J

Curriculum Analysis: Shadows, Interactive Mathematics Program

John Green

This units major is on the patterns of shadows, the exploration of how different variables affect the way that
shadows form, change and the way the varying the forms that create shadows can and do change the
relationship between shadows and the factors that create hem. Students experiment to learn about the types
of variables that can change shadows and the ways that these variables can change an influence the way that
shadows form and develop. The hands on activities in which the students participate allow the students to
discover, explore and analyz8th grade
The relationships between the distance, height and angles of the light source, and the shadows formed
therein. From this, the students will create graphs of the data, tabulate the data gathered, develop and present
the equations formulated from their observations and data as well as to justify their conclusions and
equations, and be Abe to explain their why this is statements to justify why their observations and
conclusions are correct and require students to compile and analyze data, formulate equations, tables, and
graphs, and reasonably justify every move they make.
Concepts, Skills, and Standards
The Shadows focus areas align well with many seventh and eighth California Common Core
th
th
Mathematics Standards. Other 6 -12 standards that are addressed in this unit are identified in this
document on page 2.
Main Concepts and Skills
(Identified by Publisher)
Similarity and Congruence

California Common Core State Standards Mathematics

th
8 grade
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.8.G.A.2
Developing intuitive ideas about the meaning
Understand that a two-dimensional figure is congruent to

of same shape and learning the formal

another if the second can be obtained from the first by a
definitions of similar and congruent
sequence of rotations, reflections, and translations; given two
Discovering the special properties of triangles
congruent figures, describe a sequence that exhibits the
in connection with similarity, as well as other
congruence between them.
features of triangles as special polygons
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.8.G.A.4
Understanding the role of similarity in defining
Understand that a two-dimensional figure is similar to
the trigonometric functions of sine, cosine, and
another if the second can be obtained from the first by a
tangent
sequence of rotations, reflections, translations, and dilations;
given two similar two-dimensional figures, describe a
sequence that exhibits the similarity between them.

Curriculum Analysis: Shadows, Interactive Mathematics Program

John Green
Proportional Reasoning and the Algebra of
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.6.RP.A.1
Proportions
Understand the concept of a ratio and use ratio language to

Understanding the meaning of proportionality

in connection with similarity
Developing equations of proportionality from
situations involving similar figures
Understanding the role of proportionality in
non-geometric situations
Developing techniques for solving equations
involving fractional expressions

Polygons and Angles

Developing angle sum formulas for triangles

and other polygons
Discovering the properties of angles formed by
a transversal across parallel lines
Discovering the triangle inequality and
investigating its extension to polygons

describe a ratio relationship between two quantities.

CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.8.G.B.6

Explain a proof of the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse.

CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.8.G.B.6
Logical Reasoning and Proof
Working with the concept of counterexample Explain a proof of the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse.

in understanding the criteria for similarity

Proving conjectures about vertical angles and
polygon angle sums
Understanding the role of the parallel
postulate in proofs
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.8.G.B.7
Right Triangles and Trigonometry
Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to determine unknown side
Learning standard terminology for triangles,
lengths in right triangles in real-world and mathematical problems
including hypotenuse, leg, opposite side, and
in two and three dimensions.
adjacent side
Learning the right triangle definitions of sine, cosine,
and tangent
Using sine, cosine, and tangent to solve
real-world problems

Experiments and Data Analysis

Planning and carrying out controlled
experiments
! Collecting and analyzing data
! Identifying key features in graphs of data

Mathematical Modeling
Using a geometric diagram to represent a

real-world situation
Using scale drawings to solve problems
Applying properties of similar triangles to
real-world situations

CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSS.MD.A.1
Define a random variable for a quantity of interest by

assigning a numerical value to each event in a sample space;

graph the corresponding probability distribution using the
same graphical displays as for data distributions.

CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.8.G.A.1
Verify experimentally the properties of rotations, reflections,
and translations:

Curriculum Analysis: Shadows, Interactive Mathematics Program

John Green

Standards for Mathematical Practice

The Shadows Unit gives students opportunities to demonstrate evidence of the eight Mathematical Practice
Standards. Presented are examples are of the Standards:
MPS
Student Evidence
Teacher Support
1. Make sense
There are four problems of the Week POWs The POWs
Detailed teacher
of problems and task students to engage and understand concepts that are
instructions as to how to
persevere in
presented in ways that require students to develop the
model and teach every
solving them.
understanding of the information presented in the lesson in
lesson. Adequate and
a collaborative manner.
complete help and
resources for classroom
teachers.

