific volume The density p of a fluid is the mass occupying @ unit volume; the specifi fc volume » is the volume occupied by a unit mass. The density and seeeie volumes are reciprocals of each other. The density of rat standard atmo here pressure and 25°C is approximately 1.2 kgm? Example 2 What is the mass of air contained in a room of dimensions 4 by 6 bby 3 mif the specific volume of the airs 0.83 m?/kg? Solution The volume of the room is 72 m?, and so the mass of arin the room is nr = 86.7 amie Specific hear The specific heat of a substance isthe quantity of eneray requted to sreeihe temperature of a unit mass by 1 K. Since the magnitude of this quantity is influenced by how the process is eared out, how the heat is added or removed must a doceribed, The two most common descriptions are specific Heat at constant volume ¢, and specific heat at constant pressure Cy ‘The second is the more useful to us be Chuse it applies to most of the heating and cooling processes experienced in sir com ditioning a ind refriger ‘The approximate specific heats of several important substances are 4.19 kS/kg-K liquid water 10 KiykgK dry air 1188 KifkgK water vapor where J symbolizes the unit of energy, the joule. Example 2-2 What is the rate of eat input toa water heater if 0.4 ka/s of water ‘enters at 82°C and leaves at 93°C? Solution ‘The pressure of water remains essentially constant as it flows through the heater, 50 is applicable, The amount of energy inthe form of heat added to each kilogram is (4.19 ki/ke-K)(93 ~ 82°C) = 46.1 K/h,16 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING “The units on opposite sides of equations must balance, Dut the °C and K do can- el becuse the specific heat implies «change in terperctre expres kkelvins and Saga is change in temperature of 11°C. A change of tempers Celsius degrees 3e given magnitude isthe same change in Kelvns, To comes ‘Example 22, con- orn eietpt that O Kgl lows through the heater, The ate of heat input then is (044 kals) (46.1 kif) = 18.44 Kfs = 18:44 KW zs Enthalpy Ff the constant-presure process introduced above is further restricted by permitting no work to be done on the substance, ¢. ‘a compressor, the amount of Ferre or removed per Unit mas ithe change in enthalpy ofthe snes ‘Tables: ae orenthalpy h are avaable for many sbstanecs, Thete ental values are aaa emgnscd on some arbitrary chosen datum plane, For exam, the datum plane weeedtier and steam isan enthalpy value of 2x0 for liqud waved 8 (°C. Based on that 1 wa ese enthalpy of Liquid water at 100°C is 417.06 KI/kg and ‘of water vapor (tear) at 100°C is 2676 kd/ ke ae Ghonge in enthlpy s that amount of est added or remowl Pe unit rasa constant pressure procest, the change i enthalpy of 16 NT! Example sree ig kslkg. The enthalpy property cal also exeress the rates of heat transfer fox proceses where there is vaporization or condensation, € i" 8 ‘water boiler or an airheating coil where steam condenses. Example 2 A flow rate of 0.06 kas of water enters» Bole! 3 90°C, at which eranuaure the enthalpy is 3769 Uke. The water leaves a8 scan at 100°C. What is the rate of heat added by the boiler? “Solution ‘Te change in enthalpy in this constant-presure Process Ah = 2676 - 377 Ki/kg = 2299 KSI ‘The ate of heat transfer to the water in convertingit co steam (0.06 kas) (2299 ki /kg) = 137.9 KW Entropy AXthough entropy + bas important technies! and philosophical connotations Ero Pe oe tia. property ina specific and limited mannes, Pavone does appear in we ay charts and tables of properties and is mentioned hex £0 that it will not be un- rant ae The following are two implications ofthis property: 1. tf a gas or vapor is compressed or expanded fictonesly WNIT adding oF re wr cune eat during the process, the entropy ofthe substance constant. 2 mete proces deseribed in implication 1, the change in ealalPy represents the we enn of work per unit mass required by the compression Of delivered by the expansion. ‘use we shall have for entropy isto read lines of constant Possibly the greatest practical vat compression in vapor-compression 1 entropy on graphs in computing the work frigeration cycles.THERMAL PRINCIPLES 17 Liquid-vapor properties Most heating and cooling systems use substances that pass. between liquid and vapor states in their cycle. Steam and refrigerants are prime ex- amples of these substances Since the pressures, temperatures, and enthalpies are key ‘properties during these changes, the relationships of these propertis ar listed in