U S Military Equipment

U S MILITARY EQUIPMENT
Contents
1
.45 ACP
1.1
Design and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Cartridge dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Load variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
Synonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7
Related rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.50 BMG
2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
2.4
Military cartridge types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5
Links used for feeding machine guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6
Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7
Typical uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8
Partial list of .50 BMG rearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8.1
Carbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8.2
Ries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8.3
Machine guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.8.4
Pistols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
5.5645mm NATO
13
3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.2
14
3.3
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.9
ii
CONTENTS
3.3.1
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.3.2
Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.3.3
Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
5.56 mm NATO versus .223 Remington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.4.1
Brass case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.4.2
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.4.3
Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.5
5.56 mm NATO versus 7.62 mm NATO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.6
19
3.6.1
SS109/M855 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.6.2
M855A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
3.6.3
Mk 262 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
3.6.4
Mk318 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.6.5
5.6mm Gw Pat 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.7
Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.6251mm NATO
30
4.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
4.2
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
4.3
32
4.4
Department Of Defense Identication Codes (DODIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
4.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.4
919mm Parabellum
37
5.1
Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
5.2
Popularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
5.3
38
5.4
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
5.5
Improvements and variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.5.1
9 mm Commonwealth standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.5.2
9 mm NATO standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.5.3
Swedish m/39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.5.4
919mm +P variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.5.5
9 mm SESAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.5.6
Russian military overpressure variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.5.7
9mm major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
CONTENTS
5.5.8
iii
Other variants
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
5.6
USA data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
5.7
Synonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
Anti-materiel rie
44
6.1
History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.2
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.3
List of anti-materiel ries by country of origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
Anti-tank warfare
46
7.1
Tank threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
7.2
First World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
7.2.1
Anti-tank weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
7.2.2
Anti-tank tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
7.3
Development between the world wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
7.4
Second World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
7.4.1
Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
7.4.2
Field artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
7.4.3
Anti-tank guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
7.4.4
Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
7.4.5
Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
7.5
Korean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
7.6
Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.1
Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.2
Helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.3
Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.4
Missiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.5
Guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.6
Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.7
Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.8
Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
Eectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.7.1
Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.7
iv
8
CONTENTS
Armored car (military)
60
8.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.1.1
Armed car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.1.2
First armored cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.1.3
World War I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
8.1.4
World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
8.2
Military use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
8.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
8.4
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
8.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
8.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
Armoured personnel carrier
65
9.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
9.2
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.2.1
Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.2.2
Armour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.2.3
Weaponry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.3
Medical use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
9.4
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
9.4.1
Infantry Fighting vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
9.4.2
Infantry Mobility Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
9.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
9.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
10 Armoured recovery vehicle
69
10.1 Development history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.1.1 Early models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.1.2 Second World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.1.3 Postwar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.2 Characteristics
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.3 List of ARVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.3.1 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.3.2 Czechoslovakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.3.3 France
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.4 Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.5 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.6 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.7 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.8 Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.9 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.10 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
CONTENTS
10.3.11 Serbia/Yugoslavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.12 Soviet Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.13 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
10.3.14 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
10.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
10.5 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
10.5.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
10.5.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
10.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
11 Assault rie
74
11.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
11.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
11.3 Assault rie gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
11.4 Assault ries vs. assault weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
11.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
11.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
11.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
11.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
12 Attack helicopter
80
12.1 Background and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
12.1.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
12.1.2 Soviet Union and its successor states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
12.1.3 People's Republic of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
12.1.4 France, Germany and Spain
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
12.1.6 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
12.1.7 South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
12.2 In action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
12.3 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.4 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.4.1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.4.2 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.6.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
12.1.5 India
13 Carbine
13.1 History
89
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.1 Word origin
89
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
13.1.2 Early history: before the 1900s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
vi
CONTENTS
13.1.3 Shorter ries, shorter carbines: World War I and World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
13.1.4 After World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
13.2 Modern history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
13.2.1 Contemporary military forces
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
13.2.2 Special forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
13.3 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
13.3.1 Pistol-caliber carbines (PCC)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
13.3.2 Pistol conversion carbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
13.4 Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
13.4.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
13.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
13.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
13.7 References
94
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14 Cargo aircraft
95
14.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
14.2 Types of cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
14.2.1 Derivatives of non-cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
14.2.2 Dedicated civilian cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
14.2.3 Joint civil-military cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.3 Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.4.1 Early air mail and airlift logistics aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.4.2 Civilian cargo/freight aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.4.3 Light aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

14.4.4 Military cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.4.5 Experimental cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.4.6 Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
15 Cartridge (rearms)
101
15.1 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

15.1.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.1.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.1.3 Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
15.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
15.2.1 Integrated paper cartridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
15.2.2 Metal cartridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
15.3 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
15.4 Centerre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
CONTENTS
vii
15.5 Rimre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

15.6 Semi-automatic vs. revolver cartridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
15.7 Bullet design types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
15.8 Common cartridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
15.9 Reloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
15.10Caseless ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
15.11Trounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
15.12Blank ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
15.13Drill rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
15.14See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
15.15Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
15.16References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
15.17External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
16 CBRN defense
114
16.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

16.2 By country or region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
16.2.1 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
16.2.2 Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
16.2.3 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
16.2.4 Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
16.2.5 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
16.2.6 Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
16.2.7 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
16.2.8 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
16.2.9 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
16.2.10 The Russian Federation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
16.3 CBRN Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
16.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
16.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
16.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
16.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
17 Combat engineer
118
17.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

17.2 Practices and techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
17.3 Equipment and vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
17.4 Combat Engineering Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
17.5 Historical Publications
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
17.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

17.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
17.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
viii
CONTENTS
18 Designated marksman rie
123
18.1 Compared to sniper ries, battle ries, and assault ries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
18.1.1 Sights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
18.1.2 Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
18.1.3 Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
18.1.4 Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
18.2 Designated marksman ries in service by nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
18.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
18.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
19 Electronic warfare
127
19.1 The electromagnetic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

19.1.1 Electronic warfare applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
19.2 Subdivisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
19.2.1 Electronic attack (EA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
19.2.2 Electronic Protection (EP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
19.2.3 Electronic warfare support (ES)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
19.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

19.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
19.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
19.6 General references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
20 Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles
131
20.1 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

20.1.1 Trucks
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
20.1.2 Trailers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

20.1.3 FMTV dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.2 Model gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.3 Gallery
20.4 Statistics
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.5 2009 procurement and protest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

20.6 Further sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.7 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
21 Firearm
134
21.1 Types of rearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

21.1.1 Conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
21.1.2 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
21.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
CONTENTS
ix
21.2.1 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

21.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
21.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
21.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
22 General-purpose machine gun
146
22.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

22.2 Notable post-WWII examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
22.3 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
22.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
22.5 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
23 Grenade launcher
148
23.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

23.1.1 Grenade discharger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
23.1.2 Muzzle-red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
23.1.3 Standalone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
23.1.4 Attached . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
23.1.5 Automatic
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
23.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

23.3 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
23.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

24 Heavy machine gun
152
24.1 Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

24.2 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
24.3 Various designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

24.3.1 Light machine guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
24.3.2 Medium models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
24.4 World War II and later . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
24.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
24.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
25 Helicopter
25.1 History
155
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
25.1.1 Early design
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
25.1.2 First ights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

25.1.3 Early development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
25.1.4 Autogyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
25.1.5 Birth of an industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
25.1.6 Turbine age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
25.2 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
25.3 Design features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
CONTENTS
25.3.1 Rotor system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
25.3.2 Anti-torque features
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
25.3.3 Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

25.3.4 Flight controls
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
25.4 Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

25.4.1 Hover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
25.4.2 Transition from hover to forward ight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
25.4.3 Forward ight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
25.5 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
25.5.1 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
25.5.2 Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
25.5.3 Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
25.5.4 Deadliest crashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
25.6 World records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
25.7 Types and makes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
25.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
25.9 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
25.9.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

25.9.2 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
25.9.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
25.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
26 HK 4.630mm
170
26.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

26.2 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
26.3 Cartridge dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
26.4 Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
26.4.1 2 g DM11 Penetrator Ultimate Combat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
26.4.2 2 g Action Law Enforcement Hollow Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
26.4.3 2.7 g Full Metal Jacket 4.630mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
26.4.4 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
26.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
26.5.1 Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
26.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
26.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
27 Infantry
174
27.1 History and etymology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
27.2 Combat role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

27.3 Organization
27.4 Doctrine
27.5 Operations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
CONTENTS
xi
27.6 Day to day service
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
27.7 Equipment and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

27.7.1 Protective equipment and survival gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
27.8 Other infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
27.9 Descriptions of infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
27.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
27.11Citations and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
27.12References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
27.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

28 Infantry ghting vehicle
28.1 History
28.2 Doctrine
28.3 Design
183
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
28.3.1 Protection
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
28.3.2 Weaponry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

28.3.3 Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
28.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
28.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
29 Iraq War
187
29.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

29.1.1 Iraq disarmament and pre-war intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
29.1.2 Weapons of mass destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
29.1.3 Preparations for Iraq war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
29.1.4 Opposition to invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
29.2 The invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
29.3 Post-invasion phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
29.3.1 2003: Beginnings of insurgency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
29.3.2 2004: Insurgency expands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
29.3.3 2005: Elections and transitional government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
29.3.4 2006: Civil war and permanent Iraqi government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
29.3.5 2007: U.S. troops surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
29.3.6 2008: Civil war continues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
29.3.7 2009: Coalition redeployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
29.3.8 2010: U.S. drawdown and Operation New Dawn
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
29.3.9 2011: U.S. withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

29.4 Aftermath post U.S.-withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
29.5 Casualty estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
29.6 Criticism and cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
29.6.1 Financial cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
29.7 Humanitarian crises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
xii
CONTENTS
29.8 Human rights abuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
29.8.1 Iraqi government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
29.8.2 Coalition forces and private contractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
29.8.3 Insurgent groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
29.9 Public opinion on the war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
29.9.1 International opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
29.9.2 Iraqi opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
29.10Relation to the Global War on Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
29.11Foreign involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
29.11.1 Role of Saudi Arabia and non-Iraqis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
29.11.2 Iranian involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
29.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
29.13Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
29.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
29.15Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
29.16External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
30 Joint Special Operations Command
226
30.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

30.1.1 Special Mission Units
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
30.1.2 Advanced Force Operations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
30.1.3 JSO Package / Rotational Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

30.2 Security support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
30.3 Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
30.3.1 Operations in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
30.3.2 Operations in Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
30.3.3 Operations in Iraq
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
30.3.4 Operations in Somalia
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
30.3.5 Operations in Yemen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

30.4 List of JSOC commanders
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
30.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

30.6 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
30.6.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

30.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
31 Light machine gun
231
31.1 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

31.1.1 Ammunition feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
31.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
31.3 Selected examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
31.3.1 1900s1940s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
31.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
CONTENTS
xiii
32 Machine gun
234
32.1 Overview of modern automatic machine guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

32.2 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
32.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
32.3.1 Early rapid-ring weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
32.3.2 Interwar era and World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
32.3.3 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
32.4 Human interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
32.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
32.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
32.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
33 Magazine (rearms)
242
33.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

33.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
33.2.1 Gravity magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
33.2.2 Tubular magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
33.2.3 Internal box magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
33.2.4 Detachable box magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
33.3 Function and types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
33.3.1 Tubular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
33.3.2 Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
33.3.3 Rotary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
33.3.4 Pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
33.3.5 Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
33.3.6 Helical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
33.3.7 Hopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
33.4 STANAG magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
33.5 High-capacity magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
33.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
33.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
33.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
34 Main battle tank
253
34.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

34.1.1 Previous concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
34.1.2 Trial by re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
34.1.3 Emergence of the MBT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
34.1.4 Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
34.1.5 Persian Gulf War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
34.1.6 Asymmetrical warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
34.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
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CONTENTS
34.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
34.2.2 Countermeasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
34.2.3 Weaponry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
34.2.4 Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
34.2.5 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
34.3 Crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
34.4 Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
34.5 Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
34.5.1 Research and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
34.5.2 Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
34.5.3 Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
34.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
34.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
35 Military helicopter
262
35.1 Types and roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

35.1.1 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
35.1.2 Attack helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
35.1.3 Transport helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
35.1.4 Observation helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
35.1.5 Maritime helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
35.1.6 Multi-mission and rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
35.1.7 Training helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
35.2 Tactics and operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
35.2.1 High intensity warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
35.2.2 Low intensity warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
35.3 Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
35.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
35.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
35.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
35.6.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
35.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
36 Pistol
268
36.1 History and etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

36.2 Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
36.2.1 Single shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
36.2.2 Multi-barreled (non-rotating) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
36.2.3 Harmonica pistol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
36.2.4 Revolver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
36.2.5 Semi-automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
36.3 3D printed pistol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
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36.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

37 Reconnaissance vehicle
271
37.1 Design
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
37.2 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
37.3 Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

37.4 List of contemporary reconnaissance vehicles
37.5 References
38 Rie
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
274
38.1 Historical overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

38.2 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
38.2.1 Muzzle-loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
38.2.2 Breech loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
38.2.3 Revolving Rie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
38.2.4 Cartridge storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
38.3 20th Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
38.4 3D printed rie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
38.5 Youth rie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
38.6 Technical aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
38.6.1 Riing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
38.6.2 Barrel wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
38.6.3 Rate of re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
38.6.4 Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
38.6.5 Bullet Rotational Speed (RPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
38.6.6 Caliber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
38.6.7 Types of rie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
38.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
38.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
38.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
39 Shotgun
282
39.1 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

39.2 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
39.2.1 Sporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
39.2.2 Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
39.2.3 Law enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
39.2.4 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
39.2.5 Home and personal defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
39.3 Design features for various uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
39.4 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
39.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
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39.5.1 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
39.5.2 Hammerless shotguns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
39.5.3 John Moses Browning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
39.5.4 World wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
39.5.5 Late 20th century to present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
39.6 Design factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
39.6.1 Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
39.6.2 Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
39.6.3 Shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
39.6.4 Pattern and choke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
39.6.5 Barrel length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
39.7 Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
39.7.1 Specialty ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
39.8 Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
39.8.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
39.8.2 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
39.8.3 UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
39.8.4 US . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
39.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
39.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
39.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
40 Shoulder-launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon
299
40.1 Service history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

40.1.1 Follow-On To SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
40.1.2 SMAW II program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
40.1.3 SMAW II Serpent
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
40.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

40.2.1 Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
40.3 Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
40.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
40.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
41 Sniper rie
302
41.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

41.2 Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
41.2.1 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
41.2.2 Law enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
41.3 Distinguishing characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
41.3.1 Telescopic sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
41.3.2 Action
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
41.3.3 Cartridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
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41.3.4 Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

41.3.5 Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
41.3.6 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
41.4 Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
41.4.1 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
41.4.2 Maximum eective range
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
41.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

41.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
41.7 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
41.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

42 Submachine gun
310
42.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

42.1.1 1900s to 1920s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
42.1.2 1930s to 1940s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
42.1.3 1950s to 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
42.1.4 Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
42.2 Personal defense weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
42.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
42.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
42.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
43 Surveillance aircraft
43.1 Denitions
43.2 History
316
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
43.2.1 Pre World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

43.2.2 World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
43.2.3 World War II and later . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
43.3 Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
43.3.1 Maritime patrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
43.3.2 Law enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
43.3.3 Battleeld and airspace surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
43.4 Current use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
43.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
43.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
43.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
44 United States Army
319
44.1 Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

44.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
44.2.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
44.2.2 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
xviii
CONTENTS
44.2.3 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
44.2.4 21st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
44.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

44.3.1 Army components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
44.3.2 Army commands and army service component commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
44.3.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
44.3.4 Regular combat maneuver organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
44.3.5 Special operations forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
44.4 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
44.4.1 Commissioned ocers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
44.4.2 Warrant ocers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
44.4.3 Enlisted personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
44.4.4 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
44.5 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
44.5.1 Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
44.5.2 Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
44.5.3 Uniforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
44.5.4 Tents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
44.5.5 3D printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
44.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
44.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
44.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
44.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
45 United States Marine Corps
334
45.1 Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

45.1.1 Historical mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
45.1.2 Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
45.1.3 Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
45.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
45.2.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
45.2.2 Interim: American Civil War to World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
45.2.3 World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
45.2.4 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
45.2.5 Korean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
45.2.6 Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
45.2.7 Interim: Vietnam War to the War on Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
45.2.8 Global War on Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
45.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
45.3.1 Relationship with other services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
45.3.2 Air-ground task forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
45.3.3 Special Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
CONTENTS
xix
45.3.4 Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

45.3.5 Marine Corps bases and stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
45.4 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
45.4.1 Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
45.4.2 Rank structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
45.4.3 Military Occupational Specialty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
45.4.4 Initial training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
45.5 Uniforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
45.6 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
45.6.1 Ocial traditions and customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
45.6.2 Unocial traditions and customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
45.6.3 Veteran Marines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
45.6.4 Martial arts program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
45.7 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
45.7.1 Infantry weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
45.7.2 Ground vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
45.7.3 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
45.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
45.9 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
45.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
45.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
46 United States Special Operations Command
359
46.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

46.1.1 Operation Earnest Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
46.1.2 Somalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
46.1.3 Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
46.2 Current role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
46.2.1 War in Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
46.2.2 Global presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
46.3 Subordinate Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
46.3.1 Joint Special Operations Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
46.3.2 Special Operations Command Joint Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
46.3.3 Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
46.3.4 Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
46.3.5 Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
46.3.6 Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
46.4 List of USSOCOM Combatant Commanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
46.5 USSOCOM medal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
46.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
46.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
46.7.1 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
xx
CONTENTS
46.7.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
46.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
47 Utility aircraft
376
47.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

47.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
47.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
47.3.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
47.3.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
47.3.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Chapter 1
.45 ACP
For the movie with the same name, see .45 (lm).
Not to be confused with .45 Colt.
Cartridge, it ended up using a 230 grain (15 g) bullet red

at about 850 ft/s (260 m/s). The resulting .45-caliber cartridge, named the .45 ACP, was similar in performance to
the .45 Schoeld cartridge, and only slightly less powerful
The .45 ACP (11.4323mm) (Automatic Colt Pistol),
also known as the .45 Auto by C.I.P. or 45 Auto by (but signicantly shorter) than the .45 Colt cartridges the
Cavalry was using.
SAAMI, is a cartridge designed by John Browning in
1904, for use in his prototype Colt semi-automatic .45 By 1906, bids from six makers were submitted, among
pistol and eventually the M1911 pistol adopted by the them Browning's design, submitted by Colt. Only DWM,
United States Army in 1911.* [2]
Savage, and Colt made the rst cut. DWM, which submitted two Parabellum P08s chambered in .45 ACP, withdrew from testing after the rst round of tests, for unspecied reasons.* [4]
1.1 Design and history
In the second round of evaluations in 1910, the Colt design passed the extensive testing with no failures, while
the Savage design suered 37 stoppages or parts failures.* [4] The resulting weapon was adopted as the Model
1911.
The U.S. Cavalry had been buying and testing various

handguns in the late 1890s and early 20th century. The
.45 Colt Single Action Army (SAA) had largely been replaced, even by some double action versions of the same.
The Cavalry had elded some double action revolvers in
.38 Long Colt. They determined the .38 caliber round
was signicantly less eective against determined opponents, such as the warriors encountered in the Moro Rebellion of the PhilippineAmerican War, than the .45
Colt. The current issue rie at the time, the .30-40 Krag,
had also failed to stop Moro warriors eectively;* [3] the
British had similar issues switching to the .303 British,
which resulted in the development of the dum-dum bullet.
This experience, and the Thompson-LaGarde Tests of
1904 led the Army and the Cavalry, to decide a minimum
of .45 caliber was required in the new handgun. Thompson and Major Louis Anatole LaGarde of the Medical
Corps arranged tests on cadavers and animal remains in
the Chicago stockyards, resulting in the nding that .45
was the most eective pistol cartridge. They noted, however, training was critical to make sure a soldier could
score a hit in a vulnerable part of the body.
The cartridge/pistol combination was quite successful but

not satisfactory for U.S. military purposes. Over the next
few years a series of improved designs were oered, culminating in the adoption in 1911 of the Cal. .45 Automatic Pistol Ball Cartridge, Model of 1911, a 1.273
in (32.3 mm) long round with a bullet weight of 230
grains. The very rst production, at Frankford Arsenal,
was marked F A 8 11, for the August 1911 date.
The cartridge was designed by John Browning of Colt,
but the most inuential person in selecting the cartridge
was Army Ordnance member Gen. John T. Thompson.
Thompson insisted on a realman stopperpistol, following the poor showing of the Army's .38 Long Colt pistols
during the PhilippineAmerican War (18991902).
Colt had been working with Browning on a .41 caliber

cartridge in 1904, and in 1905 when the Cavalry asked
for a .45 caliber equivalent Colt modied the pistol de1.2 Cartridge dimensions
sign to re an enlarged version of the prototype .41 round.
The result from Colt was the Model 1905 and the new .45
ACP cartridge. The original round that passed the testing
red a 200 grain (13 g) bullet at 900 ft/s (275 m/s), but af- (Diagram not to scale)
ter a number of rounds of revisions between Winchester The .45 ACP has 1.62 ml (25 grains H2 O) cartridge case
Repeating Arms, Frankford Arsenal, and Union Metallic capacity.
1
CHAPTER 1. .45 ACP

thrust helps extend service life of weapons in which it
is used. The only drawback for large scale military operations is the cartridge's large size, weight, and the increased material cost of manufacture compared to the
smaller 919mm Parabellum cartridge.
Even in its non-expanding full metal jacket (FMJ) version, the .45 ACP cartridge has a reputation for eectiveness against human targets because its large diameter
creates a deep and substantial permanent wound channel which lowers blood pressure more rapidly.* [8] The
wounding potential of bullets is often characterized in
terms of a bullet's expanded diameter, penetration depth,
and energy. Bullet energy for .45 ACP loads varies from
roughly 350 to 500 ftlbf (470 to 680 J).
.45 ACP maximum C.I.P. cartridge dimensions.* [5]

All sizes in millimeters (mm).
The common riing twist rate for this cartridge is 406mm
(1 in 16 in), 6 grooves, lands = 11.23mm, grooves
= 11.43mm, land width = 3.73mm and the primer type
is large pistol. The cartridge headspaces on the mouth of
the case at the L3 datum reference.* [6]
According to the ocial Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes Feu Portatives
guidelines the .45 ACP case can handle up to 131 MPa
(19,000 psi) piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries
every pistol cartridge combo has to be proofed at 130% of
this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. The SAAMI pressure limit for the .45 ACP is
set at 21,000 psi (140 MPa), piezo pressure,* [7] while
the SAAMI pressure limit for the .45 ACP +P is set at
23,000 psi (160 MPa), piezo pressure.
1.3 Performance
The .45 ACP is an eective combat pistol cartridge that
combines accuracy and stopping power for use against
human targets.* [8] The cartridge also has relatively low
muzzle blast and ash, as well as moderate recoil. The
standard issue military .45 ACP round has a 230 grain
bullet that travels at approximately 830 feet per second
when red from the government issue M1911A1 pistol
and approximately 950 feet per second from the M1A1
Thompson sub-machine gun. The cartridge also comes
in various specialty rounds of varying weights and performance levels. It operates at a relatively low maximum
chamber pressure rating of 21,000 psi (145 MPa) (compared to 35,000 psi/241 MPa for 9mm Parabellum and
.40 S&W, 37,500 psi/259 MPa for 10mm Auto, 40,000
psi/276 MPa for .357 SIG), which due to a low bolt
Because of its large diameter and straight-walled design,

the .45 ACP geometry is the highest power-per-pressure
production, repeating round in existence. This is because of the higher powers achievable with .45 Super,
and +P loads. Because of these inherent low pressures of
the standard pressure round however, compensators and
brakes have little eect until +P and Super loads are utilized.* [9]
The table below shows common performance parameters
for several .45 ACP loads. Bullet weights ranging from
185 to 230 grains are common. Penetration depths from
11 inches to over 27 inches are available for various applications and risk assessments.
Key:
Expansion: expanded bullet diameter (ballistic gelatin).
Penetration: penetration depth (ballistic gelatin).
PC: permanent cavity volume (ballistic gelatin, FBI
method).
TSC: temporary stretch cavity volume (ballistic gelatin).
(gr for grains, and g for grams)
The .45 ACP's combination of stopping power and controlled penetration makes it practical for police use, although numerous issues, including the resulting decrease
in magazine capacity and the larger size and weight of
pistols chambered in this caliber, have led more police
departments in the USA to adopt sidearms in 919mm,
.40 S&W, and .357 SIG. With standard (not extended)
single-stack magazines, pistols chambered in .45 ACP
usually hold 8 rounds or less (exceptions to this include
the 9-round .45 ACP versions of the Smith & Wesson
SW99 and the Beretta Px4 Storm* [11]). However, many
modern versions of .45 ACP handguns have double-stack
magazines capable of holding as many as 14 rounds, such
as the .45 ACP versions of the FN FNP and FN FNX,
though this greatly increases the pistol's bulk and with that
lowers maneuverability.* [12]
Many US tactical police units still use the .45 pistol round, including the FBI's Hostage Rescue
Team.* [13]* [14]* [15] While high capacity rearms
are available in .45 ACP, the greater length and diameter
of the .45 ACP means that the grip of the pistol must be
longer and wider than the grip of a comparable pistol of
1.4. LOAD VARIANTS
audible as a loud crack, literally a small sonic boom,

while they travel through the air. Suppressors reduce the
audiblereportby slowing and channeling the high speed
gas generated by the burning/expanding gunpowder before it exits the muzzle resulting in a mued cough
. Suppressors cannot act on a supersonic shock wave
continuously generated by a bullet exceeding the 1,087
ft/s (331 m/s) speed of sound at 32 F (0 C) ambient
cold temperatures, as this shock wave is continuously produced throughout the entire ight path over which the
bullet is supersonic, which extends long after it exits the
barrel. The downside to the use of .45 ACP in suppressed weapons is that increasing the diameter of the
passage through a suppressor decreases the suppressor's
eciency; thus, while .45 ACP is among the most powerful suppressed pistol rounds, it is also one of the loudest. Most .45 suppressors must be red wet(with
an ablative medium, usually water) to bring sound levels
*
.45 ACP hollowpoint (Federal HST) with two .22LR cartridges down tohearing-safe(under 140 dB, generally). [16]
for comparison
Side on view of Sellier & Bellot .45 ACP cartridge with a metric
ruler for scale
a smaller caliber; this increase in grip size can make the

pistol dicult to use for shooters with smaller hands.
Today, most NATO militaries use sidearms chambered
for the 919mm Parabellum cartridge, but the eectiveness of the .45 ACP cartridge has ensured its continued
popularity with large caliber sport shooters, especially in
the United States.* [2] In addition, select military and police units around the world still use rearms ring the .45
ACP.* [2] In 1985, the .45 ACP M1911A1 pistol was replaced by the Beretta M9 9mm pistol as the main sidearm
of the U.S. military, although select Special Operations
units continue to use the M1911A1 or other .45 ACP pistols.
Because standard pressure and load .45 ACP rounds red
from handguns or short barreled submachine guns are inherently subsonic, it is one of the most powerful pistol calibers available for use in suppressed weapons since subsonic rounds are quieter than supersonic rounds. The latter inevitably produce a highly compressed shock wave,
Base of Sellier & Bellot .45 ACP cartridge, showing lacquered

primer
1.4 Load variants

Rounds are available from 68 grains to 255 grains (4.4 g
to 16.5 g) with a common load being the standard military
loading of a 230-grain (15 g) FMJ bullet at around 850
ft/s (259 m/s). Specialty rounds are available in weights
under 100 grains (6.5 g) and over 260 grains (16.8 g);
popular rounds among reloaders and target shooters include 185-grain and 230-grain (12 g and 15 g) bullets.
Hollow-point rounds intended for maximum eectiveness against live targets are designed to expand upon im-
CHAPTER 1. .45 ACP

Marine Corps air crew. Tracer ammunition was identied by painting the bullet tip red.* [17]
Most ammunition manufacturers also market what are
termed "+P(pronounced plus P) loadings in pistol ammunition, including the .45 ACP. This means the
cartridge is loaded to a higher maximum pressure level
than the original SAAMI cartridge standard, generating
higher velocity and more muzzle energy. In the case of
the .45 ACP, the standard cartridge pressure is 21,000
PSI and the SAAMI .45 ACP +P standard is 23,000 PSI.
This is a common practice for updating older cartridges
to match the better quality of materials and workmanship
in modern rearms.* [2]
Several .45ACP variants: Hollow Point, FMJ, WW2 Era Military

Issue Birdshot
A Target Handload With Cast 200- Grain Semi Wadcutter Bullet
The terminology is generally given as ".45 ACP +P, and

appears on the headstamp. It is important to note that
+P cartridges have the same external dimensions as the
standard-pressure cartridges and will chamber and re in
all rearms designed for the standard-pressure loadings.
However, it should be noted that the inner dimensions of
the +P cartridge are dierent from the standard-pressure
cartridge dimensions and thus allows for higher pressures
to be safely achieved in the +P cartridge. If +P loadings
are used in rearms not specically designed for them
they may cause damage to the weapon and injuries to the
operator.
Popular derivative versions of the .45 ACP are the .45
Super and .460 Rowland.* [2] The Super is dimensionally identical to the .45 ACP, however, the cartridge carries a developer established pressure of 28,500 PSI and
requires minor modication of quality rearms for use.
The Rowland case is 0.057longer specically to prevent
it from being chambered in standard .45 ACP rearms.
The Rowland operates at a developer established 40,000
c.u.p. and may only be used within a select group of
rearms signicantly modied for this purpose. Brass
cases for each of these cartridges carry the applicable
name within the headstamp. The Super provides approximately 20% greater velocity than the .45 ACP +P; the
Rowland approximately 40% greater velocity than the .45
ACP +P.* [2]
1.5 Timeline
1899/1900: Self-loading pistols test: Colt M1900
of .38 caliber entered.
A Modern 230-Grain Jacketed Hollow Point Bullet Recovered
From Raw Beef.
pact with soft tissue, increasing the size of the permanent

cavity left by the bullet as it passes through the target.
Tracer ammunition for the .45 ACP was manufactured
by Frankford Arsenal and by Remington Arms. This ammunition was available to the United States Border Patrol
as early as 1940 and was used through World War II for
emergency signalling by downed United States Navy and
1904: Thompson-LaGarde Tests caliber of new

handgun should be at least .45.
19061907: Handgun trialsColt enters with .45
ACP design.
1910: Final tests Colt pistol (designed by John
Browning) out-performs Savage.
March 29, 1911: The Colt pistol is ocially adopted
as the Model 1911and with it the .45 ACP cartridge.
1.10. EXTERNAL LINKS
1.6 Synonyms
.45 Automatic / .45 Auto
[9] McAlpine, Alex. Pressure to power of combat cartridges. BrainLubeOnline.com. Retrieved November 10,
2013.
.45 M1911 (US Military)
[10] Marshall and Sanow, Street Stoppers, Appendix A, Paladin 2006
.450 Semi-Automatic / .450 S.A. (Commonwealth

Military; Ball Mark 1z was Australian production
and Ball Mark 2z was American production)
[11] Beretta Px4 Storm Full Size .45ACP. Retrieved January 4, 2014.
[11.4323mm] (Metric)
[12] Ayoob, Massad. Choose your ammo ... police style.

Backwoods Home Magazine. Archived from the original
on 25 February 2007. Retrieved February 21, 2007.
1.7 Related rounds
[13] Diez, Octavio. Special Police Task Forces. Lima Publications. p. 40. ISBN 978-84-95323-43-9
.38/.45 Clerke
.400 Corbon
.45 Auto Rim
.45 G.A.P.
.45 Winchester Magnum
.45 Peters-Thompson shot cartridge* [18]
.50 GI
[14] Hogg, Ian. Jane's Gun Recognition Guide, 2nd Edition.

