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Fractal Tool - 0032-4663 - 1998 - Hos - 10 - 1 - 6828
Fractal Tool - 0032-4663 - 1998 - Hos - 10 - 1 - 6828
The fractal approach. A new tool for the spatial analysis of urban
agglomerations
In: Population, 10e anne, n1, 1998 pp. 205-240.
Abstract
Frankhauser (Pierre).- The fractal approach. A new tool for the spatial analysis of urban agglomerations.
Fractal geometry is a new approach for the study of spatial distributions. The basic model is a law of
hierarchical distribution corresponding to Pareto's law which is familiar to urban geographers and
demographers. The methods of fractal analysis can be used to study the spatial organization of human
activities across scales. The regularities and the discontinuities in the distributions can then be
identified. These discontinuities can be spatially situated. Applying this concept to urbanized areas has
shown that districts can be defined and classified according to their scaling relations, thereby allowing
development of a typology of locational patterns. This observation reveals the existence of a principle of
self-similarity in land-use patterns. An examination of time series shows that despite the apparent
fragmentation of these urban tissues, urbanization is often accompanied by self- structuring
development. Subsequent research will need to employ complementary morphological measures, such
as measures of space filling and of population distribution, which could be used to validate the
simulation models based on fractal geometry.
Rsum
Frankhauser (Pierre).- L'approche fractale. Un outil de rflexion dans l'analyse spatiale des
agglomrations urbaines. La gomtrie fractale est une nouvelle approche pour tudier des rpartitions
spatiales. Le modle de rfrence est une loi de distribution hirarchique qui correspond la loi de
Pareto, bien connue en gographie urbaine et en dmographie. L'utilisation des mthodes d'analyse
fractale permet d'tudier l'organisation spatiale des activits humaines travers les chelles. Il est ainsi
possible de dcouvrir aussi bien des hirarchies rgulires que des ruptures. Ces ruptures peuvent tre
identifies dans l'espace. L'application de ce concept aux tissus urbains a montr qu'il est possible de
distinguer et de classifier des quartiers selon leur comportement sealant, et de dvelopper une
typologie des tissus urbains. Cette observation met en vidence l'existence d'un principe d'autosimilarit dans les tissus urbains. L'tude de sries temporelles montre que l'urbanisation est souvent
accompagne de phnomnes de structuration, en dpit de la fragmentation apparente de ces tissus.
Les futures recherches devraient utiliser des mesures morphologiques complmentaires: mesures de
lacunarit, mesures concernant la rpartition de la population. Ces mesures pourront servir valider
des modles de simulation bass sur la gomtrie fractale.
Resumen
Frankhauser (Pierre). - El anlisis fractal. Un nuevo instrumente de reflexion en el anlisis espacial de
las aglomeraciones urbanas. La geometria fractal es un nuevo mtodo de estudio de reparticiones
espaciales. El modelo de referencia es una ley de distribucin jerrquica que corresponde a la ley de
Pareto, bien conocida en geografia urbana y en demografia. La utilizacin de los mtodos de anlisis
fractal permite estudiar la organizacin espacial de las actividades humanas a tra- vs de escalas.
Estas escalas permiten establecer tanto jerarquias regulares como rupturas, que se pueden identificar y
situar en el espacio. La aplicacin de este concepto a los tejidos urbanos ha abierto la posibilidad de
distinguir y clasificar gradualmente barrios segn su comportamiento, y de esta forma desarrollar
tipologias urbanas. Este mtodo muestra la ex- istencia de un principio de auto-similaridad en los
tejidos urbanos. El estudio de series temporales muestra que el proceso de urbanizacin va
frecuentemente acompafiado de un proceso de estructuracin, a pesar de la fragmentacin aparente
de taies tejidos. En investigaciones futuras deberian utilizarse medidas morfologicas complementarias: medidas de lagunaridad, medidas referentes a la reparticin de la poblacin. Estas medidas
podrian utilizarse tambin para validar los modelos de simulacin basados en la geometria fractal.
