Chapter 17 European Revolutions of Society and State,

1714-1815
Section 5 The Napoleonic Era
After the radical Reign of Terror, France longed for a more stable form of
government. The French turned to the young, victorious general, Napoleon
Bonaparte to lead them. Within only a few short years, Napoleon had
declared France an empire with himself as emperor and had completely
reformed French government and society. He used his military genius to
expand the French Empire across Western Europe. Although the reforms of
the Revolution were carried by Napoleon throughout the continent, he failed
to unify Europe politically.
The Napoleonic Empire
A man of overwhelming ambition and domineering personality, Napoleon
Bonaparte was one of the greatest military leaders of all time. Born in
1769i[clxxxiii] on the French island of Corsica,ii[clxxxiv] Bonaparte trained
at military schools in France, but it was the French Revolution that gave him
the opportunity to rise in rank. Bonapartes genius lay in his ability to move
troops rapidly and to mass forces at critical points on the battlefield. These
techniques gave him a decided advantage over his opponents' older, slower
tactics.
Bonaparte had gained experience and fame in the war with Austria. By
1797iii[clxxxv] he had begun to expand France by seizing northern Italy from
the Austrians. The next year, he launched an expedition to Egypt, hoping to
establish a French colony and to disrupt Britain's trade route to India.
However, Horatio Nelson,iv[clxxxvi] the British naval leader, cut off the
French general and his troops in Egypt. After a year of fierce fighting
Bonaparte finally left his army stranded and returned to France.
He found the country in a state of crisis. Britain, Austria, and Russia had
formed a Second Coalition against the French republic. Internal discontent
was also reaching a breaking point. As the Directory fell in 1799, Bonaparte
restored orderthen took control of the government himself.v[clxxxvii]
Reviving old Roman republican titles, he established the Consulate, with
himself as First Consul.
By 1804vi[clxxxviii] the First Consuls ambition had grown even more. After
conducting a public referendum in which the French people voted to
declare France an empire, Bonaparte assumed the title of Emperor as
Napoleon I. He was crowned in the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris.

Napoleon even summoned the pope to preside over the coronation though
at the last moment, in a symbolic gesture that shocked both the onlookers
and the rest of Europe, he abruptly took the crown from the popes hands and
placed it upon his own head.

Napoleon Crowning himself emperor. Taken from http://teachers.ausd.net/antilla/crown1.jpg

Napoleon's reforms in France. Many people welcomed Napoleon's

dictatorship because it promised stability. Although Napoleon supported the
changes of the Revolution, he firmly believed that people must strictly obey
orders given by a leader. He reorganized and centralized the administration
of France to give himself unlimited power.
Under the emperors direction, scholars revised and reorganized all French
law into a system known as the Napoleonic Code. Napoleon established a
central financial institution, the Bank of France, and his government put into
place the public school system that the National Convention had planned
years before. The school system included elementary schools, high schools,
universities, and technical schools. In addition, Napoleon established a
meritocracy in French government. People advanced in government service
based upon their merit and abilities, not on wealth or heredity.
Napoleon also eased the strains between the French government and
the Roman Catholic Church that had developed because of the Revolution.
In 1801vii[clxxxix] he reached an agreement with the pope. The Concordat,
as it was called, acknowledged Catholicism as the religion of most French
citizens, but it did not abolish the religious toleration guaranteed by the
Declaration of the Rights of Man. The church also gave up claims to the

property the government had seized during the Revolution.