Harper Collins Publishers. p. 113.
[15] Hopkins, Cameron (2000). Most Wanted. American Handgunner (Publishers Development Corporation).
Retrieved February 21, 2007.
[16] Truby, J. David(1987)Silencers, Snipers, and Assassins...an Overview of Whispering Death, Paladin Press,
Boulder, CO, 216 pp. ISBN 0-87364-012-8
[17] Andrews, Dave 45 ACP Tracers on page 20 of February
2002 American Rieman magazine
[18]
1.8 See also

List of .45 caliber handguns
Table of handgun and rie cartridges
1.10 External links

.45 ACP Videos
Ballistics By The Inch .45ACP results.
1.9 References
[1] Ayoob, Massad (2003). The .45 ACP approaches its
centennial - Handguns. Guns Magazine.
[2] Barnes, Frank C.; Skinner, Stan (2003). Cartridges of the
World: 10th Edition, Revised and Expanded. Krause Publications. p. 528. ISBN 978-0-87349-605-6.
[3] 1911 History
[4] Background
[5] C.I.P. decisions, texts and tables - free current C.I.P.
CD-ROM version download (ZIP and RAR format)".
Archived from the original on 2009-06-06. Retrieved October 17, 2008.
[6] Wilson, R. K. Textbook of Automatic Pistols, p.229.
Plantersville, SC: Small Arms Technical Publishing Company, 1943. ISBN 0-935632-89-1
[7] SAAMI Pressures. Archived from the original on 14
October 2007. Retrieved November 29, 2007.
[8] Marshall, EP, Sanow, EJ: Street Stoppers: The Latest
Handgun Stopping Power Street Results, Paladin Press,
Boulder, Colorado, 1996. ISBN 0-87364-872-2.
SAAMI Specication
Chapter 2
.50 BMG
The .50 Browning Machine Gun (.50 BMG) or
12.799mm NATO is a cartridge developed for the
Browning .50 caliber machine gun in the late 1910s. Entering service ocially in 1921, the round is based on
a greatly scaled-up .30-06 cartridge. Under STANAG
4383, it is a standard cartridge for NATO forces as well
as many non-NATO countries.* [1] The cartridge itself
has been made in many variants: multiple generations
of regular ball, tracer, armor piercing, incendiary, and
saboted sub-caliber rounds. The rounds intended for machine guns are linked using metallic links.
than lower quality rounds.
2.1 History
John Browning had the idea for this round during World
War I in response to a need for an anti-aircraft weapon,
based on a scaled-up .30-06 Springeld design, used in
a machine gun based on a scaled-up M1919/M1917 design that Browning had initially developed around 1900
(but which was not adopted by the U.S. military until
1917, hence the model designation). Armor-piercing incendiary tracer (APIT) rounds were especially eective
against aircraft, and the AP rounds and API rounds were
excellent for destroying concrete bunkers, structures, and
lighter AFVs. The API and APIT rounds left a ash, report, and smoke on contact, useful in detecting strikes on
enemy targets.* [6]
The .50 BMG cartridge is also used in long-range target and sniper ries, as well as other .50-caliber machine
guns. The use in single-shot and semi-automatic ries has
resulted in many specialized match-grade rounds not used
in .50-caliber machine guns. A McMillan Tac-50 .50
BMG sniper rie was used by Canadian Army Corporal
Rob Furlong of the PPCLI to achieve what was then the
longest-range conrmed sniper kill in history, when he
shot a Taliban combatant at 2,430 meters (2,657 yards)
during the 2002 campaign in the Afghanistan War.* [2]
This record was surpassed in 2009 in Afghanistan by a
British sniper with 2,475 meters (2,707 yards) though using a .338 Lapua Magnum (8.5870 mm) rie.* [3]* [4]
The development of the .50 BMG round is sometimes

confused with the German 13.2 mm TuF, which was
developed by Germany for an anti-tank rie to combat
British tanks during WWI; however, the development of
the U.S. .50 caliber round was started before this later
German project was completed or even known to the
Allied countries. When word of the German anti-tank
round spread, there was some debate as to whether it
should be copied and used as a base for the new machine
gun cartridge; after some analysis the German ammunition was ruled out, both because performance was inferior to the scaled-up .30-06 Springeld round and because
it was a semi-rimmed cartridge, making it sub-optimal
for an automatic weapon. The round's dimensions and
ballistic traits are totally dierent. Instead, the M2HB
Browning with its .50 caliber armor-piercing cartridges
went on to function as an anti-aircraft and anti-vehicular
machine gun, with a capability of completely perforating
0.875(22.2 mm) of face-hardened armor steel plate at
100 yards (91 m), and 0.75(19 mm) at 547 yards (500
m).* [7]
A former record for a conrmed long-distance kill was

set by U.S. Marine sniper Carlos Hathcock in 1967, at a
distance of 2,090 metres (2,286 yd);* [5] Hathcock used
the .50 BMG in an M2 Browning Machine Gun equipped
with a telescopic sight. This weapon was used by other
snipers, and eventually purpose-built sniper ries were
developed specically for this round.
DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency)

has contracted with Lockheed Martin to develop the
EXACTO program, including .50-caliber bullets complete with microprocessors and steering vanes that allow
the bullet to adjust its trajectory mid-ight to stay on target when the ight path has been altered by uncontrollable variables, as well as weapons that re these rounds
and monitor their ight. The weapon system is expected
to be available in 2015.
Decades later, the .50 BMG was chambered in highA wide variety of ammunition is available, and the avail- powered ries as well. The concept of a .50 caliber
ability of match grade ammunition has increased the use- machine gun was not an invention of this era; this calfulness of .50 caliber ries by allowing more accurate re iber (.50) had been used in Maxim machine guns and
in a number of manual rapid re guns such as the origi6
2.3. CARTRIDGE DIMENSIONS

nal Gatling, although these were much lower power cartridges.
2.3 Cartridge dimensions
The .50 BMG cartridge.
During World War II the .50 BMG was primarily used

in the M2 Browning machine gun for anti-aircraft purposes. An upgraded variant of the M2 Browning machine gun used during World War II is still in use today.
Since the mid-1950s, some armored personnel carriers
and utility vehicles have been made to withstand 12.7
mm machine gun re, thus making it a much less exible
weapon. It still has more penetrating power than lighter
weapons such as general-purpose machine guns, though
it is signicantly heavier and more cumbersome to transport. Its range and accuracy, however, are superior to
light machine guns when xed on tripods, and it has not
been replaced as the standard caliber for western vehicle
mounted machine guns (Soviet and CIS armoured vehicles mount the 12.7mm DShK NSV, which is ballistically
very similar to the .50 BMG, but 14.5 mm KPV machine
guns have signicantly superior armor penetration compared to any 12.7 mm round.
The Barrett M82 .50 caliber rie and later variants
were born during the 1980s and have upgraded the antimateriel power of the military sniper. A skilled sniper can
eectively neutralize an infantry unit by eliminating several targets (soldiers or equipment) without revealing his
precise location. The long range (1 mile+) between ring
position and target allows time for the sniper to avoid enemy retribution by either changing positions repeatedly,
or by safely retreating.
The 50 BMG 12.7 99 NATO cartridge has a capacity

of 290 grains H2 O (19 ml). The round is a scaled up
2.2 Power
version of the .30-06 Springeld but uses a case wall with
a long taper to facilitate feeding and extraction in various
A common method for understanding the actual power weapons.
of a cartridge is by comparing muzzle energies. The
.30-06 Springeld, the standard caliber for American sol- The common riing twist rate for this cartridge is 1 in 15
diers in both World Wars and a popular caliber amongst in (380 mm), with 8 lands and grooves. The primer type
American hunters, can produce muzzle energies between specied for this ammunition is Boxer primer that has
2,000 and 3,000 foot-pounds of energy (between 3 and a single centralized ignition point (US and NATO coun4 kilojoules). The .50 BMG round can produce between tries). However, some other countries produce the am10,000 and 15,000 foot pounds (between 14 and 18 kilo- munition with Berdan primers that have two ash holes.
joules), depending on its powder and bullet type, as well The average chamber pressure in this round as listed in
as the weapon it was red from. Due to the high ballistic TM43-0001-27,* [8] the U.S. Army Ammunition Data
coecient of the bullet, the .50 BMG's trajectory also Sheets Small Caliber Ammunition, not including plassuers less driftfrom cross-winds than smaller and tic practice, short cased spotter, or proof/test loads, is
lighter calibers, making the .50 BMG a good choice for 54,923 psi (378,680 kPa). The proof/test pressure is
high-powered sniper ries.
listed as 65,000 psi (450,000 kPa).
2.4 Military cartridge types
CHAPTER 2. .50 BMG

round, against armored, ammable targets, with
a tracer element for observation purposes. This
cartridge is eectively a variant of the M8 ArmorPiercing Incendiary with the added tracer element.
Can be red from the M82/M107 series of ries.
This bullet has a red tip with a ring of aluminum
paint.
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Tracer, Headlight, M21
Tracer for use in observing re during air-to-air
combat. Designed to be more visible, the M21 is 3
times more brilliant than the M1 tracer.
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Incendiary, M23 This
cartridge is used against unarmored, ammable targets.
The tip of the bullet is painted blue with a light blue
ring.
Left to right, rear: Mk211, Spotter, Silver tip (Armor Piercing

Incendiary), Blue tip (Incendiary), Black tip (Armor Piercing),
SLAP-T, SLAP, Tracer, and Ball. Front row are 5.5645mm
NATO and .500 S&W Magnum for size comparison
.50 BMG cartridges are also produced commercially with

a plethora of dierent bullets and to a number of dierent
specications.
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Tracer, M1 Tracer for observing re, signaling, target designation, and incendiary
purposes. This bullet has a red tip.
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Incendiary, M1 This
cartridge is used against unarmored, ammable
targets. The incendiary bullet has a light blue tip.
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Ball, M33 This cartridge is

used against personnel and unarmored targets. Can
be red from the M82/M107 series of ries.
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Saboted Light Armor Penetrator, M903
This cartridge has a 355 360 gr (23.00 23.33
g) heavy metal (tungsten) penetrator that is sabotlaunched at a muzzle velocity of 4,000 ft/s (1,219
m/s). The 0.50 in (12.7 mm) diameter sabot is
designed to separate after leaving the muzzle,
releasing the 0.30 (7.7 mm) penetrator. It is
injection molded of special high strength plastic
and is reinforced with an aluminum insert in the
base section. The cartridge is identied by an
amber sabot (Ultem 1000). For use only in the M2
series of machine guns. This round can penetrate
19mm of steel armor at 1500 yards.* [9]
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Ball, M2 This cartridge is used

against personnel and unarmored targets. This bullet Cartridge, Caliber .50, Saboted Light Armor
has an unpainted tip.
Penetrator-Tracer, M962
Like the M903, this is a Saboted Light Armor PenCartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing, M2 This
etrator (SLAP) round, with the only dierence
cartridge is used against lightly armored vehicles,
being that the M962 also has a tracer element for
protective shelters, and personnel, and can be
observing re, target designation, and incendiary
identied by its black tip.
purposes. It uses red colored plastic sabot for
identication. For use only in the M2 series of
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing-Incendiary, M8
machine guns.
This cartridge is used, in place of the armor-piercing
round, against armored, ammable targets. The
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Ball, XM1022 A long-range
bullet has a silver tip.
match cartridge specically designed for long range
work using the M107 rie.
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Tracer, M10 Tracer for observing re, signaling, target designation, and incendiary purposes. Designed to be less intense than the Cartridge, Caliber .50, M1022 Long Range Sniper
The .50 Caliber M1022 has an olive green bullet
M1 tracer, the M10 has an orange tip.
coating with no tip ID coloration. The projectile is
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Tracer, M17 Tracer for obof standard ball design. It is designed for long-range
serving re, signaling, target designation, and incensniper training and tactical use against targets that
diary purposes. Can be red from the M82/M107
do not require armor-piercing or incendiary eect.
series of ries.
It exhibits superior long range accuracy and is
trajectory matched to MK211 grade A. The M1022
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing-Incendiaryis ideal for use in all .50 Caliber bolt-action and
Tracer, M20
This cartridge is used, in place of the armor-piercing
semi-automatic sniper platforms.* [10] The bullet
2.5. LINKS USED FOR FEEDING MACHINE GUNS

remains supersonic out to 1,500 m (1,640 yd) to
1,600 m (1,750 yd).* [11]
2.5 Links used for feeding machine

guns
Cartridge, Caliber .50, High-Explosive ArmorPiercing-Incendiary (HEIAP), Mk 211 Mod 0

A so-called combined eectscartridge, the
Mk 211 Mod 0 High-Explosive-Incendiary-ArmorPiercing (HEIAP) cartridge contains a .30 caliber
tungsten penetrator, zirconium powder, and Composition A explosive. It can be used in any .50
caliber weapon in US inventory with the exception
of the M85 machine gun. Cartridge is identied by
a green tip with a grey ring.
Two distinct and non-compatible metallic links have been

used for the .50 BMG cartridge, depending upon the machine gun which will be ring the cartridges. The M2 and
M9 links, pull-outdesigns, are used in the Browning
M2 and M3 machine guns. Pull-out cloth belts were also
used at one time, but have been obsolete since 1945. The
M15-series push-throughlinks were used in the M85
machine gun. When the M85 was taken out of service,
large stocks of ammunition linked with the M15 link remained in US military storage because of the ease with
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor Piercing Incendiary
which linked ammunition can be de-linked and re-linked
Dim Tracer (API-DT), Mk 257
The .50 Caliber Mk 257 API-DT has a purple bul- with dierent (i.e. in service) links.
let tip. The bullet has a hardened steel core and
incendiary tip. The .50 Caliber MK257 is used
in machine guns M2, M3, and M85. Dim trace 2.6 Legal issues
reduces the possibility of the weapon being located
during night re and is visible with night vision
The specied maximum diameter of an unred .50 BMG
devices only.* [10]
bullet is 0.510-inch (13.0 mm); while this appears to
be over
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing (AP), Mk 263 Mod
2 the .50 inch (12.7 mm) maximum allowed for
The .50 Caliber Mk 265 has a black tip. The bullet non-sporting Title In small arms under the U.S. National
has a hardened steel core. It is used in machine Firearms Act, the barrel of a .50 BMG rie is only .50
inch (12.7 mm) across the riing lands and slightly larger
guns M2, M3, and M85.
in the grooves. The oversized bullet is formed to the bore
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing-Incendiary- size upon ring, forming a tight seal and engaging the
Tracer (API-T), Mk 300 Mod 0
riing, a mechanism which in rearms terms is known
As with the Mk 211 Mod 0, but with a tracer comas engraving. Subject to political controversy due to the
ponent. This cartridge likely can be used in any .50 great power of the cartridge (it is the most powerful comcaliber weapon in US inventory with the exception monly available cartridge not considered a destructive deof the M85 machine gun, as with the Mk 211 Mod vice under the National Firearms Act), it remains popular
0.
among long-range shooters for its accuracy and external
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing-Explosive- ballistics. While the .50 BMG round is able to deliver
accurate shot placement (if match grade ammunition is
Incendiary (APEI), Mk 169 Mod 2
This cartridge is used against hardened targets such used) at ranges over 1,000-yard (910 m), smaller caliber
as bunkers, for suppressive re against lightly ries produce better scores and tighter groups in 1,000armored vehicles, and ground and aerial threat yard (910 m) competitions.* [16]
suppression. It is generally red either from In response to legal action against the .50 BMG in the
pilot-aimed aircraft-mounted guns or anti-aircraft United States and Europe, an alternative chambering was
platforms both produced by FN Herstal.* [12] It is developed. The .510 DTC Europ uses the same bullet,
identied by a gray over yellow tip.* [13] A tracer but has slightly dierent case dimensions. .510 DTC
variant of it also exists.
cases can be made by re-forming .50 BMG cases in a
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Ball, Mk 323 Mod 0 Created
by the Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division, this cartridge uses M33 ball projectiles in a
polymer case instead of brass. It has a clear polymer
case, with a standard brass head fused at the bottom. The Mk 323 can be red from M2HB/M2A1
machine guns and GAU-21/A aircraft guns with
the same performance. It gives a 25 percent weight
savings over brass-cased ammunition and allows
40 percent more ammunition to be carried for
the same weight. The Mk 323's polymer casing
will be applied to tracer, AP, API, and SLAP
projectiles.* [14]* [15]
.510 DTC chambered rie. The new round has almost

identical ballistics, but because of the dierent dimensions, ries chambered for .50 BMG cannot re the .510
DTC, and therefore ries chambered for .510 DTC do
not fall under many of the same legal prohibitions. Barrett oers a similar alternative, the .416 Barrett, which is
based on a shortened .50 BMG case necked down to .416
caliber (10.3 mm).
A 1999 Justice Department Oce of Special Investigations brieng on .50 caliber rie crime identied several
instances of the .50 BMG being involved in criminal activities.* [17] Most of the instances of criminal activity
cited in the Oce of Special Investigations brieng in-
10
volved the illegal possession of a .50 BMG rie. The
brieng did not identify any instance of a .50 BMG rie being used in the commission of a murder.
CHAPTER 2. .50 BMG
2.8 Partial list

rearms
of
.50
BMG
Within the United Kingdom, it is legal to own a .50 BMG

2.8.1 Carbines
rie with a section 1 Firearms Certicate.* [18] Applications requesting rearms in this caliber are not subject to
Barrett M82CQ (a carbine version of the M82A3)
any extra scrutiny compared to smaller calibers.* [19]
Bushmaster BA50 carbine (22barrel version of the
There have been persistent reports of a belief among
BA50)
some members of the United States Armed Forces that
the use of .50 BMG in a direct antipersonnel role is somehow prohibited by the laws of war. This is incorrect and
2.8.2 Ries
has been characterized as a myth; writing for the Marine
Corps Gazette, Maj. Hays Parks states that No treaty
Accuracy International AS50
language exists (either generally or specically) to support a limitation on [the use of .50 BMG] against per Accuracy International AW50
sonnel, and its widespread, longstanding use in this role
Accuracy International AX50
suggests that such antipersonnel employment is the customary practice of nations.Parks theorizes that the myth
Anzio Iron Works Anzio-50
originated in historical doctrine discouraging the use of
the M8C spotting rie an integral .50-caliber aiming
Armalite AR-50
aid for the M40 recoilless riein the antipersonnel role.
Arms Tech Ltd. TTR-50* [22]
This limitation was entirely tactical in nature, having been
intended to help conceal the vulnerable M40 and its crew
Barrett M82/M107
from the enemy before the main anti-tank gun could be
red, but some personnel may have erroneously assumed
Barrett M95
the existence of a legal limitation on the use of .50-caliber
Barrett M99
projectiles more generally.* [20]
Bluegrass Armory Viper* [23]
Bohica MK III AR-15 Upper* [24]*
2.7 Typical uses

The primary military use of this round is in the Browning
M2HB heavy machine gun.
Bushmaster BA50* [25]

ZW-127
Desert Tactical Arms HTI
DSR-50
The U.S. Coast Guard uses .50 BMG ries to disable

outboard engines from armed helicopters during interdictions. Similarly, .50 BMG weapons have attracted attention from law enforcement agencies; they have been
adopted by the New York City Police Department as well
as the Pittsburgh Police. A .50 BMG round can eectively disable a vehicle when red into the engine block.
If it is necessary to breach barriers, a .50 BMG round
will penetrate most commercial brick walls and concrete
cinder blocks.
East Ridge / State Arms Gun Co. Inc.* [26]
In addition to long-range and anti-materiel sniping,

the U.S. military uses .50 BMG weapons to detonate
unexploded ordnance from a safe distance. The Raufoss
Multipurpose round has sucient terminal performance
to disable most unarmored and lightly armored vehicles, making .50 BMG caliber weapons helpful in antiinsurgency operations.
POLY-Technologies M99-II* [29] and M99BII* [30]
Some civilians use .50 caliber ries for long-range target

shooting: the US-based Fifty Caliber Shooters Association holds .50 BMG shooting matches.* [21]
Robar RC-50
EDM Arms Windrunner* [27]

Gepard anti-materiel rie
L.A.R. Manufacturing, Inc. Grizzly Big Boar
McMillan Tac-50
OM 50 Nemesis* [28]
PGM Hecate II
Pindad SPR-2 and Pindad SPR-3* [31]
Ramo M600 and M650* [32]
Safety Harbor Firearms SHF/R50* [33]
2.10. REFERENCES
11
Serbu Firearms BFG-50 (single-shot bolt-action)

and BFG-50A (semi-automatic)
Spider Firearms Ferret 50
NATO EPVAT testing

Gun laws in the United States (by state)
.50 Caliber BMG Regulation Act of 2004
Steyr HS .50
TGR Co. LLC $1599 Noreen 50 BMG* [34]
2.10 References
Ultralite50/Ligamec Corp. [35]

*
Vigilance Ries Inc. M14 (semi-automatic)* [36]

Vulcan Armament V50* [37]
WKW Wilk
Zastava M93 Black Arrow
Zel Custom Manufacturing/Tactilite* [35]
2.8.3
Machine guns
CIS 50MG
GAU-19
M2 Browning machine gun
M85 machine gun
[1] NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization, Per G. Arvidsson, ChairmanWeapons & Sensors Working GroupLand
Capability Group 1 - Dismounted Soldier NATO Army
Armaments Group
[2] Michael Friscolanti (May 15, 2006). Friscolanti,
Michael (May 15, 2006). We were abandoned,
Macleans 119 (20)". Macleans.ca. Archived from the
original on February 23, 2011. Retrieved August 27,
2010.
[3] Michael Smith (May 2, 2010). Hotshot sniper in oneand-a-half mile double kill. The Sunday Times (UK).
Retrieved August 27, 2010.
[4] Michael Sheridan (May 3, 2010). British sniper Craig
Harrison (The Silent Assassin) breaks record, kills target
from 1.5 miles away. Daily News. New York. Archived
from the original on October 18, 2010. Retrieved August
27, 2010.
MAC-58 - did not enter production
[5] Henderson, Charles (2003). Silent Warrior (2003 ed.).

Berkley Books. p. 181. ISBN 0-425-18864-7.
Rolls-Royce Experimental Machine Gun - only built

as prototype
[6] Dunlap, Roy F., Ordnance Went Up Front, Samworth

Press (1948), pp. 311312.
WKM-B
XM312
2.8.4
Pistols
Triple Action Thunder
2.9 See also

.50 caliber handguns
12 mm caliber
12.7108mm
14.5114mm
List of rearms
List of rie cartridges
High Explosive Incendiary/Armor Piercing Ammunition
.510 DTC EUROP
[7] Barnes, Frank C., Cartridges of the World, U.S. Army .50
BMG Cartridge Specications, DBI Books (1989), ISBN
978-0-87349-033-7, p. 432.
[8] Army Ammunition Data Sheets for Small Caliber Ammunition(PDF). Defense Technical Information Center.
April 1994. p. 150. Retrieved August 27, 2010.
[9] albums/oo255/FEDE_EL_SOMALI/1-15.
i381.photobucket.com. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
[10] Small Caliber Ammunition (PDF). ATK. Retrieved
August 27, 2010.
[11] Cartridges for Long-Range Sniping Ries by Anthony G
Williams
[12] Janes listing of the FN Herstal .50 cal M3P coaxial
weapon system (Belgium). Archived June 7, 2011 at the
Wayback Machine
[13] Igman Ammunition Cal. 12.7 x 99 mm, APEI, M 02.
[14] Crane Using Lightweight .50 Cal Ammo - Kitup. Military.com, 11 September 2011
[15] Jarod Stoll and Kathryn Hunt (21 May 2012).Advancements in Lightweight .50 Caliber Ammunition (PDF).
Retrieved July 28, 2014.
[16] GunWeek.com. SHOT Show 2006 New Ries, Shotguns, Pistols Oer Enhanced Performance.
12
[17] General Accounting Oce.Weaponry: .50 Caliber Rie

Crime,GAO Oce of Special Investigations letter.
[18] Home. fcsa.co.uk. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
[19] Home Oce (June 2014). Guide on rearms licensing
law (PDF). Retrieved July 28, 2014.
[20] Parks, Maj W. Hays (January 1988). Killing A Myth
. Marine Corps Gazette. Retrieved February 20, 2014.
[21] Match dates at the Fifty Caliber Shooters Association
Archived August 2, 2008 at the Wayback Machine
[22] Arms Tech Ltd. TTR-50.
[23] Good Time Outdoors, Inc. Bluegrassarmory.com.
Retrieved August 27, 2010.
[24] Bohica Arms. Bohica Arms. Archived from the original on August 17, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010.
[25] Bushmaster Firearms. Bushmaster Firearms International. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011.
Retrieved September 3, 2011.
[26] East Ridge Gun Company Inc.
Homepage.
Statearms.com. Archived from the original on September
5, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010.
[27] M96 .50 Cal BMG. E.D.M. Arms. Retrieved August
27, 2010.
[28] Chris L. Movigliatti. A.M.S.D. Sa. Amsd.ch.
Archived from the original on September 13, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010.
[29] POLY-Technologies M99 anti-matriel rie series on
Modern Firearms.net. World.guns.ru. Archived from
the original on August 19, 2010. Retrieved August 27,
2010.
[30] POLY-Technologies M99b anti-matriel rie series on
Modern Firearms.net. World.guns.ru. Archived from
the original on August 8, 2010. Retrieved August 27,
2010.
[31] PT. Pindad (Persero) - Home. pindad.com. Retrieved
July 28, 2014.
[32] RAMO DEFENCE M650 and M600. Securityarms.com. Archived from the original on September 5,
2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010.
[33] Safety Harbor Firearms, Inc.
Safetyharborrearms.com. Archived from the original on July 27,
2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010.
[34] only long range. Archived from the original on April
19, 2009. Retrieved March 24, 2009.
[35] Zel Custom Mfg.. Archived from the original on January 30, 2011. Retrieved August 27, 2010.
[36] Vigilance Ries Semi-automatic Ries. Retrieved
September 10, 2014.
[37] Vulcan Armament Inc.. Vulcanarmament.com.
Archived from the original on August 22, 2010. Retrieved
August 27, 2010.
CHAPTER 2. .50 BMG
2.11 External links

TM43-0001-27 US Army Ammunition Data Sheets
Small Caliber Ammunition, HQ Department of
the Army, 6/81, Including changes (Not to be used
as reloading data)
.50 Caliber Browning (12.7 99 mm) Ammunition
Chapter 3
5.5645mm NATO
The 5.5645mm NATO (ocial NATO nomenclature
5.56 NATO) is an intermediate cartridge developed in
the United States and originally chambered in the M16
rie. Under STANAG 4172, it is a standard cartridge for
NATO forces as well as many non-NATO countries.* [3]
It is derived from, but not identical to, the .223 Remington cartridge.
3.1 History
when the selection of the 7.6251mm NATO was made.

The FN company had also been involved.* [5] The concerns about recoil and eectiveness were eectively overruled by the US within NATO, and the other NATO nations accepted that standardization was more important
at the time than selection of the ideal cartridge. However, while the 7.6251mm NATO round became NATO
standard, the US was already engaged in research of their
own, which ultimately led to the 5.5645mm NATO cartridge.
During the late 1950s, ArmaLite and other U.S. rearm
designers started their individual Small Caliber/High Velocity (SCHV) assault rie experiments using the commercial .222 Remington cartridge. When it became clear
that there was not enough powder capacity to meet U.S.
Continental Army Command's (CONARC) velocity and
penetration requirements, ArmaLite contacted Remington to create a similar cartridge with a longer case body
and shorter neck. This became the .222 Remington
Special. At the same time, Springeld Armory's Earle
Harvey had Remington create an even longer cartridge
case then known as the .224 Springeld. Springeld was
forced to drop out of the CONARC competition, and thus
the .224 Springeld was later released as a commercial
sporting cartridge known as the .222 Remington Magnum. To prevent confusion among all of the competing
.222 cartridge designations, the .222 Remington Special
was renamed the .223 Remington. With the U.S. military adoption of the ArmaLite M16 rie in 1963, the .223
Remington was standardized as the 5.5645mm NATO.
As a commercial sporting cartridge the .223 Remington
was introduced in 1964.
The 7.6251mm NATO and 5.5645mm NATO cartridges compared to an AA battery.
In the 1950s, the 7.6251mm NATO rie cartridge (sold

commercially as the .308 Winchester rie cartridge)* [4]
was selected to replace the .30-06 Springeld as the standard NATO rie cartridge. At the time of selection, there
had been criticism that the 7.6251mm NATO was too
powerful for light weight modern service ries, causing
excessive recoil, and that the ammunition did not allow
for sucient rate of re in modern combat.
The British had extensive evidence with their own experiments into an intermediate cartridge since 1945 and were
on the point of introducing a .280 inch (7 mm) cartridge
The 5.5645mm cartridge, along with the M16 rie, were

initially adopted by U.S. infantry forces as interim solutions to address the weight and control issues experienced
with the 7.6251mm round and M14 rie. In the late
1950s, the Special Purpose Individual Weapon program
sought to create echette rounds to allow troops to re
sabot-type projectiles to give a short ight time and at
trajectory with a muzzle velocity of 1,200 metres per second (3,900 ft/s) to 1,500 metres per second (4,900 ft/s).
At those speeds, factors like range, wind drift, and target movement would no longer aect performance. Several manufacturers produced varying weapons designs,
13
14
including traditional wooden, bullpup,space age,and
even multi-barrel designs with drum magazines. All used
similar ammunition ring a 1.8 mm diameter dart with
a plastic pullersabot lling the case mouth. While
the echette ammo had excellent armor penetration, there
were doubts about their terminal eectiveness against unprotected targets. Conventional cased ammunition was
more accurate and the sabots were expensive to produce.
The SPIW never created a weapons system that was combat eective, so the M16 was retained, and the 5.56 mm
round was kept as the standard U.S. infantry rie cartridge.* [5]
CHAPTER 3. 5.5645MM NATO

a steel helmet at 600 meters. This requirement made the
SS109 (M855) round less capable of fragmentation than
the M193 and was considered more humane.* [12]
The 5.5645mm NATO inspired an international tendency towards relatively small sized, light weight, high
velocity military service cartridges that produce relatively low bolt thrust and free recoil impulse, favoring light weight arms design and automatic re accuracy. Similar intermediate cartridges were developed and introduced by the Soviet Union in 1974
(5.4539mm) and by the People's Republic of China in
1987 (5.842mm).* [5]* [13]
In a series of mock-combat situations testing in the early

1960s with the M16, M14 and AK-47, the Army found
that the M16's small size and light weight allowed it to
be brought to bear much more quickly. Their nal conclusion was that an 8-man team equipped with the M16
would have the same re-power as a current 11-man team
armed with the M14. U.S. troops were able to carry more 3.2 Cartridge dimensions
than twice as much 5.5645mm NATO ammunition as
7.6251mm NATO for the same weight, which would
allow them a better advantage (battle rattle) against a The 5.5645mm NATO has 1.85 ml (28.5 grains H O)
2
typical NVA unit armed with AK-47, AKM or Type 56 cartridge case capacity.
assault ries.
(*AK-47/AKM magazines are much heavier than M14
and M16 magazines)
Service rie cartridges cases: (Left to right) 7.6254mm

R, 7.6251mm NATO, 7.6239mm, 5.5645mm NATO,
5.4539mm.
In 1977, NATO members signed an agreement to select a second, smaller caliber cartridge to replace the
7.6251mm NATO cartridge.* [8] Of the cartridges tendered, the 5.5645mm NATO was successful, but not the
55 gr M193 round used by the U.S. at that time. The
wounds produced by the M193 round were so devastating that many* [9] consider it to be inhumane.* [10]* [11]
Instead, the Belgian 62 gr SS109 round was chosen for
standardization. The SS109 used a heavier bullet with a
steel tip and had a lower muzzle velocity for better longrange performance, specically to meet a requirement
that the bullet be able to penetrate through one side of
5.5645mm NATO maximum NATO cartridge dimensions. All sizes in millimeters (mm).* [14]* [15]
Americans would dene the shoulder angle at alpha/2 =
23 degrees. The common riing twist rate for this cartridge is 178 mm (1 in 7 in) or 229 mm (1 in 9 in), 6
grooves, lands = 5.56 mm, grooves = 5.69 mm, land
width = 1.88 mm and the primer type is small rie.
According to the ocial NATO proong guidelines the
5.5645mm NATO case can handle up to 430 MPa
(62,366 psi) piezo service pressure. In NATO regulated organizations every rie cartridge combo has to be
proofed at 125% of this maximum pressure to certify for
service issue. This is equal to the C.I.P. maximum pressure guideline for the .223 Remington cartridge, which is
the 5.5645mm NATO parent cartridge.
3.3. PERFORMANCE
15
fragments.* [19]* [20] These remote wounding eects are
known as hydrostatic shock.* [21]
SS109/M855 NATO ball can penetrate up to 3 mm (0.12
in) of steel at 600 meters.* [22] According to Nammo,
a Norwegian ammunition producer, the 5.5645mm
NATO M995 armour piercing cartridge can penetrate up
to 12 mm (0.47 in) of RHA steel at 100 meters.* [23]
The US Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory measured
a ballistic coecient (G7 BC) of 0.151 and form factor
(G7 i) of 1.172 for the SS109/M855 ball projectile.* [24]
The Swedish military has measured the bullet velocities
of SS109/M855 military cartridges at 4 m (13.1 ft) from
the muzzle red from diering barrel lengths:* [25]
5.56mm NATO shown alongside other cartridges
3.3.1 Criticism
5.5645mm NATO cartridges in a STANAG magazine.
There has been much debate of the allegedly poor performance of the bullet on target, especially the rst-shot
kill rate when the muzzle velocity of the rearms used and
the downrange bullet deceleration do not achieve the minimally required terminal velocity of over 750 m/s (2,500
ft/s) at the target to cause fragmentation. Many complaints were reported during the Gulf War, Somalia, and
in the conicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. This can be attributed to the change in barrel length, as this cartridge
was designed to achieve maximum performance in a 20inch (51 cm) barrel. The 14.5-inch (37 cm) barrel of
the U.S. military's M4 carbine generates considerably less
muzzle velocity than the longer 20-inch (51 cm) barrel
found on the M16 rie, and terminal performance can be
a particular problem with the M4.
3.3 Performance
The 5.5645mm NATO SS109/M855 cartridge (NATO:
SS109; U.S.: M855) with standard 62 gr. lead core bullets with steel penetrator will penetrate approximately 38
to 51 cm (15 to 20 in) into soft tissue in ideal circumstances. As with all spitzer shaped projectiles it is prone
to yaw in soft tissue. However, at impact velocities above
roughly 762 m/s (2,500 ft/s), it may yaw and then fragment at the cannelure (the crimping groove around the
cylinder of the bullet).* [16] These fragments can disperse
through esh and bone, inicting additional internal injuries.* [17]
Fragmentation, if and when it occurs, imparts much
greater damage to human tissue than bullet dimensions
and velocities would suggest. This fragmentation eect is
highly dependent on velocity, and therefore barrel length:
short-barreled carbines generate less muzzle velocity and
therefore lose wounding eectiveness at much shorter
ranges than longer-barreled ries.* [18] Proponents of the
hydrostatic shock theory contend that the rapid transfer of energy also results in wounding eects beyond
the tissue directly crushed and torn by the bullet and
The 5.5645mm NATO standard SS109/M855 cartridge

was designed for maximum performance when red from
a 508 mm (20.0 in) long barrel, as was the original
5.56 mm M193 cartridge. Experiments with longer
length barrels up to 610 mm (24.0 in) resulted in no
improvement or a decrease in muzzle velocities for the
SS109/M855 cartridge. Shorter barrels produce a greater
ash and noise signature, and the addition of a suppressor
to a short barreled AR family rie can make it unreliable,
as the reduced time for the propellant to burn in the barrel and higher muzzle pressure levels at the suppressor entrance can cause faster cycling and feeding issues. Unless
the gas port can be regulated or adjusted for higher pressures, suppressors for short barreled 5.5645mm NATO
rearms must be larger and heavier than models for standard length ries to function reliably. SS109/M855 cartridges red from barrels under about 254 mm (10.0 in)
in length do not have enough muzzle velocity energy to
cause bullet fragmentation that occurs only at terminal
velocities of over 750 m/s (2,500 ft/s) on impact, reducing the wounding capacity.* [26]* [27]
Combat operations the past few months
have again highlighted terminal performance
deciencies with 5.5645mm 62 gr. M855
16