Pierre FRANKHAUSER*
Introduction
A fundamental question when examining a territory's social and econ
omic functioning concerns the spatial distribution of population. This phe
nomenon
has been studied in different contexts and on different scales by
a number of disciplines: demographers and geographers but also town plan
ners and economists. Whatever the scale of observation used, the results
obtained all show the spatial distribution of human activities to be essent
ially non-homogeneous. Various reasons can be given for this: first, some
places are more propitious than others to human activity, thereby influenc
ing
the areal distribution of settlement; second, urbanization has long been
accompanied by a hierarchical organization of towns and cities. There have
been many attempts to produce a theoretical formalization of this hierar
chical structure, either from a demographic and descriptive angle as in the
rank-size rule, or in the explanatory approach of central place theory.
On the larger scale of agglomerations, Clark introduced a mathematic
al
formulation to model the decrease in population as distance from a
city centre increases; the same phenomenon has been studied by Bussire
and Stovall using a different formalization. It might be thought that the
process of periurbanization or population decentralization has helped to
reduce the difference in the density of occupation between urban cores
and their suburbs, a development which could be accentuated by the growth
of tertiary activities in the central districts at the expense of residential
housing. However, this purely demographic perspective is in fact misleadi
ng.
What is observed here is simply a segregation of functions, and land
use in the city centres often actually intensifies due to the new demand.
This results in a high day-time concentration of non-residential population.
Universit de Franche-Comt, Besanon.
Population: An English Selection, special issue New Methodological Approaches
in the Social Sciences, 1998, 205-240.
206
P. FRANKHAUSER
207
208
P. FRANKHAUSER
209
(1)
(2)
(3)
where
Nn = const- l;D
(4)
210
P. FRANKHAUSER
this new parameter D is obtained which does not depend on the step n
and which is referred to as the fractal dimension.
(6)
Since the parameters have the same values for both the constructions
described, the same fractal dimension D - -^ ~ 1 .47 is obtained for the
perimeter and for the surface, a result which is inconsistent with normal
geometry, in which curves have the dimension one and surfaces have the
dimension two.
This result reflects the fact that during iteration the length of the
perimeter increases disproportionately compared with a normal geometrical
object, whereas the surface is increasingly dominated by free spaces. In
deed,
in the limit case n every element of the surface is also an element
of the perimeter (Frankhauser, 1994b).
We verify that by the same calculation the dimension D = 1 is ob
tained
for a line and D = 2 for a totally occupied surface, that is, values
which are consistent with Euclidean geometry. Thus it is established that
fractal geometry contains conventional geometry as a limiting case.
In the Sierpinski carpet, the iteration was interpreted as a gradual
reduction in the surface occupied by the object, such as it appears in re
lation
(2). A different interpretation is also possible (see for example
Gouyet, 1992): it is imagined that at each step a given mass or population
is concentrated on the remaining surfaces of the object. The density on
each element is then calculated. If the initial population is P, we get, at
step n, for density gn = p/an on each of the Nn squares occupied:
(8)
gn >
211
Hierarchical properties
and multifractality
(9)
where 5 is an exponent which may differ from D. In the present case, the
free spaces are of size \\ = ^ L, \2 = (\) L, etc., and it is verified that
(10)
While iteration necessarily produces a hierarchy in the distribution of
the free spaces, the elements are of the same size even though they form
clusters. However, generators can be selected which produce hierarchies of
clusters. Such a fractal appears in figure 2. In this case the generator does
not distribute the elements homogeneously as in the case of the chess-board
(figure la, left) but concentrates N} =9 elements in a cluster while putting
N2 =4 outside this cluster. The repetition of the operation therefore pro
duces
a hierarchical structure. During the iteration there emerges a single
large cluster, composed of increasingly slender branches. On the other hand,
in each of the N = N} + N2 elements at each step is generated a cluster
composed of N} squares reduced by the factor r = ^. It is confirmed that
at step n we have obtained one cluster composed of m{ni)=gn elements,
four of mi2) = 9"-' squares, and thereafter the following series:
Size
m(3) = 9n~2
m{t] = 9"-3
Number
= N2 N = 4- 13
N{4) = N2 N2 = 4 132
N(5) = N2 N3 = 4 133
= N2
= 4 i3*-2
(11)
212
P. FRANKHAUSER
Figure 3. - A multifractal at
iteration step 3. For some elements
the factors of reduction are indicated.