On the battlefield Napoleon destroyed the Second Coalition against France
and won more territory in Italy and along the Rhine River.viii[cxc] By the
time of his coronation as emperor, Napoleon appeared to have kept his
promises to win peace by military victory, achieve steady government, and
create economic prosperity.
The Napoleonic Wars
Napoleon's growing power posed a threat to other European nations. When it
became clear that Napoleon's ambition threatened British commerce, Great
Britain became Napoleon's most determined enemy. After a brief period of
peace,ix[cxci] Britain renewed the war and formed the Third Coalition
against France with Austria, Russia, and Sweden in 1805.x[cxcii] Napoleon
planned to crush the British by defeating their navy and invading England.
His plans were thwarted, however, when Admiral Nelson sank nearly half
the combined French and Spanish fleets near Trafalgarxi[cxciii] off the
southern Spanish coast. The Battle of Trafalgarxii[cxciv] established British
naval supremacy for the next century.
The Continental System. Napoleon had one more weapon against the
Britishdamaging their trade. Napoleon despised the British, calling them
"a nation of shopkeepers." He believed that if the British lost their foreign
trade, they would be willing to make peace on his terms. He declared the
British Isles to be in a state of blockade and forbade not only everyone in the
French Empire but also all his allies from carrying on commerce and
correspondence with Britain.xiii[cxcv] This blockade was called the
Continental System because Napoleon controlled so much of the continent
of Europe. The British responded with a blockade of their own. They ordered
the ships of neutral nations to stop at British ports to get a license before
trading with France or its allies. This conflict placed neutral nations in an
awkward position. If they disregarded the British order, the British might
capture their ships. If they obeyed, the French might seize their ships.
The Continental System and the British blockade hit the United States
particularly hard, for it depended heavily on trade with both Britain and the
continent. This conflict, in part, led to the War of 1812 between Great Britain
and the United States. Although the British blockade hurt France, Napoleon
continued to win battles against the Third Coalition. In December
1805xiv[cxcvi] the French emperor smashed the combined forces of Russia
and Austria at Austerlitzxv[cxcvii] north of Vienna and the Third Coalition
soon collapsed.
Napoleonic reforms in Europe. By 1808xvi[cxcviii] Napoleon completely

dominated Europe. The French Empire included Belgium, the Netherlands,

and portions of Italy. He dismantled the Holy Roman Empire and replaced it
with the Confederation of the Rhine, a league of German states with
Napoleon himself as protector. The last Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor
proclaimed himself instead the emperor of the new Austro-Hungarian
Empire, and agreed too an alliance with Napoleon.

Taken from http://www.historyofwar.org/Maps/europe1812.gif

Wherever the French army went, it put the Napoleonic Code into
effect, abolished feudalism and serfdom, and introduced its modern military
techniques. Without intending to, the French also helped awaken in the
people they conquered a spirit of nationalism, recognition that they shared a
common language, culture, and history. Feelings of nationalism appeared
among conquered peoples, especially among Germans. One German poet
wrote:

What is the German's fatherland?

Now name at last that mighty land!
'Whereer resounds the German tongue,
Whereer its hymns to God are sung!'
That is the land,
xvii

Brave German, that thy fatherland!

[cxcix]

Napoleon ruled Europe, but time worked on the side of his enemies. The
coalition re-formed and his opponents' armies grew stronger. The generals
who opposed him in the field copied his methods of moving and massing

troops rapidly.
Napoleon's Downfall
In 1812xviii[cc] Russia began making plans for war against France. After
learning about this plan in the spring of 1812,xix[cci] Napoleon launched a
massive invasion of Russia. The campaign was doomed from the start.
Napoleon's army was immense, more than half a million men. The army was
drawn largely from his allies, however, and perhaps fewer than half the
troops were French. In addition, the long distances and shortages of food
weakened the army in Russia.
Defeat at Moscow. Napoleon believed that once he had captured Moscow,
the Russians would ask for peace. When his army arrived in the city,
however, Moscow was in flames. An observer noted, "Orders had been given
by the [Russian] governor of the city and the police that the whole city
should be burned during the night."xx[ccii]

Moscow Burning. Taken from

http://www.napoleonexhibit.com/img/gallery/PJC03030_066.jpg
As winter approached, Napoleon began withdrawing his troops from
Moscow, but the bitter winter weather and the pursuing Russian troops
decimated Napoleons once proud army. Only about 100,000 men survived.
One soldier described the retreat across Russia:
"The carriages, drawn by tired and underfed horses, were traveling
fourteen and fifteen hours of the twenty-four. . . . Having left Moscow
with us, . . . [the carriages] had had to take up the men wounded, . . .
They were put on the top-seats of the carts. . . . At the least jolt those who
were most insecurely placed fell; the drivers took no care. The driver
following . . . for fear of stopping and losing his place . . . would drive
pitilessly on over the body of the wretch who had fallen."xxi[cciii]