2. Reason
abstractly and
quantitatively.

4. Model with
mathematics.

5. Use
appropriate
tools
strategically.

Page
TG P.
3, 10,
15,
23,
28,
34,
39,
44,
55,

This unit involves extensive hands on exploration of

geometric concepts using everyday items such as
mirrors and flashlights, as well as reading, drawing and
explanations to the class of what was discovered. Each
of the weeks lessons includes a Problem of the Week
(POWs) that the students work on. From the inception,
students are encouraged to think, question, reason and
challenge ideas. For example, on Day 1, students are
presented with the question of how long is a shadow
On day 6 the question becomes How to shrink the
shadow?
Day 9 becomes similar triangles.
On Day 10, students are asked to discuss Polygon
equations; students discuss arguments about angles and
present counter arguments.

The teacher should

sport the students,
but also ask students
to support their work,
their answers and to
provide group ideas
and support to their
group ideas.

4
20

Questions to ask students

32

For the modeling, POW 14 uses the concept of a pool

table to allow students to represent the way that a
billiard ball travels across the felt after impacting the
bumpers.
In POW 9, the students use trying triangles to
determine combinations of angles and sides of a
triangle to understand possible combination that
will or will not create a triangle.

Pipe cleaners are used

to construct the
triangles.

23,
47

In bouncing light students use flashlights, mirrors and

protractors to measure and analyze angles of incidence
and reflection.

Questions to ask
students; large paper,
flashlights, mirrors.

143

Curriculum Analysis: Shadows, Interactive Mathematics Program

6. Attend to
Again, in Bouncing light, students must accurately
precision.
measure and calculate angles.

John Green
41
Questions to ask
students; large paper,
flashlights, mirrors.

7. Look for and

make use of
structure.

On Day 17, Angles, angles, angles, students

explore evaluate and demonstrate principals of
geometric proofs.

Questions to ask
students; points for
students to discuss.

71

8. Look for and

express
regularity in
repeated
reasoning.

On Day 18, To measure a tree students use

proportional triangles to develop a method to find the
height of a tree, using the length of a trees shadow and
that of a known height object.

Questions to ask
students; sample student
answers; examples;
background information

47

Grade
Levels
K-3

4-7

K- 12 Learning Trajectory for Shadows

Focus Areas
Graphs and Modeling
Algorithm, variables and notation
Data and Decision
Making
CCSS.MATH.CONT
KMDA.2 Compare
K-Understand addition as putting
measureable
attributes
of
together and adding to, and understand
ENT.1.MD.A.1
2 objects.
subtraction as taking apart and taking
Orderthreeobjects
from.
bylength;compare
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.3.
thelengthsoftwo
MD.C.7.CUsetilingtoshow 2.OA.C.3 Determine whether a group of
objectsindirectlyby
inaconcretecasethatthearea objects (up to 20) has an odd or even
usingathirdobject.
number of members, e.g., by pairing
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.1. ofarectanglewithwhole
numbersidelengthsaandb+ objects or counting them by 2s; write an
MD.C.4
cisthesumofabandac. equation to express an even number as a
Organize,represent,
Useareamodelstorepresent sum of two equal addends.
andinterpretdata
thedistributivepropertyin
withuptothree
3.OA.B.5 Apply properties of
mathematicalreasoning.
categories;askand
operations as strategies to
answerquestions
multiply and divide.2
aboutthetotal
numberofdata
3.NF.A.1 Understand a fraction 1/b as
points,howmanyin
the quantity formed by 1 part when a
eachcategory,and
whole is partitioned into b equal parts.
howmanymoreor
lessareinone
categorythanin
another.
7.RP Analyze proportional 4.OA.C.5 Generate and
4.NF.A.1 Extend understanding of
relationships and use them analyze patterns
fractions of equivalence and ordering
to solve real-world problems
4.NDT.B5 X
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.7.G 4.NBT.6
4.OA.B.4 Factors and multiplication
.B.6Solverealworldand
4.OA.C.5 Generate and analyze
mathematicalproblems
involvingarea,volumeand patterns
surfaceareaoftwoandthree 7.G Draw, construct and describe
dimensionalobjectscomposed geometrical figures and describe the
relationships between them
oftriangles,quadrilaterals,
polygons,cubes,andright
prisms.
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.8.G 8.A.CED Create equations that describe
8.F.1F Interpret fractions
that arise in applications in .A.1Verifyexperimentallythe numbers or relationships
terms of the constant
8.BF Build functions that models a
propertiesofrotations,
reflections,andtranslations: relationship between two quantities