FMJ. These problems have primarily been
manifested as inadequate incapacitation of enemy forces despite them being hit multiple
times by M855 bullets. These failures appear
to be associated with the bullets exiting the
body of the enemy soldier without yawing and
fragmenting.
This failure to yaw and fragment can be
caused by reduced impact velocities as when
red from short barrel weapons or when the
range increases.
Although all SS109/M855 types must be
62 gr. FMJ bullets constructed with a steel
penetrator in the nose, the composition, thickness, and relative weights of the jackets, penetrators, and cores are quite variable, as are the
types and position of the cannelures. Because
of the signicant dierences in construction
between bullets within the SS109/M855 category, terminal performance is quite variable
with dierences noted in yaw, fragmentation,
and penetration depths. Luke Haag's papers in
the AFTE Journal (33(1):1128, Winter 2001)
also describes this problem.
* [28]
Wound proles in ballistic gelatin

Note: images are not to same scale
M16 M193 5.5645mm
M16A2 SS109/M855 5.5645mm NATO

If 5.56 mm bullets fail to upset (yaw, frag-
ment, or deform) within tissue, the results are

relatively insignicant wounds. This is true
for all 5.5645mm bullets, including both military FMJ and OTM (open tip match) and civilian JHP/JSP designs used in law enforcement.
As expected, with decreased wounding eects,
rapid incapacitation is unlikely: enemy soldiers
may continue to pose a threat to friendly forces
and violent suspects can remain a danger to law
enforcement personnel and the public.
This failure of 5.5645mm NATO bullets to yaw and fragment can be caused by
reduced impact velocities as when red from
short-barreled weapons or when the range to
the target increases. Failure to yaw and fragment can also occur when the bullets pass
through only minimal tissue, such as a limb
or the chest of a thin, small statured individual, as the bullet may exit the body before it
has a chance to yaw and fragment. Two other
yaw issues: Angle-of-Attack (AOA) variations
between dierent projectiles, even within the
same lot of ammo, as well as Fleet Yaw variations between dierent ries, were elucidated
in 2006 by the Joint Service Wound Ballistic
Integrated Product Team (JSWB-IPT), which
included experts from the military law enforcement user community, trauma surgeons,
aero ballisticians, weapon and munitions engineers, and other scientic specialists. These
yaw issues were most noticeable at close ranges
and were more prevalent with certain calibers
and bullet styles the most susceptible being 5.5645mm NATO FMJ ammunition like
SS109/M855 and M193.
Dr. Martin Fackler* [29]
Despite complaints that the 5.5645mm NATO round

lacks stopping power, others contend that animal studies
of the wounding eects of the 5.5645mm NATO round
versus the 7.6239mm have found that the 5.5645mm
NATO round is more damaging, due to the post-impact
behavior of the 5.56 mm projectile resulting in greater
cavitation of soft tissues.* [30] The US Army contended
in 2003 that the lack of close range lethality of the
5.5645mm NATO was more a matter of perception than
fact. With controlled pairs and good shot placement to
the head and chest, the target was usually defeated without issue. The majority of failures were the result of
hitting the target in non-vital areas such as extremities.
However, a minority of failures occurred in spite of multiple hits to the chest.* [31]
Some have contended that shot placement is the most important parameter in determining the lethality of a bullet. Diculty with the 5.5645mm NATO at range has
been attributed to training, as few nations other than the
US* [32] teach shooting beyond 200300 meters to regu-
3.3. PERFORMANCE
lar soldiers; Swedish ISAF units relied on .50 BMG heavy
machine guns for long-range shooting due to resilience to
factors such as range and wind drift. Underperformance
is thus attributed to errors in range and wind estimation,
target lead, ring position, and stress under re, factors
that can be resolved through training.* [25]* [33]
3.3.2
Improvements
Advances have been made in 5.56 mm ammunition. The

U.S. military had adopted for limited issue a 77-grain
(5.0 g) Matchbullet, type classied as the Mk 262.
The heavy, lightly constructed bullet fragments more violently at short range and also has a longer fragmentation range.* [34] Originally designed for use in the Mk
12 SPR, the ammunition has found favor with special
forces* [35] units who were seeking a more eective
cartridge to re from their M4A1 carbines. Commercially available loadings using these heavier (and longer)
bullets can be prohibitively expensive and cost much
more than military surplus ammunition. Additionally,
these heavy-for-caliber loadings sacrice some penetrative ability compared to the M855 round (which has a
steel penetrator tip). Performance of 5.5645 mm military ammunition can generally be categorized as almost
entirely dependent upon velocity in order to wound eectively. Heavy OTM bullets enhance soft tissue wounding
ability at the expense of hard-target/barrier penetration.
U.S. Special Forces had sought to create a round that
had increased power out of carbine M4 barrels and compact SCAR-L barrels, while increasing hard target performance. Developmental eorts led to the creation of the
Mk318. The bullet uses an open-tip design to inict damage on soft tissue, and has a brass rear to penetrate hard
targets. The tip and lead core fragments consistently even
when using short barrels, while the rear moves through
once the front impacts.* [36] It has more consistent performance because it is not yaw-dependent like the M855;
the nose fragments upon impact and solid rear penetrator continues to move relatively straight. This makes the
Mk318 eective against personnel with or without body
armor. The round also increases accuracy, from 35
minute of angle (MOA) with the M855 from an M4A1
barrel to 1.71 MOA at 300 yards and 1.67 MOA at 600
yards from a 14 in (360 mm) SCAR-L barrel.* [37]
17
(9.5 mm) of mild steel at 350 meters, which the M855 can
only do at 160 meters. The propellant burns faster, which
decreases the muzzle ash and gives a higher muzzle velocity, an important feature when red from a short barreled M4 carbine. Though the M855A1 is more expensive to produce, its performance is considered to compensate. One possible danger is that it generates much greater
pressure in the chamber when red, decreasing service
life of parts, and increasing the risk of catastrophic failure of the weapon, though this has yet to occur.* [38]* [39]
The U.S. Marines adopted the Mk318 in early 2010 due
to delays with the M855A1. This was a temporary measure until the M855A1 was available for them, which
occurred in mid-2010 when the Army began to receive
the rounds. Both the Mk318 and M855A1 weigh the
same and have similar performance, and both have better performance than the M855 against all targets. SOCOM spent less money developing the Mk318 and it is
marginally better than the M855A1 in some situations,
but costs more per round. The Army spent more developing the M855A1 which performs as well or nearly as
well as the Mk318, but is cheaper per round and has the
advantage of being lead-free. While SOCOM constantly
looks for better equipment, the Army and Marines have
far more troops to supply and buy more ammunition than
SOCOM.* [40]
3.3.3 Alternatives
If the 5.56 mm bullet is moving too slowly to reliably
fragment on impact, the wound size and potential to incapacitate a person is greatly reduced. There have been
numerous attempts to create an intermediate cartridge
that addresses the complaints of 5.56 NATO's lack of
stopping power along with lack of controllability seen
in ries ring 7.62 NATO in full auto. Some alternative cartridges like the .270 caliber 6.8mm Remington
SPC (6.843mm) focused on superior short-range performance by sacricing long-distance performance due
to the relatively short engagement distances typically observed in urban warfare. Others, like the 6.5mm Grendel
(6.539mm), are attempts at engineering an all purpose
cartridge that could replace both the 5.56 and 7.62 NATO
rounds. The 300 AAC Blackout (7.6235mm) round was
designed to have the power of the 7.6239mm for use
in an M4 platform using standard M4 magazines, and to
easily interchange between subsonic ammunition for suppressed ring and supersonic rounds. All these cartridges
have certain advantages over the 5.5645mm NATO, but
they have their own individual tradeos to include lower
muzzle velocity, less range, decreased magazine capacity, and dierent internal parts. None of these cartridges
have gained any signicant traction beyond sport shooting communities.
For general issue, the U.S. Army adopted the M855A1

round in 2010 to replace the M855. The primary reason
was pressure to use non-lead bullets. The lead slug is replaced by a copper alloy slug in a reverse-drawn jacket,
with a hardened steel penetrator extending beyond the
jacket, reducing lead contamination to the environment.
The M855A1 oers several improvements other than being lead-free. It is slightly more accurate, has better consistency of eect in regards to wounding ability, and has
an increased penetrating capability. The round can bet- By late 2004, the 6.8mm Remington SPC was in limited
ter penetrate steel, brick, concrete, and masonry walls, as use with U.S. Special Operators.* [41] However, it was
well as body armor and sheet metal. It penetrates 3 8 in not adopted for widespread use due to resistance from of-
18
cials on changing calibers.* [42] In 2007, both the U.S.
SOCOM and the U.S. Marine Corps decided not to eld
weapons chambered in 6.843mm due to logistical and
cost issues.* [43] An unnamed LWRC representative said
in January 2014 that the US military is once again taking
a look at the 6.8 SPCII after all the commercial development in the last 10 years.* [44]
3.4 5.56 mm NATO versus .223

Remington

tocols measuring pressure using a drilled case, rather than
an intact case with a conformal piston, along with other
dierences.* [51] NATO uses NATO EPVAT pressure
test protocols for their small arms ammunition specications.
Because of these dierences in methodology, the CIP
pressure of 430 MPa (62,366 psi) is the same as a SAAMI
pressure of 380 MPa (55,114 psi), which is reected in
US Military specications for 5.56 mm NATO, which
call for a mean maximum pressure of 55,000 PSI (when
measured using a protocol similar to SAAMI).* [52]
These pressures are generated and measured using a
chamber cut to 5.56 NATO specications, including the
longer leade. Firing 5.56mm NATO from a chamber with
a shorter .223 Remington leade can generate pressures in
excess of SAAMI maximums.
The 5.56 mm NATO and .223 Remington cartridges and

chamberings are similar but not identical.* [45] While the
cartridges are identical other than powder load, the chamber leade, i.e. the area where the riing begins, is cut
to a sharper angle on some .223 commercial chambers.
Because of this, a cartridge loaded to generate 5.56mm
pressures in a 5.56mm chamber may develop pressures 3.4.3 Chamber
that exceed SAAMI limits when red from a short-leade
The 5.56 mm NATO chambering, known as a NATO or
.223 Remington chamber.
mil-spec chamber, has a longer leade, which is the distance between the mouth of the cartridge and the point
at which the riing engages the bullet. The .223 Rem3.4.1 Brass case
ington chambering, known as SAAMI chamber, is alThe dimensional specications of 5.56 NATO and .223 lowed to have a shorter leade, and is only required to
commercial brass cases are identical. The cases tend to be proof tested to the lower SAAMI chamber pressure.
have similar case capacity when measured, with varia- To address these issues, various proprietary chambers extions chiey due to brand, not 5.56 vs .223 designation. ist, such as the Wylde chamber (Rock River Arms)* [53]
The result of this is that there is no such thing as 5.56 or the ArmaLite chamber, which are designed to hanbrassor ".223 brass, the dierences in the cartridges dle both 5.5645mm NATO and .223 Remington equally
lie in pressure ratings and in chamber leade length, not in well. The dimensions and leade of the .223 Remington
minimum C.I.P. chamber also dier from the 5.56 mm
the shape or thickness of the brass.* [46]* [47]
NATO chamber specication.
In July 2012, the Army solicited a request for vendors
to supply alternative cartridge cases to reduce the weight Using commercial .223 Remington cartridges in a 5.56
of an M855A1 5.56 mm round by at least 10 percent, mm NATO chambered rie should work reliably, but unas well as for the 7.62 NATO and .50 BMG rounds. til recently, it was believed this was less accurate than
The cartridge cases must maintain all performance re- when red from a .223 Remington chambered gun due to
quirements when fully assembled, be able to be used by the longer leade.* [54] Although that may have been true
the Lake City Army Ammunition Plant, must be manu- in the early 1960s when the two rounds were developed,
factured in quantities totaling approximately 45 million recent testing has shown that with today's ammunition,
per year. Polymer-cased ammunition is expected as a ries chambered in 5.56mm can also re .223 ammunilikely lightweight case technology.* [48] A hybrid poly- tion every bit as accurately as ries chambered in .223
mer/metal version of a conventional cartridge case would Remington, and the 5.56mm chamber has the additional
be thicker than regular cases and reduce the amount of advantage of being able to safely re both calibers.* [55]
space for the propellant,* [49] although certain polymers Using 5.56 mm NATO mil-spec cartridges (such as the
could be thermodynamically more ecient and not lose M855) in a .223 Remington chambered rie can lead to
excessive wear and stress on the rie and even be unsafe,
energy to the case or chamber when red.* [50]
and SAAMI recommends against the practice.* [56]* [57]
Some commercial ries marked as ".223 Remingtonare
3.4.2 Pressure
in fact suited for 5.56 mm NATO, such as many commercial AR-15 variants and the Ruger Mini-14 (marked
C.I.P. denes the maximum service and proof test pres- ".223 cal, except the Mini-14 Targetmodel, which
sures of the .223 Remington cartridge equal to the 5.56 only res .223), but the manufacturer should always be
mm NATO, at 430 MPa (62,366 psi). This diers from consulted to verify that this is acceptable before attemptthe SAAMI maximum pressure specication for .223 ing it, and signs of excessive pressure (such as attening
Remington of 380 MPa (55,114 psi), due to CIP test pro- or gas staining of the primers) should be looked for in the
3.6. MILITARY CARTRIDGE TYPES

initial testing with 5.56 mm NATO ammunition.* [58]
It should also be noted that the upper receiver (to which
the barrel with its chamber are attached) and the lower
receiver are entirely separate parts in AR-15 style ries.
If the lower receiver has either .223 or 5.56 stamped on it,
it does not guarantee the upper assembly is rated for the
same caliber, because the upper and the lower receiver in
the same rie can, and frequently do, come from dierent
manufacturers particularly with ries sold to civilians or
second-hand ries.
In more practical terms, as of 2010 most AR-15 parts
suppliers engineer their complete upper assemblies (not
to be confused with stripped uppers where the barrel is
not included) to support both calibers in order to satisfy
market demand and prevent any potential problems.
19
trajectory than a 7.62 NATO round red from a barrel
of equal length, while the 5.56 NATO red from a 14.5
in (370 mm) barrel has the same trajectory as the 7.62
NATO from a 20 in barrel, as well as the same time of
ight. A 7.62 NATO round reaches 50 percent of its velocity within 80 mm (3.1 in) of the barrel when red, so
decreasing the barrel length for close quarters combat results in increased muzzle pressure and greater noise and
muzzle ash.* [25]* [33]
3.6 Military cartridge types
3.5 5.56 mm NATO versus 7.62

mm NATO
Images of U.S. 5.56x45mm NATO ammunition
Cartridge, Ball, F1 (Australia): 5.5645mm FN

SS109 equivalent produced by Thales Australia, formerly Australian Defence Industries (ADI).
Comparison of 7.62mm NATO, 5.56mm NATO and 9mm Parabellum.
Benets of the 5.56 NATO claimed over the 7.62 NATO

include equal lethality, half the mass and volume, reduced
recoil and signature, better penetration of metal plates,
atter trajectory and shorter time of ight out to 700 meters, weapons chambered for it are lighter, and better hit
probability. Hit probability refers to the ability of a soldier to concentrate on ring in spite of their weapon's recoil and noise, which is noticeably dierent between the
two cartridges. The 7.62 NATO has twice the impact
energy of the 5.56 NATO which is needed if a target is
protected by armor, but if not both rounds normally penetrate through enemies past 600 meters. A 5.56 NATO
round red from a 20 in (510 mm) barrel has a atter
Cartridge, Ball, F1A1 (Australia): 5.5645mm

with optimized projectile having a modied boat tail
length and meplat diameter, redesigned case thickness, new primer cup design, and AR2210V01 propellant. [green tip]* [62]* [63]
Cartridge, Blank, F3 (Australia): 5.5645mm
Blank cartridge produced by Thales Australia, formerly Australian Defence Industries (ADI).
Cartridge, Ball, SS109 (Belgium): 5.5645mm
61-grain [3.95 g]* [64] Semi-Armor-Piercing cartridge w/. steel penetrator produced by Fabrique
Nationale. Adopted in 1979 as the NATO standard.* [65]
Cartridge, Ball, C77 (Canada): 5.5645mm FN
SS109 equivalent used in the C7, C8 and C9 type
weapons. Made by General Dynamics Canada.
20
Cartridge, Blank, C79 (Canada): 5.5645mm

blank cartridge used in the C7, C8 and C9 type
weapons. Also made by General Dynamics Canada.
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Blank, M200

(United States): 5.5645mm violet-tipped blank
cartridge.
Cartridge, Ball, DM11 (Germany): 5.5645mm

4.1 g dual core ball cartridge w/steel core, produced
by RUAG Ammotec. [green tip]
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, M202 (United

States): 5.5645mm 58-grain FN SSX822 cartridge.
Cartridge,
Tracer,
DM21
(Germany):
5.5645mm tracer compliment to DM11, also
produced by RUAG Ammotec. [orange tip]
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, XM287

(United States): 5.5645mm 68-grain ball cartridge produced by Industries Valcartier, Inc. An
Improved version was also produced designated
XM779.
Cartridge, Ball, L2A1 (United Kingdom):

5.5645mm M193 equivalent produced by Radway
Green.* [66]
5.5645mm FN SS109 equivalent produced by
Radway Green.
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Tracer, XM288

(United States): 5.5645mm 68-grain tracer cartridge produced by Industries Valcartier, Inc. An
Improved version was also produced designated
XM780.
Cartridge, Tracer, L1A1 (United Kingdom):

5.5645mm tracer compliment to L2A1, produced
by Radway Green. [red tip]
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Grenade, M755

(United States): 5.5645mm grenade launching
blank specically for the M234 launcher.

5.5645mm tracer compliment to L2A2, produced
by Radway Green. [red tip]
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, XM777

(United States): 5.5645mm ball cartridge.
(United States): 5.5645mm tracer cartridge.
States): 5.5645mm 62-grain FN SS109-equivalent
ball cartridge with a steel penetrator tip over a lead
core in a partial copper jacket. [green tip]
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, M855 Lead
Free (United States): 62-grain bullet with a steel
penetrator tip over a tungsten-composite core in a
partial copper jacket. Primarily used during training in countries with strict lead disposal laws. [green
tip]* [67]
M855 and M856 cartridges in an ammunition belt using M27

disintegrating links.

States): 5.5645mm 55-grain [3.56 g] ball cartridge.
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Grenade, M195
(United States): 5.5645mm grenade launching
blank.
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Tracer, M196
(United States): 5.5645mm 54-grain [3.43 g]
tracer cartridge. [red or orange tip].
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Dummy, M199
(United States): 5.5645mm dummy cartridge, non
ring, indented case.
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, M855A1

(United States): 62-grain bullet w/ a 19-grain steel
penetrator tip over a copper alloy core. [bronze
tip]* [68]
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Tracer, M856
(United States): 5.5645mm 63.7-grain FN L110
tracer cartridge. Provides red visible light and lacks
a steel penetrator. [orange tip]* [67]
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Tracer, M856A1
(United States): 5.5645mm 56-grain Lead Free
Slug (LFS) Tracer with similar ballistic performance to the M855A1 and improved trace to range
consistency.* [69]
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Plastic, Practice,
M862 (United States): Short Range Training Ammo
(SRTA) has a smaller charge than standard ball, reducing its aimed range to 250 meters, and res a

plastic bullet. The M2 training bolt must be used in
the M16 Rie / M4 Carbine when using SRTA for
the weapon to cycle properly due to its lower power.
It is used during training on shooting ranges near
built-up or populated areas. [Brass primer, Aluminum case and Blue plastic projectile].
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Armor Piercing,
M995 (United States): 5.5645mm 52-grain AP
cartridge with a tungsten core. [black tip].
(United States): 5.5645mm so-called Dim
Tracerwith reduced eect primarily for use with
night vision devices. [red tip?]
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Frangible, MK 255
Mod 0 (United States): 5.5645mm 62-grain Reduced Ricochet Limited Penetration (RRLP) round
with copper/polymer composite core for training
and operational use.* [70]
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Special Ball,
Long Range, Mk 262 Mod 0/1 (United States):
5.5645mm 77-grain Open-Tipped Match/HollowPoint Boat-Tail cartridge. Mod 0 features Sierra
Matchking bullet, while Mod 1 features either
Nosler or Sierra bullet.
Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, MK318 MOD 0
enhanced 5.56 mm ammunition (United States):
5.5645mm 62-grain Open-Tipped Match BoatTail cartridge.* [71]* [72]
21
600 meters. The SS109 had a steel tip and lead rear and
was not required to penetrate body armor. Barrels required at least a 1:9 in rie twist, but needed a 1:7 in rie
twist to re tracer ammunition.* [25]* [33]* [37] The U.S.
designated the SS109 cartridge the M855 and rst used it
in the M16A2 rie. The 62-grain round was heavier than
the previous 55-grain M193. While the M855 had better
armor penetrating ability, it is less likely to fragment after hitting a soft target. This lessens kinetic energy transfer to the target and reduces wounding capability.* [73]
The M855 is yaw dependent, meaning it depends on the
angle upon which it hits the target. If at a good angle,
the round turns as it enters soft tissue, breaking apart and
transferring its energy to what it hits. If impacting at a
bad angle, it could pass through and fail to transfer its full
energy.* [39] The SS109 was made to pierce steel helmets
at long range from the Minimi, not improve terminal performance on soft tissue from ries or carbines.* [29] In
Iraq, troops that engaged insurgents at less than 150 yards
found that M855 rounds did not provide enough stopping
power. In addition to not causing lethal eects with two
or more rounds, they did not eectively penetrate vehicle windshields, even with many rounds red at extremely
close range.* [74] In Afghanistan, troops found that M855
rounds also suered at long ranges. Although 5.56 mm
ries have an eective range of 450600 meters, the
M855 bullet's performance falls o sharply beyond 300
meters. The ranges are even shorter for short-barreled
carbines. Half of small-arms attacks were launched from
300900 meter ranges.* [75] An M855 red from an M4
Carbine has severely degraded performance beyond 150
meters.* [29]
Cartridge, 5.56 mm, Ball, MLU-26/P (United

States): Early USAF designation for 5.5645mm The maximum eective point target range of an M4 carbine with M855 rounds is 500 meters, with a maximum
ball cartridge produced by Remington.
eective area target range of 600 meters. These mark
Cartridge, 5.56 x 45 mm, Ball, M1A3 (South the greatest distances the rounds can be expected to acAfrica): 56-grain FMJ Ball round based on the curately hit the target, not the ranges that they have termiM193 cartridge. It was used with the R4 assault ri- nal eectiveness against them. Because the M855 is yaw
e.
dependent it requires instability in ight to deform upon
Cartridge, 5.56 x 45 mm, semi-jacketed fran- hitting the target. It is the most stable in ight between
gible, MK 311 Mod 0 Reduced Ricochet Lim- 150350 meters, potentially lessening its eectiveness if
ited Penetration (RRLP) round, intended for training. it strikes an enemy between those distances. In addition
Headstamp: WCC11, produced by Western Cartridge to this, tests have shown that 5.56 mm bullets fragment
most reliably when traveling faster than 2,500 ft/s (760
Company, loaded in 2011.
m/s). From full-length 20 in rie and machine gun barrels, rounds are kept above this velocity out to 200 meters.
An M855 from an M4 has a muzzle velocity of 2,970 ft/s
3.6.1 SS109/M855
(910 m/s), but that is reduced to 2,522 ft/s (769 m/s) by
In 1970, NATO decided to standardize a second rie 150 meters. Even if it impacts at optimum speeds, 70
caliber. Tests were conducted from 1977 to 1980 us- percent of 5.56 mm bullets will not begin to yaw until
ing U.S. XM177 5.56 mm, Belgian SS109 5.56 mm, 4.7 in (120 mm) of tissue penetration. 15 percent more
British 4.85x49mm, and German 4.7x33mm caseless. begin to yaw after that distance, so up to 85 percent of
No weapon could be agreed upon, as many were proto- rounds that hit do not start to fragment until nearly 5 in
types, but the SS109 was found to be the best round and of penetration. Against small statured or thin combatstandardized on October 28, 1980. The SS109 was de- ants, the M855 has little chance of yawing before passveloped in the 1970s for the FN FNC rie and the FN ing through cleanly and leaving a wound cavity no bigger
Minimi machine gun. To increase the range of the Min- than the bullet itself. The factors of impact angle and
imi, the round was created to penetrate 3.5 mm of steel at velocity, instability distance, and penetration before yaw
22
reduce the round's predictable eectiveness considerably the rearward-drawn jacket can create an uneven boat tail
in combat situations.* [76]
leading to uneven airow and more aected dispersion.
It also was not optimized for use in short-barreled ries.
The M855 was originally made to burn and accelerate
3.6.2 M855A1
from the 20 in (510 mm) barrel of the M249 SAW; then
it was repurposed to the M16A2 for ammunition compatibility. When red from a short-barreled M4, lower
muzzle velocity led to decreased terminal eectiveness,
and unburned propellant red from the end of the barrel
created a brighter muzzle ash and caused more combustion debris to be pushed back in the gas tube, dirtying the
weapon.* [77]
Alternative 5.56 mm rounds in use were considered, like
the Mk 262 open-tipped match cartridge. The Mk 262
was more accurate and had better soft target performance, and both Army and Marine units were using large
quantities in Iraq deployments for designated marksman
ries. However, the Mk 262 was not adequate as a
general-purpose round and cost four times more than the
M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round and its environmentally
M855, so it could not be produced at the volumes refriendly projectile.
quired for 5.56 mm ammunition (up to 1 billion rounds
annually). It was also found that performance suered
when red from standard barrels, so match grade barDevelopment
rels would be needed for optimum performance. The
M995 armor-piercing round had high accuracy and tarIn mid-2005, a meeting was held at the Lake City Army get penetration, but was eight times more expensive than
Ammunition Plant as part of Phase II of the U.S. Army's the M855. Commercial alternatives were found to have
Green Ammunition replacement program and attended the same yaw sensitivity issues as the M855.* [77]
by representatives from several military sectors and contractors. The objective was to create an environmentally- A number of objectives were desired for the new round,
friendly small arms training round after the Army had including more lethal, or at least more consistent, soft tarbeen required, in part by stronger state regulations, to get eects and less shot dispersion. It must not be speremove lead from their bullets to reduce lead accumula- cialized for any one task to have general-purpose perfortion at stateside training ranges. Initially, Phase I eorts mance, and if improvement in any one area resulted that
created the M855 green tip5.56 mm round that re- would be considered a secondary benet. As the services
placed the lead core with one made of tungsten, but it was were purchasing large numbers of optics, it could not
found that the round would become unstable in ight and require a dierent reticle pattern, but re-zeroing sights
y sideways through a target; furthermore, research was would be acceptable. Optimization for short-barreled risuggesting that tungsten was not environmentally better es was needed, as the Army and Special Forces' main
than lead. Phase II eorts focused on creating an alter- weapon was the M4 carbine; a ash-suppressed propelnative round that did not contain either metal. As the lant was also required. Optimizing the round to perform
Iraq War was happening at the same time, participants within the pressure limits for short barrels would cause
decided to use the opportunity to redirect their eorts performance loss in longer barrels (causing complaints
from just making agreentraining round to creating an from the Marine Corps), but analysis showed that a short
entirely new general-purpose rie round to address com- barrel-optimized round would have less performance loss
red from a long barrel than vice versa. The round also
plaints encountered in the eld.* [77]
had to be cost-competitive and meet environmental stanComplaints had surfaced about the poor lethality of standards.* [77]
dard M855 rounds against soft targets, although while
some units claimed they had virtually no eect others The initial M855A1 design began testing in late-2007. Its
said they were having no problems. The problem was alloy core had no toxic metals and could be cheaply proyaw sensitivity,where rounds experiencing swing in duced. Materials and production methods, like a reverseight have varying eects when they hit a target based drawn jacket for a clean boat tail, led to yaw insensitivon the degree of yaw, resulting in unpredictable lethality ity, improved soft target performance, and consistent diseects. The makeup and design of the bullet aected ac- persion. The steel penetrator was retained and, through
curacy. The copper jacket is formed rst at the point, then greater velocity and better composition and placement,
a steel penetrator is inserted into the jacket and the pro- substantially improved hard target performance. It met
jectile is crimped shut. Error in the penetrator placement short-barrel optimization, ballistic similarity, and procan change ight performance and aect dispersion, and ducibility requirements; it cost slightly more than the