As Napoleon once again abandoned his struggling men and returned to

France to raise more troops, Prussia and Austria seized the chance to form a
new coalition with Russia. The coalition attacked and defeated Napoleon at
Leipzigxxii[cciv] in Germany. Meanwhile, in the southwest, British forces
based in Portugal defeated Napoleons Spanish allies and swept north over
the Pyrenees. With his enemies closing in, Napoleon gathered his forces to
fight one last campaign northeast of Paris in the spring of 1814.xxiii[ccv]
Allied armies of Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia soundly defeated him.
In Aprilxxiv[ccvi] Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the island of
Elba,xxv[ccvii] off the Italian coast.
After 25 years of changing governments and near-constant warfare, France
was exhausted. Napoleon's former foreign minister, Charles-Maurice de
Talleyrand,xxvi[ccviii] took charge of restoring the Bourbonxxvii[ccix] dynasty
to the throne. Louis XVIII, a brother of the beheaded Louis XVI, issued a
constitution to placate the French people. As he soon reverted to the old
authoritarian ways of his family, however, many feared that the Old Regime
was re-establishing itself and discontent quickly grew in France.
The last Hundred Days. In March of 1815xxviii[ccx] Napoleon left his exile
in Elba. Landing on the French coast near Marseilles with a small force, he
marched toward Paris. Along the way throngs of supporters welcomed him.
Louis XVIII sent French army units to stop him instead they joined him.
As Napoleon entered Paris in triumph, Louis fled once again into exile. So
began Napoleons final effort to restore the empire, a period known as the
Hundred Days.
The allies who had defeated the emperor the previous year rapidly massed
their troops together in Belgium. Near the tiny village of Waterloo,xxix[ccxi]
the British commander, the Duke of Wellington, with the crucial aid of
Prussian forces, soundly crushed Napoleon's army, thus bringing the
Hundred Days to an end. As the Bourbons returned to power once more, the
British exiled Napoleon to the South Atlantic island of St. Helena,xxx[ccxii]
where he finally died in 1821.xxxi[ccxiii]
Section 5 Review
IDENTIFY and explain the significance of the following:
Admiral Horatio Nelson
Consulate
Napoleonic Code

meritocracy
Concordat
Continental System
nationalism
Charles-Maurice Talleyrand
Louis XVIII
the Duke of Wellington
Hundred Days
LOCATE and explain the importance of the following:
Trafalgar
Austerlitz
Leipzig
Elba
Waterloo
St. Helena
1.Main Idea How did Napoleon strengthen Francs power?
2. Main Idea How was Napoleon able to dominate Europe?
3. Geography: Place How did Russia's geography affect the outcome of
Napoleon's invasion?
4. Synthesizing How did Napoleon reform French society? Consider the
following in your answer: (a) the Napoleonic Code; (b) the Concordat;
(c) meritocracy; and (d) national identity.

Chapter 17 Review
REVIEWING TERMS
From the following list, choose the term that correctly matches the

definition.
philosophes
National Assembly
Navigation Acts
Declaration of Independence
Continental System
natural law
1. Napoleon's strategy to destroy Britain's commerce by controlling all trade
in ports on the European continent
2. group composed of delegates of the Third Estate and some delegates of
the First Estate who planned to write a constitution for France
3. thinkers in the Enlightenment
4. idea that a system of laws governs all aspects of the universe
5. document signed on July 4, 1776, declaring the British colonies of North
America free from British rule
REVIEWING CHRONOLOGY
List the following events in their correct chronological order.
1. Citizens of Paris storm the fortress of the Bastille.
2. The Seven Years' War breaks out.
3. The Treaty of Paris is signed, ending the American War of Independence.
4. Angry colonists throw a shipment of British tea into Boston Harbor.
5. The forces of Napoleon are defeated at the battle of Waterloo.
UNDERSTANDING THE MAIN IDEA
1. How did Napoleon transform European society?
2. What was the Enlightenment?
3. Why can the Seven Years' War be called a "global war"?
4. What factors contributed to the British colonies of North America winning
their independence?
5. How did the Enlightenment influence the American Revolution and the
French Revolution?
6. What were the causes of the French Revolution?

THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Comparing and Contrasting How was the French Revolution similar to
the American Revolution? How were the outcomes of the two events
different? What accounted for the difference?
2. Distinguishing Fact from Opinion Why is the following statement only
partially correct? Napoleon's conquest of Europe liberated many subject
peoples from oppression.
Through Others' Eyes: A Syrian Response to the French Revolution
While much of Europe was in turmoil from the French Revolution, the
Ottoman Empire was mostly untroubled by the Christians' problems.xxxii
[ccxiv] As can be seen from historical accounts of the time, many Muslims
showed little concern or even interest in what occurred in France.xxxiii[ccxv]
A Syrian historian, Niqula el-Turk, wrote this brief account of the revolution
in his history of Egypt:
"We begin with the history of the appearance of the French Republic in the
world after they killed their king and this at the beginning of the year 1792
of the Christian era corresponding to the year 1207 of the Islamic hijra. In
this year the people of the kingdom of France rose up in their entirety against
the king and the princes and the nobles, demanding a new order and a fresh
dispensation, against the existing order which had been in the time of the
king. They claimed and confirmed that the exclusive power of the king had
caused great destruction in this kingdom, and that the princes and the nobles
were enjoying all the good things of this kingdom while the rest of its people
were in misery and abasement [degradation]. Because of this they all rose up
with one voice and said: 'We shall have no rest save by the abdication of the
king and the establishment of a Republic.' And there was a great day in the
city of Paris and the king and the rest of the people of his government,
princes and nobles, were afraid, and the people came to the king and
informed him of their purpose. . . . xxxiv[ccxvi]

Literature through Time

Grimm's Fairy Tales
When the French were driven out of Germany in 1813, many Germans
looked for ways to give the German people a sense of unity. Under French
occupation, the German states had been divided into a number of
government districts and free cities in order to keep the Germans from
uniting against the occupying forces. Some intellectuals hoped to restore

pride in the German heritage by encouraging Germans to rediscover their

literary past. Even during the French occupation, two brothers, Jakob and
Wilhelm Grimm, began gathering old legends and folk tales from many parts
of Germany.xxxv[ccxvii] They published the first volume of Grimm's Fairy
Tales in 1823, and continued to update the collection throughout their
lives.xxxvi[ccxviii] The tales themselves often are versions of stories handed
down through many generations. Grimm's Fairy Tales have become famous
all over the world. You probably recognize some, such as "Red Riding
Hood," "Hansel and Grettel," and "Rapunzel." Below is one of the shorter
fairy tales, "The Star-Money."
"There was once upon a time a little girl whose father and mother were
dead, and she was so poor that she no longer had a room to live in, or bed
to sleep in, and at last she had nothing else but the clothes she was
wearing and a little bit of bread in her hand which some charitable soul
had given her. She was good and pious, however. And as she was thus
forsaken by all the world, she went forth into the open country, trusting in
the good God. Then a poor man met her, who said: "Ah, give me
something to eat, I am so hungry!" She handed him the whole of her piece
of bread, and said: "May God bless you," and went onwards. Then came a
child who moaned and said: "My head is so cold, give me something to
cover it with." So she took off her hood and gave it to him; and when she
had walked a little further, she met another child who had no jacket and
was frozen with cold. Then she gave it her own; and a little further on one
begged for a frock and she gave away that also. At length she got into a
forest and it had already become dark, and there came yet another child,
and asked for a shirt, and the good little girl thought to herself: "It is a
dark night and no one sees you, you can very well give your shirt away,"
and took it off, and gave away that also. And as she so stood, and had not
one single thing left, suddenly some stars from heaven fell down and they
were nothing else but hard smooth pieces of money, and although she had
just given her shirt away, she had a new one which was of the very finest
linen. Then she put the money into it, and was rich all the days of her
life."xxxvii[ccxix]
Understanding Literature
Why might many Germans have enjoyed reading stories handed down from
German folklore?

xxxviii

[i]WH p. 400.

xxxix

[ii]WH p. 401.

xl

[iii]CHW p. 754.

xli

[iv]CHW p. 754.

xlii

[v]CHW p. 742

xliii

[vi]CHW p. 742

xliv

[vii](11)

xlv

[viii](11)

xlvi

[ix](11)

xlvii

[x]WH pp. 961--62.

xlviii

[xi]Raymond Birn. Crisis, Absolutism, Revolution: Europe 1648-1789 (Fort Worth:

HBJ, 1992): 304.
xlix

[xii](10)

[xiii](10)

li

[xiv]Birn, 304.

lii

[xv](10)

liii

liv

[xvi]Birn, 304

[xvii](11)

lv

[xviii]Raymond Phineas Stearns. Pageant of Europe: Sources and Selections from the
Renaissance to the Present Day. (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961):328.
lvi

[xix]Stanley Chodorow, et al. The Mainstream of Civilization, Sixth Edition (Fort Worth:
The Harcourt Press, 1994): 568.
lvii

[xx]Chodorow, 329.

lviii

[xxi](1)

lix

[xxii]CHW pp. 632--33.

lx

[xxiii](1) p. 573.