They are made up of two factors of
reduction h=\ and r2 = | , each
raised to a power. The numbers of
elements here are /Vi = 1 and
N2 = 4 (see text).
213
N"-kNk
'
2
(12)
= (N]r-N2r)n
(14)
214
P. FRANKHAUSER
215
->
(16)
(17)
216
P. FRANKHAUSER
surface vn or, what is equivalent, the density of the population that we assume
to be concentrated on this surface (see above). For vn we get:
v - N>
in which we have replaced TV according to the fractal relation N = r-D and
used the relation r" = en/L and where Nitot> is the number of squares needed
to cover the whole surface. The proportion of the surface on which the
mass is concentrated thus depends directly on the size of the mesh: the
distribution of the elements cannot be determined by a single mesh size
and it is parameter D which measures the variation in v, which is consistent
with our remark about density.
The results obtained by the grid method can be affected by the lo
cation
and size of the selected zone. This is not surprising if the structure
presents multifractal behaviour. In some cases, however, the results vary
according to the position and size of the window chosen for analysis even
though the surface occupied inside the window remains the same. This
ambiguity can be avoided by means of dilation analysis.
The dilation method
This method is based on the algorithm introduced by Minkowski and
Bouligand to establish the dimension of an object using the measure theory
approach/6' In this analysis each occupied point is surrounded by a square
of size e, the surface of which is considered to be completely occupied
(see figure 5). The size of these squares is then gradually enlarged, and
we measure the total surface covered A(e) at each stage. As the squares
are enlarged, any details smaller than e are overlooked and we gradually
obtain an approximation of the original form.(7) Because more and more
squares overlap, the total occupied surface A^dl> (e) for a particular
value e is less than what it would be if the same number of occupied points
that make up the original form were surrounded individually. By dividing
this total surface by the surface a^dll> (e) = e2 of a test square, we get the
number of elements N(e) necessary to cover the whole and we get a relation
consistent with (17). The corresponding fractal dimension DM is known as
the Minkowski dimension or dilation dimension.
The correlation method and the dimensions series
A third method, spatial correlation analysis (see Batty, Longley, 1994;
Frankhauser, 1994b), has sometimes been used. This involves counting the
(6> This approach has also recently been discussed in the context of 'mathematical
morphology'.
(7> This approach can be compared to the gradual change in the degree of cartographical
detail in drawing.
217
logtf(p)=Dr-logp
(19)
218
P. FRANKHAUSER
this zone. Since the number Nm(p) of pixels needed to cover the whole
surface is proportional to p2, for g we get:
D.-2
P '
(20)
logN-logN
(21)
(22)
219
15
29
43
57
71
85
3
logo
99 113
220
P. FRANKHAUSER
influencing the value a,. So as to be able to allow for any change in the
fractal dimension, we have generalized relation (22) so that the dimension
can also vary with distance: D = D(p) . In addition, we have treated dis
tance
p as a continuous variable, which makes it possible to interpret the
slope a as the first derivative in the bi-logarithmic representation:
. .
dlogN
..
lim
a.
a(p) = ,. & =
dlogp
]Ogp^iogPil
(23)
By means of law (22) generalized, it is verified that for the slope oc(p)
we finally get the relation:
d\ogN
fe = dloga
6 + logp
.
dD + D
_ = a.
(24)
logp
/logp
dlogp
Thus it can be seen that three different terms influence the slope value a:
the first term represents the local change in the prefactor a which
characterizes the local deviations. These perturbations appear on
the curve of scaling behaviour as fluctuations around a constant
mean value;
the second term measures the change in the fractal dimension D,
and thus authentic ruptures in the scaling behaviour. The latter
appear as changes in the mean behaviour of the curve a; ;
the third term is actually the fractal dimension itself. Because it
is now assumed that D varies with distance p, we prefer to speak
of the local value of dimension D.