tables br displayed on charts, e., the pressure-enthalpy diagram for water shown in Fig. 2-2. “The three major regions on the chart are (1) the subcooled-quid region to the Jeft, (2) the liquid-vapor region in the center, and (3) the supetheated-vapor region on the sight. In region 1 only liquid exists, in region 3 only vapor exists, and in repfon 2 both liquid and vapor exist simultaneously. Separating region 2 end region 3 is the ‘aturated-vapor line. As we move to the right along a horizontal line at constant pres- Sure from the saturated-liquid line to the saturated-vapor line, the mixture of liquid fand vapor changes from 100 percent liquid to 100 percent vapor. ‘Thre lines of constant temperature are shown in Fig. 22, ¢= 50°C, t= 100°C, and £7 150°C. Corresponding to our experience, water boils at » higher temperature when the pressure is higher, If the pressure is 12.3 KPa, water bails at $0°C, but at standard atmospheric pressure of 101 kPait boils at 100°C. “Also shown in the superheated vapor region are two lines of constant entropy. 500 00] 200] 200] Sot Liqui'vapot raion ed liquid region 0% 100 80 Presure, KPa 8 50 40 20 Supers heated Taper “TI heen Sarat os OF 10 12 1a 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Enthalpy, Mike Figure 22 Skeleton presurcenthapy diagram for water.18 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Example 2-4 If 9 kes of liquid water at SO"C flows into boiler, s heated cared superheated to a temperature of 150°C andthe entre proces takes vince a standard atmospheric presure, what i the rte of heat transfer to the water? Solution “The process consists of thre distin parts: (1) bringing the femperatre sae rabcooled water up to its saturation temperature, (2) converting liquid’ at OA gre inte vapor at 100°C, and (3) supetheating the vapor from 100 to 150°C: sae ce of heat transfer isthe product of the mass rate of flow multiplied by the Thenpe iv enthalpy. The enthalpy of entering water at SOC and 101 KF is 209 ‘Cine wich can be rad approximately from Fig. 27 or detemined more pe: eee ern Appendix Table A-. The enthalpy of superheated steam at 150°C Gnd 101 kPa is 2745 ki/kg. The rate of heat transfer is (9 kg/s) (2745 = 209 kikg) = 22.824 KW Derfect4os law As noted previously, the thermodynamic propertis of substan Nt Peete ependently vaable But ate fixed by the state ofa substance, The iealzed rota at as behavior which ielates the presse, temperatre, and specific volume of a perfect gas provides an example T where p= absolute pressure, Pa ‘y= specifie volume, m°/kg [Re ges constant = 287 I/kgrK for sir and 462 I/keK for water ‘T= absolute temperature, K For our purposes the perfect-gas equation is applicable to iy ar and to highly supe or et ter vapor and. not applicable to water and refrigerant vapors close to thei saturation conditions. Example 2-5 What is the densty of dry air at 101 kPaand 25°C? Solution The density pis the reciprocal ofthe specific volume v, and s0 P 101,000 Pa RT (287 Skg'K) QS +273 K) 18 kgim? 4-4 Thermodynamic processes In discussing thermodynamic properties, we have Fea ay ntrodueed several thermodynamic process (ating and cooling), Pt already ow several more definitions andthe basic models and laws we shal se Before ‘Expanding this discussion to a wider range of applications. mine gy is the central concept in thermodynamics, its fendamental models 394 inns have ben developed to facilitate energy analyses, 10 describe energy conten’ wae nergy transfer. Energy analysis fundamentally an accounting procedure, 20 an ety procedure whatever itis that is under consideration must be clearly ident LayTHERMAL PRINCIPLES 19 fied. In this text we use the term system to designate the object or objects considered in the analysis or discussion. A system may be.as simple as a specified volume of a homogeneous fluid or as complex as the entire thermal-distribution network i a large pulding In most cases we shall define a system in tens of a specified region in space (Gometimes refered to as a contol volume) and enticely enclosed by a closed surface, (Sferred to a3 the system boundary (or control surface). The sizeof the system and the rape of the system boundary are arbitrary and ae specified for cach problem so thet they simplify accounting for the changes in energy storage within the system or energy ronafers across a system boundary. Whatever is not included in the system is called the environment. ‘Consider the simple flow system shown in Fig. 2-3, where mass is transferred rom the environment to the system at point 1 and from the system to the environ- nent at point 2. Such a system could be used to analyze something as simple as 2 Frump of as complex as an entice building, The definition of the system provides the vamework for the models used to describe the real objects considered in thermody: namic analysis ‘The next step in the analysis is to formulate the basic laws sc that they are appl cable to the system defined. The laws of conservation of mass and conservation of nergy provide excelent examples, as we shall be applying them repeatedly in every tapect of air-conditioning and refrigeration design. 