lxi

[xxiv](11)

lxii

[xxv](11)

lxiii

[xxvi]Birn, 292, and (11).

lxiv

[xxvii]Birn, 293.

lxv

[xxviii]Birn, 293.

lxvi

[xxix]"Frederick William I," in Raymond Phineas Stearns, Pageant of Europe: Sources

and Selections from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New York: Harcourt, Brace &
World, 1961): 277.
lxvii

[xxx]H.W. Kock, A History of Prussia, p. 100.

lxviii

[xxxi](11)

lxix

[xxxii]Raymond Phineas Stearns, Pageant of Europe: Sources and Selections from the
Renaissance to the Present Day, Second Edition (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World,
1961): 280.
lxx

[xxxiii]HW Koch, A History of Prussia (London: Longman, 1978): 110.

lxxi

[xxxiv](11)

lxxii

[xxxv](10)

lxxiii

[xxxvi]Koch, 110.

lxxiv

lxxv

[xxxvii](11)

[xxxviii]Birn, 296

lxxvi

[xxxix]WH p. 16.

lxxvii

[xl]Birn, 298

lxxviii

lxxix

lxxx

[xli]CHW p. 749.

[xlii]WH p. 961.

[xliii]WH p. 962.

lxxxi

[xliv](11)

lxxxii

[xlv](10)

lxxxiii

lxxxiv

lxxxv

[xlvi]Webster's Biographical Dictionary, 1068.

[xlvii](11)

[xlviii](10)

lxxxvi

[xlix](10)

lxxxvii

[l]Robert Clive, "Report on the Battle of Plassey" in Raymond Phineas Stearns,

Pageant of Europe: Sources and Selections from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New
York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961): 324.
lxxxviii

[li]Christopher Hill, The Pelican Economic History of Britain, Volume 2: 1530-1780,

Reformation to Industrial Revolution (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin
Books, 1969): 232.
lxxxix

[lii](11)

xc

[liii]Richard Middleton, The Bells of Victory: The Pitt-Newcastle Ministry and the
Conduct of the Seven Years' War, 1757-1762 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985): 18.
xci

[liv]Richard Middleton, The Bells of Victory, p. 145.

xcii

[lv]Hill, 232.

xciii

xciv

[lvi]WH p. 821.

[lvii](10)

xcv

[lviii]Birn, 332.

xcvi

[lix]WH p. 821.

xcvii

[lx]Birn, 335.

xcviii

xcix

[lxi]Birn, 333.

[lxii]Birn, 333.

[lxiii](11)

ci

[lxiv](11)

cii

[lxv]Voltaire, Candide, Zadig and Selected Stories. trans. Donald M. Frame. (New York:
New American Library, 1981): 78.
ciii

[lxvi]"The Enlightenment was a widely disseminated attitude of mind rather than...a

specifically literary or philosophical movement." Norman Hampson, "The Enlightenment
in France" in Roy Porter and Mikuls Teich, The Enlightenment in National Context
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981): 43. Most sources refer to the
Enlightenment as a movement, but it wasn't an organized movement as such. Should we
refer to it as a movement? A change in worldview?
civ

[lxvii]CHW p. 681.

cv

[lxviii]CHW p. 690.

cvi

[lxix]Hampson, 42.

cvii

[lxx]Stearns, 200.

cviii

[lxxi](11)

cix

[lxxii]Birn 239. The number is only "the hundred-plus contributors" in Sara Ellen
Procious Malueg, "Women and the Encyclopdie" in Samia I. Spencer, ed. French Women
and the Age of Enlightenment (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1984): 261.
cx

[lxxiii](11)

cxi

[lxxiv](11)

cxii

[lxxv]Fox-Genovese, 260.

cxiii

cxiv

[lxxvi]CHW pp. 701--2

[lxxvii](11)

cxv

[lxxviii]Owen Chadwick, "The Italian Enlightenment" in Roy Porter and Mikuls Teich,
eds., The Enlightenment in National Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1981): 97.
cxvi

[lxxix](11)

cxvii

[lxxx]Ernst Wangermann, "Reform Catholicism and Political Radicalism in the Austrian

Enlightenment" in Roy Porter and Mikuls Teich, eds., The Enlightenment in National
Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981): 135.

cxviii

[lxxxi]Joachim Whaley, "The Protestant Enlightenment in Germany" in Roy Porter and