The local values a, of the slopes must not be taken as the fractal
dimension. In particular, because the first two terms measure variations,
it is possible for the total of the three terms to exceed value two.i9)
In order to distinguish local fluctuations from structural changes, it
is useful to isolate the changes in the mean scaling behaviour. Gaussian
smoothing has been found an effective tool for eliminating the fluctuations
in a gradual and well controlled manner. (10)
III. - Fractal investigation of urban patterns
Fractals, hierarchies and urbanization
Fractal analysis combines several aspects. It is:
a method of spatial analysis. In particular, it can be used to examine
the law of distribution by moving across scales, as was seen in the
(9) A formal demonstration is given in Frankhauser, 1996a.
(10) Comparisons have shown that the most suitable smoothing parameter for identifying
the structural aspects of the curves of scaling behaviour has to be in a range of between 12
and 18 pixels. Use of the same value means that the results can be compared.
22 1
222
P. FRANKHAUSER
Fractal analysis has proved a powerful tool for studying the spatial
organization of urban patterns. Ment
ion can be made of the analyses by M. Batty and P. Longley (1994), M. Batty
and Y. Xie (1996), P. Frankhauser (1994b, 1997b) and R. White (1991, 1993a).
Here we shall limit ourselves to examining different aspects of the
information collected using examples from actual research.
Some general findings
We begin with a number of results which confirm the assumptions
presented above. From a theoretical standpoint, it has been possible to construct
223
a fractal which obeys a logic similar to that which underpins central place
theory (Frankhauser, 1994b). (12) For the French urban system, N. Franois
has demonstrated that such a fractal hierarchy can be observed using a
radial analysis that takes Paris as its centre (Franois, 1995). An analysis
in the same vein concerns a number of metropolitan areas. We defined a
number of surface size classes and counted the number of cities whose
built-up surface corresponded to these (Frankhauser, 1994a). The metro
politan areas which present a high degree of fragmentation, such as Stutt
gart, Moscow, Berlin and Pittsburgh, confirm the existence of a hyperbolic
distribution that is consistent with fractal geometry. Urbanization in these
cases has been influenced either by the presence of valleys or by the im
portance
of a public transport network akin to the RER (suburban railway)
around Paris. By contrast, no such hierarchy is discernible for a number
of North American and Australian cities whose development has been deter
mined by the private motor car from a very early date. Figure 5 shows
n i i
1 1,522,53 4 567
1
0,5
224
P. FRANKHAUSER
the curve of this analysis for Pittsburgh, that we have compared with the
dilation curve. These two curves indicate the existence of a spatial hier
archy.
It may be noted, however, that fractal analysis also translates the
non-homogeneous distribution of human activities within this space.
A different analysis has examined the relationship between the builtup surface a and the perimeter p in a sample of sixty urban areas. The
result confirms a close proportionality between the values of a and p
(Frankhauser, 1994b). The fractal dimension of the perimeter can therefore
be used as an indication of the degree of fragmentation of an urban pattern.
A typology of metropolitan areas
Many fractal investigations of urban patterns have dealt with the ana
lysis of metropolitan areas and are thus conducted at a regional scale. De
tailed
discussion of these results is in M. Batty and P. Longley (1994)
Fractal Cities, a Geometry of Form and Function{l3) and P. Frankhauser
(1994) La fractalit des structures urbaines.
These analyses are often conducted using large-scale cartographic rep
resentations
from which the details of intra-urban structures are absent. A
general information is thus obtained about the spatial organization of the
cities. In the sample of thirty cities that we analyzed, it was found that
European cities and some old-established cities in North America, such as
Pittsburgh and Boston, are different from the cities of North America and
Australia whose growth has been strongly marked by the spread of private
car ownership, such as Los Angeles and Melbourne.04 In the first group,
the fractal dimensions are lower, notably the global dimension (grid and
correlation). The difference between the three dimensions (radial, grid and
correlation) is greater in this group. Their behaviour is thus more consistent
with a multifractal logic. The values obtained are direct reflections of the
urban morphology: cities like Berlin and Moscow have low values of Dr,
which is explained by their axial development along the lines of transport
networks. The degree of urbanization in the urban hinterland is indicated
by the global dimensions. Highly fragmented patterns like that in the Stutt
gart region, for example, give low values. In this way several types of
urban agglomeration can thus be identified.