2.5 Conservation of mass Mass is a fundamental concept and thus is not simply de- fined. A definition is often presented by reference to Newton's law av Force = ma =m —— @ where m= mass, ke acceleration, ms? V= velocity, m/s = time,s ‘An object subjected to an unbalanced force accelerates ata rate dependent upon the mapnitude of the force. n this context the mass of an object is conceived of as being characteristic of its resistance to change in velocity. Two objects which undergo the same acceleration under action of identical forces have the sare mass. Further, our 6m, im, Figure 23. Consernation of mass in a simple flow system.——_ 20 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING concept of mast holds thatthe mass of two COIS taken together isthe sum of their Gonespt ones and that cutting a homogen#Ous Body nto two identical parts pro indigo identical asses, each half of the oil mas. ‘Ths idea is the equivalent of the law of conservation of mast. vine present context the principle of comseryaice cof mass states that mass is neither ereated nor destroyed in the processes ‘alyzed. Tt may be stored within 8 SYS; tem or transferred between a system ‘and its environment, but it must be accounted for ter gays procedure, consier Fig, 23 asa TH the system may change ia ato mass flows into oF out of the system. ASUS, that during a time incre- ore yok mass bm, enters to system and a inseTen “bmp leaves. Ifthe mass in Ta ystem a time is mig and that at time 0+ 150 is my » go. conservation of Mass requires that amg +m, = My «50 * M2 Dividing by 60 gives If we express the mass flux a5 om 56 wwe can write the rate of change at any instant a8 im a ifthe rate of change of mass within the system 8 2612, am a 20 and ry =r and we have steady flow. Steady flow will be encountered frequently in our analysis + SteadySlow energy equation In most a-conditong and refrigeration systems eng from one instant to the next (Orit Ney do, the rate pay be assumed to be steady. In the system ipestated as follows: the rate of ® point | pls the eat of energy added a heat mits cof energy leaving at point 2 ‘The mathematical expression energy entering with the stream af ener maf energy pesforming work and minus We Te tual the rate of change of energy i the contol volume. for the energy balance is 4 -(, 8 a apie Demo y+ Pteea)-W en‘THERMAL PRINCIPLES 21 aw Figure 24 Enerey balance on a contzol volume experiencing steady flow res where *h= mass rate of flow, ke/s athalpy, Ike. V= velocity, mis = elevation, m ravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s? te of energy transfer in form of heat, W rate of energy transfer in form of work, W E= energy in system, 1 Because we are limiting consideration to steady-flow processes, there is no change of E with respect to time; the dé/d0 term is therefore zero, and :he usual frm of the steady-flow energy equation appears . we B salt, + Bee, Joa (ny Bae) 02) ‘This form of the energy equation will be frequently used inthe following chap- ters. Some applications of Eq. (2-2) will be considered at this point. 27 Heating and cooling In many heating and cooling processes, g., the water heater in Example 2-2 and the boiler in Example 2-3, the changes in certain of the energy terms are negligible. Often the magnitude of change in the kinetic-energy term V2/2 and the potential-energy term 9.812 from one point to another is negligible compared with the magnitude of change of enthalpy, the work done, or heat transferred. If no work is done by a pump, compressor, of engine in the process, W=0. The energy equation then reduces to tinh, = tity or = 7h, ~hy) 4, the rate of heat transfer equals the mass rate of flow multiplied by the change in enthalpy, as assumed in Examples 2-2 and 23 Example 2-6 Water flowing at a steady rate of 1.2 kgls is to be chilled from 10 to 4°C to supply a cooling coil in an air-conditioning system. Determine the neces- sary rate of heat transfer.