Mikuls Teich, eds., The Enlightenment in National Context (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1981): 109.
cxix

[lxxxii]CHW pp. 702--3

cxx

[lxxxiii](11)

cxxi

[lxxxiv](11)

cxxii

[lxxxv]Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws (Chicago:

Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952): 3.
cxxiii

cxxiv

[lxxxvi](11)

[lxxxvii]Hampson, 49.

cxxv

[lxxxviii]Birn, 260.

cxxvi

[lxxxix](11)

cxxvii

[xc](11)

cxxviii

[xci]TRY TO WORK IN THE FOLLOWING: Colbert quotes on page 75, in

Heilbroner, The Making of Economic Society, 4th edition.
cxxix

[xcii](11)

cxxx

[xciii](11)

cxxxi

[xciv]Wollstonecraft, 8.

cxxxii

[xcv]Wollstonecraft, 10.

cxxxiii

[xcvi](11)

cxxxiv

[xcvii]Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, Miriam Kramnick,

ed. (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1975): 121.
cxxxv

[xcviii](11)

cxxxvi

[xcix](11)

cxxxvii

[c]Wollstonecraft, 17.

cxxxviii

[ci]Anderson, vol. 2, 124.

cxxxix

[cii](11)

cxl

[ciii](11)

cxli

[civ]Bonnie S. Anderson and Judith P. Zinsser, A History of Their Own: Women in

Europe from Prehistory to the Present, Volume II (New York: Harper & Row, 1988): 109.
cxlii

[cv](11)

cxliii

[cvi]Anderson, vol. 2, 109.

cxliv

cxlv

[cvii]Anderson, vol. 2, 115.

[cviii]Anderson, vol. 2, 114.

cxlvi

[cix]Pageant of Europe, p. 313.

cxlvii

[cx]WH p. 933.

cxlviii

[cxi]Catherine the Great, "Instructions to the Commissioners for Composing a New

Code of Laws," in Raymond Phineas Stearns, Pageant of Europe: Sources and Selections
from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961): 315.
cxlix

[cxii]"Catherine the Great and the Enlightenment" in Raymond Phineas Stearns, Pageant
of Europe: Sources and Selections from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New York:
Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961): 313.
cl

[cxiii]Birn, 319.

cli

[cxiv]Birn, 315.

clii

[cxv]Frederick the Great, "Essay on Forms of Government and the Duties of Sovereigns"
in Raymond Phineas Stearns, Pageant of Europe: Sources and Selections from the
Renaissance to the Present Day (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961): 289.
cliii

[cxvi]Birn, 314.

cliv

clv

[cxvii](11)

[cxviii]Birn, 321.

clvi

[cxix]Birn, 257.

clvii

[cxx]Joseph II to Von Swieten (1787) in Raymond Phineas Stearns, Pageant of Europe:

Sources and Selections from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New York: Harcourt,
Brace & World, 1961): 293.
clviii

[cxxi]Birn, 322.

clix

clx

[cxxii]WH p. 1001.

[cxxiii](11)

clxi

[cxxiv]John Dickinson, "Letters from a Farmer, 1767-8" in Richard Hofstadter, Great

Issues in American History: From the Revolution to the Civil War, 1765-1865 (New York:
Vintage Books, 1958): 24.
clxii

[cxxv]WH p. 119.

clxiii

[cxxvi]WH p. 267.

clxiv

[cxxvii]WH p. 36.

clxv

[cxxviii](1) p. 560.

clxvi

[cxxix](11)

clxvii

[cxxx]Thomas Paine, Common Sense in Richard Hofstadter, Great Issues in American

History: From the Revolution to the Civil War, 1765-1865 (New York: Vintage Books,
1958): 56. (Melissa's copy)
clxviii

clxix

clxx

[cxxxi](1) p. 560.

[cxxxii](11)

[cxxxiii]Todd/Curti, 119.

clxxi

[cxxxiv]Thomas Jefferson, "The Declaration of Independence" in Richard Hofstadter,

Great Issues in American History: From the Revolution to the Civil War, 1765-1865 (New
York: Vintage Books, 1958): 70.
clxxii

[cxxxv](11)

clxxiii

clxxiv

clxxv

[cxxxvi]Hibbert, 335.

[cxxxvii]Hibbert, 335.

[cxxxviii]WH pp. 36--37.

clxxvi

[cxxxix](10)

clxxvii

[cxl]WH p. 36.

clxxviii

clxxix

clxxx

[cxli]WH p. 37.