9-12

Algebra- Summarize,
represent, and interpret
data on a single count or
measurement variable.
Algebra-Summarize,
represent, and interpret

Geometry
Algebra - Average rate of change
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSG. of a function
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA.APR.A.
CO.B.6Usegeometric
descriptionsofrigidmotionsto 1Understandthatpolynomialsforma
transformfiguresandtopredict systemanalogoustotheintegers;
namely,theyareclosedunderthe
theeffectofagivenrigid
motiononagivenfigure;given operationsofaddition,subtraction,and
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT. twofigures,usethedefinitionof multiplication;add,subtract,and
HSS.MD.A.1Definea
multiplypolynomials.
congruenceintermsofrigid
randomvariablefora
motionstodecideiftheyare CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSG.CO.C.9
quantityofinterestby
Provetheoremsaboutlinesandangles.
congruent.
assigninganumerical
Theoremsinclude:verticalanglesare
valuetoeacheventina
congruent;whenatransversalcrosses
samplespace;graphthe
parallellines,alternateinteriorangles
correspondingprobability Algebra- Interpret functions arecongruentandcorrespondingangles
distributionusingthesame that arise in applications in
arecongruent;pointsonaperpendicular
terms of the context.
graphicaldisplaysasfor
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA. bisectorofalinesegmentareexactly
datadistributions.
thoseequidistantfromthesegment's
CED.A.2
endpoints.
Createequationsintwoor
Algebra-Create equations that
morevariablestorepresent
describe numbers or relationships.
relationshipsbetween
Algebra-Understand solving
quantities;graphequations
equations as a process of reasoning
oncoordinateaxeswith
and explain the reasoning.
labelsandscales.
Algebra-Solve equations and

Examples of Discourse for Increasing Learning

Varied Levels of Cognitive Demand
Lesson 1, students are asked to contemplate how long is a shadow? Students observe shadows in
their environment and make observations about shadows.
In POW 13, students begin using in and out tables to represents functions and algorithms.
Lesson 7 students work in groups to collect data and learn about the relationship between the height
of the light source, the distance of the light source from the to the object and the height of the object.
Lesson 12, Whats Possible explores the possible length of triangle sides based upon information
learned about other polygons.
The final lesson, Dog in a Ditch uses angular measurement to determine if one of two identical
twins can get a dog from the bottom of a ditch based upon the visual angle from each twin to the
bottom of the ditch and dog.
Lesson 18 explored using proportional triangles to determine the unknown height of a tree, using an
object of a known height and the shadows created by both objects.
Questions to Encourage Critical Thinking
There are many embedded critical thinking questions. Here are some examples:
In exploring ways to draw a straight line across a circle What is the largest number of pieces that can be
cut produced from a given number of cuts? (P.9)
Pick four lengths and form a quadrilateral using those lengths for the sides. Then try to use the same four
lengths to form a quadrilateral that is not the similar as the first. I this possible? (P.38)
Can any three numbers be the lengths of a triangle? (P. 42)
Generalize your work from Questions 2 and 3. Justify your general conclusions. (P.45)
At what time of day would your shadow be the longest? Why? (P.64)
Teachers should take the opportunity to create more meaningful questions. Here is an example of one I
thought was needed:
I would add this question when teaching The Sun Shadow Problem: We learned that changing the
height of an object or the distance form the object changes the length of the shadow. Is there a way that
your could change the distance and height to obtain two shadows of identical length? (P. 64)
Opportunities for Varied Group Configurations and Collaborations
Work groups of students are created at the beginning of each unit. These groups work together
for the entirety of the unit.
In their groups, students create work collaboratively and explore the various topic presented. They also
work together to solve the various in class assignments, collect and present data as a group.
Most homework problems are completed individually, but are often discussed as a whole class the
following day.
To allow for some grouping variety, I would allow students to share out the daily homework with
another group. Then each group would share out to the whole class the other groups explanation (cross
pollination)
Perhaps have one or two days during the unit where groups would be reconstituted for that day only to
allow students to get differing analytical perspectives within that unit.