M855, but far less than the Mk 262. Production proveout testing would take time, as over a million rounds had
to be test-red to ensure instances of failure would not occur at the 1 billion rounds per year scale. As information
began to be made public, the original program objective
to create agreen roundled to confusion and criticism
that the Army was focusing more on environmental safety
than on performance. Just as testing was being completed
and the rst production lots were being prepared in 2009,
the rounds were found to fail at high temperatures. This
caused a one-year delay to replace the bullet core, which
solved the temperature problem and also improved cost
and producibility.* [77]
23
to as "green ammo" because it res a lead free projectile.* [68]* [69]* [79]* [80]* [81]* [82] It is not necessarily
more lethal than the M855, but performs more consistently every time it hits a soft target and retains its performance at longer distances. The EPR can penetrate a
3
8 in (9.5 mm) thick steel barrier from an M4 at 350
meters and from an M16 at 400 meters. Ballistics for
both rounds are similar and don't require weapons to be
re-zeroed, but if they are the EPR can be slightly more
accurate. The steel-tip penetrator of the M855A1 is noticeably separated from the jacket of the bullet and can
spin, but this is part of the design and does not aect
performance. The M855A1 costs only 5 cents more per
round than the M855.* [83] The M855A1 bullet has a 1 8
in (3.2 mm) greater length than the M855.* [84] Because
steel and copper are less dense than lead, the bullet is
lengthened inside the case to achieve the same weight as
its predecessor.* [5] The longer bullet and reverse-drawn
jacket make it more stable and accurate in-ight. Its
steel tip is exposed from the jacket and bronzed for corrosion resistance. The tip is serrated and larger than
the M855's steel tip. The M855A1's bullet composition, better aerodynamics, and higher proof pressures give
it an extended eective range for penetration and terminal performance.* [85] While eectiveness at dierent ranges is increased, the M855A1 does not increase
the eective ranges at which weapons are expected to
hit their targets. The Enhanced Performance Round was
made to nearly match the trajectory of the M855 to aid
in training consistency - the SS109/M855 ballistic coefcient (G7 BC) of 0.151 was improved to 0.152 for the
M855A1* [86] - but the ranges to get desired eects are
greatly extended.* [87]
In December 2014, small ammunition company Liberty Ammunition won a $15.6 million lawsuit against the
Army for passing on proprietary data and specications
for its lead-free copper-core, steel-tipped bullet design to
other vendors. The company founder presented his idea
for an enhanced performance incapacitative composite
(EPIC) 5.56 mm round to Army ocials and gave technical and performance data to SOCOM in 2005, during
Phase II of the green ammunition program, after a nondisclosure agreement was signed protecting proprietary
information. Liberty Ammunition was formed to produce the EPIC round and received a SOCOM contract
to test it, completed in 2007. The round's design patent
was approved in 2010, the same year the M855A1 was
elded. A suit was led claiming the Army shared condential information to potential vendors, and the U.S.
Court of Federal Claims found that the Army had violated three non-disclosure agreements. The court also
ordered the Army to pay 1.4 cents to the company for
every M855A1 round produced until its patent expires
in 2027, totally between $2.2 million to $5.3 million per The M855A1 was put on hold in August 2009 due to the
year.* [78]
experimental bismuth-tin alloy core exhibiting undependable ballistics at high temperatures. The US Army has
since replaced the bismuth-tin alloy core with one of solid
copper eliminating the heat issue. The United States MaDeployment
rine Corps purchased 1.8 million rounds in 2010, with
On June 24, 2010, the United States Army announced it plans to adopt the round to replace the interim MK318
began shipping its new 5.56 mm cartridge, the M855A1 SOST rounds used in Afghanistan when the M855A1
*
Enhanced Performance Round (EPR), to active com- project was delayed. [88]
bat zones. During testing, the M855A1 performed better On a media day at Aberdeen Proving Ground on May
than M80 7.6251mm NATO ball ammunition against 4, 2011, reports were given about the M855A1's percertain types of targets (particularly hardened steel), blur- formance in the eld since it was issued 11 months earring the performance dierences that previously sepa- lier. One primary advantage given by the round is its
rated the two cartridges. The US Army Picatinny Ar- consistent performance against soft targets. While the
senal stated that the new M855A1 oers improved hard older M855 was yaw-dependant, which means its eectarget capability, more consistent performance at all dis- tiveness depends on its yaw angle when it hits a target,
tances, enhanced dependability, improved accuracy, re- the M855A1 delivers the same eectiveness in a soft tarduced muzzle ash, and higher velocity compared to the get no matter its yaw angle. The new SMP-842 propelM855 round. Further, the Army stated the new M855A1 lant in the round burns quicker in the shorter M4 carbine
ammunition is tailored for use in M4 carbines, but should barrel, ensuring less muzzle ash and greater muzzle vealso give enhanced performance in M16 ries and M249 locity. The M855A1 was able to penetrate 3 8 inch (9.5
light machine guns. The new 62-grain (4 g) projectile mm) of steel plate at 300 meters. The round even penor bullet used in the M855A1 round has a copper core etrated concrete masonry units, similar to cinder blocks,
with a 19-grain (1.2 g) steel stacked-conepenetrat- at 75 meters from an M16 and at 50 meters from an M4,
ing tip. The M855A1 cartridge is sometimes referred
24
which the M855 could not do at those ranges. Its accuracy
is maintained and sometimes increased, as it was able to
shoot a 2-inch group at 600 meters. February 2011 was
the rst time the M855A1 was used more than the M855,
and approximately 30 million M855A1 rounds have been
elded from June 2010 to May 2011.* [89]* [90]
The M855A1 was put to the test at the 2012 National
Rie Association's National High-Power Rie Championship at Camp Perry, Ohio in August 2012. The shooter
for the Army was Rob Harbison, a contractor supporting small caliber ammunition capability development at
Fort Benning Georgia. This was a special event for the
Project Manager for Maneuver Ammunition Systems and
the Army's Maneuver Center of Excellence as it was an
opportunity to showcase the capabilities of the Enhanced
Performance Round. With an M16 loaded with M855A1
ammo, Harbison red a perfect 200 points in the Coast
Guard Trophy Match, which is 20 shots red from the
sitting position at 200 yards, nishing 17th out of 365
competitors. He also scored a perfect 100 on the nal string of ten shots during the Air Force Cup Trophy
Match, red at 600 yards from the prone position, which
is 10 shots in a row within the 12-inch, 10-point ring at
600 yards with combat ammunition. Harbison was happy
with the performance of the EPR, with his scores showing
that the Army's newest general purpose round is accurate
enough to go toe-to-toe in the competition with the best
ammo that can be bought or hand-loaded. Harbison even
said, I don't think I could have scored any higher if I
was using match-grade competition ammunition.* [91]
It should be noted that the M855A1 was not red from 1:7
in ried barrels used in standard Army ries, but special
Army Marksmanship Unit (AMU) match-grade 1:8 in ried barrels, which produce more accurate results when
ring 62-grain rounds.* [84]
From elding in June 2010 to September 2012, Alliant
Techsystems delivered over 350 million M855A1 Enhanced Performance Rounds.* [92]
Since its introduction, the M855A1 has been criticized
for its propellant causing increased fouling of the gun
barrel. Post-combat surveys have reported no issues
with the EPR in combat. A series of tests found no
signicant dierence in fouling between the old M855
and the M855A1. However, manufacturers have reported severe degradationto barrels of their ries
using the M855A1 in tests.* [93] The Army attributes
pressure and wear issues with the M855A1 to problems
with the primer, which they claim to have addressed
with a newly designed primer.* [94] It uses a modied
four-pronged primer anvil for more reliable powder ignition,* [85] with a stab crimp rather than a circumferential
crimp to better withstand the new loads higher chamber
pressure,* [84] increased from 55,000 psi (379.2 MPa) to
62,000 psi (427.5 MPa).* [49] During Army carbine testing, the round causedaccelerated bolt wearfrom higher
chamber pressure and increased bore temperatures. Special Operator testing saw cracks appear on locking lugs

and bolts at cam pin holes on average at 6,000 rounds,
but sometimes as few as 3,000 rounds during intense automatic ring. Firing several thousand rounds with such
high chamber pressures can lead to degraded accuracy
over time as parts wear out; these eects can be mitigated
through a round counter to keep track of part service life.
Weapons with barrel lengths shorter than the M4 ring
the M855A1 also experience 50 percent higher pressures
than a full-length M16 rie barrel, which can cause port
erosion that can boost the automatic re rate, increasing
the likelihood of jams.* [84]
From June 2010 to June 2013, issuing of the M855A1
Enhanced Performance Round removed 1,994 metric
tons of lead from the waste stream. 2.1 grams (32 gr) of
lead are eliminated from each M855A1 projectile.* [95]
3.6.3 Mk 262
The Mk 262 is a match quality round manufactured by
Black Hills Ammunition made originally for the Special
Purpose Rie (SPR). It uses a 77-grain (5.0 g) Sierra
MatchKing bullet that is more eective at longer ranges
than the standard issue M855 round.
In 1999, SOCOM requested Black Hills Ammunition to
develop ammunition for the Mk 12 SPR that SOCOM
was designing. For the rie to be accurate out to 600
yards, Black Hills militarizeda cartridge that used
the Sierra 77 grain OTM (Open Tip Match) projectile;
it switched from a .223 Remington to 5.56 mm case, increased pressure loading, crimped and sealed the primer,
and added a ash retardant to the powder. The Mk 262
Mod 0 was adopted in 2002. Issues came up in development including reliability problems in dierent temperatures and when the weapon got dirty, and cycling issues in
cold weather due to the slightly shorter barrel of the SPR
compared to the full-length M16A2 barrel. The problems were addressed with a slower burning powder with
a dierent pressure for use in the barrel, creating the Mk
262 Mod 1 in 2003. During the product improvement
stage, the new propellant was found to be more sensitive
to heat in weapon chambers during rapid rings, resulting in increased pressures and failure to extract. This was
addressed with another powder blend with higher heat tolerance and improved brass. Also during the stage, Black
Hills wanted the bullet to be given a cannelure, which had
been previously rejected for fear it would aect accuracy.
It was eventually added for eective crimping to ensure
that the projectile would not move back into the case
and cause a malfunction during auto-load feeding. Although the temperature sensitive powder and new bullet
changed specications, the designation remained as the
Mod 1.* [96]
According to US DoD sources, the Mk 262 round is
capable of making kills at 700 meters. Ballistics tests
found that the round caused consistent initial yaw in
soft tissuebetween 3-4 in at ranges from 15 feet to

300 meters. Apparently it is superior to the standard
M855 round when red from an M4 or M16 rie, increasing accuracy from 3-5 minute of angle to 2 minute
of angle. It evidently possesses superior stopping power,
and can allow for engagements to be extended to up to
700 meters when red from an 18-inch barrel. It appears that this round can drastically improve the performance of any AR-15 platform weapon chambered
to .223/5.56 mm. Superior accuracy, wounding capacity, stopping power and range power has made this the
preferred round of many Special Forces operators, and
highly desirable as a replacement for the older, Belgiandesigned 5.5645mm SS109/M855 NATO round. In one
engagement, a two-man special forces team reported 75
kills with 77 rounds.* [97]* [98] The Mk 262 has a higher
ballistic coecient than the M855 of (G7) 0.181, meaning it loses less velocity at long-range.* [86]
3.6.4
Mk318
Following early engagements in Afghanistan and Iraq,

U.S. Special Operations Forces reported that M855 ammunition used in M4A1 ries was ineective. In 2005,
the Pentagon issued a formal request to the ammunition industry for enhancedammunition. The only
business that responded was the Federal Cartridge Company, owned by Alliant Techsystems. Working with the
Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division, the team
created performance objectives for the new ammo: increased consistency from shot to shot regardless of temperature changes, accuracy out of an M4A1 better than 2
minute of angle (2 inches at 100 yards, 3.9 inches at 300
yards), increased stopping power after passing through
intermediate barrierslike walls and car windshields,
increased performance and decreased muzzle ash out
of shorter barrel FN SCAR ries, and costs close to the
M855. The rst prototypes were delivered to the government in August 2007. Increased velocity and decreased
muzzle ash were accomplished by the type of powder
used. The design of the bullet was called the Open Tip
Match Rear Penetrator (OTMRP). The front of it is an
open tip backed up by a lead core, while the rear half is
solid brass. When the bullet hits a hard barrier, the front
half of the bullet smooshes against the barrier, breaking
it so the penetrating half of the bullet can go through and
hit the target. With the lead section penetrating the target and the brass section following, it was referred to as a
barrier blindbullet.* [36]* [99]
25
In February 2010, the U.S. Marine Corps adopted the
Mk318 for use by infantry. To be elded by an entire
branch of the military, the round is classied as having an open-tipbullet, similar to the M118LR 7.62
NATO round. The SOST bullet uses a reverse drawn
forming process. The base of the bullet is made rst,
the lead core is placed on top of it, and then the jacketing is pulled up around the lead core from bottom to
tip. Conventional, and cheaper, bullets are made with the
method of the jacket drawn from the nose to an exposed
lead base. The reverse drawn technique leaves an open
tip as a byproduct of the manufacturing process, and is
not specically designed for expansion or to aect terminal ballistics. The Pentagon legally cleared the rounds
for Marine use in late January. The Marines elded the
Mk318 gradually and in small numbers. Initial studies showed that insurgents hit by it suered larger exit
wounds, although information was limited. SOST rounds
were used alongside M855 rounds in situations where the
SOST would be more eective.* [36]* [99]* [100] In July
2010, the Marines purchased 1.8 million M855A1 Enhanced Performance Rounds, in addition to millions of
Mk318 rounds in service, as part of its eort to replace
its M855 ammo.* [101] As of May 2015, Marine combat
units still deploy with a mixture of both SOST and M855
rounds.* [102]
As the issue of environmentally friendly ammo grew, the
Marines looked to see if the Mk318's lead could be replaced while still meeting specications. They found that
by replacing the lead with copper and slightly stretching the jacket around to crimp the nose even more, the
bullet's ballistic coecient increased. To avoid visual
confusion with the Mk 262 round, the bullet was entirely nickel-plated for a silver color; the enhanced silvercolored copper jacketed, open tip match, 62-grain projectile was named the Mk318 Mod 1. The Marine Corps
will make a decision as whether to eld the Mk 318 Mod
1 or M855A1 as its standard rie round.* [103]
3.6.5 5.6mm Gw Pat 90
Ocially designated the Mk318 Mod 0 Cartridge,

Caliber 5.56mm Ball, Carbine, Barrier, and called
SOST (Special Operations Science and Technology) ammunition, the 62-grain bullet fragments consistently, even
out of a 10.5 in barrel. The lead portion fragments in the
rst few inches of soft tissue, then the solid copper rear
penetrates 18 in of tissue (shown though ballistic gelatin)
while tumbling. Out of a 14 in barrel, the Mk318 has a Swiss Army 50-round Gw Pat 90 ammunition box.
muzzle velocity of 2,925 fps.* [36]* [99]
26

The Gw Pat 90 is used both in the Swiss military and in
sport shooting. The very high level of individual training
in the Swiss militia (every single soldier bearing a weapon
has to shoot for qualication once a year; see Gun politics
in Switzerland) and the overall use of the Gw Pat 90 by
the many Swiss citizens who shoot in competitions and for
amusement has resulted in signicant input on its usage.
Over 1 billion cartridges had been produced as of 2005.
3.7 Use
Main article: List of 5.56x45mm NATO rearms
Swiss Army Gw Lsp Pat 90 tracer rounds.
The 5.6mm Gw Pat 90 or GP 90 (5.6 mm Rie Cartridge 90), is the standard round used by the Swiss military in its rie, the SIG SG 550. The cartridge is also
known as the Cart 5.6mm 90 F to the French and Italian
speaking Swiss militiamen. The Swiss refer to the round
as the 5.6 mm Gw Pat 90, although it is interchangeable
with the 5.5645mm NATO and .223 Remington round.
The Gw Pat 90 round ring a 4.1 g (63 gr) FMJ bullet
is optimized for use in 5.56 mm (.223 in) caliber barrels
with a 254 mm (1:10 in) twist rate.
The Gw Pat 90 was designed for the SIG SG 550 when
it came into production in 1987, replacing the SIG SG
510. Previous experience of a change in standard rie had proved that changing the distance of re for the
training ranges was more expensive than the design of a
new ammunition; this prompted the design of a cartridge
nominally capable at 300 meters. The cartridge was also
designed to reduce pollution by controlling lead emissions.* [104] The bullet was originally clad with a nickel
alloy jacket, however, this was found to cause excessive
barrel wear, so in 1998 the nickel jackets were replaced
with tombac jackets. In addition, in 1999 a copper plug
was added to the base of the bullet to address environmental concerns.* [104]
The ammunition is currently (2009) produced by RUAG
Ammotec, a subsidiary of the RUAG group.* [105] The
ammunition is manufactured in three variations: the standard FMJ round, the tracer round, and a blank round.
The FMJ cartridge has a Copper-Zinc alloy case and uses
a double base propellant. The bullet is a 4.1 g (63 gr)
tombac jacketed FMJ projectile with a G1 ballistic coefcient of 0.331 (ICAO) / 0.337 (Army Metro). The projectile contains approximately 95% Pb, 2% Sb, 3% Cu,
and was designed for terminal ballistic instability. The required accuracy for Gw Pat 90 ammunition out of factory
test barrels is 63 mm (0.72 MOA) for 10 rounds (100%
radius measurement method) out to 300 m. The Gw Pat
90 cartridge dimensions are in accordance with the civilian C.I.P. standards for the .223 Remington C.I.P. chambering.* [106]
3.8 See also

5.4539mm
5.842mm
7.6239mm
5 mm caliber
Express (weaponry)
NATO EPVAT testing
3.9 References
[1] C.I.P. decisions, texts and tables free current C.I.P.
CD-ROM version download (ZIP and RAR format)".
Archived from the original on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
[2] US Mil-spec MIL-C-9963F
Capability Group 1 Dismounted Soldier NATO Army
Armaments Group
[4] Barnes, Frank C. (1972). Cartridges of the World. Northeld Il: DBI Books. p. 37. ISBN 0-695-80326-3.
[5] Assault Ries and Their Ammunition:
Prospects by Anthony G. Williams
History and
[6] Dockery, Kevin (2007). Future Weapons. p. 102. ISBN

0-425-21750-7.
[7] Ak 47 Technical Description - Manual. Scribd.com.
2010-09-30. Retrieved 2012-08-23.
[8] Jane's Infantry Weapons 19861987, pg. 362
3.9. REFERENCES
27
[9] International Legal Initiatives to Restrict Military Small

Arms Ammunition W. Hays Parks Copyright 2010 by
W. Hays Parks International Committee of the Red Cross
(ICRC) pages 118(Which list International Committee
of the Red Cross, Austria, Argentina, Belgium, Bolivia,
Bulgaria, Burundi, Cambodia, Cyprus, Germany, Ireland,
Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mauritius, Mexico, Romania, Samoa, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, etc. as
parties that consider the 55 gr M193 round to be inhumane)
[29] Do We Need a New Service Rie Cartridge?", Small

Arms Defense Journal, 6 January 2012
[10] Ian V. Hogg, Military Small Arms of the 20th Century,

1981
[33] Is There a Problem with the Lethality of the 5.56 NATO

Caliber?", Small Arms Defense Journal, 6 January 2012
[11] International Legal Initiatives to Restrict Military Small

Arms Ammunition W. Hays Parks Copyright 2010 by
W. Hays Parks International Committee of the Red Cross
(ICRC) page 1-18
[12] The Small Arms Review vol.10, no.2 November 2006.
[13] Intermediate power ammunition for automatic assault ries
[14] NATO EPVAT testing
[15] QuickLOAD
[30] Acta Chir Scand Suppl. 1982;508:21121.

[31] PROJECT MANAGER SOLDIER WEAPONS SOLDIER WEAPONS ASSESSMENT TEAM REPORT 603
[32] Army Weapons Qualication Course. military.com.
Wiley Publishing. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
[34] The Small Arms Review vol.10, no.2 November 2006

[35] Jane's International Defense Review: IDR., Volume 39,
Issues 16. p. 86. (2006).
[36] Mk 318 Mod 0: A Better Bullet, No Matter What They
Call It - Cheaperthandirt.com, 27 November 2011
[37] A Way Forward in Contemporary Understanding of the
1899 Hague Declaration on Expanding Bullets, Small
Arms Defense Journal, 7 October 2013
[38] M855A1 Strategypage.com, August 10, 2012
[16] Wound Ballistics: Basics and Applications edited by Beat

P. Kneubuehl. p. 128. (2011)
[39] http://usarmy.vo.llnwd.net/e2/c/downloads/215919.pdf
[17] Reading Gunshot Patterns. NIH.gov. National Institute

of Health. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
[40] PC Bullets Survive Afghanistan - Strategypage.com, 13

May 2011
[18] PATTERNS OF MILITARY RIFLE BULLETS by Martin L. Fackler
[41] John Pike. 6.8x43mm SPC (Special Purpose Cartridge)". Globalsecurity.org.
[19] Chamberlin FT, Gun Shot Wounds, in Handbook for

Shooters and Reloaders, Vol. II, Ackley PO, ed., Plaza
Publishing, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1966.
[42] Another 7.62mm Bullet For M-16s - Strategypage.com, 8

January 2012
[20] Sturtevant B, Shock Wave Eects in Biomechanics, Sadhana, 23: 579596, 1998.
[21] American Rie: A Biography, Alexander Rose (2009) p.
375-376
[22] Pd Igman D.D. Konjic Bosnia And Herzegovina : Ammunition. Igman.co.ba. Retrieved on 2011-01-08.
[43] Dan Lamothe.Corps to pass on Army upgrades to M4.

Army Times Publishing Company. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
[44] LWRC: 6.8 SPC is the New 300 Blackout
[45] .223 Remington and 5.56x45mm NATO Chamber dimensions dierences
[46] 6mmbr.com. 223 Rem + 223 AI Cartridge Guide.
[23] 5.56mm (.22 Cal), nammo.com

[24] The Case for a General-Purpose Rie and Machine Gun
Cartridge (GPC) by Anthony G Williams
[25] Is there a problem with the lethality of the 5.56 NATO
caliber?
[26] Barrel Length Studies in 5.56mm NATO Weapons,
Small Arms Defense Journal, 8 February 2012
[27] EFFECTS OF BARREL LENGTH ON BORE PRESSURE, PROJECTILE VELOCITY and SOUND MEASUREMENT by Philip H. Dater, MD GEMTECH Boise,
ID and Jason M. Wong Firearms Law Group Seattle, WA
2010 at US DEFENSE TECHNICAL INFORMATION
CENTER (DTIC)
[28] Wounding Info
[47] "http://www.luckygunner.com/labs/5-56-vs-223/". Retrieved 13 June 2013.

[48] Army wants lightweight cartridge cases - Therearmblog.com, 20 July 2012
[49] The Armys Individual Carbine Competition: Whats
Next? - SAdefensejournal.com, 24 October 2013
[50] The 6.540 Cartridge: Longer Reach for the M4 & M16
- SAdefensejournal.com, 26 March 2014
[51] Cartridge Pressure Standards. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
[52] US Mil-spec MIL-C-9963F, MIL-C-9963G, and MIL-C63989A(AR)
[53] Rock River Arms
28
[54] News and Press Releases: .223 Rem VS 5.56mm, winchester.com, 5/4/2001
[55] Patrick Sweeney,Chamber Reality Check, Peterson's
Rie Shooter, Volume 16, Issue 2, March/April 2013, pp.
3236.
[56] "Unsafe Arms and Ammunition Combinations" at
SAAMI web site
[57] SAAMI on 5.56 v. .223 Remington. The Gun Zone. Retrieved on 2011-01-08.
[78] Ammunition Inventor Wins $15 Million Patent Infringement Case Against Army - Nationaldefensemagazine.org,
14 January 2015
[79] Army begins shipping improved 5.56mm cartridge
[80] Military.com: 'Green Ammo' Heads to Afghanistan
[81] U.S. Army Issues New M855A1 Ammo to Troops in
Afghanistan
[82] Greenbullets from Picatinny Arsenal in NJ to be used
in Afghanistan
[58] TECHNICAL NOTE 45: 5.56 NATO vs SAAMI .223

REMINGTON CHAMBERS, armalite.com, December
4, 2002
[83] Infantry Weapons Conference Report - SAdefensejournal.com, 9 January 2012
[59] 5.56mm (5.56 45 mm) Ammunition.

(2005-05-03). Retrieved on 2011-01-08.
Inetres.com
[84] Testing The Armys M855A1 Standard Ball Cartridge Americanrieman.org, 21 May 2014
[60] KE = 1/2mv2 , where m is in kilograms and v is in metres

per second.
[85] New M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round smashing

expectations - Guns.com, 6 September 2012
[61] 7.62mm (7.62 51 mm) Ammunition. Inetres.com. Retrieved on 2011-01-08.
[86] The 6.540 Cartridge: Longer Reach for the M4 & M16
by Anthony G. Williams on 26 March, 2014.
[62] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2011smallarms/
WednesdayInter12397Evenden.pdf
[63] Testing & Evaluating the EF88 Assault Rie - SAdefensekournal.com, 4 March 2013
[64] Jane's Infantry Weapons 19861987 pg.363
[65] Jane's Infantry Weapons 19861987 pg.362
[66] British Military Cartridges: The 5.56x45mm
[67] Gary's US Infantry Weapons Reference Guide: 5.56mm
(5.56 x 45 mm) Ammunition
[68] M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round (EPR)
[69] Small Caliber Ammunition Enhancing Capabilities, 20
May 2010
[70] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2006smallarms/kim.pdf
[71] Corps to use more lethal ammo in Afghanistan at www.
marinecorpstimes.com
[72] U.S. Navy Small Arms Ammunition Advancements
[73] How Reliable Is the M-16 Rie?", New York Times, 2
November 2009
[74] Army won't eld deadlier Corps round, Army Times,
2 April 2010
[75] FUTURE INFANTRY SMALL ARMS by Anthony G
Williams
[76] Ehrhart, Thomas P. Increasing Small Arms Lethality in
Afghanistan: Taking Back the Infantry Half Kilometer. p.
3033
[77] Dean, Gleen (3 March 2012). In Search of Lethality:
Green Ammo and the M855A1 Enhanced Performance
Round. Smashwords.com.
[87] Evolution of the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round

- Army.mil, 26 November 2010
[88] Lamothe, Dan; Cox, Matthew (12 July 2010). Corps
takes a new look at green bullet. Marine Corps Times.
Archived from the original on 16 July 2010. Retrieved 12
July 2010.
[89] Lopez, Todd. "'Green bullet' as eective as M855 round
consistently. US Army News Service, 8 May 2011.
[90] Picatinny's Enhanced Performance Round as eective as
M855 round consistently Picatinny Arsenal press release, May 9, 2011
[91] Army's Newest General Purpose Round Shows Accuracy
In Rie Competition Army.mil, August 28, 2012
[92] ATK Delivers More than 350 Million 5.56mm Enhanced
Performance Rounds ATK press release, September 13,
2012
[93] Army Killed New Carbine Because It Wasnt Twice As
Reliable As Current M4 - Breakingdefense.com, 14 June
2013
[94] Data Dump:
Army Black
Kitup.Military.com, 5 May 2011
TipAmmo
[95] Picatinny ammo goes from regular to unleaded Army.mil, 1 July 2013
[96] Black Hills Ammunition - SAdefensejournal.com, 5
March 2014
[97] http://archives.gunsandammo.com/content/evolution-ar
[98] AA53, Cartridge, Caliber 5.56mm Special Ball, Long
Range Mk 262 Mod 0. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved on
2011-01-08.
[99] USMC adopt new 5.56mm MK318 MOD 0 ammunition
- Therearmblog.com, 17 February 2010
[100] Marines slow to eld new ammo - Therearmblog.com,

27 May 2010
[101] Marines take a look at the new M855A1 round - Therearmblog.com, 14 July 2010
[102] Army, Marines face new pressure to use same ammunition
- Militarytimes.com, 4 May 2015
[103] Sal Fanelli: The Interview - SAdefensejournal.com, 30
January 2015
[104] Swiss Ammunition Enterprise
[105] About The Swiss Ammunition Enterprise Corp. (SM)
[106] RUAG Ammotec Sintox SWISS ORDNANCE cartridge
fact sheet
3.10 Further reading

Stan Christ, 5.56mm NATO Alternatives, Special Weapons Magazine, Semi-Annual #50 2007, pp.
5259.
3.11 External links

brochure on 5.56mm F1 ball ammunition to
NATO STANAG 4172 (PDF). ADI Thales.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-07-21.
29
Chapter 4
7.6251mm NATO
The 7.6251mm NATO (ocial NATO nomenclature tridge allows a slight reduction in the size and weight of
7.62 NATO) is a rimless bottlenecked rie cartridge de- rearms that chamber it, and somewhat better cycling in
veloped in the 1950s as a standard for small arms among automatic and semi-automatic ries.
NATO countries. It should not be confused with the similarly named Russian 7.6254mmR cartridge, a slightly
longer rimmed cartridge.
4.2 Development
It was introduced in U.S. service in the M14 rie and M60
machine gun in the late 1950s. The M14 was superseded
in U.S. service as the infantry adopted the 5.5645mm
NATO M16. However, the M14 and many other rearms
that use the 7.6251 round remain in service, especially
in the case of various sniper ries, medium machine guns
such as the M240, and various ries in use by special operations forces. The cartridge is used both by infantry and
on mounted and crew-served weapons mounted to vehicles, aircraft and ships.
Although not identical, the 7.6251mm NATO and
the commercial .308 Winchester cartridges are similar
enough that they can be loaded into ries chambered
for the other round, but the Winchester .308 cartridges
are typically loaded to higher pressures than 7.6251mm
NATO cartridges for use in long-distance hunting of
big-game animals. Even though the Sporting Arms
and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute (SAAMI) does
not consider it unsafe to re the commercial round in
weapons chambered for the NATO round, there is significant discussion* [3]* [4]* [5] about compatible chamber
and muzzle pressures between the two cartridges based
on powder loads and wall thicknesses on the military vs.
commercial rounds. While the debate goes both ways,
the ATF recommends checking the stamping on the barrel; if one is unsure, one can consult the maker of the
rearm.* [6]* [7]
Velocity comparison between the 7.6251mm NATO, .30-06

Springeld, and .300 Winchester Magnum for common bullet
weights.
Work that would eventually develop the 7.6251mm

NATO started just after World War I when the large,
powerful .30-06 cartridge proved dicult to adapt to
semi-automatic ries. A less-powerful cartridge would
allow a lighter ring mechanism. At the time the most
promising design was the .276 Pedersen. When it was
eventually demonstrated that the .30-06 was suitable for
semi-automatic ries, the .276 was dropped.
Thus when war appeared to be looming again only a few

decades later, the .30-06 was the only round available
and the M1 Garand provided U.S. troops with greater
4.1 Overview
repower than their bolt action-armed opponents. The
The cartridge itself oers similar ballistic performance in Garand performed so well that the U.S. saw little need to
most rearms to the .30-06 Springeld that it replaced in replace it during World War II and the .30-06 served well
U.S. service. Though shorter, standard loadings re sim- beyond the Korean War and into the mid-1960s.
ilar bullet weights with only a slight reduction in veloc- During the 1940s and early 1950s several experiments
ity. Modern propellants allowed for similar performance were carried out to improve the Garand. One of the most
from a case with less capacity. The smaller case requires common complaints was the limited capacity 8-round enless brass and yields a shorter cartridge. This shorter car- bloc clip and many experimental designs modied the
30
4.2. DEVELOPMENT
31
weapon with a detachable box magazine. Springeld Armory's T20 rie was a fully automatic version. Though
not adopted, experience with a fully automatic Garand
laid the groundwork for its replacement.
Comparison of 7.62 mm NATO, 5.56 mm NATO and 9 mm

NATO.
.50 BMG, .300 Winchester Magnum, .308 WIN (7.62 NATO),
7.6239mm, 5.56 NATO, and .22 LR.
G1. The Germans soon transitioned to a modied version of the Spanish CETME rie by Heckler & Koch that
was adopted as the G3. With all three of these rearms,
it was clear that the 7.62 mm NATO could not be red
controllably in fully automatic because of recoil. Both the
M14s and FAL would later go through several variations
intended to either limit fully automatic selection through
semi-auto version or selector locks or to improve control
with bipods or heavier barrels.
The test program continued for several years, including

both the original .30-06 round and a modied .300 Savage (then known as the T65). In the end, the T65 cartridge demonstrated power roughly equal to the original
.30-06, ring a 147-grain (9.5 g) bullet at 2,750 feet per
second (840 m/s) but was approximately 1 2 inch (13 mm)
shorter. The eventual result of this competition was the
T44 rie.
While this was going on, the U.S. Project SALVO conWhen the United States developed the T65 cartridge, the cluded that a burst of four rounds into a 20-inch (51 cm)
British military took a dierent route. They had spent circle would cause twice the number of casualties as a
considerable time and eort developing the intermediate- fully automatic burst by one of these ries, regardless
power .280 British (7 mm) cartridge with an eye towards of the size of the round. They suggested using a much
controllable fully automatic re. The U.S. held to its de- smaller .22 caliber cartridge with two bullets per cartridge
sire not to reduce the eectiveness of individual aimed (a duplex load), while other researchers investigated the
shots. The American philosophy was to use automatic re promising echette rounds that were lighter but oered
for emergencies only and continue to use semi-automatic better penetration than even the .30-06. These studies
re the majority of the time. After considerable debate, were kept secret to prevent the British from using them
the Canadian Army announced they would be happy to as evidence in favour of their smaller rounds.
use the .280 but only if the U.S. did as well. It was clear When the M14 arrived in Vietnam, it was found to
the U.S. was not going to use the .280. The British did have a few disadvantages. The rie's overall length was
start introducing the .280 along with the bull-pup Rie not well suited for jungle warfare. Also, the weight of
No. 9, but the process was stopped in the interests of 7.6251mm cartridges limited the total amount of amharmonization across NATO. The T65E5 [7.62 x 51mm] munition that could be carried in comparison with the
was chosen as the NATO standard cartridge in 1954.
7.6239mm cartridge of the Type 56 and AK-47 assault
Winchester Ammunition (a division of the Olin Corporation) saw the market for a civilian model of the T65 cartridge and released it commercially in 1952 as the .308
Winchester, two years prior to adoption of the cartridge
by NATO.
ries, which the Vietcong and North Vietnamese Army

soldiers were equipped with. In addition, the originally
issued wooden stocked versions of the M14 were susceptible to warping from moisture in tropical environments,
producingwandering zeroesand other accuracy probThe T44 was adopted as the M14 in 1957. Around the lems, which caused the adoption of berglass stocks.
same time Britain and Canada adopted the Belgian FN Fighting between the big-round and small-round groups
FAL as the L1 followed by West German army as the reached a peak in the early 1960s, when test after test
32
showed the .223 Remington cartridge red from the AR15 allowed an 8-soldier unit to outgun an 11-soldier
unit armed with M14s at ranges closer than 300 meters.
U.S. troops were able to carry more than twice as much
5.5645mm ammunition as 7.6251mm for the same
weight, which allowed them an advantage against a typical N.V.A. unit armed with Type 56-1s.
(*AK-47 magazines are much heavier than M14 and M16
magazines)
In 1964, the U.S. Army started replacing their M14s with
the M16, incurring another series of complaints from the
British. Regardless of the M14 having disadvantages in
jungle warfare, 7.6251mm NATO ries stayed in military service around the world due to several factors. The
7.6251mm NATO has proved much more eective than
5.5645mm at long ranges, and has since found popularity as a sniping round. For instance, M14 variants such as
the Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rie and M25 Sniper Rie
were utilized in the United States military as designated
The 7.6251mm NATO and 5.5645mm NATO cartridges commarksman and sniper ries. Shorter, easier to handle
pared to an AA battery.
7.62mm ries like the Heckler & Koch G3 stayed in service due to their accuracy, range, cartridge eectiveness
and reliability.
distances of these eects over the M80. The bullet is reSpecialized loadings were created for 7.6251mm designed with a copper jacket and exposed hardened steel
NATO-chambered sniper ries. They used heavier and penetrator, eliminating 114.5 grains (7.4 g) of lead with
*
more streamlined bullets that had a higher ballistic coef- production of each M80A1 projectile. [10] The M80A1
*
cient than standard ball rounds, meaning they shed ve- began elding in September 2014. [11]
locity at longer ranges more gradually. Loss of velocity is
important for accurate long-range shots because dropping
from supersonic to transonic speeds disturbs the ight 4.3 Military cartridge types
of the bullet and adversely aects accuracy. The standard M80 ball round weighs 147 gr and has a muzzle velocity 200 ft/s (61 m/s) faster than the M118LR 175 gr
sniping round. However, the M80 drops to subsonic velocity around 875 m (957 yd), while the initially slower
M118LR is supersonic out to 950 m (1,040 yd) due to its
low-drag bullet.* [9]
The 7.6251mm NATO round nevertheless met the designer's demands for fully automatic reliability with a fullpower round. It remained the main machine gun round
for almost all NATO forces well into the 1990s, even
being used in adapted versions of older .30-06 machine
guns such as the Browning M1919A4 from the WWII
era. These have been replaced to a considerable extent in the light machine gun role by 5.5645mm NATO
weapons, such as the widespread use of the M249 SAW,
but the 7.62 round is still the standard chambering for
most general-purpose machine guns such as the M60E4,
the M240 and the German HK21 and MG3, and exible
mountings such as helicopters, jeeps, and tanks.
The U.S. Army has developed an improved version of
the M80 ball 7.62 mm round, called the M80A1. The
M80A1 incorporates changes found in the M855A1 5.56
mm round. Like the M855A1, the M80A1 is expected to
have better hard-target penetration, more consistent per- Three recovered 7.6251mm NATO bullets (next to an unred
formance against soft targets, and signicantly increased cartridge (Tracer ammunition), showing riing marks
33
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Grenade,
M64 (United States): 7.6251mm NATO grenade
launching blank. The cartridge is identied by a
rose-petal (rosette-crimp) closure of the cartridge
case mouth and sealed with red lacquer. The cartridge provides pressure upon functioning to project
rie grenade to a desired target when using a grenade
projectile adapter and dragon missile launch eect
trainer (LET).
7.62mm, NATO, Orange-tipped tracer ammunition, M62: 142grain (9.2 g) tracer cartridge.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, M80