Analysis of urban agglomerations - some comments on methodology
For the urban and intra-urban scale we draw on analyses we have
conducted for several urban agglomerations in the Franche-Comt region
of France, in particular Besanon, the Montbliard urban area, the regions
of Dole and of Lons-le-Saunier.(l5)
(13' This book assembles the results obtained by other authors.
<14> The Third World cities we have analyzed do not form a homogeneous group. The
results reflect their disparate historical evolution and an incomplete urban development.
(15) These analyses are included in a number of masters theses in Geography (S. Trincat, Besanon; L. Goguel, Montbliard; S. Lhomme, Dole; J. Prost, Lons-le-Saunier).
225
P. FRANKHAUSER
226
point 1
2
1
250
500
750
1 000
1250
p (in metres)
point 2
2
1 4
250
500
750
1 000
1 250
1 500
1 750
(in metres)
227
counting centres. The squares marked on the map correspond to the ruptures
in the curves. It can be seen that some squares corresponding to different
counting centres partially overlap. This indicates that in this sector the rup
ture is large enough to dominate the result obtained for the whole of the
perimeter of this square.
By choosing a succession of positions for the counting centre it is
thus possible to obtain detailed information on the aspect of the urban
pattern as it appears from these points. Such information is more than a
simple division into zones: it is a descriptor of the quarters in question.
Fractal measures can thus be used to make a morphological com
parison
and classification across different scales.
A division into zones according to scaling behaviour can also be done
using other methods of analysis. We measured the size of the grid by grad
ually moving for a fixed distance the window in which the counting is
done, over the total surface of the urban pattern. The values obtained for
the fractal dimension were then mapped: each position selected is su
rrounded
by a square whose degree of shading corresponds to the value of
the dimension observed. For example, the colour black corresponds to
dimension two, while the colour white indicates dimension zero. In this
way an information is obtained about the distribution of dimensions and
thus about the ruptures in the urban patterns.
Additional information is supplied by certain ruptures in the actual
curves obtained by the grid method. In particular, a rupture often occurs
which relates to a small grid distance. This rupture corresponds to the min
imum distance between buildings: when the usual size of backyards is
reached, a shortfall of occupied squares will be noted for a smaller mesh,
indicating that this is the lower limit at which structural phenomena can
still be observed.
The information obtained in this way about the spatial organization
of urban districts can be used to construct theoretical fractal patterns equi
valent in their internal organization to the observed patterns. Figure 7 shows
an attempt to represent the aspect of the centre of Besanon in the form
of a Sierpinski carpet by respecting approximately the fractal dimension
and the distribution of free spaces in the urban pattern on the basis of a
qualitative resemblance.' l9)
Urban cores: centres of symmetry in urban patterns?
Characteristics of urban cores
The aspect of the curves obtained for the outer suburban districts
varies depending on the spatial organization of the districts. On the other
<19) It must be remembered that this is one possibility among an arbitrary number of
others, that are equivalent: a more precise method would require introducing supplementary
parameters, notably to measure the distribution of free spaces with greater acuracy.
228
P. FRANKHAUSER
Besanon
Dr
= 1,81 town centre
VMM:: VAVAVA
VA VA VA VA VA VA
VAVAVA
VAVAVA
VAVAVA
:.:
s.s
VAVAVA
VA
VAVAVA
MB
VAVAVA
VAVAVA
VAVAVA
constructed fractal
D=1,73
229
this distance from the centre. This lower limit is marked on figure 8,
and it can be seen that it does indeed correspond to the end of the
zone of dense urbanization which precedes the outer suburban ring
dominated by strong axial growth;
next there comes a fairly extensive zone that corresponds to the
peripheral ring of the urbanized area. The curve here often presents
an impressive degree of regularity, so we observe a constant scaling
behaviour, though the value of exponent a is lower (see figure 8);
230
P. FRANKHAUSER
23 1
indicates that the town belongs to a network of towns which together form
a larger unit. The fact that no major change is observed in the scaling
behaviour shows that this set of towns together has the same spatial or
ganization
as a central core. Thus the conurbation as a whole forms a struc
ture organized according to a common internal hierarchy. The relative
regularity of the curve for Audincourt indicates that this town is the geo
graphical
centre of the conurbation.