——_—_— 22. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘solution From Table A-1, at °C h= 1680 ka/ke and at 10°C A= 41.99 kof. ‘Then - qth, hy) = (12k (1680 ~ 41.9) - 30.23 KW 8 Adiabatic processes Adiabatic means that no heat By transferred; thus @= ae that are esentally adiabatic occur when the wails 9f system are ther very aiated. Even when the walls are not insulated Oe throughput rates of ay ine large in elation tothe energy transmitted to from the environment in ere Pn of heat, the process may be considered adiabatic, 2.9 Compression work An example of process which => vapor 120°C, 250 kr — . Cc IN 101.3 kPa Presute 013 ir reducing valve LAtaaanannrnsen} = seit” Figure 214 Pressuezeducing valve in Problem () What is the state of the water entering the vale (subcooled liquid, saturated Liquid, oF vapor)? XG) For each kilogram that enters the pressure-educing valve, how much leaves the separating tank as vapor? Ans, 0.0375 2.2 Air flowing at a rate of 2.5 kes is heated in a heat exchanger from -10 t0 30°C: ‘What is the rate of heat transfer? Ans. 100 kW 23 One instrument for measuring the rate of airflow is a venturi, as shown in Fig, isc where the cross-sectional area is reduced and the pressure difference between postions 4 and B measured, The flow rate of air having a density of 1.15 kelm? isto Permeasused in a venturi where the area at position A is 0.5 m? and the area at B is bee 2 The deflection of water (density = 1000 kg/m?) in a manometer is 20 mm The Tiow between A and B can be considered to be frictionless so that Bernoulli's equation apples. (a) What isthe pressure difference between positions A and B? (b) What is the airflow rate? Ans. 12.32 m/s 24 Use the perlect¢as equation with R = 462 I7ke* K to compute the specific ZShume of saturated vapor water at 20°C. Compare with data of Table A:I. Ans Deviation = 0.19% 28 Using the relationship shown on Fig. 26 for heat transfer when a fluid flows in = aide a tube, what is the percentage increase or decrease in the convection heat-transfer oetticient hy ifthe viscosity of the Muid is decreased 10 percent? Anz, 4.3% inerease ‘2s What is the order of magnitude of heat release by convection from a human body sohen the air velocity is 0.25 m/s and its temperature is 24°C? Ans, 60 W 3:7 What is the order of magnitude of radiant heat transfer from a human body in ¢ ‘Comfort air-conditioning situation? Ans. 40 W ae Aistgw + te 20mm ee a 4 pa iiskaim? —_* Figure 215-A ventrl for measuring ac fow,‘THERMAL PRINCIPLES 39 28 What isthe approximate rate of heat loss due to insensble evaporation ifthe skin temperature is 32°C, the vapor pressure is 4750 Pa, and the vapor pressure of air is 1700 Pa? The latent heat of water is 243 MI/Kg; Cayy = 1.2 X 10™? g[Pa +s» m? Ans. 18W REFERENCES 1. G. J. Van Wylen and R. E. Sonntag: “Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics," Wiley New York, 1978 2. W. D. Reynolds and H.C, Perkins: “Engincering Thermodynamics" McGraw-Hl, New York, 1970. K. Wark: “Thermodynamics,” 2d ed, MeGrawtill, New York, 1976 J.P Holman: "Heat Transfer,” 4th e, MeGra0 Hil, New York, 1976 F.Kreith and W, Z, Black: “Basic Heat Transfer Hayper & Row, Nex Vork, 1980. [ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals Volume,” chap. 8, American Society of Heating, Refi erating, and Air Conditioning Enginers, Adana, Ga, 1981(CHAPTER " THREE ee PSYCHROMETRY AND WETTED-SURFACE HEAT TRANSFER 44.4 Importance Paychrometty is the study of the BOPeTS, of mixtures of air and donee, The subject is important in airconditioning Pacts because atmospheric water waPor pletely dry but a mixture of arand watt vapor. oh airconditioning proceses water is removed from the a-waieh Pet mixture, and ia others water i rineal Payehrometric principles are applied in ates Sapir this book, eg. to load saat og, airconditioning systems, coolingand debumiciNing ‘oils, cooling towers, and evaporative condensers ramon equipment there is a heat and masetransier Pst ‘between air and a wetted sorface, Example include some types of hunidiier, ‘dehumiaifying and cool- eg us and waterspray equipment such as cooin O¥% and evaporative condens ine ie convenient reatons can be developed toexpees ee fof heat and mass ity potent, discussed Iter in his chapter, But fist psychro tuansfer using enthal by property, followed by a discussion of the most metric chart is explored, property Common air-conditioning