Review of Assessment Opportunities

Assessment
Type
Formative Many of the homework assignments seem to combine the skill developed
Homework
Assignments
that day with a glimpse into the content of the following day. With this,
teachers can understand a students earning of a concept and have an idea of
the level of mastery by analyzing the forward-looking portion of the
homework.
Portfolio
Assessment

Summative Students have an opportunity to include their own work product that illustrates
their mastery of the concepts involved. Students may also answer questions
that allow them to compare strategies and analyze strategies that they
completed during the assignments. If students had incomplete or poorly
completed portfolios, it would be a sign that the student needed intervention.

End of Unit
Assessments

Summative There are both in-class and take-home assessments. These can be used to
gauge the level of mastery of the topic particularly in comparing the overall
results of the in-class with the take-home assessments.
Formative These problems can be used to challenge or provide remediation of content
learned in class.
Students with the need for more challenging work (either individually or in
small groups) would benefit from these problems, as would students that
require remediation

Supplemental
Problems

Oral
Presentations

Formative

Oral presentations are utilized in many of the daily activities, but they are a
big part of the POWs.

Class
Activities
with
embedded
questions

Formative

The daily activities provide frequent opportunities to observe students levels

of understanding in real time. Many embedded questions are designed to
elicit student thinking, however a teacher would need to add more high-level
thinking questions than those provided.

Examples of Intervention and Differentiation for All Learners

Embedded Strategies to assist English Learners
The teacher instructions to clarify the word Congruent to mean the same shape is an example of a
way to help ELs with new and unfamiliar vocabulary. (P.5)
At the beginning of the unit, the teacher makes a drawing of a lamp, an object and the shadow created,
and sets for the common variables H, L, and D, to create a visual of the lesson and to communize
variables to make for easier academic discourse. (P.5)
The directions for the shadow measurement Preparing for Experimenting with Shadows) gives
clear and concise instructions to help the students avoid mistakes in their observations. (P 5 & 6)
Students are reading and journaling on a daily basis about the unit. They are encouraged to work in
groups to collectively and collaboratively explore the math and to teach and support each other.
This build their knowledge base and provides for a much more robust mathematical understanding.
directly affect their groups wagon train. Connecting new math terminology to a familiar situation
will allow
EL students,
as well as
other students,
build aLearners
strong conceptual framework.
Embedded
Strategies
for Special
Education
and/ortoGifted

Beginning on page 77, there is a series of 24 additional activities for gifted learners. These can also
be easily adapted for special needs children, as they are hands-on letting the math unfold before the
students.
By taking the time to ensure that all of the materials necessary to present and discuss the POW are
ready in advance, this would lessen the burden of preparation for special needs students, and would
speed up presentations for all students.
There are four supplemental reinforcement problems beginning on page 229 as well that could be used for
special education students or students who need extra support.
For homework on The Statue of Libertys Nose, page 21, students could research the history of the Statue
of Liberty and be prepared to discuss its history and historical significance.
The Some Other Shadows lesson is intended to be a reinforcing lesson for struggling students. Likewise
there are 13 other opportunities presented in the text that are intended to be used as reinforcements.

Things to Consider:
The teachers guide acts as a general guide rather than a more formally structured teachers hide with pacing
guide. This seems to be a love it or hate it situation. For the teacher who is comfortable with generalized
instructions and guidance it will be a good fit. For those who require more structure, it could be a challenge.
On a more nit-picky basis, since this curriculum was published, the cost of laser pointers has dropped
dramatically. These should be substituted for flashlights in the shadow making and mirror lessons. They will
make data much easier to collect and make data quality much better.
Also, as with many high school curriculum, there is the problem of dealing with students who are not regular
participants, or for whom homework seems like a concept rather than a requirement. Much of the curriculum is
based on the students having successfully completed the homework and POWs in order to reinforce the
mathematics presented. This is very problematic as these students can quickly fall behind. I understand that this
is a college preparatory class, but it would be nice to have more in-class activities to reinforce the concepts.
I recognize that I have quite a lot of bias towards this curriculum, as I know all of the authors (some quite
well), and I highly respect their work and approach to teaching mathematics. I have seen this curriculum in
action and I have read the research on the effectiveness of this curriculum. The sties showed a statistically
significant increase in mathematical knowledge in students who were tracked from 9th grade through college. I
would strongly recommend this math curriculum.