Spatial analysis of the urbanization process
The degree of spatial absorption
Urbanized zones are usually composed of a number of sub-centres
grouped around a large urban centre. It is common for the centres of se
ttlements
closest to the central cluster to be absorbed by it in the process
of urbanization, thereby losing their independent character and becoming part
of the enlarged central cluster - even if administrative boundaries do not
always keep up with such changes. The value of radial analysis as a sen
sitive
instrument for distinguishing the degree of absorption of a centre of
settlement has been demonstrated by the analyses we have conducted for the
periurban towns of Munich (Frankhauser, 1994a) and Berlin, as well as at
the scale of medium- and small-sized towns in the Franche-Comt region.
When other clusters are situated near to the main cluster, the smoothed
curve of scaling behaviour is seen to have a weak inflexion before climbing
again. On the other hand the same behaviour is observed when the position
of reference is the centre of a commune (local district) situated on the pe
riphery.
For a periurban zone that has not yet been absorbed into the central
cluster, however, a curve with a clear break is observed.
By comparing the degree of absorption for the same agglomeration
at different periods we can retrace the successive stages of urbanization
in a periurban zone. Figure 9 shows the urban pattern of Lons-le-Saunier
in 1970 and in 1985, as well as the smoothed curves of scaling behaviour
for Montmorot, a commune close to Lons. A sharp break is observed in
1970 but has completely disappeared in 1985. The scaling behaviour has
thus become more regular, and the urbanization process is found to act as
a self-structuring process.
Change and continuity in urban morphogenesis
In the previous example, urbanization is accompanied by a phenome
non
of self-structuring which is reflected in a greater regularity of the
curves, despite the fragmented morphology of the urban patterns. Therefore
it seems interesting to study the process of urbanization by comparing the
urban patterns of a town across time. We have conducted such investigations
for Munich, Berlin, the Montbliard region, and Lons-le-Saunier. The results
confirm that fluctuations diminish greatly in the course of urbanization:
232
P. FRANKHAUSER
Lons-le-Saunier 1970
Lons-le-Saunier 1985
Montmorot .,:
500
1000
1500
p (in metres)
500
1000
1500
p (in metres)
a
3,
10
233
Berlin
Lons-le-Saunier
1875
1913
15
20
25 30 35
p (in kilometres)
1910
10
a
3-,
15
20
1947
i
1"~r
500 100015002000250030003500
p (in metres)
25 30 35
p (in kilometres)
1970
1920
10
15
20 25 30 35
p (in kilometres)
1945
10
15
20
1985
25 30 35
p (in kilometres)
234
P. FRANKHAUSER
levels out at a lower value before going on to reach higher values, within
a limited range. In the case of Lons, it is seen that the curve falls after
reaching the edge of the core, and that a second break is observed, corr
esponding
to the suburban ring which surrounds this core. Only at a greater
distance from the centre do there exist also higher values. In both these
cases this increase in values is due to the presence of other agglomerations
situated at this distance. A comparison with the curves for the subsequent
periods shows that the inflexions in the curves are reduced and that we
observe a more extensive transitional zone. The fluctuations caused by dis
tant agglomerations gradually give way under the influence of a periurban
ring whose presence is indicated by a stage of constant behaviour as di
scussed
earlier.
If the growth of the central cluster has a considerable influence on
the spatial organization of the suburbs, it is found that the values of the
parameter a, scarcely increase inside the urban core which thus does not
reach the dimension of two that is indicative of a homogeneous occupation
of space. The values of a, in the peripheral zones are observed to move
gradually closer to those of the core. It follows that the additional built-up
surface is thus distributed according to the same principle as inside the
cluster, with the result that larger free spaces continue to exist inside the
urbanized zone. This form of growth corresponds to the allometric prin
ciple, often observed in biological systems (Frankhauser, 1994b) and is
consistent with the logic discussed above of a gradual fragmentation of
the built-up area.
