Valves

q
Ps
f
Ps
qs
q Cv f l

Equations

Pv
gs

f l l l R l 1

qmax f l , qmin f 0.1

Pv P Ps
Process engineer:
Bigger valve

less pressure drop

energy. Pump less

Generally

smaller resistance

lower voltage &

less cost BUT harder to control

Control engineer:

Smaller valve

greater pressure drop

larger changes can be made in flow

greater cost BUT more control action

Thermocouples
Km

Gain

range of instrument output

range of instrument input

Variable

W
U heat transfer coefficient 2 o
m C

notation

C specific heat capacity

Assume

J
kg oC

m mass

kg

A area

m 2

T 2 =0

Electric

ET3 ,T2 ET3 ,0 Read off table

potential

ET1 ,T2 ET1 ,T3 ET3 ,T2 Read off table

Find ET1 ,T2 on table and read off T1
TS
U SW ASW TW TS
t
T
mW CW W UWF AWF TF TW U SW ASW TW TS
t
T
T
1 S TW TS
2 W TW TS TF TW
t
t
mS CS
m C
U A
where 1
,
2 W W ,
SW SW
U SW ASW
UWF AWF
UWF AWF
mS CS

Transfer
function
(Heat balance
equations)

GM s

TS s

TF s

1
1 2 s 1 2 1 s 1
2

Transfer
function with
correctly
installed
thermocoupl
e

Final temp stays the same

Steady state temperature

Ts
U FW AWF TF TS
t
TS s
m C mW CW
1
GM s

, S S
TW s s 1
U FW AWF

mS CS mW CW

Processes

y k a1 y k 1 a2 y k 2 b1u k 1 b2u k 2

Pure simulation: calculate y k and use these values of y

Error ek y k y k

ARX Model

Loss function: VN

Gain

Hold for ARX

Constant

1st order :

2nd Order, no t.d:

A=X

y k 1

Process

Matrix

Transformation

a1 1
b1 KT

a1 exp T

b1 K 1 exp T

Output Output 0
Input Input 0

0.63 Output Output 0 A

Output 0 A at seconds

Matrix

Process Time

t 1

K
s 1

Process Gain

1
2e

y
b b
1 2
u 1 a1 a2

K
s

Zero Order

1
N

output 1
output 2
M
output 1

y k a1 y k 1 a2 y k 2 b1u k 1
y k 2

output 0
output 1
M
output 2
A1
A
2

u k 1

input 1
input 2

M
input 1

B1 a Ans
1

B2 b Ans
2
c

A1
a
b X det 1 A

B1
B2

Ans
1

Ans
2

a1
. a2
b1

y k

output 2
output 3

output

Chapter 8

e t
1 t
p t p K C e t e t * dt * D

I 0
dt

P' s

1 I s I D s 2
1
KC 1
D s K C

E s
Is
Is

Parallel with derivative filter

PID Control
(Parallel)

P' s

s 1
1
KC 1
D

E s
I s D s 1

P' s

PID Control

E s

(Series)
Expanded

I s 1
D s 1

I s D s 1

KC

p t p K C e t K I e t * dt * K D
0

PID
Eliminating

1
p t KC e t
I

Deriv. &
Prop. Kick

1
p t p K C eP t
I

eP @ ysp t ym t

e t * dt * D

e t
t

ym t

e t * dt * D

eD t

e @ysp t ym t

eD @ ysp t ym t

controller

will never be in the characteristic equation!

does affect gain

disturbance rejection could cause instability

p t p K C ysp t ym t

Reverse or
Direct

Reverse:

K C 0;

Air-to-Open: K C K P 0

Action

Direct:

K C 0;

Air-to-Close: K C K P 0

Position

( pk )
Position

( pk1 )
Velocity

( p k)

t k

pk p K C ek e j D ek ek 1
I j 1
t

t k 1

pk 1 p K C ek 1 e j D ek 1 ek 2
I j 1
t

pk pk pk 1 KC ek ek 1 ek D ek 2ek 1 ek 2
I
t

Chapter 11
Closed loop

trans.

G @GvG p Gm

function

Routh
Stability

K mGc GvG p
Gd
Gc G
D
N
Ysp
1 GcG
1 GcG
1 Gc G

s4
s3
s2
s1
s0

a4
a3
b1
c1
a0

a2
a1
a0

a0

a4
a3

a2
a a a a
3 2 4 1,

a0
a3

where b1
and

U s b1 s 2 a0

a3 a1
b1a1 a3a0
c1
b a
b1
1 0

Root Locus

cos
Set point

offset h ' sp h '

offset

M
, where M = magnitude of step change
1 K OL

offset h '

Disturbance
offset

H ' s
Q s
'
1

PI Control &
Disturbance
Changes

where K 3

KP M
1 K OL

K3s
s 2 3 3 s 1
2 2
3

K c Kv K m

I
1 1 K OL
3

K OL
3 I KOL , where K OL K c K v K m

Chapter 12

Gc

Direct
Synthesis

1 Y Ysp d

, where Y Ysp desired closed-loop transfer function

d
G% 1 Y Ysp
d

Y
1
e s

no t.d., or
with t.d.