[cxlii]WH p. 37.

[cxliii]WH p. 60.

clxxxi

[cxliv]WH p. 60.

clxxxii

[cxlv]WH p. 265.

clxxxiii

clxxxiv

[cxlvi]Middlekauff, 622 (May 14, 1787) and 648 (Sept 17, 1787).

[cxlvii]WH p. 265.

clxxxv

[cxlviii]WH p. 265.

clxxxvi

[cxlix]WH p. 400.

clxxxvii

[cl]WH p. 400.

clxxxviii

[cli]Encyclopedia Britanica Vol. 7, p. 647.

clxxxix

[clii]CHW p. 763.

cxc

[cliii](11)

cxci

[cliv](11)

cxcii

[clv]CHW p. 763.

cxciii

cxciv

[clvi]WH p. 400.

[clvii](11)

cxcv

[clviii]Hibbert, French Revolution, 47.

cxcvi

[clix](11)

cxcvii

[clx]WH p. 400.

cxcviii

[clxi]WH p. 400.

cxcix

[clxii]A History of Their Own Vol. 2, p. 351.

cc

[clxiii]Simon Schama, Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (New York: Alfred
A. Knopf, 1989): 498.
cci

[clxiv]Schama, 498.

ccii

[clxv]Schama, 498.

cciii

cciv

[clxvi]WH p. 400.

[clxvii](11)

ccv

[clxviii](11)

ccvi

[clxix](11)

ccvii

[clxx]WH p. 401.

ccviii

ccix

[clxxi]CHW p. 768.

[clxxii]WH p. 401.

ccx

[clxxiii]WH p. 401.

ccxi

[clxxiv]"Leve en Masse" in Raymond Phineas Stearns, Pageant of Europe: Sources and

Selections from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World,
1961): 401. (need to verify---we no longer have this book.)
ccxii

[clxxv](10)

ccxiii

[clxxvi]"Law of Suspects," in Raymond Phineas Stearns, Pageant of Europe: Sources

and Selections from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New York: Harcourt, Brace &
World, 1961): 402.
ccxiv

[clxxvii]It would be a good idea to have a reading selection in the support materials on
the Reign of Terror.
ccxv

[clxxviii](11)

ccxvi

[clxxix](11)

ccxvii

[clxxx]WH p. 402.

ccxviii

[clxxxi]WH p. 402.

ccxix

[clxxxii](13) Vol 7, p. 659.

i[clxxxiii](11)
ii[clxxxiv](10)
iii[clxxxv](1) p. 635.
iv[clxxxvi](11)
v[clxxxvii]CHW p. 764.
vi[clxxxviii]WH p. 752.
vii[clxxxix]WH p. 751.
viii[cxc](10)
ix[cxci]WH p. 752.
x[cxcii]WH p. 752.
xi[cxciii](10)
xii[cxciv]WH p. 752.
xiii[cxcv]Napoleon, "Berlin Decree" in Raymond Phineas Stearns, Pageant of Europe: Sources and
Selections from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961): 431.
xiv[cxcvi]WH p. 752.
xv[cxcvii](10)
xvi[cxcviii]Times Atlas of World History, p. 205.
xvii[cxcix]Ernst Moritz Arndt, "What is the German's Fatherland?" in Raymond Phineas Stearns,
Pageant of Europe: Sources and Selections from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New York:
Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961): 440.
xviii[cc](1) p. 645.
xix[cci]WH p. 753.
xx[ccii]General de Caulaincourt, "Memoirs" in Raymond Phineas Stearns, Pageant of Europe: Sources
and Selections from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961):
437.
xxi[cciii]Pageant of Europe, pp. 437--38.
xxii[cciv](10)
xxiii[ccv]WH p. 753.
xxiv[ccvi]WH p. 753.
xxv[ccvii](10)
xxvi[ccviii](11)
xxvii[ccix](11)
xxviii[ccx]WH p. 753.
xxix[ccxi](10)
xxx[ccxii](10)
xxxi[ccxiii]WH p. 751.
xxxii[ccxiv]Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (New York: W. W. Norton & Company,
1982), 53.
xxxiii[ccxv]Ibid., 54.
xxxiv[ccxvi]Ibid.
xxxv[ccxvii] Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol 90, p. 102.
xxxvi[ccxviii] Ibid.
xxxvii[ccxix] Grimm's Fairy Tales, pp. 652--654.
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