This mode of growth is not the result of a planning policy but tends
in fact to run counter to such policies, which means that it is a phenomenon
of self-organization. In fact, the growing influence of the central cluster
on the periurban area is reminiscent of the slaving principle elaborated in
synergetics to explain phenomena of self-organization. One of the fun
damental
principles of this approach is based on the idea that the compet
itionbetween sub-systems culminates in the dominance of a single element
which achieves preeminence through a process of natural selection. In the
case of a settlement system it can be imagined that one particular agglomera
tion
benefits from an advantageous situation, in the form of political or
economic advantages, or by its position. The neighbouring agglomerations
then risk losing their independence. (24)
These observations point to the use of the fractal approach to model
urban morphogenesis, and several authors have suggested growth models
based on fractal rules (Frankhauser, 1994b; Batty, Longley, 1994; White,
Engelen, 1994a; Makse, Halvin, Stanley, 1995). Particular mention can be
(24) w. Weidlich and G. Haag (1988) have elaborated a synergetic model of a network
of towns to show the spontaneous growth of one town to the detriment of the others. The
multi-agents model, elaborated by the P.A.R.I.S. team (Gurin-Pace, 1995), also reveals the
development of an urban hierarchy. In both cases, however, these are demographic models
rather than a morphogenetic approach. It may be added that the socio-economic aspects of
the fragmentation of the urban space are discussed in Frankhauser, 1994b.
235
made of the attempts by Batty et al. and more recently A. Makse et al. to
model urban growth by applying methods used in physics to describe phe
nomena
of diffusion and of electrical discharges. These results are inter
esting in that what is being modelled is the peripheral growth of cities.
In addition, Makse et al. also consider the influence that the surroundings
of a place have on its probability or not of being urbanized. However,
such an approach remains essentially descriptive, since it is still hard to
justify this method on the basis of micro-economic processes, as for
example, decisions over residential location. In this respect, the approach
adopted by R. White and G. Engelen represents a different logic: they i
ntroduce
the laws of spatial interaction between different land-uses. For
example, the proximity of an industrial zone is unfavourable to the deve
lopment
of a residential zone. With this model is it also possible to take
into account the influence of supplementary models. On the other hand,
no allowance is made for changes in the behaviour of the human agents,
for example a greater sensitivity to increasing density of the built-up space.
Yet such phenomena appear to have an important role in explaining the
reasons which contribute to the fragmentation of the periurban space. The
use of spatial models to explore urban growth does seem nonetheless a
promising field, since space is explicitly present in this approach, in cont
rast to the traditional models whose approach is essentially economic. A
modelling concept has recently been proposed which attempts to integrate
the reaction of the human agents to the spatial transformation provoked
by the process of urbanization (Frankhauser, 1996b).
IV. - Towards an analysis of population distribution
Our discussion so far has been limited to studying the distribution
of built-up surfaces. In terms of demography, this point of view corre
sponds to a homogeneous distribution of the population across the built-up
surface. At the level of a more detailed analysis of urban patterns, it would
be desirable to also take into account other aspects of urban spatial or
ganization,
such as the density of built-up surfaces and the distribution
of the population. Reference was made earlier to the work of H. Le Bras
who has used a multifractal approach to analyse the non-homogeneous
distribution of the population. This approach is based on an iteration
whereby at each step a part of the population is allocated to a part of
the available surface. A similar approach has recently also been used by
S. Appelby to analyse the distribution of population at the scale of the
urban network (Appelby, 1996).
Application of such an approach at the scale of agglomerations re
quires
introduction of a bivalent logic with which to model both the dis
tribution
of the built-up surface and the density of land use. We need to
measure the radial decay of the occupied surface from a city centre and
P. FRANKHAUSER
236
Iteration step 2
Figure 11. - The generator discussed in the text and the iteration
step 2. The percentages of population present in each square are
represented by different degrees of shading: the greyer the scale,
the higher the percentage
(25) It is known, for example, that the residential population is concentrated in the
peripheral zones even though densities of built-up surfaces in the urban cores reach very
high levels.
237
238
P. FRANKHAUSER
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Denise Pumain, Lena Sanders and France
Gurin-Pace of the P.A.R.I.S. group of the CNRS, for many fruitful discussions,
and my colleagues at the IRADES (CNRS THEMA group) for the interest they
have shown in this work. Thanks also to Jolle Maillardet and Thomas Thevenin
for the diagrams, and to Anne Marie Odouze for her critical comments on the text.