(United States): 147-grain (9.5 g) 7.6251mm
NATO ball cartridge. The U.S. Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory measured a ballistic coecient
(G7 BC) of 0.200 and form factor (G7 i) of 1.105 for
the M80 ball projectile.* [12] Another source mentions a slightly higher ballistic coecient (G7 BC)
of 0.209.* [13]
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball,
M80A1 (United States): M80 Lead Free (LF)
7.6251mm NATO ball cartridge.* [14] 114.5grain (7.4 g) of lead eliminated per M80A1
projectile.* [10]
The 7.62mm M118 long range cartridge.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, M59

(United States): 150.5-grain (9.8 g) 7.6251mm
NATO ball cartridge. A further development of the
initial T65 cartridge.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, High Pressure Test, M60 (United States): 7.6251mm
NATO test cartridge. The cartridge is not for eld
issue, but is used for proof ring of weapons during
manufacture, test, or repair. The cartridge is identied by a stannic-stained (silvered) case.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Armor
Piercing, M61 (United States): 150.5-grain (9.8
g) 7.6251mm NATO armor-piercing round, black
cartridge tip.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Tracer,
M62 (United States): 142-grain (9.2 g) tracer cartridge, orange cartridge tip.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Dummy,
M63 (United States): The cartridge is used for practice in loading 7.62mm weapons for simulated ring to detect inching of personnel during ring and
for inspecting and testing the weapon mechanism.
The cartridge is identied by six longitudinal corrugations (utings) on the cartridge case. There is no
primer and no vent hole in the primer pocket.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Blank, M82

(United States): 7.6251mm NATO cartridge is
used in ries and machine guns equipped with blank
ring attachments to simulate ring in training exercises and for saluting purposes. The cartridge is
identied by its double tapered (bottle nose) neck
and absence of a bullet.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Silent,
XM115 (United States): Little is known of this
round, but it was an attempt to quiet the round.
Never adopted.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Match,
M118 (United States):
173-grain (11.2 g)
7.6251mm NATO Full Metal Jacket Boat
Tail round specically designed for Match purposes. The round was introduced as the XM118
match in 1963 and was produced at both Frankford
Arsenal and Lake City Army Ammunition Plant. It
was standardized as M118 match in mid-1965. It
used the same bullet as the .30-06 Springeld M72
Match Ball round, match-grade brass cartridges,
and used tted No. 43 primers. Production ceased
at Frankford in 1965 but continued at Lake City
until the early 1980s. Lake City used dedicated
equipment to produce the ammo up until the
mid-1970s and during that time the quality of the
ammunition was quite good. When they ceased
using dedicated machinery the quality of the ammo
had a very noticeable decline.* [15]
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Special, M118 (United States): 173-grain (11.2 g)
7.6251mm NATO Full Metal Jacket Boat Tail
34

round specically designed for match purposes.
Produced by Lake City Army Ammunition Plant.
This is an interim match round which utilized
standard M80 ball brass cartridges with the 173grain (11.2 g) Full-Metal Jacketed Ball Boat Tailed
(FMJBT) bullet and staked No. 34 or No. 36
primers. During this period in the early to late 1980s
the performance of the round declined. Powder,
primer, and brass were the same as standard ball
rounds; bullets and powder charges varied in weight
due to worn machinery and poor quality control.
Since it couldn't be calledMatchdue to its erratic
trajectory, it was renamedSpecial Ball. Snipers
used to test shoot batches of ammo, nd a batch that
shot well (or at least consistently), then zeroed their
weapon to that batch and tried to procure as much
of that ammo as possible.* [15]
NATO Overhead Fire Application (OFA) cartridge

using a solid, turned, GM bullet. These were developed to supposedly make the OFA cartridges safer
since there would be no small pieces of bullet that
could separate and fall on the troops. Never adopted.
Overhead Fire, XM179 (United States):
7.6251mm NATO Overhead Fire Application (OFA) cartridge using a solid, turned, GM
bullet. These were developed to supposedly make
the OFA cartridges safer since there would be no
small pieces of bullet that could separate and fall
on the troops. XM179/XM180 dierence is the
amount of trace mixture. Never adopted.
Overhead Fire, XM180 (United States):
7.6251mm NATO Overhead Fire Application (OFA) cartridge using a solid, turned, GM
bullet. These were developed to supposedly make
the OFA cartridges safer since there would be no
small pieces of bullet that could separate and fall
on the troops. XM179/XM180 dierence is the
amount of trace mixture. Never adopted.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Blank,
XM192 (United States): 7.6251mm Short case
rose crimped dummy. Never adopted.
Linked belts of Lake City 7.62 mm M80 Ball ammunition.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Special, M118LR (United States): 175-grain (11.3 g)
7.6251mm NATO Match-grade round specically
designed for long-range sniping. It uses a 175-grain
(11.3 g) Sierra Match King Hollow Point Boat Tail
bullet. Produced at Lake City Army Ammunition
Plant. The propellant's noticeable muzzle ash and
temperature sensitivity led to the development of the
MK 316 MOD 0 for Special Operations use.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Frangible, M160 (United States): 108.5-grain (7.0 g)
7.6251mm NATO frangible bullet, upon striking
a target, disintegrates, leaving a mark at the point of
impact.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Dummy,
M172 (United States): 7.6251mm NATO cartridge is inert and is used to test the mechanism and
metallic link belts of 7.62mm weapons. The cartridge is identied by a black oxide nish over the
entire round and has no primer. There is no vent
hole in the primer pocket.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Overhead Fire, XM178 (United States): 7.6251mm
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Duplex,

M198 (United States): 7.6251mm NATO duplex
round with two 84-grain (5.4 g) bullets. The developmental designation was T314E3.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Low
Recoil, XM256 (United States): 7.6251mm
NATO Single 82-grain (5.3 g) bullet from M198
round. Another attempt to control the M14 in
full auto mode or for small stature troops. Never
adopted.
M276 (United States): 7.6251mm NATO socalledDim Tracerwith reduced eect primarily
for use with night vision devices, green cartridge tip
with pink ring.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Match,
M852 (United States):
168-grain (10.9 g)
7.6251mm NATO Hollow-Point Boat-Tail
cartridge, specically designed for use in National
Match competitions. It was dubbed Mexican
Matchbecause it was based on the International
Match loading used at the Pan-Am Games in Mexico. It used standard brass, primer, and propellant,
but used a match-grade bullet. It was later approved
by U.S. Army JAG in the 1990s for combat use by
snipers. It replaced the M118SB as the standard
Match round. The bullet was very accurate at
4.4. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE IDENTIFICATION CODES (DODIC)

around 2300 meters (competition match ranges)
but suered at longer ranges.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Saboted
Light Armor Penetrator, M948 (United States):
7.6251mm NATO Saboted Light Armor Penetrator cartridge. Never adopted.* [16]
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Saboted
Light Armor Penetrator Tracer, M959 (United
States): 7.6251mm NATO Saboted Light Armor
Penetrator cartridge with tracer element. Never
adopted.* [16]
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Training, M973 (United States): 7.6251mm NATO
SRTA ball training round. Has air brake to reduce
the range the bullet will y* [17]
Training, M974 (United States): 7.6251mm
NATO SRTA tracer training round. Has air brake
to reduce the range the bullet will y* [17]
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Armor
Piercing, M993 (United States): 126.6 grains (8.2
g) 7.6251mm NATO armor-piercing round, black
cartridge tip.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm Special Ball, Long
Range, MK 316 MOD 0 (United States): A 175grain (11.3 g) round specically designed for longrange sniping consisting of Sierra MatchKing Hollow Point Boat Tail projectiles, Federal Cartridge
Company match cartridge cases and Gold Medal
Match primers. The Propellant has been veried as
IMR 4064 (per NSN 1305-01-567-6944 and Federal Cartridge Company Contract/Order Number
N0016408DJN28 and has a charge weight per the
specs of 41.745-grain (2.7 g).* [18]
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Barrier, T762TNB1 MK319 MOD 0 (United States):
7.6251mm NATO Enhance Behind barrier performance Enhance Function & casualty and muzzle ash requirements in short barrel carbines, 130
grains (8.4 g).* [18]
Cartridge, Grenade, L1A1 (United Kingdom):
7.6251mm grenade-launching cartridge with one
subvariant (L1A2).
7.6251mm ball cartridge, with three subvariants
(A2-A4).
35

7.6251mm ball cartridge, 155-grain (10.0 g)
round
7.6251mm ball cartridge, 144-grain (9.3 g) round
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, F4
(Australia): 144-grain (9.3 g) 7.6251mm NATO
ball cartridge. Australian equivalent to U.S. M80
round. In service with the Australian Defence
Force.
Patrone AB22, 7.62mm 51, DM41, Weichkern (Soft-core), (West Germany): 7.6251mm
NATO ball cartridge; Berdan primed, copperwashed steel jacket. German equivalent to U.S.
7.6251mm M80 round. Standard service round for
the G3 battle rie.
Patrone AB22, 7.62mm 51, DM111, Weichkern, (Germany): 147-grain (9.5 g) 7.6251mm
NATO ball cartridge, cupronickel-coated steel
jacket. German equivalent to U.S. M80 round. In
service with the German military. Known for severe
fragmentation in human tissue due to its thin jacket,
particularly around the cannelure.* [19]
Patrone, 7.62mm 51, DM111A1, (Germany):
Further development of the DM111. Retained
greenprimer in place of lead acid primer and lead
core capped with closure disc. Instead of steel jacket
with gilding metal plating, the DM111A1 has a gilding metal jacket. Fragments in soft tissue, sometimes including the closure disc separating from the
projectile base.* [20]
Patrone AM31, 7.62mm 51, DM28A2,
Manver (Maneuver), (Germany): Blanks, olive
colored plastic with a brass base.
Patrone AM32, 7.62mm 51, DM18A1B1,
bung (Practice), (Germany): 10-grain (0.6 g)
7.6251mm NATO plastic training cartridge, plastic case cartridge colored light blue with an extraordinary light 10-grain plastic bullet which is red with
a high initial velocity. Extremely accurate (spot-on
up to 2280 meters or 2493 yards), non-corrosive,
steel base with lead free primer. Developed from the
Norwegian NM8 and NM127 short range practice
rounds made by Bakelittfabrikken. Non-reloadable
due to the plastic case.
4.4 Department Of Defense Identi-

cation Codes (DODIC)
7.6251mm tracer cartridge, designed to last out
to 1,000 metres (1,100 yd). Four subvariants exist,
with brighter ignition (A2), tracer reduced to 750 This US Armed Forces and NATO code is used to idenmetres (820 yd) (A3), with a pistol powder charge tify the cartridge, the cartridge type, and the packing
method (carton, clips, link belt, or bulk) used.
(A4), and with improved ballistics (A5).
36
A111 (7.62mm Blank M82 Linked): 100-round [13] The 6.540 Cartridge: Longer Reach for the M4 & M16
by Anthony G. Williams on 26 March, 2014.
M13 linked belt (M82 Blank).
A165: (7.62mm NATO Linked): 750-round M13
linked belt (4 x M80 Ball : 1 M62 Tracer). Used in
7.62 mm miniguns.
[14] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2010armament/
ThursdayLandmarkBJeffreyWoods.pdf
[15] SniperCentral.com History of the M118 Ammunition
AA11 (7.62mm Ball M118LR): Long Range Ball. [16] M962 Saboted Light Armor Penetrator Tracer (SLAPT)
20-round carton. Used in precision match, desig- Globalsecurity.org
nated marksman, and sniper ries.
4.5 See also

7.62 mm caliber
.276 Pedersen
Caliber conversion sleeve
NATO EPVAT testing
STANAG (Standardization Agreements of NATO)
[17] http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/
munitions/images/srta.jpg 7.62MM M973
and M973 SRTA-T
SRTA
[18] U.S. Navy Small Arms Ammunition Advancements 7.62MM Special Ball, Long Range, NAVSEA Warfare
Centers Crane.
[19] Martin L. Fackler (1989).Wounding patterns of military
rie bullets. International Defense Review (1/1989): 59
64.
[20] A Way Forward in Contemporary Understanding of the
1899 Hague Declaration on Expanding Bullets - SAdefensejournal.com, 7 October 2013

4.6 References
[1] Slickguns.com M80 data
[2] Long range sniper ammunition, U.S. Armor.
[3] http://forums.gunboards.com/showthread.php?
945-FAQ-Difference-between-308-amp-7-62-X51-%
28NATO%29
[4] http://www.snipershide.com/forum/ubbthreads.php?
ubb=showflat&Number=769781
[5] http://www.sksboards.com/smf/index.php?topic=79015.
0
[6] http://www.saami.org/specifications_and_information/
publications/download/SAAMI_ITEM_211-Unsafe_
Arms_and_Ammunition_Combinations.pdf
[7] http://www.ATF.gov.
[8] Miller, David (2003), Illustrated Directory of 20th Century
Guns, Zenith Press, ISBN 978-0-7603-1560-6
[9] Cartridges for Long-Range Sniping Ries by Anthony G
Williams
[10] Picatinny ammo goes from regular to unleaded
Army.mil, 1 July 2013
[11] M80A1 7.62 mm Cartridge - Oce of the Director, Operational Test & Evaluation. 2014
[12] The Case for a General-Purpose Rie and Machine Gun
Cartridge (GPC) by Anthony G Williams
4.7 External links

Various photos of 7.6251 NATO ammunition
Chapter 5
919mm Parabellum
9mmredirects here. For other cartridges with 9mm calibers in military sidearms led to Luger to develop the
bullets, see 9 mm caliber. For other uses, see 9mm 919mm Parabellum cartridge for his new pistol. This
was achieved by removing the bottleneck shape of the
(disambiguation).
7.6521mm Parabellum case, resulting in a tapered rimThe 919mm Parabellum (abbreviated 9mm, 9mmP, less cartridge encasing a bullet that was 9mm in diameter.
919mm or 919) cartridge was designed by Georg
Luger and introduced in 1902 by the German weapons
manufacturer Deutsche Waen- und Munitionsfabriken
(DWM) for their Luger semi-automatic pistol.* [5] For
this reason, it is designated as the 9mm Luger / 9mm
Luger +P by the SAAMI* [6] and the 9 mm Luger by
the C.I.P. (dierentiating it from the 9mm Makarov and
9mm Browning cartridges). Under STANAG 4090, it is
a standard cartridge for NATO forces as well as many
non-NATO countries.* [7]
The name Parabellum is derived from the Latin: Si vis
pacem, para bellum
( If you seek peace, prepare for war
), which was the motto of DWM.* [8]* [9]
In 1902, Luger presented the new round to the British

Small Arms Committee as well as three prototype versions to the U.S. Army for testing at Springeld Arsenal
in mid-1903. The Imperial German Navy adopted the
cartridge in 1904 and in 1906 the German Army adopted
it as well.* [10] The ogive of the bullet was slightly redesigned in the 1910s in order to improve feeding.
To conserve lead during World War II in Germany, the
lead core was replaced by an iron core encased with lead.
This bullet, identied by a black bullet jacket, was designated as the 08 mE (mit Eisenkern"with iron core
). By 1944, the black jacket of the 08 mE bullet was
dropped and these bullets were produced with normal
copper-colored jackets. Another wartime variation was
designated the 08 sE bullet and identied by its dark
gray jacket, and was created by compressing iron powder at high temperature into a solid material (Sintereisen
"sintered iron).* [13]
According to the 2006 edition of Cartridges of the World,

the 919mm Parabellum is the world's most popular and widely used military handgun cartridge.* [10]
In addition to being used by over 60% of police in the
U.S., Newsweek credits 919mm Parabellum pistol sales
with making semi-automatic pistols more popular than
revolvers.* [11] The popularity of this cartridge can be attributed to the widely held conviction that it is eective 5.2 Popularity
in police and self-defense use.* [12] Its low cost and wide
availability contribute to the caliber's continuing popularAfter World War I, acceptance of the 919mm Parabelity.
lum chambering increased, and 919mm Parabellum pistols and submachine guns were adopted by military and
police users in many countries.* [14] The 919mm Parabellum has become the most popular caliber for U.S. law
5.1 Origins
enforcement agencies, primarily due to the availability of
compact pistols with large magazine capacities that use
Georg Luger developed the 919mm Parabellum car- the cartridge.* [15]
tridge from his earlier 7.6521mm Parabellum round,
which itself was derived from the original 7.6525mm Worldwide, the 919mm Parabellum is one of the more
Borchardt cartridge in the Borchardt C-93 pistol. Short- popular pistol cartridges where it is legal (some countries
ening the length of the cartridge case used in the Bor- ban civilian use of weapons that chamber current or forchardt pistol allowed him to improve the design of mer military service cartridges), and cartridges in this calthe toggle lock and to incorporate a smaller, angled iber are generally available anywhere pistol ammunition
grip. Luger's work on the Borchardt design evolved is sold.
into the Luger pistol, rst patented in 1898 and cham- From the early 1980s to the mid-1990s, there was a sharp
bered in 7.6521mm Parabellum. Demand for larger increase in the popularity of semi-automatic pistols in
37
38
the USA, a trend foreshadowed by the adoption of the
Smith & Wesson Model 39 by the Illinois State Police
in 1968. In addition, the Beretta M9 (a military version
of the Beretta Model 92) was adopted by the U.S. Army
in 1985. Previously, most American police departments
issued .38 Special caliber revolvers with a six-shot capacity. The .38 Special was preferred to other weapons
such as variants of the M1911 because it oered low
recoil, was small and light enough to accommodate different shooters, and was relatively inexpensive.* [16] The
9mm is ballistically superior to the .38 Special revolver
cartridge,* [17] is shorter overall, and being an autoloader
cartridge, it is stored in at magazines, as opposed to
cylindrical speedloaders. This, coupled with the advent
of the so-calledwonder ninesled to many U.S. police
departments exchanging their revolvers for some form of
9mm semi-automatic handguns by the 1980s.* [16]
CHAPTER 5. 919MM PARABELLUM

919mm Parabellum maximum C.I.P. cartridge dimensions.* [3] All sizes in millimeters (mm).
The cartridge headspaces on the mouth of the case.* [18]
The common riing twist rate for this cartridge is 250 mm
(1 in 9.84 in), 6 grooves, lands = 8.82 mm, grooves =
9.02 mm, land width = 2.49 mm and the primer type is
small pistol.
According to the ocial C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes Feu Portatives) rulings the 919mm Parabellum cartridge case
can handle up to 235.00 MPa (34,084 psi) Pmax piezo
pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every pistol cartridge combo has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers.
This means that 919mm Parabellum chambered arms
in C.I.P. regulated countries are currently (2014) proof
tested at 305.50 MPa (44,309 psi) PE piezo pressure.* [3]
The SAAMI pressure limit for the 919mm Parabellum
is set at 241.32 MPa (35,001 psi) piezo pressure.* [19]
The SAAMI pressure limit for the 919 mm Parabellum
+P is set at 265.45 MPa (38,500 psi) piezo pressure.
Empty case with primer weighs approximately 4 g (0.14
oz).
5.4 Performance
Three projectile types: unjacketed (lead), full metal jacket, and

hollow point.
The 919mm Parabellum has 0.86 ml (13.3 grains H2 O)

cartridge case capacity.
An expanded 124 grain 919mm Parabellum jacketed hollow

point.
The round was originally designed to be lethal to 50 m,

but the bullet travels and is lethal at longer ranges.* [20]
The 9 mm cartridge combines a at trajectory with moderate recoil. According to the 1986 book Handloading:
the modern science of wound ballistics has established
beyond reasonable doubt that the 9mm cartridge is highly
eective.* [12]
5.5. IMPROVEMENTS AND VARIATIONS
39
5.5 Improvements and variations
involving non-signatories to the Hague Convention, including paramilitary and other non-governmental ghting
*
In addition to the traditional pressure values for this car- forces. [23]
tridge, there are two main variants that oer dierent
pressure standards than the SAAMI or C.I.P require5.5.3 Swedish m/39
ments.
5.5.1
9 mm Commonwealth standard
The Cartridge S.A. Ball 9 m/m Mark Iz (9 m/m BALL

MK 1z) was the standard Imperial 9-mm Parabellum
round in World War Two and was produced from December 1941 to 1944. It was meant for use in semiauto pistols like the Inglis Browning Hi-Power. Bullet
weight was 115 grains [7.45 grams]. Velocity was 1200
feet/second [365 meters/second] at 20 yards [18.28 meters]. It is noted by its purple annulus around a standard
gold-colored primer.
The higher-powered Cartridge S.A. Ball 9 m/m Mark 9 mm live ammunition m/39 (left, with black seal) and m/39B
IIz (9m/m Ball MK 2z) was in production from Septem- (right, with red seal and a slightly more pointed shape).
ber, 1943 to 1988 and was graded as NATO standard in
1962. It was designed for use in submachineguns like
the Lanchester, STEN, and Sterling. Bullet weight is
115 grains [7.45 grams] over a charge of 6 grains [0.388
grams] of Du Pont SR.4898 or Dynamit-Nobel Parabellum Powder. Velocity is 1300 feet/second [396 meters/second] at 20 yards [18.28 meters]. It can be distinguished from the 9-mm Ball MK 1z by its purple annulus
around a silver primer.
India and Pakistan manufactured 9-mm Parabellum ammunition to this standard after independence. Canada's
Cartridge S.A. Ball 9 m/m CDN Mark I (9-mm Ball
CDN MK 1), made from 1955, had similar ballistics.
5.5.2
9 mm NATO standard
The 9 mm cartridge has been manufactured by, or for,

more than 70 dierent countries and has become a standard pistol caliber for NATO and other military forces
around the world. Its ocial nomenclature among NATO
members is 9 mm NATO. The 9 mm NATO can
be considered as an overpressure variant of the 919mm
Parabellum that is dened by NATO standards.* [21] The
service pressure Pmax of the 9 mm NATO is rated at
252 MPa (36,500 psi) where C.I.P. rates the 9 mm Luger
PTmax somewhat lower at 235 MPa (34,100 psi). The
315 MPa (45,700 psi) proong test pressure used in the
9 mm NATO proof test however equals the proong test
pressure used in the 9 mm Luger C.I.P. proof test.
While the NATO standards do not specify the type of
bullet to be used, Declaration III of the Hague Convention of 1899 prohibits the use of expanding ammunition
in warfare by signatories, and therefore ocial 9 mm
NATO ammunition is FMJballbullets.* [22] It should
be noted that Declaration III does not apply in conicts
9 mm live ammunition m/39 and m/39B in their boxes
The 9mm Parabellum entered Swedish service as m/39

with the import of the Kulsprutepistol m/39 from Austria,
with a bullet weight of 7.5 gram (115 grain).* [24] During the Congo Crisis, the Swedish UN-contingent issued
complaints about the performance of the m/39 cartridge
(regular 9mm Parabellum) used, which resulted in a commission of the Swedish Army establishing in 1962 that a
new round was needed for the Carl Gustav m/45. The resulting m/39B had a tombac-plated steel jacket surrounding the lead core. While the lands of the barrel can cut
into the tombac, the steel jacket resists deformation and
thus causes the gas pressure to rise higher than the previous soft-jacketed m/39, giving the 6,8 gram (106 grain)
bullet a V of 420 m/s (1,378 ft/s)* [25] and an impact energy of 600 joules<. The mantle also acts like a penetrator when striking a target, going through up to 50 layers of
kevlar, 7 cm bricks or 25 cm of wood, allowing the bullet
to defeat body armour up to Type IIIA. The downside is
the higher wear on the weapon, ultimately causing the service pistol m/40 to be withdrawn from service. The m/39
40
is also available as chamber round kammarpatron m/39

black with blue tip, for indoor gallery shooting, and as
blank round ls patron m/39 which has the metal bullet
replaced with one in red, hard plastic intended to disintegrate into dust when red.
5.5.4
919mm +P variant
The United States Military uses red and blue marking

rounds in the 9mm caliber known as Special Eects
Small Arms Marking Systems (SESAMS). Commonly
used for training simulations, these rounds are comparable in function to the paintballs used in paintball markers, except they are red with a powder charge, and can
be shot in Beretta M9 service pistols with only a barrel modication (The Glock 19-series 9mm pistol, common among police departments, has a similar available
modication). The 9mm SESAMS rounds are red from
specially modied pistols as well as M16 and M4 ries,
which are incapable of chambering standard live ammunition.
A 9mm Luger cartridge variant.
Attempts to improve ballistics of the cartridge came in the

early 1990s with the widespread availability of high pressure loadings of the 9 mm cartridge. Such overpressure
cartridges are labeled "+Por in the case of very high
pressure loadings "+P+".* [26] Ballistic performance of
these rounds was moderately improved over the standard
loadings. In addition, improvements in jacketed hollow
point bullet technology have produced bullet designs that
are more likely to expand and less likely to fragment than
earlier iterations, giving a 9 mm bullet better terminal effectiveness.* [27]
5.5.5
9 mm SESAMS
Box ofCartridge, 9mm FX Blue Marking (DODIC AA21) with

a modied Beretta M9 pistol
SESAMS weapons or components are normally painted

blue or otherwise clearly marked, in order to denote their
inert status and avoid a potentially catastrophic mixup
with live-re weapons.* [28] This allows the armed forces
to train with nearly identical equipment as used in real
life situations.* [29] The brand name for this ammunition,
which is sold commercially and to law enforcement, is
Simunition.
5.5.6 Russian military overpressure variants

The Russian military has developed specialized 919mm
cartridges that utilize relatively light bullets at high muzzle
velocities for both pistols and submachine guns to defeat
5.6. USA DATA

body armour.* [30]
Besides enhanced penetration capabilities, these
overpressure variants oer a atter trajectory and
lessened recoil. The increase in service pressure causes
a rise in bolt thrust, so the use of this overpressure
ammunition induces more stress on critical weapon parts
during ring. After initial research, conducted since
the late 1980s under the codename Grach, the
Russian armed forces adopted two specialized 919mm
variants.* [31]* [32]
R50 at 25 m (27 yd) means the closest 50 percent of the
41
jorpower factor in those competitions, something that
very few commercial self-defense loads do. Such loads
are only rarely within the limits dened by SAAMI or
CIP, exceeding even +P loads. Usually, they are loaded
with relatively large charges of a low volume slow-burning
powder. Sometimes they are made longer than standard
OAL to allow more capacity with heavier bullets. Since
they can be used with common 919 brass, they are considered a more economical alternative to .38 Super. This
ammunition should only be red from barrels that have
fully supported chambers. Guns not specically designed
to handle the excess pressure could catastrophically fail.
shot group will all be within a circle of 25 mm (1.0 in)

radius at 25 m (27 yd).
5.5.8 Other variants

The 7N21 (Cyrillic: 721) 919 mm overpressure variant features an armour piercing bullet and generates a
peak pressure of 280 MPa (41,000 psi).* [31] The 7N21
bullet features a hardened (sub-caliber) steel penetrator
core, enclosed by a bimetal jacket. The space between
the core and jacket is lled with polyethylene, and the
tip of the penetrator is exposed at the front of the bullet,
to achieve better penetration. The penetration range for
body armor is specied at up to 40 m. The MP-443 Grach
and GSh-18 pistols and PP-1901, PP-90M1 and PP2000 submachine guns were designed for usage with this
overpressure cartridge. Jane's Infantry Weapons stated
in 2003 that the 7N21 cartridge combines the 919mm
Parabellum dimensions with a 921mm Gyurza bullet
design and was developed specically for the penetration
of body armor and for the MP-443 Grach pistol, the latest
Russian service pistol.* [33]
The 7N31 (Cyrillic: 731) / PBP 919mm overpressure
variant uses the same concept with a similar but lighter
bullet that achieves higher muzzle velocity. The penetration of an 8 mm thick steel plate is specied at up to 10
m. The 7N31 cartridge was developed in the late 1990s
for the GSh-18 pistol. The 7N31 was adopted for the
PP-90M1 and PP-2000 submachine guns. Its maximum
service pressure remains unclear.
The method of construction of the two rounds allows
them to be eective against both unarmored and armored
targets. If the bullet strikes an unarmored target, it holds
together to produce a wide wound channel. If the bullet
strikes an armored target, the sleeve is stripped away and
the core penetrates alone. The disadvantage of the rounds
is that high impact velocities are needed for them to work
eectively, so the bullets are relatively light to maximize
their muzzle velocity. This means they will lose velocity
relatively quickly, limiting their eective range.* [34]
VBR-B produces specialized bullets for this cartridge, a

2-part controlled fragmenting projectile and an armorpiercing bullet that features a brass sabot and a hardened
steel penetrator. These are designed for increasing the
content of the permanent wound cavity and double the
chance to hit a vital organ.* [35]
5.6 USA data

The energy delivered by most 9 mm loads allows for signicant expansion and penetration with premium JHP
bullets. Illinois State Police, Border Patrol, Federal
Air Marshals and United States Secret Service favored
and used 7.5 g (115 gr) +P+ 9 mm loads at 400 m/s
(1,300 ft/s) for years with excellent results.* [27] Massad
Ayoob has stated that the Tried, Tested, and True
7.5 g (115 gr) +P or +P+ is the best self-defense
load in this caliber.* [27] Proponents of the hydrostatic
shock theory contend that the energy of the 9mm cartridge is capable of imparting remote wounding eects
known as hydrostatic shock, in human-sized living targets.* [36]* [37]* [38]
919mm Parabellum pistols with standard (not extended)
double-stack magazines can hold up to 19 rounds, such as
the Springeld XD* M9.
The table below shows common performance parameters
for several 919mm loads. Bullet weights ranging from
115 to 147 gr (7.5 to 9.5 g) are common. Loads are available with energies from just over 400 J (300 ftlb) to 680
J (500 ftlb), and penetration depths from 200 mm (8 in)
to over 1.0 m (40 in) are available for various applications
and risk assessments.
Key:
Expansion: expanded bullet diameter (ballistic gelatin).
Penetration: penetration depth (ballistic gelatin).
9mm majoris a term common among handloaders in PC: permanent cavity volume (ballistic gelatin, FBI
IPSC and USPSA competitions in the open division. It method).
describes a 919mm loaded to reach or surpass thema- TSC: temporary stretch cavity volume (ballistic gelatin).
5.5.7
9mm major
42
5.7 Synonyms
919
9 mm
9 mm Luger
9 mm NATO
919mm
919mm NATO
9 mm Parabellum
9 mm Para
5.8 See also

7.6521mm Parabellum
9 mm caliber
List of rearms
List of handgun cartridges
NATO EPVAT testing
5.9 References
[1] Sellier & Bellot. Retrieved 23 March 2009.
[9] Sweeney, Patrick (17 November 2009). Gun Digest

Big Fat Book of the .45 ACP. Gun Digest Books. p.
33. ISBN 978-1-4402-0219-3. Retrieved 17 December
2011. Georg Luger looked at his design, took the .30
Luger case and expanded it to hold a 9mm bullet. ... From
the Latin phrase Si vic pacem, para bellum came parabellum. Translated it means If you desire peace, prepare
for war.
[10] Barnes, Frank (2006). Skinner, Stan, ed. Cartridges of
the World. 11th Edition. Cartridges of the World. Gun
Digest Books. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-89689-297-2.
[11] Adler, Jerry, et al. Story of a Gun.Newsweek 149.18
(30 April 2007): 3639. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCO.
Dallas Public Library, Dallas, TX. retrieved 10 June 2009.
Newsweek online edition
[12] Davis, William C. (1986). Handloading, Second Printing:
National Rie Association. ISBN 0-935998-34-9 p242243
[13] Dunlap, Roy (1948). Ordnance went up front: some observations and experiences of a sergeant of Ordnance, who
served throughout World War II with the United States
Army in Egypt, the Philippines and Japan, including way
stations. Small-Arms Technical Pub. Co. pp. 4345.
[14] Shideler, Dan (2010). The Luger Pistol. The Greatest
Guns of Gun Digest. Krause Publications. p. 24. ISBN
1-4402-1414-X.
[15] CCI/Speer Inc. (2007). Reloading Manual #14. ISBN
978-0-9791860-0-4.
[16] Clede, Bill (1985). Police Handgun Manual: How to Get
Street-Smart Survival Habits. Stackpole Books. pp. 116
118. ISBN 978-0-8117-1275-0.
[17] Ballistics by the inch. Archived from the original on
21 April 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
[3] C.I.P. TDCC sheet 9 mm Luger
[18] Wilson, R. K. Textbook of Automatic Pistols, p.239.