processes. ‘32 Paychrometric chart Since charts showing perchromeltt properties are readily 32 Peteag 31), why should we concern ourselves with te ‘development of a chart’ sae me fe to become aware of the base ofthe chat a ‘be able to calculat a ats of conditions, eg, nonstandard barometic Pes is epbyatep development of the psychrometsc hat that follows will mak ase of a few simplifying assumptions. They wil be point or ‘long the way wit a mote accurate caesatin, The chart that can Be deve properties at recommendations42 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 4 ‘Watervapor presse, KPH | ‘Superheated vapor “Temperture, °C Figure 32 Sevration line oped using simple equations is reasonably accurate and an BE used in most engineer sep caleulations, but of course the most accurate chart or date ‘auilable should be used. We srration line The coordinates chosen forthe payehrometrc Shae presented in ae Shapter are the temperature ¢ for the abscss ané tempor the water-vapor pressure p, fr the ovdnat. Fist consider the chat to PIAS water alone. The sat- aa ge can now be drawn onthe chart (Fg. 3:2) Data for the startet line ean bration es deely rom tables of saturated water (Table 4-1) The 10 the vier of the saturation line represents superheated water vapos f superheated vapor amsoled at constant pressure, it wil eventually teach the saturation line, where it begins to condense. a coy sic has been present with the water vapor. What the ef Fig, 4.2 ue ig present? Ideally, none, The water vapor coatinus o Beh ‘though no i; weve present. At a given water-vapor pressure, which fs n0W A partial pressure, cor air were Pes atthe sre temperature as it woul i no at were Prag ‘There erty ba alight interaction between the molecules of 2s and Wt M001, which panes the steam-table data slighty. Table A-2 presents he ‘properties of air alt= nang sh water vapor. A comparison of vapor pressures of the Yous! the air mix: cated wpe, A with that of pure water shown in Table Ac eves practically no idifference in pressure at a given temperature ‘Tipure 3.2 ean now be considered applicable to wm ar-water vanes sixture. The portion of the chart now of significance is bounded by the saturation line and the orto the condition of the mixture les onthe saturation ling 0° 2 stid to be see eds meaning that any decrease in temperature will resi condensation of Seated yapor into liquid. To the ight of the saturation line the at fs unsaturated, Tripoint A represents the condition of the ai, the temperate of that mixture Wl ie ts be reduced to temperature Bin order for condensation to Bi. Air at “Fis sad to have a dew-point temperature of B. “44 Relative humidity The slative humidity ¢ is defined as the TNS of the mole Teotion of water vapor in moist air tomole faction of water vapor saturated alr at yo2909 22939990PSYCHROMETRY AND WETTEDSURFACE MEAT TRANSFER 43, Saturation tine Watervapor pressure, KPa Tetatve humidity 6 = 05 Temperature, Figure 33. Relativehumiity tine. the same temperature and pressure, From perfectgas relationships another expression for dis existing partial pressure of water vapor Jaturation pressure of pure water at same temperature Lines of constant relative humidity can be added to the chart asin Fig. 3-3; by mark: ing off vertical distances between the saturation fine and the base of the chart. The felative humidity of 0.50, for example, has an ordinate equal to one-half that of the saturation ine at that temperature 35 Humidity ratio The humidity ratio W is the mass of water interspersed in each Jblogram of dry alt. The humidity ratio, lke the next several properties to be studied enthalpy and specific volume-is based on 1 kg of dry at. The perfect-gas equation can be summoned to solve for the humidity ratio. Both water vapor and air may be Goumed to be perfect gases (obey the equation py= RT and have constant specific heats) in the usual air-conditioning applications. Airis assumed to be a perfect gas because ils temperature is high relative to its saturation temperature, and water vapor fe asumed to be a perfect gas because its pressure is low reative to its saturation pressure kgof water vapor _,VIR,T __ PylR, [porary air, VIR,T (,-P)IR, a where W= humidity ratio, (kg of water vapor)/(kg of dry ar) V-= arbitrary volume of air-vapor mixture, m? y= atmospheric pressure =p, + Py, Pa partial pressure of dry ar, Pa gas constant of dry air= 287 3/kg*K gas constant of water vapor = 461.5 J/kg*K absolute temperature of ai-vapor mixture, K