1
sp
c
c

d

Y
1 a s e s

For an unstable pole:

,
Ysp
cs 1

d

where 1 a s is right half plane zero and a 0

Unknown
t.d.

Gc

1 2 s
1
e s
s

Pade
:
e

, Taylor : e s 1 s

1 2 s
G% c s 1 e s

approximat
e
PI Controller with K c

FOPTD

Ke
G%
,
s 1

SOPTD

G%

Gc

(use the

1 2

, I 2 , D

K c 2
2

I 1 2 , D

Gc*

12.1 yo)
Larger

Gc*
Gc*G%
1 Gc*G%
,
Y

D
sp
1 Gc*G%
1 Gc* G G%
1 Gc* G G%

1
f,
%
G

c 1

with r typically = 1

means more conservative controller as

Kc

2. c c 3 means C.L response 3X faster than O.L response

Lag
Dominant

1
/

while

1. c 0.8 and c 0.1

3. c

Model

1 2
1 2

%
%
G% G%
G but G must have a s.s. gain of 1 for uniqueness

mofo table

PID Controller with K c

Ke s
1 1 2
, PID with K c
,
K c
1s 1 2 s 1

IMC

Selection of

1
,
K c

1. Approximate model by G s

K *e s * K
,K
s

2. Limit I : I min I , 4 c

IAE e t dt ;

ISE e t dt ;

Integral

ITAE t e t dt
0

Error

Suppression of large errors: ISE > IAE

Criteria

Suppression of small errors: IAE > ISE

Suppression of persistent errors: ITAE > ISE, IAE

Tuning
Variables

o t1 to ,
Ziegler

Kp

Nicols
PID
Cohen-

Kp

Coon

vo
K o o

PID
Ultimate
Model
Parameters

IPTD : G s

1.2vo
,
K o o

vo t2 t1 ,

I 2 o ,

y yo
u u o

o
2

o 32vo 6 o
4 o
4 o vo
, D
, I
13vo 8 o
11vo 2 o
3 4vo

Ke s
2
,K
,
s
K cu Pu

FOPTD : G s

Ko

Pu
4

Pu 2
P
Pu
Ke s
, u tan
or
s 1
2
Pu
2

KK cu

Chapter 13

A
Sinusoidal
Forcing of a
Process

KA

, where A is sinusoidal input ampl. and the sinusoidal freq.

2 2 1

A
AR G j R 2 I 2 ,
G j arctan I R
A
Ga
AR
, Ga j G1 j G2 j
G1 G2

Integrating

G s

Process
2nd Order
Process
Process
Zero
Time Delay

G s

K
K
AR ,
s

K
AR
s 2 s 1
2 2

90o

1 2

A denominator of the form

2 2 2

2
2 2
1

, arctan

( s+1 ) is a process lag.

G s s 1 AR 2 2 1,
G s e s AR 1,

arctan

Closed
Loop B/W

1
c

Chapter 14

Gain &
Phase
Margins

Find c where OL 180 , Stable if AR OL 1 where c

Find g where AR OL 1 and g where g
GM

1
,
AR c

180

PM 180 g max g

A well-tuned controller:
Sensitivity

Functions

1.7<GM < 4

and

30 < PM < 45 .

GcG
1
, T
, S T 1
1 Gc G
1 Gc G

Comparing 2 Controllers

ynew ycurrent yield

Extrapolate ycurrent to determine points where it exceeds the yield

% better

# points better
100
# data points

Chapter 20: MPC

y o K j

N 1

S u K j i S u K j N
i

i j 1

where 1 j P

For N>P:
K 0 : y o K 1,.., P 0
K 1: y o K 1 S 2 u 0
y o K 2 S3 u 0
...

Control
moves:
u (k )

K P S P 1u 0
K 2 : y o K 1 S 2 u 1 S3u 0
y o K 2 S3 u 1 S4 u 0
y

...

K P S P 1u 1 S P 2 u 0
E o K 1 Yr o K 1 y o K 1 where Yr o K 1 1 for unit step
u K K C .E o K 1
u K u K u K 1
y

K c1 S T .S .S T
1

Kc1

Gain:

S1 S2
P

QS
i 1

Step
response
coefficients
Si

S3 ... S P Q
2
i

K1 K 2 K3 ... K P

Given: G s and t
Y s G s U s

where U s

Find y t

Si y it

1
step function
s

Economic Performance Assessment

Average

Pave PDF Performance function

economic

performance
Future Value
of a single
cash flow

FVt PV 1 r

PV = Present value
FVt = Future value after t periods
r = discount (interest) rate in decimals

Future value
of C per
period for t
periods at r
per period

C 1 r 1

FVt
r
t