Plantersville, SC: Small Arms Technical Publishing Company, 1943.
[4] Cor-Bon. Retrieved 10 January 2011.
[19] SAAMI Pressures. Retrieved 29 November 2007.
[5] Hogg, Ian V.; Weeks, John S. Military Small Arms of the
20th Century (7th Edition), p.40. Krause Publications,
2000
[20] How Far Will a 9mm Kill?". YouTube. Retrieved 14

November 2014.
[2] Bualo Bore. Retrieved 23 March 2009.
[6] SAAMI 9mm Luger / 9mm Luger +P cartridge and chamber drawings
[21] Proof of Ordnance, Munitions, Armour and Explosives,

Ministry of Defence Defence Standard 05101 Part 1
(PDF). Retrieved 14 November 2014.
Capability Group 1 Dismounted Soldier NATO Army
Armaments Group
[22] Sniper Use of Open-Tip Ammunition. Retrieved 14

November 2014.
[8] James, Frank (15 December 2004). Eective Handgun

Defense: A Comprehensive Guide to Concealed Carry.
Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. p. 117. ISBN
978-0-87349-899-9. Retrieved 17 December 2011. The
word Parabellumis derived from the Latin phrase Si
Vis Pacem Para Bellum or If you want Peace, Prepare
for War. It naturally followed this new cartridge would
be commonly referred to as the 9mm Parabellum
[24]Hemvrnet 19401990, 1990. Red. Bo Kjellander s.

259260.
[23] http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/dec99-03.asp
[25] Armstabens taktiska avdelning februari 1962 :Erfarenheterna frn striderna i Kongo under september och december 1961
[26] What is +P and +P+ ammunition?". Retrieved 14
November 2014.
[27] Ayoob, Massad (2002). The Gun Digest Book of Combat

Handgunnery (5 ed.). Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. p. 26. ISBN 0-87349-485-7.
[28] Bianco, Michael (4 June 2009) "Marines conduct urban
warfare training ", marines.mil, Retrieved 21 December
2009. (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.
org/5mCeN99CA)
[29] Senior Master Sgt. Steven Bliss (6 August 2009)
"Commando Warrior adds realistic combat training with
simunitions " Retrieved 21 December 2009
[30] Russian 919mm Pistol Rounds, Land Forces Weapons
Export Catalog, page 109
[31] Popenker, Maxim (20052008). Special purpose small
arms ammunition of USSR and Russia. Modern
Firearms. World Guns.
[32]9x19 Russian pistol cartridges. Retrieved 14 November
2014.
[33] 9 19 mm 7N21 Jane's Infantry Weapons. Jane's
Information Group. 14 August 2003. Retrieved 16 June
2009.
[34] Where Next For PDWs? by Anthony G Williams
[35] General 919 mm.
[36] Michael Courtney; Amy Courtney (2008). Scientic
Evidence for Hydrostatic Shock. arXiv:0803.3051
[physics.med-ph].
[37] Sturtevant B, Shock Wave Eects in Biomechanics, Sadhana, 23: 579596, 1998.
[38] Courtney, A.; Courtney, M. (2007).Links between traumatic brain injury and ballistic pressure waves originating
in the thoracic cavity and extremities. Brain Injury 21
(7): 657662. doi:10.1080/02699050701481571. PMID
17653939.
[39] Marshall and Sanow, Street Stoppers, Appendix A, Paladin 2006
5.10 External links

Article on 919mm Parabellum cartridge collecting including history with photos and descriptions
of variations including headstamps
Ballistics By The Inch 919mm Parabellum Results.
Data on the Russian ammo (in Russian)
43
Chapter 6
Anti-materiel rie
launchers, radar equipment, small watercraft, communications equipment, crew served weapons and similar targets. Their value is in being able to precisely target and
disable enemy assets from long range for a relatively low
cost.
The oensive use of anti-materiel ries or Special Application Scoped Ries (SASR) is termed hard target interdiction (HTI) by the United States military.* [1]
Anti-materiel ries can also be used in non-oensive
roles, e.g.: for safely destroying unexploded ordnance.
Steyr HS .50 AM rie
6.2 Description
Anti-materiel ries are similar in form and appearance
to modern sniper ries and can often serve in that role,
though they are usually chambered for cartridges more
powerful than are normally required for killing a human
and can operate at a greater range.
In general, anti-materiel ries are chambered for
12.799mm NATO (.50 BMG), 12.7108mm Russian,
14.5114mm Russian, and 20mm cartridges. The large
cartridges are required to be able to re projectiles
An anti-materiel rie (AMR) is a rie that is designed containing usable payloads, such as explosives, armorfor use against military equipment (materiel), rather than piercing cores, incendiaries, or combinations of these, as
found in the Raufoss Mk 211 projectile.
against other combatants ("anti-personnel").
US Navy Explosive Ordnance Disposal technician with a
McMillan Tac-50
6.1 History
The recoil produced by the employed cartridges dictates

that these ries are designed to be red from the prone
position. Bipods and monopods and muzzle brakes are
used as accessories to employ these ries as comfortably
and accurately as possible. Firing several 12.799mm
NATO, 12.7108mm Russian, or larger caliber shots
from the (unsupported) standing position or in a kneeling
position would be very uncomfortable for the operator.
The origins of the anti-materiel rie go back to the First

World War, during which the rst anti-tank ries appeared. While modern tanks and most other armored
vehicles are too well protected to be aected by antimateriel ries, the guns are still eective for attack- Due to the considerable size and weight of anti-materiel
ing unarmored or lightly armored vehicles. They can ries and other support equipment, sniper cells operating
also be used against stationary enemy aircraft, missile in 2- or 3-man or larger teams have become a necessity.
44
6.6. EXTERNAL LINKS
6.3 List of anti-materiel ries by

country of origin
This section lists some anti-materiel ries, sorted by
country where the weapon was originally designed and/or
manufactured.
6.4 See also

Anti-tank rie
High Explosive Incendiary/Armor Piercing Ammunition
List of rearms
Raufoss Mk211
Sniper rie
Marksman rie
6.5 References
[1] Hard Target Interdiction, By Michael Haugen - snapshot
from the Wayback Machine, dated July 19, 2007
[2] http://www.truvelo.co.za/armoury/content/sniper-rifles
6.6 External links

20mm AMR New Use for Unused Ammo, SOF
Weapons SectionCrane Division, Naval Surface
Warfare CenterSmall Arms Weapons Systems Division, USSOCOM Comparative Testing Oce
45
Chapter 7
Anti-tank warfare
From the Korean War to the Cold War, The United
States, Soviet Union and other countries faced the possibility that a nuclear weapon could be detonated over an
area of tank concentration in one strike. While technology was developed to protect crews of armored vehicles
from the eects of radiation, the same could not be done
for all their supporting arms and the supply train on which
tanks depend for spares, fuel and maintenance. In the
NATO countries little if any development took place on
dening a doctrine of how to use armed forces without the
use of tactical nuclear weapons. In the Soviet sphere of
inuence the legacy doctrine of operational maneuver was
being theoretically examined to understand how a tankled force could be used even with the threat of limited use
of nuclear weapons on the European battleeld. The solution they arrived at was maneuver warfare while massively
increasing the number of anti-tank weapons. To achieve
this, Soviet military theorists (such as Vasily Sokolovsky)
realized that anti-tank weapons had to assume an oenPARS 3 LR with HEAT warhead of the German Army.
sive role rather than the traditionally defensive role of the
Great Patriotic War by becoming more mobile. This led
to the development of improved guided anti-tank missiles, though similar design work was being performed
Anti-tank warfare arose as a result of the need to dein Western Europe and the United States.
velop technology and tactics to destroy tanks during the
First World War. Because tanks represent an enemy's The French SS.10 missile was the rst successfully used
greatest force projection (aside from nuclear artillery and in anti-tank combatby the Israel Defense Forces durtank vs. tank engagements), anti-tank warfare has been ing the Suez Crisis of 1956, but the impact of Soviet
incorporated into the doctrine of nearly every combat ser- anti-tank missile tactics was not evident until 1973, when
Russian 9K11 Malyutka (Sagger) missiles were used by
vice since.
the Egyptian and Syrian armies during the Yom KipThe predominant anti-tank weapons at the start of the pur War against Israel. The outcome suggested that alSecond World War were the tank-mounted gun, limbered though the French missiles were a threat, they could be
(towed) anti-tank guns and anti-tank grenades used by countered. The explosive power delivered by the misthe infantry as well as ground-attack aircraft such as the siles convinced NATO tank designers to continue their
Junkers Ju 87 Stuka.
emphasis on increased armor, while Soviet designers reAnti-tank warfare evolved rapidly, particularly on the tained their emphasis on mobility of tank-led forces. The
Eastern Front, to include new infantry and infantry sup- utility of the light anti-tank weapon was also recognized
port weapons such as the bazooka, anti-tank combat engi- by both sides of the Cold War and led to further deneering, specialized anti-tank aircraft and self-propelled velopment of both shoulder-launched and man-portable
tank destroyers. Both the Red Army and the German weapons used by the infantry squad, while heavier misArmy developed methods of combating tank-led oen- siles were mounted on dedicated missile tank-destroyers,
sives, including deployment of static anti-tank weapons including dedicated anti-tank helicopters, and even heavembedded in in-depth defensive positions, protected by ier guided anti-tank missiles launched from aircraft. Also
anti-tank obstacles and mineelds, and supported by mo- being developed were new varieties of artillery munitions
in the form of top-attack shells, and shells that were used
bile anti-tank reserves and ground attack aircraft.
46
7.2. FIRST WORLD WAR
47
to saturate areas with anti-armor bomblets. Helicopters need to cross wide trenchesalthough the relationship
could be used as well to rapidly deliver scattered anti-tank between ground pressure and soil-vehicle mechanics was
mines.
not resolved until the Second World War. Turrets were
Since the end of the Cold War in 1993, the only major later introduced on medium and light tanks to react to
new threat to tanks and other vehicles, has been the re- ambushes during the advance.
motely detonated improvised explosive devices (IED's)
used in asymmetric warfare though it is really little different from a homemade land mine.
7.1 Tank threat

Anti-tank warfare evolved as a countermeasure to the
threat of the tank's appearance on the battleelds of the
Western Front of the First World War. The tank had been
developed to negate the German system of trenches, and
allow a return to manoeuver against enemy's anks and to
attack the rear with cavalry.
The use of the tank was primarily based on the assumption that once they were able to eliminate the German
trench lines with their machine gun and Infantry support
gun positions, the Allied infantry would follow and secure
the breach, and the cavalry would exploit the breach in the
trench lines by attacking into the depth of German-held
territory, eventually capturing the eld artillery positions
and interdicting logistics and reserves being brought up
from the rear areas. Naval crews initially used to operate the installed naval guns and machine guns were replaced with Army personnel who were more aware of the
infantry tactics with which the tanks were intended to cooperate. However, there was no way to communicate between the tank's crew and the accompanying infantry, or
between the tanks participating in combat. Radios were
not yet made portable or robust enough to be mounted in a
tank, although Morse Code transmitters were installed in
some Mark IVs at Cambrai as messaging vehicles,.* [1]
Attaching a eld telephone to the rear would become a
practice only during the next war. With greater use of
tanks by both sides it was realized that the accompanying
infantry could be forced to ground by ambush re, thus
separating them from the tanks, which would continue to
advance, eventually nding themselves exposed to closeassaults by German infantry and sappers.
The early tanks were mechanically rudimentary. The
0.23-to-0.47-inch (5.8 to 11.9 mm) armor generally prevented penetration by small arms re and shell fragments.
However, even a near miss from a eld artillery or an impact from a mortar HE round easily disabled the tank,
or destroyed it if the fuel tank was ruptured, incinerating the tank's crew. The need for a 'male' variant was
recognized as a tactical necessity to defeat any infantry
eld pieces found in the trench lines which could easily
disable tank track with the HE ammunition. This was
achieved by mounting a QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss light 57
mm naval gun mounted in the hull barbettes. Hull and
track engineering was largely dictated by the terrainthe
7.2 First World War

The tank, when it appeared on the Western Front in
September 1916, was a total surprise to the German
troops, though not to the German General Sta. The
French Army Sta was highly critical of the British
Army's early elding of the Mark I vehicles in small numbers because the French trials showed the armored vehicles to be highly unreliable. They judged that large numbers had to be employed to sustain an oensive despite
losses to mechanical failure or vehicles being foundered
in intractable no man's land terrain. These losses, coupled
with those from enemy artillery re, later amounted to as
high as 70% of the starters during some operations. Deploying small numbers of tanks would therefore cause the
Allies to lose the element of surprise, allowing Germans
to develop countermeasures.
7.2.1 Anti-tank weapons

Because the German Army was the only force in need of
anti-tank weapons, it was they that had to develop a viable technology to combat the tank. These technologies
took three ammunition approaches: use of grenades by
infantrymen, including the Geballte Ladung (Bundled
Charge) of several stick grenades bound together by
pioneers; early attempts at the small-caliber anti-tank ries like the 13 mm Mauser bolt-action; and 3.7 cm TaK
Rheinmetall in starrer Rder-lafette 1916 anti-tank gun
on a light carriage which could destroy a tank* [2] using
large-caliber armor piercing ammunition issued in 1917
to special commands; and the existing 77 mm eld guns
(such as the 7.7 cm FK 16) of the infantry division's artillery regiment were also eventually issued with special
armor piercing (AP) ammunition.
7.2.2 Anti-tank tactics

With the appearance of Allied tanks the German Army
were quick to introduce new anti-tank defense detachments within the pioneer battalions of the infantry divisions. These were initially issued 1.3 cm caliber long
barrel ries ring solid shot. However these suered
from fouling after 23 rounds and had a recoil that was
unsustainable by the mechanism or the rieman. Stick
grenades were used to destroy the tracks by individual pioneers, however this required for accompanying
machine-gunners to rst separate the supporting Allied
infantry line from the tanks, which proved dicult. An-
48
other tactic was to lure the tank beyond the German
trench-line, re-establishing it just as the Allied infantry
approached. The tank would then be engaged by the divisional 7.7 cm guns brought forward, that would try to
disable the tracks with ordinary HE shells (and later AP
ammunition). If the crews of the disabled tanks refused
to surrender, they were engaged with amethrowers, or a
mortar would be red on the stricken vehicle until a direct hit was achieved on the top surface, usually resulting
in an internal re. Finally, anti-tank obstacles were prepared on the likely approaches by deepening and widening existing ground cratering, the precursors of the antitank trench. Finally in early 1917 the 3.7 cm TaK from
Rheinmetall was rushed to the frontline, and proved effective in destroying the tanks despite limited elevation
and traverse.
7.3 Development between the world

wars
Lack of consensus on the design and use of the tank after the First World War also inuenced the development
of its anti-tank countermeasures. However, because Germany was restricted by the Treaty of Versailles in its military capability, and there were no other challenges to
France and Britain, very little development took place in
anti-tank warfare until the 1930s.
Czechoslovak anti-tank gun 3,7cm KPV vz. 37 .
The Interwar period was dominated by the strategic

thinking with fortied borders at its core. These included
obstacles consisting of natural features such as ditches,
streams and urban areas, or constructed obstacles such as
anti-tank ditches, mineelds, dragon's teeth, or log barriers. The pinnacle of this strategic thinking was considered to be the Maginot Line which replaced infantry-lled
trenches with artillery-lled bunkers, including casemates
housing 37 or 47 mm anti-tank guns, and steel turrets
armed with a pair of machine guns and a 25 mm antitank gun, although Germany was forbidden to produce
tanks. The construction was partially based on the Allied experience with the Hindenburg Line which was
breached with tank support during the battles of Cambrai
and St. Quentin Canal, although German Command was
CHAPTER 7. ANTI-TANK WARFARE

more impressed by the surprise achieved by the Canadian
troops at the Battle of the Canal du Nord. This came to
inuence their planning in 1940.
The Maginot line defenses - up to 25 km (16 mi) deep
from the forward positions to the rear line - were intended
to prevent a surprise attack and delay any attack while the
French Army was mobilized. With the relative numerical inferiority between the France and Germany, it was a
more eective use of manpower. Within the line passive
anti-tank obstacles were supported by anti-infantry and
anti-tank bunkers. After Belgium declared neutrality in
1936, France began work on extending the line along the
Belgian border.
Improved artillery was seen as the quickest solution to
anti-tank defense, and one of the earliest post-war antitank gun designs was the 25 mm Hotchkiss model from
France. It was intended to replace an Atelier de Puteaux
37 mm weapon designed in 1916 to destroy machine gun
positions. Rheinmetall commenced design of a 37 mm
anti-tank gun in 1924 and the rst guns were produced in
1928 as 3.7 cm Pak L/45,* [3] later adopted in Wehrmacht service as 3.7 cm Pak 36. It made an appearance
during the Spanish Civil War, as did the Bofors 37 mm
developed in Sweden, and used by many early Second
World War combatants. The British Army accepted for
service the (40 mm) Ordnance QF 2 pounder which was
developed as a tank gun. The Soviet Red Army after
the Russian Civil War also begun a search for an antitank gun with a French Hotchkiss 37 mm L.33 tank gun,
but soon upgraded this to a higher velocity L.45 Model
1935 while also making a licensed copy of the German
3.7 cm PaK 36. However, the Red Army was almost immediately taught a lesson about anti-tank warfare when
a tank battalion sent to aid the Spanish Republicans in
the Spanish Civil War was almost entirely destroyed in
an engagement.
At this time the predominant ammunition used against
tanks was the armor piercing kinetic energy shell that
defeated armor by direct pressure, spiking or punching
through it. During the late 1930s shaped charge ammunition was experimented with that used chemical energy for
armor penetration. More dicult to manufacture, its advantage was in that on impact it created a high-velocity jet
of molten metal which created tremendously high pressures, hydrodynamically deforming the armor. The depth
of the penetration, though proportional to the length of
the jet and the square root of its density, is also dependent on the strength of the armor. With the development
of this new ammunition begun more advanced research
into steel manufacturing, and development of spaced armor that caused jet waverby detonating prematurely
or at the wrong angle to the surface of the main armor.
The only signicant attempt to experiment in the use of
tanks in the late 1920s was that of the British Army's
Experimental Mechanized Force that inuenced future
development of tanks, armored troops and entire armies
7.4. SECOND WORLD WAR

of both its future enemies and allies in the next war.
In Spain the anti-tank defense of the Nationalists was
organized by the Wehrmacht ocers, and the anti-tank
guns were incorporated into a system of obstacles that
were constructed with the intent to stop an attack by tanks
by slowing it down, separating them from supporting infantry (advancing on foot) with machine-gun and mortar
re, and forcing tanks to conduct deliberate head-on assaults with engineer support, or seek a less-defended area
to attack. Mineelds laid with purpose-designed mines
were used for the rst time, destroying tank tracks, and
forcing combat engineers to clear them on foot. Delay meant that Nationalist eld artillery could engage the
lightly armored Soviet tanks. This meant a change in
Republican operational and eventually strategic planning,
and a more protracted combat operations, with more casualties at a greater cost.
The only change to the German anti-tank tactics of the
First World War was that now an eective anti-tank
weapon was available to support the defending infantry.
However, the Soviet tanks armed with 45 mm guns easily
destroyed the German light tanks.
49
7.4 Second World War

Two aspects of how the Second World War commenced
helped to delay development of anti-tank warfare: resignation and surprise. After Poland was attacked, its allies in the West were resigned to its defeat by a numerically superior Wehrmacht. The little information that was
brought out about the conduct of combat during that campaign did nothing to convince either France, Britain or the
USSR of the need for improved anti-tank technology and
tactics. The reliance on the Maginot Line, and the subsequent surprise of the German oensive left no time to
develop existing capabilities and tactics in the West. The
British were preparing the stop lines and the anti-tank islands to slow enemy progress and restrict the route of an
attack. The Red Army however was fortunate in having
several excellent designs for anti-tank warfare that were
either in nal stages of development for production, or
had been rejected earlier as unnecessary and could now
be rushed into production. The relative ease with which
the older models of Red Army's tank eet were destroyed
by German anti-tank weapons, using tactics already seen
in Spain, once and for all focused Stavka attention on
anti-tank warfare as Soviet armies were repeatedly encircled by panzer-led strategic pincer maneuvers. Of the
three iconic Soviet weapons of the Second World War,
two were made exclusively for anti-tank warfare, the T34 and the Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik. The former was one
of the most manufactured tanks in history, and the latter,
itself dubbed the 'ying tank', was one of the most manufactured aircraft. The war also saw the creation and almost immediate abandonment of the self-propelled tank
destroyer which would be replaced post war by the anti
tank guided missile.
Ironically, in the early 1930s until the Spanish War, German ocers were conducting secret testing of a new way
of employing tanks, infantry and artillery oensively in
the Soviet Union with the cooperation of the Red Army.
In Germany these developments eventually culminated in
tactics that later came to be known as Blitzkrieg, while
in the Soviet Union they formed the core of the deep
battle operational doctrine. The successful test of the
latter was during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol although
the Red Army foundered on the Mannerheim Line in
1940, largely due to the purge in the Ocer Corps, claiming many of the senior proponents of the new doctrine.
Anti-tank artillery would be included in mobile tank-led
Wehrmacht and Red Army units due to the possibility of 7.4.1
encountering enemy tanks in a meeting engagement.
The new doctrines of using the tank, were divided into
infantry and cavalry schools of thought. The former regarded the tank as a mobile artillery system to be used for
infantry support. This suggested that the infantry needed
to be armed with integral anti-tank weapons. The latter advocated use of tanks in the traditional cavalry way
of high-tempo attacks intended to outank the enemy infantry and sever its communication lines. This approach
suggested that the tank was the best anti-tank system, and
only limited anti-tank troops were required to accompany
them. For this reason the late 30s tank congurations
came in a great diversity, ranging from light tankettes
and cavalry tanks to multi-turreted heavy tanks resembling bunkers, all of which had to be considered in training by the anti-tank artillery troops. The development of
these doctrines was the most signicant inuence on the
rapid development in anti-tank technology and tactics in
the Second World War.
Aircraft
As tanks were rarely used in conicts between the two

World Wars, no specic aircraft or tactics were developed to combat them from the air. One solution adopted
by almost all European air forces was to use bomb loads
for conventional bombers that were composed from small
bombs allowing a higher density during bombing. This
created a greater chance of causing a direct impact on the
thinner top armor of the tank while also having the ability to damage track and wheels through proximity detonation. The rst aircraft capable of engaging tanks were
the Junkers Ju-87 Stukausing dive bombing to place
the bomb close to the target. Some French and German
ghters tted with 20 mm cannon were also able to engage thinner top armor surfaces of the tanks early in the
war. The Stuka was also given cannons for anti-armor
role though it was obsolete by 1942, and was joined by
the Henschel Hs 129 that mounted a podded 30 mm (1.2
in) MK 101 cannon beneath its fuselage, while the Red
Army Air Force elded the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 armed
with a pair of 23 mm cannons and unguided rockets, but
50
armored to enable the pilots to approach German tanks

at very low altitude, ignoring small arms, machine-gun
and even small anti-aircraft cannon re that usually provided tanks with protection against the bombers. Il-2s
could also carry large numbers of 2.5 kg shaped-charge
anti-tank PTAB bombs. To give it more repower against
tanks, the RAF mounted two underwing pod-mounted 40
mm Vickers S cannon on the Hawker Hurricane (as the
Mk. IID), which saw service in North Africa in 1942 and
the Hawker Typhoon was given HE rockets though these
were more eective against other ground vehicles. From
March 1943 the Red Army Air Force produced the more
agile Yakovlev Yak-9T (37 mm cannon) and K (45 mm
cannon) bomber interceptor also used for ground attack,
both guns in mounts attached to the engine, that had them Bofors 37 mm anti-tank gun as used by several nations
ring through a hollow-center propeller shaft.
7.4.2
Field artillery
Prior to World War II few anti-tank guns had (or needed)

calibers larger than 50 mm. Examples of guns in this
class include the German 37 mm, US 37 mm (the largest
gun able to be towed by the jeep), French 25 mm and
47 mm guns, British QF 2-pounder (40 mm), Italian 47
mm and Soviet 45 mm. All of these light weapons could
penetrate the thin armor found on most pre-war and early
war tanks.
Field artillery were often the rst ground combat arm to

engage detected concentration of troops which included
tanks through artillery airborne observers, either in assembly areas (for refueling and rearming), during approach marches to the combat zone, or as the tank unit
was forming up for the attack. Conventional artillery
shells were very eective against the tank's thinner top
armor if red in appropriate density while the tanks were
concentrated, enabling direct hits by a suciently powerful shell. Even a non-penetrating shell could still disable a tank through dynamic shock, internal armor shattering or simply overturning the tank. More importantly
the tanks could be disabled due to damage to tracks and
wheels, and their supporting vehicles and personnel could
be damaged and killed, reducing unit's ability to ght in
the longer term. Because tanks were usually accompanied by infantry mounted on trucks or half-tracked vehicles that lacked overhead armor, eld artillery that red
a mix of ground and air-burst ammunition was likely
to inict heavy casualties on the infantry as well. Field
guns such as the Ordnance QF 25 pounder were provided German PaK 38 50-mm anti-tank gun
with armor-piercing shot for direct engagement of enemy
tanks.
At the start of World War II many of these weapons were
still being used operationally, along with a newer generation of light guns that closely resembled their WWI coun7.4.3 Anti-tank guns
terparts. After Soviet T-34 and KV tanks were encountered
these guns were recognized as ineective against
See also: Anti-tank gun and Tank gun
sloped
armor, with the German lightweight 37 mm gun
Anti-tank guns are guns designed to destroy armored vequickly
nicknamed the tank door knocker(German:
hicles from defensive positions. In order to penetrate vePanzeranklopfgert),
for revealing its presence without
hicle armor they re smaller caliber shells from longerpenetrating
the
armor.
barreled guns to achieve higher muzzle velocity than eld
artillery weapons, many of which are howitzers. The
higher velocity, atter trajectory ballistics provide terminal kinetic energy to penetrate the moving/static target's
armor at a given range and contact's angle. Any eld artillery cannon with barrel length 15 to 25 times longer
than its caliber was able also to re anti-tank ammunition, such as the Soviet A-19.
Germany quickly introduced more powerful anti-tank

guns, some which had been in the early stages of development prior to the war. By late 1942 the Germans
had an excellent 50-mm high-velocity design, while they
faced the QF 6-pounder introduced in the North African
Campaign by the British Army, and later adopted by the
US Army. By 1943 Wehrmacht was forced to adopt still

larger calibers on the Eastern Front, the 75 mm and the
famous 88 mm guns. The Red Army used a variety of
45 mm, 57 mm, and 100 mm guns, as well as deploying general-purpose 76.2 mm and 122-mm guns in the
anti-tank role. For the Invasion of Normandy the British
produced the QF 17 pounder, whose design had begun
before the 6 pounder entered service, which proved to be
a highly eective anti-tank gun and was also used on the
tank and the tank destroyer.
51
crew protection, though the lack of a turret limited the
gun's traverse to a few degrees. This meant that if the
TD became immobilized due to engine failure or track
damage, it could not rotate its gun to counter opposing
tanks, making it an easy target. This vulnerability was
later exploited by opposing tank forces. Late in the war,
it was not unusual to nd even the largest and most powerful tank destroyer abandoned on the eld after a battle,
having been immobilized by a single high explosive shell
to the track or front drive sprocket.
US Army pre-war infantry support doctrines emphasized

the use of tank destroyers with open-top fully rotating turrets, featuring less armor than the standard M4 Sherman
Main article: Tank destroyer
tanks, but with more powerful cannon. A 76 mm longSee also: Panzerjger and Jagdpanzer
As towed anti-tank cannon guns grew in size and weight, barrel tank cannon was tted to the M10 and M18 designs. Late in 1944, the M36 appeared, equipped with a
90 mm cannon. With rotating turrets and good combat
maneuverability, American TD designs generally worked
well, although their light armor was no match for enemy
tank cannon re during one on one confrontations. Another disadvantage proved to be the open, unprotected
turret, and casualties from artillery re soon led to the
introduction of folding armor turret covers. Near the
war's end, a change in ocial doctrine caused both the
self-propelled tank destroyer and the towed antitank gun
to fall from favor in U.S. service, increasingly replaced
by conventional tanks or infantry level antitank weapons.
Despite this change, the M36 tank destroyer continued
in service, and was used in combat as late as the Korean
War.
Self-propelled anti-tank guns
A British Archer tank destroyer, based on the hull of a Valentine

tank
7.4.4 Infantry
they became less mobile and more cumbersome to maneuver, and required ever larger gun crews, who often had Ries
to wrestle the gun into position while under heavy artillery
and/or tank re. As the war progressed, this disadvantage
often resulted in the loss or destruction of both the antitank gun and its trained crew. This gave impetus to the
development of the self-propelled, lightly armored "tank
destroyer" (TD). The tank destroyer was usually based
on the hull of existing tank designs, using either a gun integrated into the hull or a fully rotating turret much like
that of a conventional tank. These self-propelled (SP) AT
guns were rst employed as infantry support weapons in
place of towed antitank guns. Later, due to a shortage of
tanks, TDs sometimes replaced the former in oensive
The Soviet PTRS-41 anti-tank rie during World War II.
armored operations.
Early German-designed tank destroyers, such as the
Marder I, employed existing light French or Czech design
tank chassis, installing an AT gun as part of an armored,
turret-less superstructure. This method to reduced both
weight and conversion costs. The Soviet Union later
adopted this style of self-propelled anti-tank gun or tank
destroyer. This type of tank destroyer had the advantage
of a reduced silhouette, allowing the crew to more frequently re from delade ambush positions. Such designs
were easier and faster to manufacture and oered good
See also: Anti-tank rie

Anti-tank ries were introduced in some armies before
the Second World War to provide infantry with a stando weapon when confronted with a tank assault. The intention was to preserve good morale of the infantry by
using a weapon that could actually defeat a tank.
Anti-tank ries were developed in several countries during the 1930s. By the beginning of WW2, anti-tank ri-
52
e teams could knock out most tanks from a distance of
about 500 m, and do so with a weapon that was manportable and easily concealed. Although the AT rie performance was negated by the increased armor of medium
and heavy tanks by 1942, they remained viable against
lighter-armored and unarmored vehicles, and against eld
fortication embrasures.