239
REFERENCES
240
P. FRANKHAUSER
Frankhauser (Pierre).- The fractal approach. A new tool for the spatial analysis of ur
ban agglomerations.
Fractal geometry is a new approach for the study of spatial distributions. The basic
model is a law of hierarchical distribution corresponding to Pareto's law which is familiar
to urban geographers and demographers. The methods of fractal analysis can be used to stu
dy the spatial organization of human activities across scales. The regularities and the dis
continuities
in the distributions can then be identified. These discontinuities can be
spatially situated. Applying this concept to urbanized areas has shown that districts can be
defined and classified according to their scaling relations, thereby allowing development of
a typology of locational patterns. This observation reveals the existence of a principle of
self-similarity in land-use patterns. An examination of time series shows that despite the
apparent fragmentation of these urban tissues, urbanization is often accompanied by selfstructuring development.
Subsequent research will need to employ complementary morphological measures,
such as measures of space filling and of population distribution, which could be used to va
lidate
the simulation models based on fractal geometry.
Frankhauser (Pierre).- L'approche fractale. Un outil de rflexion dans l'analyse spa
tiale des agglomrations urbaines.
La gomtrie fractale est une nouvelle approche pour tudier des rpartitions spatial
es.Le modle de rfrence est une loi de distribution hirarchique qui correspond la loi
de Pareto, bien connue en gographie urbaine et en dmographie. L'utilisation des mtho
des
d'analyse fractale permet d'tudier l'organisation spatiale des activits humaines tra
vers les chelles. Il est ainsi possible de dcouvrir aussi bien des hirarchies rgulires que
des ruptures. Ces ruptures peuvent tre identifies dans l'espace. L'application de ce con
cept aux tissus urbains a montr qu'il est possible de distinguer et de classifier des quartiers
selon leur comportement sealant, et de dvelopper une typologie des tissus urbains. Cette
observation met en vidence l'existence d'un principe d'auto-similarit dans les tissus ur
bains.
L'tude de sries temporelles montre que l'urbanisation est souvent accompagne de
phnomnes de structuration, en dpit de la fragmentation apparente de ces tissus.
Les futures recherches devraient utiliser des mesures morphologiques complmentair
es:
mesures de lacunarit, mesures concernant la rpartition de la population. Ces mesures
pourront servir valider des modles de simulation bass sur la gomtrie fractale.
Frankhauser (Pierre). - El anlisis fractal. Un nuevo instrumente de reflexion en el
anlisis espacial de las aglomeraciones urbanas.
La geometria fractal es un nuevo mtodo de estudio de reparticiones espaciales. El
modelo de referencia es una ley de distribucin jerrquica que corresponde a la ley de Paret
o,bien conocida en geografia urbana y en demografia. La utilizacin de los mtodos de
anlisis fractal permite estudiar la organizacin espacial de las actividades humanas a travs de escalas. Estas escalas permiten establecer tanto jerarquias regulares como rupturas,
que se pueden identificar y situar en el espacio. La aplicacin de este concepto a los tejidos
urbanos ha abierto la posibilidad de distinguir y clasificar gradualmente barrios segn su
comportamiento, y de esta forma desarrollar tipologias urbanas. Este mtodo muestra la existencia de un principio de auto-similaridad en los tejidos urbanos. El estudio de series tem
porales
muestra que el proceso de urbanizacin va frecuentemente acompafiado de un
proceso de estructuracin, a pesar de la fragmentacin aparente de taies tejidos.
En investigaciones futuras deberian utilizarse medidas morfologicas complementarias: medidas de lagunaridad, medidas referentes a la reparticin de la poblacin. Estas me
didas
podrian utilizarse tambin para validar los modelos de simulacin basados en la
geometria fractal.
Pierre Frankhauser, Universit de Franche-Comt, 32, rue Mgevand, 25030 Besanon, France,
tel: [33] (0)3 81 66 54 21, fax: [33] (0)3 81 66 53 55, e-mail: pierre.frankhauser@univ-fcomte.fr