cessful unguided rocket used extensively in the Siege of
Budapest.
After the war research on infantry anti-tank weapons continued, with most designers focused on two primary goals:
First an anti-tank weapon that could defeat more heavily
armored postwar tanks and ghting vehicles, and second a
weapon lightweight and portable enough for infantry use.
Notable examples include the Finnish Lahti L-39 (which

was also used as a sniper rie during the Continuation
War), the automatic Japanese Type 97 20 mm anti-tank Mines and other explosives
rie, the German Panzerbchse 38, Panzerbchse 39, the
Main article: Anti-tank mine
Polish wz.35 and the Soviet 14.5 mm PTRD and PTRS41.
Although by 1943 other armies judged the anti-tank rie to lack combat eectiveness due to their diminished
ability to penetrate the thicker armor of new tanks, the
anti-tank rie remained in Soviet use during the conict
for its place in the system of anti-tank defensive tactics.
Rockets and shaped charges
A statue of a Vietminh soldier holding a Lunge AT Mine. In Vietnamese the mine is called bom ba cng, literally means threeclawed bomb.
British PIAT
The development of light, man-portable, anti-tank

weapons increased during the Second World War. Most
were based on the Munroe eect which led to the development of the high explosive shaped charge. These
weapons were called High Explosive Anti-Tank (HEAT).
The destructive eect was reliant entirely on the kinetic
energy of the explosion rather than the ballistic speed of
the round on the damage inicted to the armor. The effect was also concentrated and could penetrate more armor for a given amount of explosives. The rst HEAT
rounds were rie grenades, but better delivery systems
were soon introduced: the British PIAT was propelled by
an explosive charge combined with a powerful spring, the
US Bazooka and the German Panzerschreck used rockets; The German Panzerfaust was a small recoilless gun.
The HEAT warhead was retroactively used to give more Sticky bomb in production
power to smaller calibre weapons such as in the conversion of the otherwise limited German 37 mm PaK guns
to re a large shell (that tted over the barrel rather than
Though unsophisticated, the satchel charge was an
down in it) to a greater range than the Panzerschreck could
eective anti-tank weapon during World War II; the
manage.
blast could sever the tracks of a tank, damage internal components or injure the crew.
The The Hungarian 44M ""Buzognyvet"" was a suc-
53
Hawkins mine
The Wehrmacht employed the Goliath tracked
mine, an unmanned demolition vehicle.
The Soviet Union employed anti-tank dogs during
World War II, with very limited success; as a counterpart to the German Goliath the Teletank was used
as a remote-controlled unmanned tank.
The Japanese forces employed suicide attacks with
pole-mounted anti-tank mines dubbed Lunge Mines
during late World War II.* [4] In Vietnam, similar
mines were called bom ba cng due to the three contact points at the head of each mine.
Grenades
Main article: Ant-tank grenade
Regular fragmentation grenades were ineective against
tanks, so many kinds of anti-tank grenades were developed. These ranged from hollow charge designs (e.g., the
British No. 68 AT Grenade), to ones that simply contained a lot of explosive (the British No. 73 Grenade).
To increase their eectiveness, some grenades were designed so that they adhered to the tank either through an
adhesive (sticky bomb) or with a magnet. The Germans
used a magnetic grenade, the Hafthohlladung to ensure
that the shaped charge would re at the optimal 90 angle
to the armor.
There was also a special type of grenade called the Nebelhandgranaten or Blendkrper (smoke hand grenades
), which was supposed to be smashed over an air vent
and ll the tank with smoke, widely used by both sides in
World War II. Molotov cocktails also saw much use, especially in the Winter War, early tanks (such as the T-26)
being very vulnerable to them, but later tanks required a
well-thrown bottle directly over the engine compartment
to have any eect at all.
A Finnish soldier with a Molotov cocktail in the 1939-40 Winter

War.
a result of being surprised by the previously unknown Soviet tank designs, forcing introduction of new technologies and new tactics. The Red Army was also faced with a
new challenge in anti-tank warfare after losing most of its
On the whole, thrown anti-tank weapons suered from a tank eet and a considerable part of its anti-tank capable
variety of drawbacks. In addition to the inherently short cannons.
range, they required careful aim to be eective, and those
that relied on explosive force were often so powerful that
the user had to take cover immediately.
7.4.5
Tactics
Anti-tank tactics developed rapidly during the war but

along dierent paths in dierent armies based on the
threats they faced and the technologies they were able to
produce. Very little development took place in UK because weapons available in 1940 were judged adequate
for engaging Italian and German tanks during most of the
North African Campaign. Its experience therefore failed
to inuence US Army's anti-tank doctrine prior to 1944. Examples of Czech hedgehogs deployed on the Atlantic Wall in
From 1941 German anti-tank tactics developed rapidly as the vicinity of Calais.
54
Anti-tank tactics during the war were largely integrated

with the oensive or defensive posture of the troops being supported, usually infantry. Much of anti-tank tactics
depend on the range eectiveness of various weapons and
weapon systems available. These are divided as follows:
Operational range over the horizon (2040 km
range) bomber aircraft and long range artillery
Tactical staging areas (720 km range)
ground attack aircraft and eld artillery including MRLs
Tactical zone forming-up area and rear combat
zone (27 km range) heavy anti-tank guns
and mortars
Tactical forward combat zone (12 km range)
anti-tank guns and tanks deployed in defense
Engagement distance (2001000 m range)
mines and anti-tank ries
Close combat distance (25200 m range) infantry anti-tank weapons
their re until enemy tanks were within the most eective range for their ammunition. Where there were insucient anti-tank weapons, engineers would construct
anti-tank obstacles such as dragon's teeth or czech hedgehog.
Towed anti-tank guns were thought to be the primary
means of defeating tanks. At the battle of Kursk for example, the Red Army deployed more artillery regiments
than infantry regiments and towed gun densities reached
over 20 guns per kilometer of defended tactical zone.
A towed gun was much cheaper than a tank and could
be concealed in a shallow position. When time allowed,
dugouts with strong overhead cover could be constructed.
Guns deployed on reverse slopes and in anking positions
could take a toll of attacking tanks. However, gun crews
were vulnerable to artillery, mortar HE re and enemy
infantry. Their positions had to be carefully selected and
once engaged, they generally could not redeploy. Experience strongly suggested that towed AT guns were less
eective than self-propelled AT weapons and took heavier casualties.
Tactic of ambushing enemy armor at grazing shot distances was perfected during world war 2. Some combatGround-to-air cooperation was not yet systematic in any ants, like the Soviet Red Army, doctrinalized it and used
army of the period, but given sucient warning ground it to engage heavy German armor at optimal distances and
attack aircraft could support ground troops even during angles.
an enemy attack in an attempt to interdict the enemy
Self-propelled anti-tank guns were rare at the beginning
units before they come into tactical combat zone. Various
of WW2, although the Belgian Army deployed a few T.15
bomb loads can be used depending on what type of tank
tank destroyers and the French army was developing sevunit is engaged in at the time or who its accompanying
eral wheeled and tracked designs. The advantages of motroops are. This is an indirect form of anti-tank warfare
bility and even thin armor protection were so compelling
where the tanks are denied the opportunity to even reach
that most armies were using self-propelled AT guns by
combat.
mid-war. Examples of these weapons included the US
Field artillery was particularly eective in ring against M10, German Marder II, and Soviet SU-85.
tank formations because although they were rarely able to
The British Army had abandoned the anti-tank rie by
destroy a tank by direct penetration, they would severely
1942 and the Wehrmacht by 1943, while the US Army
crater the area preventing the tanks from moving therenever adopted the weapon, although the USMC used Boys
fore causing them to become nearly stationary targets for
anti-tank ries in the Pacic Theater. The Red Army
the ground attack aircraft, or disrupting the enemy scheddid not abandon the anti-tank rie due to the imporule and allowing own troops more time to prepare their
tance it occupied in its doctrine of anti-tank in-depth dedefense.
fense, rst demonstrated during the defense of Moscow
Anti-tank defense proper was by 1942 designed in First and again during the Kursk battles. This became particWorld War fashion with several prepared trench lines ularly true later in the war when the Red Army assumed
incorporating anti-tank weapons of dierent capabili- an almost constant oensive, and anti-tank in-depth deties. Depending on terrain and available line-of-sight, fensive deployments were used for protecting anks of
the longer-ranged guns could begin to re on approach- the operational breakthroughs against German tactical
ing tanks from as far as 2 kilometers, which was also counterattacks. By ring on the lighter armored infantry
the range at which German Panther and Tiger tank gun- and support vehicles (e.g. artillery tractors) the antiners were trained to re. Anti-tank guns were usually de- tank rie units helped to separate the supporting infantry
ployed to cover terrain more suitable for tanks, and were (panzergrenadiers) and artillery of the German tanks and
protected by mineelds laid at about 500 meters to 1 kilo- so forced the tanks to halt at short distances from the conmeter from their positions by combat engineers. In the cealed anti-tank guns leaving them exposed to re from
Red Army the anti-tank rie units would be positioned larger, longer ranged anti-tank guns. PTRS-41 semithroughout the forward trench line and would engage the automatic anti-tank ries were also used for sniping since
lighter tanks and any other vehicles, such as infantry half- an additional tracer round enabled rapid re adjustment
tracks in an attempt to separate them from the tanks. The by the gunner. Although optical sniper scopes were tried
anti-tank guns deployed further back would often hold
7.5. KOREAN WAR
55
with the PTRS-41, the weapons proved too inaccurate since they were not often provided with long-range antiat sniping distances (800 m or more), and the recoil too tank weapons.* [5]
much for eective use of the scopes.
In some cases in World War II, a tactic of some infantry
was to run directly up to a tank, avoiding their main and
machine guns, and pour petroleum over and into the tank
Infantry close assault
and light it, sometimes blocking the exit, burning the crew
alive.
In the Japanese army, the use of satchel charges and
pole charges was widespread. Although the charges could
knock out any allied tank, the tactic was extremely closerange and the sappers were vulnerable to allied weapons.
Suicide bombing
Panzerfaust armed German soldiers on the Eastern Front, 1945.
The tank is still vulnerable to infantry, especially in close

country or built-up areas. Rough terrain may expose the
oor armor, and high ground such as multi-story buildings
may expose the top armor. Their large size and loud noise
can allow enemy infantry to spot, track and evade tanks
until an opportunity presents itself for counter-attack.
Because tank crews have limited visibility from inside the
tank, infantry can get close to a tank given enough concealment and if the hatches are closed. If tank crewmen
unbutton for better visibility they become vulnerable to
small arms re. An infantryman cannot be targeted by
a tank's main gun when close as it cannot depress suciently. Close defense weapons such as pistol ports, hull, coaxial- and pintle-mounted machine guns gave them
some protection however.
Chinese troops in the Second Sino-Japanese War used

suicide bombing against Japanese tanks. Chinese troops
strapped explosives like grenade packs or dynamite to
their bodies and threw themselves under Japanese tanks
to blow them up.* [6] This tactic was used during the
Battle of Shanghai, where a Chinese suicide bomber
stopped a Japanese tank column by exploding himself beneath the lead tank,* [7] and at the Battle of Taierzhuang
where dynamite and grenades were strapped on by Chinese troops who rushed at Japanese tanks and blew themselves up.* [8]* [9]* [10]* [11]* [12] During one incident at
Taierzhuang, Chinese suicide bombers obliterated four
Japanese tanks with grenade bundles.* [13]* [14]
7.5 Korean War

The Korean War highlighted the diculties that can arise
with tank forces when vulnerable logistical support is
combined with terrain not suitable for tanks. In the early
stages of the war, North Korea's well-equipped tank divisions were pushed back to the Yalu River, the border with
China, by superior American air power combined with
artillery and infantry support. However, when the Chinese entered the war, they managed to reverse the American advances with infantry power alone. Because of the
terrain and the need to keep the tanks supplied, American tanks were limited to two main roads. The Chinese
merely occupied the land between the roads and harried
the American supply lines and troop transports along the
road. The Chinese infantry stuck to land that was impassable to tanks, such as rocky prominences and rice paddies,
neutralizing the advantage of both American armored divisions and air support.
Whilst many hand-held infantry anti-tank weapons will

not penetrate the front armor of a tank, they may penetrate the less heavily armored top, rear, and sides. Damage to the tracks or running gear can inict a mobility
kill. Early WWII tanks had open vision slits which could
be red through to kill the crew. Later tanks' slits had
thick glass, as well as sights and periscopes which could
still be damaged with powerful small arms such as antitank ries and heavy machine guns, hampering the crew.
If all else fails, the hatch could also be forced open and
grenades thrown inside, although later tank designs often have hatches designed to be dicult to open from the In the U.S., the 2.36 in (60 mm) M9A1 bazooka rocket
outside.
launcher evolved into the more powerful 3.5 in (89 mm)
Tanks were also vulnerable to hand-placed anti-tank M20 Super Bazooka, which was used to good efmines. Infantry have even immobilized tanks using a set fect against North Korean armored spearheads during the
of plates covered with leaves and dirt as dummy mines Korean War. However, the M20 proved dicult and
the ruse being augmented by the crew's obscured vision cumbersome to portage on foot over long distances. The
infantry can then attack the stopped tank. This tactic was Anti-Tank Aircraft Rocket, developed by the navy, also
taught to the British Home Guard during World War II proved eective against North Korean tanks.
56
7.6 Cold War
biggest threats to a modern tank. The helicopter can position itself where it is not easily seen from a tank and then
In the Cold War era, HEAT became an almost univer- attack from any quarter, exposing the weaker parts of the
sal choice outside of artillery and tank units. The British tank's armor. The limited visibility from a closed-down
had developed the High explosive squash head (HESH) tank also makes sighting a helicopter harder.
warhead as a weapon for attacking fortications during Most helicopter-launched ATGWs have sucient range
the war, and found it surprisingly eective against tanks. that they can under the right conditions be red at a range
Although these systems allowed infantry to take on even too long for the tank to retaliate with its own weapons.
the largest tanks, and, like HEAT, its eectiveness was This may change with the Israelis elding the Lahat misindependent of range, infantry typically operated at short sile that can be red from the main gun of the Merkava
range. A major inuence in anti-tank warfare came with MBT. With both anti-tank and anti-helicopter role, it
the development and evolution of anti-tank guided mis- does level the playing eld somewhat. The Indian Arjun
siles (ATGW) that could be red by infantry operators, tank has also been modied to re this missile. The
from ground vehicles and by aircraft. Increasing use of People's Republic of China has developed 100 mm guncombined arms tactics allowed the attacking infantry to launched missiles based on Russian designs such as the
suppress the anti-tank crews eectively, meaning that GP2 (based on the Russian Bastion). It has been reported
they could typically get o only one or two shots before to have successfully engaged aerial targets, as well as bebeing countered or forced to move.
ing an anti-tank missile. Similar missiles are available for
Chinese tanks equipped with the 105 mm gun. The Russians have also displayed a similar if more advanced sys7.6.1 Aircraft
tem in the Reex. The system involves an automatic targeting of an aerial/land target instigated by a laser warnMain article: Attack aircraft
ing system.
Cold War aircraft, such as the A-10 Thunderbolt II and
SU-25 Frogfoot, have been specically built for close air
support, including tank destruction. They can use a variety of weaponry, including large-caliber anti-tank guns,
air-to-surface missiles (e.g. AGM-65 Maverick), volleys of unguided rockets, and various bombs (unguided
or laser-guided and with or without submunitions such
as HEAT bomblets, an example of which would be the
CBU-100 Cluster Bomb).
Although putting weapons on helicopters (probably)

dates back to 1955 with the Bell 47, the rst specic
attack helicopter that went into mass production was the
Bell AH-1 Cobra in 1966. The AH-1 was equipped with
TOW missiles in 1973 for anti-tank capability.* [16]
7.6.3 Artillery
In the last thirty years, however, a variety of artillery

projectiles have been developed specically to attack
tanks. These include laser-guided projectiles, such as
7.6.2 Helicopters
the US's Copperhead Cannon Launched Guided Projectile (CLGP), which increases the chances of a direct hit.
Further information: Attack helicopter
Anti-tank missiles were rst used in a helicopter- Some of these CLGPs (including the Copperhead) have
HEAT warheads instead of common HE.
Guided and unguided scatter munitions and submunitions
have also been developed: a single artillery shell containing a number of smaller munitions designed to attack a
tank. A six-gun battery might be able to re several hundred submunitions in a minute or two.
In one form, the shell bursts in the air above the tank and
a number of shaped charge (HEAT) or HEDP (High Explosive Dual Purpose) bomblets or grenades rain down.
British Army Westland WAH-64 Apache, an anti-tank helicopter
Any that hit the tank have a good chance of causing damborne role by the French in the late 1950s, when they age, since they are attacking the thin top armor.
mounted SS.11 wire-guided missiles on Alouette II heli- Another form scatters a number of small anti-tank mines
copters.* [15] While, initially, there were many teething in the tank's path, which probably will not penetrate the
problems, the possibilities were clear, such as providing armor but can damage a track, leaving the tank immobile
the ability to attack the more lightly armored top of the and vulnerable.
tank.
More sophisticated are submunitions with a homing caThe anti-tank helicopter armed with ATGWs (Anti-Tank pability. Once again the shell explodes above the tank
Guided Weapons) or anti-tank cannons is one of the position and dispenses a number of submunitions. The
7.6. COLD WAR
57
munitions contain some circuitry to identify tanks, such

as IR or millimeter radar; when a tank is identied, a
rocket propellant is red to shoot the projectile at the
tank. These munitions will often descend by parachute,
to allow time for target acquisition and attack.
All of the above but the CLGP can be red from medium
(122/152/155-mm) artillery, both tube and rocket. There
has also been development of large caliber (81 mm and
larger) guided mortar munitions with both internal (e.g.,
IR or radar) or external (i.e., laser designator) guidance.
7.6.4
Missiles
Main article: Anti-tank missile
South African tank gun retrotted to a towed howitzer carriage.
The development of the wire-guided missile, or AntiTank Guided Weapon (ATGW) systems came into use
in the late 1950s and 1960s that could defeat any known
tank at ranges beyond that of the guns of the accompanying infantry. The United Kingdom, France, and other
NATO countries were among the rst to develop such
weapons (e.g., the Malkara missile by the UK and Australia in 1958). The Soviet Union, and now Russia, put
extensive development into these weapons; the rst manportable model to enter service was the AT-3 in 1961.
The United States was one of the last, coming up with
the BGM-71 TOW in 1970. For a time, it appeared that
the tank was a dead end. A small team of infantry with a
few missiles in a well-concealed position could take on
a number of the largest and most expensive tanks. In
the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Soviet rst-generation wireguided missiles employed by the Egyptian forces inicted
heavy casualties on Israeli tank units, causing a major crisis of condence for tank designers.
some nations, including South Africa and Israel, grafted

obsolete tank guns onto towed carriages for use in that
role.* [17]
7.6.6 Mines
Owing to greater sophistication of the tank, and engineering support available to tank units to detect and negate
mineelds, a considerable eort was made to develop
more eective anti-tank mine technology in the eort
to deny tank-led formations maneuver space, or channel
their movement into unsuitable avenues of approach.
7.6.7 Infantry
Active protection systems such as the Russian Arena active protection system are starting to be more common,
with similar systems such as the Israeli Iron Fist active
protection system. The tank may be on a comeback because of active defense systems, which attack missiles in
mid-air. This may allow the tank to be competitive on the
battleeld once again.
7.6.5
Guns
Main article: Anti-tank gun

Of the world's major armies, only the Soviet Red Army
retained anti-tank guns in any signicant quantity, mostly
in 100 mm, 115 mm, and 125 mm calibers. The 125 mm
anti-tank guns are extremely bulky and massive, and require large tractors to tow them for any signicant distance. This is oset by their cheapness and potentially
deadly eect, particularly now that they have been upgraded with laser rangenders and depleted uranium ammunition.
Australian Army Land Rover Series 2 gunbuggywith a M40

recoilless rie used in the anti-tank role.
The search for a more suitable, longer-range delivery system took up much of the immediate post-war era. The
US invested in the recoilless rie, delivering a widely used
75 mm design, and less common 90 mm and 106 mm designs (the latter was usually mounted rather than infantryhandled). The 106 mm formed the basis of a dedicated
Rather than developing specialized anti-tank artillery, anti-tank vehicle, the Ontos tank, which mounted six 106
58
mm ries. The Australian Army also tted M40 recoilless ries to Land Rover Series 2 vehicles for use in an
anti-tank role. The Soviet Union also built recoilless ries in various calibers intended to be used as anti-tank
weapons, most commonly 73 mm, 82 mm, and 110 mm
(only the 73 mm remains in service with the Russian military today, though the other two can be found all over the
world due to Soviet military aid during the Cold War).
The British used a 120 mm (4.7 inch) design to equip infantry units, the BAT series, which served from the 1950s
until replaced by MILAN, but it was generally too heavy
for infantry use and had to be towed by, or mounted on,
a vehicle for maneuverability.
The Soviets developed the RPG-2 from the German
Panzerfaust 150. Further development led to the ubiquitous RPG-7. The RPG-7 is one of the most widely used
anti-tank weapons, favored most by soldiers of irregular
militaries. The RPG-7 could re a range of dierent warheads, from thermobaric warheads to a single HEAT or
tandem-charge HEAT warheads against explosive reactive armor equipped tanks. The RPG-7 has a long combat
history, and has been used in most wars from the Vietnam
war all the way to present day wars. In modern times, the
RPG-7 is generally used in an urban environment, which
would enhance their eectiveness due to the close ranges
involved. However, the aging RPG-7 has evolved to the
even more potent RPG-29 which has proven its worth
in conicts in the Middle East, damaging the Merkava
IV,* [18] Challenger 2* [19] and M1 Abrams* [20] main
battle tanks.
7.6.8 Tactics
Changes in the anti-tank tactics since the Second World
War mostly came from the appearance of new technologies, and increased repower of the infantry mounted
on fully armored vehicles. The most profound anti-tank
technology has been the guided missile, which when coupled with a helicopter can mean that tanks can be engaged
beyond ground line of sight (LOS), and at one of their
most vulnerable aspect, the top armor.
7.7 Eectiveness
The eect of anti-tank warfare is to prevent enemy tanks,
and their supporting troops from maneuvering, which is
the primary capability of the tanks. In the US Army the
degree of eect by an anti-tank weapon on a vehicle is
referred to as either "mobility kill", "repower kill", and
"catastrophic kill". In a mobility kill (M-kill), the vehicle
loses its ability to move, for example, by breaking a tank
track; the target is then immobile, but may retain full use
of its weapons and still be able to ght to some extent. A
repower kill (F-kill) is some loss of the vehicle's ability
to re its weapons. M-kills and F-kills may be complete
or partial, the latter corresponding to reductions in a target's ability to move or re. A catastrophic kill (K-kill)
removes the tank's ability to ght completely; this may
entail complete destruction of the tank or disabling the
crew.
7.7.1 Future
Although the future of the tank was questioned in the
1960s due to the development of the anti-tank missiles,
increases in thickness and composition of armor, and
other improvements in tank design meant that infantry
operated systems were no longer suciently eective by
the 1970s, and the introduction of Chobham armor by
the British Army and reactive armor by the Soviet Army
forced the HEAT rounds to be increased in size, rendering them less portable.
Soviet RPG-7
In the 1960s, the U.S. Army adopted the M72 LAW

rocket, a lightweight, collapsible rocket launcher with the
ability to penetrate moderate thicknesses of enemy armor. During the Vietnam War, the weapon was used primarily against NVA and Viet Cong defensive works and
emplacements, as there were few encounters against enemy armor. Overall, the LAW was regarded as a success,
though its ignition system frequently suered from misres in the heat and humidity of Vietnamese jungles. The
LAW has since been replaced by the AT4 (M136).
Weapon systems like the RPG-29 and FGM-148 Javelin

use a Tandem warhead where the rst warhead disables
reactive armor, while the second warhead defeats the shell
armor by means of a HEAT or a shaped charge.
Today the anti-tank role is lled with a variety of
weapons, such as portable top attackartillery ammunition and missiles, larger HEAT missiles red from
ground vehicles and helicopters, a variety of high velocity autocannon, and ever-larger and heavier tank guns.
One of the rst lessons of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conict is the eectiveness of portable rocket propelled
grenades, in particular, Russian-made RPG-29, and
Metis-M, Kornet and European MILAN anti-tank missiles.
7.8 See also

Anti-tank grenade
Bumbar
Czech hedgehog
List of anti-tank guns
7.9 References
Notes
[1] Macksey, K., Tank vs Tank, Grub Street, London, 1999,
p.32
[2] John Norris, Anti-tank weapons, p.7
[3] Terry Gander and Peter Chamberlain, Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the Third Reich, MacDonald and Janes, London, 1978, p.107
[4] Lone Sentry: New Weapons for Jap Tank Hunters (U.S.
WWII Intelligence Bulletin, March 1945)
[5] Leonard Thomas Piper. WW2 People's War (article
a2504530). Retrieved 20 July 2006.
[6] Schaedler, Luc (Accepted in Autumn Semester 2007 On
the Recommendation of Prof. Dr. Michael Oppitz).
Angry Monk: Reections on Tibet: Literary, Historical,
and Oral Sources for a Documentary Film (PDF) (Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Arts of the University of
Zurich For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy). University of Zurich, Faculty of Arts. p. 518. Archived from
the original (PDF) on 2010/09. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Check date values in: |archivedate=, |date= (help)
[7] Harmsen, Peter (2013). Shanghai 1937: Stalingrad on
the Yangtze (illustrated ed.). Casemate. p. 112. ISBN
161200167X. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[8] Chinese Tank Forces and Battles before 1949. TANKS!
e-Magazine (#4). Summer 2001. Retrieved 2 August
2014. |chapter= ignored (help)
[9] Xin Hui (1-8-2002). Xinhui Presents: Chinese Tank
Forces and Battles before 1949:". Newsletter 1-8-2002
Articles. Retrieved 2 August 2014. Check date values in:
|date= (help)
[10] Ong, Siew Chew (2005). China Condensed: 5000 Years
of History & Culture (illustrated ed.). Marshall Cavendish.
p. 94. ISBN 9812610677. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[11] Olsen, Lance (2012). Taierzhuang 1938 Stalingrad
1942. Numistamp (Clear Mind Publishing). ISBN 9780-9838435-9-7. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[12] STORM OVER TAIERZHUANG 1938 PLAYERS
AID SHEET(PDF). grognard.com. Retrieved 24 April
2014.
59
[13] International Press Correspondence, Volume 18. Richard

Neumann. 1938. p. 447. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[14] Epstein, Israel (1939). The people's war. V. Gollancz. p.
172. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[15] Helicopters at War, Blitz Editions, p. 63, ISBN 1-85605345-8.
[16] Verier, Mike. Bell AH-1 Cobra. Osprey Publishing, 1990.
ISBN 0-85045-934-6.
[17] Baasjan howitzer (RSA) (Exhibit), South African Armour
Museum, Bloemfontein: South African National Defence
Force, 2014
[18] Hezbollah anti-tank re causing most IDF casualties in
Lebanon - Haaretz Daily Newspaper | Israel News
[19] Telegraph article. The Daily Telegraph.
[20] NYtimes.com
7.10 External links

A 1987 U.S. Army news archive about light antitank weapon training by the 7th Infantry Division
(Light), Fort Ord, Calif.
Chapter 8
F.R. Simms' Motor Scout, built in 1898 as an armed car.

Eland Mk7 light armoured car at the South African Armour Museum, Bloemfontein.
derstood today, as they provided no real protection for

their crews against any kind of opposing re. They were
also, by virtue of their small capacity engines, far less efA military armored (or armoured) car is a wheeled light cient than the cavalry and horse-drawn guns that they
armored vehicle, lighter than other armored ghting ve- were intended to complement.
hicles, primarily being armored and/or armed for selfdefense of the occupants. Other multi-axled wheeled military vehicles can be quite large, and actually be superior
to some smaller tracked vehicles in terms of armor and 8.1.2 First armored cars
armament.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the rst military armored vehicles were manufactured, by adding armor and weapons to existing vehicles.
8.1 History
The rst armoured car was the Simms' Motor War

Car, designed by F.R. Simms and built by Vickers,
8.1.1 Armed car
Sons & Maxim of Barrow on a special Coventry-built
Daimler chassis* [2] with a German-built Daimler motor
The Motor Scout was designed and built by British inin 1899.* [2] and a single prototype was ordered in April
ventor F.R. Simms in 1898. It was the rst armed petrol 1899* [2] The prototype was nished in 1902,* [2] too late
engine powered vehicle ever built. The vehicle was a to be used during the Boer War.
De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a mounted Maxim machine gun on the front bar. An iron shield in front of the The vehicle had Vickers armour 6 mm thick and was
powered by a four-cylinder 3.3-litre* [2] 16 hp Cannstatt
car protected the driver.* [1]
Daimler engine giving it a maximum speed of around 9
Another early armed car was invented by Royal Page miles per hour (14.5 km/h). The armament, consisting
Davidson at Northwestern Military and Naval Academy of two Maxim guns, was carried in two turrets with 360
in 1898 with the Davidson-Duryea gun carriage and the traverse.* [3]* [4] It had a crew of four. Simms' Motor
later Davidson Automobile Battery armored car.
War Car was presented at the Crystal Palace, London, in
However, these were not 'armored cars' as the term is un- April 1902.* [5]
60
8.1. HISTORY
F.R. Simms' 1902 Motor War Car, the rst armored car to be
built.
61
A Rolls-Royce Armoured Car 1920 pattern
was achieved by the Belgian Army in AugustSeptember

1914. They had placed Cockerill armour plating and
a Hotchkiss machine gun on Minerva Armored Cars.
Their successes in the early days of the war convinced
the Belgian GHQ to create a Corps of Armoured Cars,
who would be sent to ght on the Eastern front once
the western front immobilized after the Battle of the
Yser.* [11]* [12]* [13]
The British Royal Naval Air Service dispatched aircraft to
Dunkirk to defend the UK from Zeppelins. The ocers'
cars followed them and these began to be used to rescue
downed reconnaissance pilots in the battle areas. They
mounted machine guns on them* [14] and as these excursions became increasingly dangerous, they improvised
boiler plate armoring on the vehicles provided by a local
The earliest French armored car - the Charron-Girardot-Voigt
shipbuilder. In London Murray Sueter orderedghting
1902.
carsbased on Rolls-Royce, Talbot and Wolseley chassis. By the time Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars arrived in
Another early armoured car of the period was the French December 1914, the mobile period on the Western Front
Charron, Girardot et Voigt 1902, presented at the Sa- was already over.* [15] As described below, they had a
lon de l'Automobile et du cycle in Brussels, on 8 March fascinating birth and long and interesting service.
1902.* [6] The vehicle was equipped with a Hotchkiss More tactically important was the development of formed
machine gun, and with 7 mm armour for the gun- units of armoured cars, such as the Canadian Automobile
ner.* [7]* [8]
Machine Gun Brigade, which was the rst fully mechanized unit in the history of the British Army. The brigade
was established on September 2, 1914 in Ottawa, as Automobile Machine Gun Brigade No. 1 by BrigadierGeneral Raymond Brutinel. The Brigade was originally
equipped with 8 Armoured Autocars mounting 2 machine guns. By 1918 Brutinel's force consisted of two
8.1.3 World War I
Motor Machine Gun Brigades (each of ve gun batteries containing eight weapons apiece).* [16] The brigade,
Generally, the armored cars were used by more or less and its armoured cars, provided yeoman service in many
independent car commanders. However, sometimes they battles, notably at Amiens.* [17]
were used in larger units up to squadron size. The cars The Rolls-Royce Armoured Car was famously proposed,
were primarily armed with light machine guns. But larger developed, and utilised* [18] by the 2nd Duke of Westunits usually employed a few cars with heavier guns. As minster. He took a squadron of these cars to France in
air power became a factor, armored cars oered a mobile time to make a noted contribution to the Second Battle
platform for anti-aircraft guns.* [10]
of Ypres, and thereafter the cars with their master were
The Italians used armored cars during the Italo-Turkish
War.* [9] A great variety of armored cars appeared on
both sides during World War I and these were used in
various ways.
The rst eective use of an armored vehicle in combat sent to the Middle East to play a part in the British
62
CHAPTER 8. ARMORED CAR (MILITARY)
campaign in Palestine and elsewhere. These cars appear

in the memoirs of numerous ocers of the BEF during
the earlier stages of the Great War - their ducal master
often being described in an almost piratical style.
8.1.4
World War II
A Fordson armoured car waits outside Baghdad while negotiations for an armistice take place between British ocials and
representatives of the Iraqi rebel government.
Panzersphwagen.
The Soviet BA-64 was inuenced by a captured Leichter
Panzersphwagen before it was rst tested in January
1942.
In the second half of the war, the American M8 Greyhound and the British Daimler Armoured Cars featured
turrets with light guns (40 mm or less) mounted in turrets.
As with other wartime armored cars, their reconnaissance
roles emphasized greater speed and stealth than a tracked
vehicle could provide, so their limited armor, armament
and o-road capabilities were seen as acceptable compromises.
American troops in an M8 Greyhound passing the Arc de Triomphe after the liberation of Paris
8.2 Military use
The British Royal Air Force (RAF) in the Middle East See also: List of military armored cars
was equipped with Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars and Mor- A military armored car is a type of armored ghting vehiris tenders. Some of these vehicles were among the last
of a consignment of ex-Royal Navy armored cars that
had been serving in the Middle East since 1915.* [19] In
September 1940 a section of the No. 2 Squadron RAF
Regiment Company was detached to General Wavells
ground forces during the rst oensive against the Italians in Egypt. It is said that these armored cars became
the eyes and ears of Wavell. During the actions in the
October of that year the Company was employed on convoy escort tasks, aireld defense, ghting reconnaissance
patrols and screening operations.
During the Anglo-Iraqi War, some of the units located
in the British Mandate of Palestine* [20] were sent to
Iraq and drove Fordson armored cars.* [21] Fordson
armored cars were Rolls-Royce armored cars which received new chassis from a Fordson truck in Egypt.
Since the Treaty of Versailles did not mention armored
cars, Germany began developing them early. By the start A preserved, World War 2, American M3 Scout Car
of the new war, the German army possessed some highly
eective reconnaissance vehicles, such as the Schwerer cle having wheels (from four to ten large, o-road wheels)
8.3. SEE ALSO

instead of tracks, and usually light armor. Armored cars
are typically less expensive and on roads have better speed
and range than tracked military vehicles. They do however have less mobility as they have less o-road capabilities because of the higher ground pressure. They also
have less obstacle climbing capabilities than tracked vehicles. Wheels are more vulnerable to enemy re than
tracks, they have a higher signature and in most cases less
armor than comparable tracked vehicles. As a result they
are not intended for heavy ghting; their normal use is
for reconnaissance, command, control, and communications, or for use against lightly armed insurgents or rioters. Only some are intended to enter close combat, often
accompanying convoys to protect soft-skinned vehicles.
63
and irregular forces adapt civilian vehicles into AFVs (armored ghting vehicles) and troop carriers, and in some
regional conicts these technicals are the only combat vehicles present. On occasion, even the soldiers of
national militaries are forced to adapt their civilian-type
vehicles for combat use, often using improvised armor
and scrounged weapons.
8.3 See also
Light armored cars, such as the British Ferret are armed

with just a machine gun. Heavier vehicles are armed with
autocannon or a small tank gun. The heaviest armored
cars, such as the German, World War II era SdKfz 234
or the modern, US M1128 Mobile Gun System, mount
the same guns that arm medium tanks.
A preserved, World War II, German SdKfz 234/4 heavy armored

car (German Tank Museum, 2006)
Vehicle built by railway shop workers for the Danish resistance

movement, near the end of World War 2
Armored cars are popular for peacekeeping or internal

security duties. Their appearance is less confrontational
and threatening than tanks, and their size and maneuverability is said to be more compatible with tight urban Soviet BRDM-2
spaces designed for wheeled vehicles. However they do
have a larger turning radius compared to tracked vehicles
Armored bus
which can turn on the spot and their tires are vulnerable
and are less capable in climbing and crushing obstacles.
Armored personnel carrier
However when there is true combat they are easily out Armored car (VIP)
gunned and lightly armored. The threatening appearance
of a tank is often enough to keep an opponent from at Armoring:
tacking, whereas a less threatening vehicle such as an ar Aramid
mored car is more likely to be attacked.
Bulletproof glass
Many modern forces now have their dedicated armored
Twaron
car designs, to exploit the advantages noted above. Ex Vehicle armor
amples would be the M1117 Armored Security Vehicle
of the USA or Alvis Saladin of the post-World War II era
Gun truck
in the United Kingdom.
Tankette
Alternatively, civilian vehicles may be modied into improvised armored cars in ad hoc fashion. Many militias
Technical (vehicle)
64
8.4 Notes
[1] Macksey, Kenneth (1980). The Guinness Book of Tank
Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives Limited, ISBN 085112-204-3.
[2] Edward John Barrington Douglas-Scott-Montagu Baron
Montagu of Beaulieu; Lord Montagu; David Burgess Wise
(1995). Daimler Century: The Full History of Britain's
Oldest Car Maker. Haynes Publications. ISBN 978-185260-494-3.
[3] Macksey, Kenneth (1980). The Guinness Book of Tank
Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives Limited. p. 256.
ISBN 0-85112-204-3.
[4] Tucker, Spencer (1999). The European Powers in the First
World War. Routledge. p. 816. ISBN 0-8153-3351-X.
[5] Armoured Fighting Vehicules of the World, Duncan, p.3
[6] Gougaud, Alain (1987). L'aube de la gloire: les autos mitrailleuses et les chars franais pendant la Grande
Guerre, histoire technique et militaire, arme blinde, cavalerie, chars, Muse des blinds. p. 11. ISBN 978-2904255-02-1.
[7] Early Armoured Cars E. Bartholomew, p.4
[8] Gougaud, p.11-12
[9] Crow, Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, pg. 102
[10] Crow, Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, pg. 25
[11] http://www.philatelicdatabase.com/postal-history/
wwi-belgium-armoured-car-division-in-russia/
[12] http://www.wio.ru/tank/for-rus.htm
[13] http://www.greatwardifferent.com/Great_War/Russia/
Russia_00.htm
[14] Band of Brigands p 59
[15] First World War - Willmott, H.P., Dorling Kindersley,
2003, Pg. 59
[16] P. Grith p 129 Battle Tactics on the Western Front The British Army's art of attack 191618 Yale university
Press quoting the Ocial History 1918 vol.4, p42
[17] Cameron Pulsifer (2007). ' 'The Armoured Autocar in
Canadian Service' ', Service Publications
[18] Verdin, Lt.-Col. Sir Richard (1971). The Cheshire (Earl
of Chester's) Yeomanry. Birkenhead: Willmer Bros. Ltd.
pp. 5051.
[19] Lyman, Iraq 1941, pg. 40
[20] Lyman, p. 57
[21] Lyman, Iraq 1941, pg. 25
CHAPTER 8. ARMORED CAR (MILITARY)
8.5 References
Crow, Duncan, and Icks, Robert J., Encyclopedia
of Armored Cars, Chatwell Books, Secaucus, NJ,
1976. ISBN 0-89009-058-0.
8.6 External links

WWI armored cars
Modern armored vehicles
Chapter 9
The British Mark IX tank was the rst specialised armoured personnel carrier.
A M113, one of the most common tracked APCs, during the
Vietnam War
An armoured personnel carrier (APC) is type of

armoured ghting vehicle (AFV) designed to transport
infantry to the battleeld. APCs are colloquially referred to as 'battle taxis' or 'battle buses', among other
things. Armoured personnel carriers are distinguished
from infantry ghting vehicles by the weaponry they
carry.
The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe denes them as an armoured combat vehicle which is designed and equipped to transport a combat infantry squad
and which, as a rule, is armed with an integral or organic
weapon of less than 20 millimeters calibre.* [1] By con- Czechoslovak and Polish OT-64 SKOT
vention, they are not intended to take part in direct-re
battle, but are armed for self-defence and armoured to
out infantry support, the tanks were isolated and more
provide protection from shrapnel and small arms re.
easily destroyed. In response, the British experimented
Examples include the American M113, the French VAB, with carrying a squad of infantry in a lengthened verthe Dutch-German GTK Boxer and the Soviet BTR.
sion of the Mark V tank. When that proved unworkable,
Britain designed the rst purpose built armoured troop
transport, the Mark IX but it arrived too late to see
combat.
9.1 History
The genesis of the armoured personnel carrier was on the
Western Front of World War I. In the later stage of the
war, Allied tanks could break through enemy lines, but
the infantry following who were needed to consolidate
the gains still faced small arms and artillery re. With-
During World War II, half-tracks like the American M3

and German SdKfz 251 played a role similar to post-war
APCs. British Commonwealth forces relied on the fulltracked Universal Carrier. Over the course of the war,
APCs evolved from simple armoured cars with transport capacity, to purpose built vehicles. Obsolete ar-
65
66
CHAPTER 9. ARMOURED PERSONNEL CARRIER
moured vehicles were also repurposed as APCs, such as

the various "Kangaroos" converted from M7 Priest selfpropelled guns and from Churchill, M3 Stuart and Ram
tanks.
greatly between vehicles. The maximum swim speed of

the M113 is 3.8 mph (6.1 km/h), whereas the LAV-25
and AAVP-7 about double that at 6.5 and 8.2 mph (10.5
and 13.2 km/h), respectively.
During the Cold War, more specialized APCs were developed. The United States introduced a series of them,
9.2.2
including successors to the wartime Landing Vehicle
Tracked; but the most prolic was the M113 armored
personnel carrier, of which 80,000 were produced. Western nations have since retired most M113s, replacing
them with newer APCs, many of these wheeled. The
Soviet Union produced the BTR-40, BTR-152, BTR60, BTR-70, BTR-80 in large numbers. The BTR-60
and BTR-80 remain in production. Czechoslovakia and
Poland together developed the universal amphibious OT64 SKOT. A cold war example of a Kangaroois the
heavily armoured Israeli Achzarit, converted from captured T-55s tanks.
Armour
9.2 Design
Most armoured personnel carriers use a diesel engine
comparable to that used in a large truck or in a typical LVTP-5 amphibious armored ghting vehicles, 1966
city bus. The M113 for instance used the same engine as
the standard GM city bus.
APCs must provide a minimum amount of protection
Weight can vary from 6 to 40 tons or more, but 9 to 20 against small arms re to be considered as such, though
tons is typical. Most have a capacity of between 8 and 12 some provide as much protection as a main battle tank,
dismountable troops, although some can carry more than as is the case of the IDF Namer, which is based on a
20. In addition, it has a crew of at least one driver, many Merkava tank. Armour is usually composed of steel or
aluminium. Some APCs also come with NBC protection,
with a gunner and/or commander as well.
which is intended to provide protection from weapons of
mass destruction.
9.2.1
Mobility
An APC is either wheeled or tracked, or occasionally a

combination of the two, as in a half-track. Both systems
have advantages and limitations.
Generally APCs will be lighter and less armoured than

tanks or IFVs, often being open topped and featuring
doors and windows, as seen in the French VAB.
Tracked vehicles have more traction o-road and more 9.2.3

maneuverability, including a minute turn radius. Due to
the limited service life of their treads, plus the wear they
cause on roads,* [2] tracked vehicles are typically transported cross country by rail, atbed trucks or purpose
built transporters.
Weaponry
Wheeled APCs are faster on road, and can cross long

distances. Wheeled vehicles have higher ground pressure than tracked vehicles with a comparable weight, due
to tracks having more surface area in contact with the
ground. The higher ground pressure increases the likelihood of becoming immobilized by terrains such as mud,
snow or sand.* [2]
Many APCs are amphibious. Their tracks can propel the
APC in the water. Wheeled APCs will include propellers
or water jets. Preparation for amphibious operations usually comprises checking the integrity of the hull and fold- The GTK Boxer is a German/Dutch APC. It is an example of the
ing down a trim vane in front. Water traverse speed varies modern pattern of 8x8 multirole armoured ghting vehicles.
9.4. VARIANTS
67
An APC carries a primary weapon no larger than a 20mm

autocannon, before falling into the "infantry ghting vehicle" sub-classication, and will most likely be outtted
with one or more machine guns ranging from 5.56mm to
7.62mm. The primary weapon is usually on the top of the
vehicle, mounted with either a simple pintle mount, in a
small turret, or a remote weapon system.
mobile medical units of the Medical Service may in no circumstances be attacked, but at all times be respected and
protected by the Parties to the conict. Although article 22
allows them to carry defensive weaponry, they are typically unarmed. Under Article 39, the emblem of the
medical service shall be displayed ... on all equipment
employed in the Medical Service. As such, armoured amPintle mounted weapons are now rare, due to the lack of bulances will be marked with ICRC recognized symbols.
crew protection. In World War II, the German Sd.Kfz.
251 half-track was equipped with at least one MG42 or
MG34, which could only be aimed in a small arc from
whichever end of the vehicle the weapon was mounted
and oered minimal protection to the gunner. Turrets 9.4 Variants
provides a traverse of 360 degrees and operator protection. Most APC turrets include a coaxial machine
gun(MG) alongside the primary weapon. A recent ad- 9.4.1 Infantry Fighting vehicle
vent, remote weapon systems (RWS) are used in lieu of
pintle mounts and provide the same level of operator pro- Main article: Infantry Fighting Vehicle
tection as a turret, with the added benet of increased
visibility without increasing the overall prole of the vehicle. However, unlike in a turret, the weapon cannot be
reloaded from inside the vehicle.
A common primary gun on an APC is a 50 caliber M2
Browning machine gun, or the equivalent 14.5mm KPV
heavy machine gun. The Stryker carries an M2 on a
CROWS RWS. 7.62mm machine guns are commonly
used as coaxial or secondary weapons. Several Eastern personnel carriers have forward facing machine guns, New Zealand LAV
or ring ports in the crew compartment. The AAVP7
mounts an M2 50 caliber as a coaxial machine gun, beside a Mark 19 automatic grenade launcher. Occasionally
APCs will be equipped with anti-tank missiles.
9.3 Medical use

Russian BMP-3
The infantry ghting vehicle (IFV) is a derivative of the
APC. Various classes of infantry ghting vehicles may
be deployed alongside tanks and APCs, in armoured and
mechanized forces. The fundamental dierence between
an APC and IFV, is the role they are designed to serve.
The CFE treaty stipulates an infantry ghting vehicle is
an APC with a cannon in excess of 20mm, and with this
additional repower the vehicle is more involved in combat, providing re support to dismounted infantry.
Not all infantry ghting vehicles are equivalent. The primary mechanized infantry vehicle of the Canadian armed
French medical VAB dsc06842
forces, the lightly armoured LAV-III, is classied as an
IFV because it is equipped with a M242 Bushmaster auAPCs may be used as armoured ambulances, to conduct tocannon. The US Army's heavily armoured M2 Bradley
evacuations of wounded personnel. These vehicles are carries the same autocannon, plus anti-tank missiles and
equipped with stretchers and medical supplies.
advanced optics, to serve in armoured divisions alongside
According to article 19 of the Geneva Conventions,* [3] M1 Abrams main battle tanks.
68
9.4.2
CHAPTER 9. ARMOURED PERSONNEL CARRIER
Infantry Mobility Vehicle
Main article: Infantry Mobility Vehicle

Infantry Mobility Vehicle (IMV) is a new name for the
[3] http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/publications/
icrc-002-0173.pdf
Bishop, Chris (2006). The Encyclopedia of Tanks

and Armored ghting vehicles: From World War I
to The Present Day. Grange Book. ISBN 978-159223-626-8
O'Malley, T. J., Hutchins, Ray (1996). Fighting
Vehicles: Armoured Personnel Carriers & Infantry
Fighting Vehicles. Greenhill Books. ISBN 1-85367211-4
The Bundeswehr ATF Dingo is an IMV used by several European

armed forces.
old concept of an armoured car, with an emphasis on

mine resistance. They've been primarily used to protect
passengers in unconventional theatres of war.
The South African Casspir was rst built in the late 1970s.
In the 21st century, they gained favour in the post-Soviet
geopolitical climate. Identical to earlier Humvees in design and function, the uparmoured M1114 is a clear example of this. The addition of armour grants protection
to passengers. M1114s have been largely replaced by purpose built MRAP vehicles.
IMVs generally feature a v-shaped underbelly designed
to deect mine blasts outwards, with additional crew protection features such as four-point seat belts, and seats
suspended from the roof or sides of the vehicle. Many
feature a remote weapon system. Usually 4x4, these
IMVs are distinct from both 8, 6, and 4 wheeled APCs
(such as the VAB), being closer in appearance to civilian
armoured money transporters.
9.5 See also

List of modern armoured ghting vehicles
SWAT vehicle (used by armed police)
9.6 References
[1] Treaty on conventional armed forces in Europe. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 1989. p.
[2] Skaarup, Harold A. Ironsides: Canadian Armoured
Fighting Vehicle Museums and Monuments.Google
Books. N.p., 2011. Web. 04 Apr. 2014. page 140
Chapter 10
Armoured recovery vehicle

10.1.3 Postwar
After World War II, most countries' MBT models also
had corresponding ARV variants. Many ARVs are also
equipped with a bulldozer blade that can be used as an
anchor when winching or as a stabiliser when lifting, a
pump to transfer fuel to another vehicle, and more. Some
can even carry a spare engine for eld replacement, such
as the German Leopard 1 ARV.
A British Conqueror Armoured Recovery Vehicle 2
An armoured recovery vehicle (ARV) is an armoured

vehicle used during combat for recovery or repair of
battle-damaged and inoperable armoured ghting vehicles. The term Armoured Repair and Recovery Vehicle(ARRV) is also used.
ARVs are normally built on the chassis of a main battle

tank (MBT), but some are also constructed on the basis of other armoured ghting vehicles, mostly armoured
personnel carriers (APCs). ARVs are usually built on the
basis of a vehicle in the same class as they are supposed to
recover; a tank-based ARV is used to recover tanks, while
an APC-based one recovers APCs (it does not have the
power to tow a much heavier tank).
10.1 Development history
Some combat engineering vehicles (CEVs) are based on

ARVs.
10.1.1
Early models
10.3 List of ARVs
During World War I, some British Mark IV heavy tanks

were tted with jibs to produce Salvage Tanks, but
The following is a list of ARVs by country, either dethe majority of their work was at the tank parks in aid of
signer/manufacturer or user.
maintaining and repairing damaged tanks.* [1]
10.1.2
Second World War
10.3.1 Canada
Ram ARV (WWII)

The rst true ARVs were introduced in World War II, of AVGP Husky (1976present)
ten by converting obsolete or damaged tanks, usually by
removing the turret and installing a heavy-duty winch to
free stuck vehicles, plus a variety of vehicle repair tools.
Some were also purpose-built in factories, using an exist- 10.3.2 Czechoslovakia
ing tank chassis with a hull superstructure to accommo VT-34 ARV (T-34 Chassis)
date repair and recovery equipment. Many of the latter
type of ARV had an A-frame or crane to allow the vehi VT-55A ARV (T-55 Chassis)
cle's crew to perform heavy lifting tasks, such as removing
VT-72B ARV (T-72 Chassis) - (1987 to 1989)
the engine from a disabled tank.
69
70
CHAPTER 10. ARMOURED RECOVERY VEHICLE

Type 11 Tank Recovery Vehicle - Type 10 Hitomaru Tank chassis
10.3.6 Germany
A German Army BPz3 Bel (2006)

M32 TRV, Yad La-Shiryon Museum, Israel
VPV (BVP-1 Chassis) - (1985 to 1989)
10.3.3
France
M32 Tank Recovery Vehicle, based on the Sherman

tank (from 1944)
M74 Tank Recovery Vehicle (19541975)
World War 2
Bergepanzer III - PzKpfw III chassis
Bergepanzer IV - PzKpfw IV chassis
Bergepanther (SdKfz 179) - PzKpfw V Panther chassis 347 produced (1943 to 1945).
Bergetiger - PzKpfw VI Tiger I chassis
AMX 30 D (from 1973), based on the AMX 30
Bergepanzer 38(t) - Jagdpanzer 38 chassis, 170 produced (1944 to 1945).
Leclerc MARS, based on the AMX-56 Leclerc
Bergepanzer T-34 - Captured T-34 chassis
10.3.4
Indonesia
Bel ARV (Bergepanzer)

Leguan AVLB (Brckenlegepanzer)
Kodiak AEV (Pionierpanzer)
10.3.5
Japan
Se-Ri Tank Recovery Vehicle - Type 97 Chi-Ha

Tank chassis
Type 70 Tank Recovery Vehicle - Type 61 Rokuichi Tank chassis
Type 78 Tank Recovery Vehicle - Type 74 Nanayon Tank chassis
Type 90 Tank Recovery Vehicle - Type 90 Kymaru Tank chassis
Modern
Bergepanzer M74 (Sherman Chassis) - rst
TRV/ARV of the West German Bundeswehr, 300
used 1956-1960 (see M74 entry under United
States).
Bergepanzer 1 - M88 Chassis, the rst of 125 entered service in 1962 and a 1985 modernization program replaced the gasoline engine with a diesel and
improved the hoist.
Bergepanzer 2 - Leopard 1 tank chassis. Used by the
Canadian Forces since the 1990s as Taurus ARV.
Bergepanzer 3 Bel - Leopard 2 chassis
Bergepanzer Wisent - Bergepanzer 2 chassis. Modied and upgraded by Flensburger Fahrzeugbau to
support the demands of the future battleeld. Optimised to support the Leopard 1 and 2 main battle
tanks.
10.3. LIST OF ARVS
71
Bergepanzer Wisent 2 - Leopard 2 chassis. Succes- 10.3.10 Poland

sor of the Wisent. Build by Flensburger Fahrzeug CW-34 (T-34 Chassis)
bau.
WPT-34 (T-34, SU-85 and SU-100 Chassis)
10.3.7
Israel
WZT-1 (T-54 and T-55 Chassis)

WZT-2 (T-55 Chassis)
WZT-3 (T-72M Chassis)
WZT-4 (PT-91M Chassis) produced for Malaysia
WPT-TOPAS (TOPAS Chassis)
WPT-MORS (MTLB Chassis)
KWZT MAMMOTHHeavy Wheeled Evacuation and Technical Rescue Vehicle (TATRA T 815
7Z0R9T 44 440 8x8.1R Chassis)
10.3.11 Serbia/Yugoslavia
A Trail Blazer, Yad La-Shiryon Museum, Israel
Trail Blazer (Gordon) (Sherman chassis) - An

IDF recovery/engineering vehicle based on HVSS
equipped M4A1s Sherman tanks, it featured a large
single boom crane (as opposed to the A-Frame of
the M32) and large spades at the front and rear of
the vehicle to assist in lifting. It could also tow up to
72 tons.
TechnicalandFitter- ARVs based on the M113 with crane attached
Nemera - modern recovery vehicle based on A Serbian VIU-55 Munja (2007)
Merkava tank chassis. Several prototypes have been
M-84ABI - The ARV based on Yugoslav/Serbian
built, but it never elded in large number in the IDF.
M-84 MBT.
The current ARV in IDF use is the American-made
VIU-55 Munja
M88 Recovery Vehicle, which is accompanied and
assisted by an IDF Caterpillar D9 armoured bulldozer.
10.3.12 Soviet Union
10.3.8
Malaysia
WZT4 build by Polish Bumar-abdy
The Russian acronym BREM (cyr. ) stands for

" - ",
literally armoured repair and recovery vehicle.
BTS-2 (T-54 Chassis)
BTS-4A (T-54 Chassis)
10.3.9
Mexico
M32 Chenca (Sherman chassis) - In 1998, Napco

International of the USA upgraded M32B1 TRV
M4 Sherman-chassis armoured recovery vehicles
with Detroit Diesel 8V-92-T diesel engines (see
M32 entry under United States).
BREM-1 (T-72 Chassis)

BREM-2 (BMP-1 Chassis)
BREM-L (BMP-3 Chassis)
BREM-K (BTR-80 Chassis)
BREM-80U (T-80U Chassis)
72
CHAPTER 10. ARMOURED RECOVERY VEHICLE

Grant ARV - two Marks, the rst was a British conversion, the second was a US M31 TRV in British
service
Sherman III ARV I - Amoured Recovery Vehicle
conversion of Sherman III (M4A2), similarlySherman V ARV Mark Iand ARV Mark II
Sherman ARV II - conversion of Sherman V with
dummy gun in xed turret, 7.5 ton jib at front,
spade earth anchor at rear.* [2]
Sherman II ARV Mk III was a M32B1 TRV (see
US ARV).
Modern
Centurion ARV
A Grant-based ARV recovers a Daimler Dingo armoured car.

Italy, February 1945
FV219 - on A45 Universal tankchassis

FV 220 Conqueror ARV
Chieftain FV4204 ARV/ARRV
FV434 Carrier, Maintenance, Full Tracked
M578
Challenger Armoured Repair and Recovery Vehicle
(CRARRV)
FV106 Samson - complement to the Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) series of vehicles
FV513 Warrior Recovery Vehicle - complement to
the Warrior tracked armoured vehicles
Centurion MkII ARV,Yad La-Shiryon Museum, Israel
BARV (World War 2 to Modern)
10.3.13
United Kingdom
The British tested their rst ARV designs in early 1942.

The decision at the time was to focus on the Churchill
infantry tank as the basis, but cruiser tank based ARVs
were also produced. When the UK received supplies of
US medium tanks - rst the M3, then M4 Sherman, conversions were made of these to operate alongside and so
simplify support.
World War 2
Cavalier ARV
Churchill ARV
Crusader ARV
Centaur Arv
Cromwell ARV
The BARV is a British military support vehicle, the

name coming fromBeach Armoured Recovery Vehicle, for working in shallow water. Various models were based on the M4A2 Sherman, Centurion
and Leopard 1A5
( Hippo)tank chassis. Australia
converted a M3A5 Grant to a BARV conguration.
10.3.14 United States

M31 Tank Recovery Vehicle - based on M3 Lee
chassis. (sometimes called a T2 tank retriever)
M32 Tank Recovery Vehicle, or M32 TRV, based
on the Sherman tank chassis with turret replaced by
xed superstructure, 60,000 lb (27,000 kg) winch
and an 18 feet (5.5 m) long pivoting A-frame jib
installed. An 81 mm mortar was also added into the
hull, primarily for screening purposes.
M32B1 - M32s converted from M4A1s (some
converted to M34 artillery prime movers).

M32A1B1 - M32B1s with HVSS, later
removing the 81 mm mortar and incorporating crane improvements.
M32B2 - M32s converted from M4A2s.
M32A1B3 - M32B3s brought up to
M32A1B1 standard.
73
10.6 External links

REME Museum of Technology
Bergepanzer III
Bergepanzer 38(t) Hetzer
Bergepanzer 38(t) Hetzer - in Polish
Bergepanzer Leopard 1
M74 Tank Recovery Vehicle - Upgrade of the

M32 to provide the same capability with regards
to heavier post-war tanks, converted from M4A3
HVSS tanks. In appearance, the M74 is very similar to the M32, tted with an A-Frame crane, a main
towing winch, an auxiliary winch, and a manual utility winch. The M74 also has a front mounted spade
that can be used as a support or as a dozer blade.
Leopard 1 ARV in Dutch
M74B1 - Same as the M74, but converted

from M32B3s.
WZT-3 ARV - in German
M578 - based on the M110 chassis.

M51 Heavy Recovery Vehicle - based on the M103
heavy tank chassis.
M88 Recovery Vehicle - based on the chassis and
parts of the automotive component of the M48 Patton & M60 Patton.
10.4 See also

Allied Technological Cooperation During WW2
Armoured warfare
Army engineering maintenance
List of AFVs
Tank transporter
10.5 References
10.5.1
Notes
[1] AFV Prole No. 3 Tanks Mark I - V Prole Publishing.

[2] Chamberlain and Norman p179
10.5.2
Bibliography
Peter Chamberlain and Major-General N.W. Duncan. AFV Weapons Proles No.35 British Armoured Recovery Vehicles + Wheels, Tracks and
Transporters (1971) Prole Publishing
Czechoslovak VT-34 ARV

Czechoslovak VT-55A ARV
Czechoslovak VT-72B ARV - in Czech
Czechoslovak VPV - in Czech]
BREM-1 ARRV
BREM-K ARV
BREM-L ARV
BREM-80U ARRV
Chapter 11
Assault rie
For the United States legal and political term, see assault 400 metres (1,300 ft) and that contemporary riweapon.
es were over-powered for most small arms comAn assault rie is a selective re rie that uses an bat.* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6] They sought to develop a selectre intermediate powered rie combining the repower
of a submachine gun with the accuracy and range of
a rie.* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6] This was done by shortening the standard 7.9257mm cartridge to 7.9233mm
and giving it a lighter 125 grain bullet, that limited range but allowed for more controllable automatic
re.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7] A smaller lighter cartridge also
allowed soldiers to carry more ammunition to support
the higher consumption rate of automatic re.* [2]
The StG 44, an early German assault rie, was adopted by the
Wehrmacht in 1944. It res the 7.9233mm Kurz round.
Currently the most used assault rie in the world, the AK-47 was
rst adopted in 1949 by the Soviet Army. It res the 7.6239mm
M43 round.
The result was the Sturmgewehr 44, which the Germans

produced in large numbers; approximately half-a-million
were made.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6] Unlike previous rie designs
it introduced an over-the-barrel gas system, straight stock
and pistol grip to reduce recoil and improve handling
characteristics.* [2] The principle of this weapon...was
probably the most important advance in small arms since
the invention of smokeless powder.* [7]
11.1 Denition
The termAssault Rieis generally attributed to Adolf

Hitler, who for propaganda purposes used the German
wordSturmgewehr(which translates to 'assault rie'),
as the new name for the MP43, subsequently known as the
Sturmgewehr 44 or StG 44.* [4]* [8]* [9]* [10]* [11]* [12]
Although, some sources dispute that Hitler had much to
do with coining the new name besides signing the production order.* [13] The StG 44 is generally considered
the rst selective re military rie to popularize the asThe M16 was rst introduced into service in 1964 with the United sault rie concept. Today, the term assault rie is used to
States Armed Forces. It res the 5.5645mm NATO cartridge
dene rearms sharing the same basic characteristics as
and is the second most used assault rie in the world after the
the StG 44.
AK-47.
In a strict denition, a rearm must have at least the
intermediate cartridge and a detachable magazine.* [1] following characteristics to be considered an assault riAssault ries are currently the standard service ries in e:* [14]* [15]* [16]
most modern armies. Examples of assault ries include
the StG 44, AK-47 and the M16 rie.
It must be an individual weapon
The Germans were the rst to pioneer the assault ri It must be capable of selective re
e concept, during World War II, based upon re It must have an intermediate-power cartridge: more
search that showed that most reghts happen within
74
11.2. HISTORY
75
power than a pistol but less than a standard rie or and entered widespread service in the Soviet army in the
battle rie
early 1950s.* [23] Its repower, ease of use, low production costs, and reliability was perfectly suited for the
Its ammunition must be supplied from a detachable Red Army's new mobile warfare doctrines.* [23] The AKbox magazine* [17]
47 was widely supplied or sold to nations allied with
And it should have an eective range of at least 300 the USSR and the blueprints were shared with several
friendly nations (the People's Republic of China standing
metres (330 yards)
out among these with the Type 56).* [23]* [26]
Ries that meet most of these criteria, but not all, are The U.S. Army was inuenced by combat experience
technically not assault ries despite frequently being with semi-automatic weapons such as the M1 Garand and
M1 carbine, which enjoyed a signicant advantage over
called such.
enemies armed primarily with bolt-action ries.* [27] AlFor example:
though U.S. Army studies of World War II combat accounts had very similar results to that of the Germans
Select-re M2 Carbines are not assault ries; their and Soviets, the U.S. Army maintained its traditional
eective range is only 200 meters.* [18]
views and preference for high-powered semi-automatic
ries.* [6]
Select-re ries such as the FN FAL battle rie are
not assault ries; they re full-powered rie car- After World War II, the United States military started
looking for a single automatic rie to replace the M1
tridges.
Garand, M1/M2 Carbines, M1918 Browning Automatic
Semi-automatic-only ries like variants of the Colt Rie, M3 Grease Gun and Thompson submachine
AR-15 are not assault ries; they do not have select- gun.* [6] However, early experiments with select-re verre capabilities.
sions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing.* [28] During the Korean War, the select-re M2 Carbine largely
Semi-auto ries with xed magazines like the SKS
replaced submachine guns in US service.* [13] Although,
are not assault ries; they do not have detachable box
combat experience suggested that the .30 Carbine round
magazines and are not capable of automatic re.
was underpowered.* [29] American weapons designers
reached the same conclusion as the Germans and Soviets:
The U.S. Army denes assault ries as short, compact, an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended
selective-re weapons that re a cartridge intermediate a small caliber, high velocity cartridge.* [30]
in power between submachine gun and rie cartridges.
However, senior American commanders having
*
[19]
faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during WWII and the Korean
War,* [31]* [32]* [33]* [34]* [35] insisted that a single
11.2 History
powerful .30 caliber cartridge be developed, that could
not only be used by the new automatic rie, but by the
The Germans were the rst to pioneer the assault ri- new general purpose machine gun (GPMG) in cone concept, during World War II, based upon research current development.* [36]* [37] This culminated in the
that showed that most reghts happen within 400 me- development of the 7.6251mm NATO cartridge and the
ters and that contemporary ries were over-powered for M14 battle rie* [36] which was basically an improved
most small arms combat. The Germans sought to de- select-re M1 Garand with a 20-round magazine.* [38]
velop a select-re intermediate powered rie combining The U.S. also adopted the M60 GPMG.* [36] Its NATO
the repower of a submachine gun with the accuracy and partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 battle ries,
range of a rie. This was done by shortening the stan- as well as the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs.
dard 7.9257mm cartridge to 7.9233mm and giving it
The rst confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14
a lighter 125 grain bullet, that limited range but allowed
(assault rie vs battle rie) came in the early part of the
for more controllable automatic re. The result was the
Vietnam War. Battleeld reports indicated that the M14
Sturmgewehr 44.* [3]* [6]* [20]* [21]
was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not
Like the Germans, the Soviets were inuenced by ex- carry enough ammo to maintain re superiority over the
perience showing most combat happens within 400 me- AK-47.* [39] A replacement was needed: A medium beters and that their soldiers were consistently outgunned tween the traditional preference for high-powered ries
by heavily armed German troops, especially those armed such as the M14, and the lightweight repower of the M2
with the Sturmgewehr 44 assault ries.* [22]* [23] The So- Carbine.
viets were so impressed with the Sturmgewehr 44, that
As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957
after World War II, they held a design competition to derequest by General Willard G. Wyman, commander of
*
*
velop an assault rie of their own. [24] [25] The winner
the U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) to de*
was the AK-47 assault rie. [6] It was nalized, adopted
76
CHAPTER 11. ASSAULT RIFLE
velop a .223 caliber (5.56 mm) select-re rie weighing 6 lbs (2.7 kg) when loaded with a 20-round magazine.* [6] The 5.56mm round had to penetrate a standard
U.S. helmet at 500 yards (460 meters) and retain a velocity in excess of the speed of sound, while matching or
exceeding the wounding ability of the .30 Carbine cartridge.* [40]
bining in the same weapon the bullpup conguration, a

polymer housing, dual vertical grips, an optical sight as
standard, and a modular design. Highly reliable, light,
and accurate, the Steyr AUG showed clearly the potential of the bullpup layout. In 1978, France introduced the
5.5645mm FAMAS bullpup rie. In 1985, the British
introduced the 5.5645mm L85 bullpup rie. In the late
This request ultimately resulted in the development of a 1990s, Israel introduced the Tavor TAR-21 and China's
People's Liberation Army's adopted QBZ-95. By the
scaled-down version of the Armalite AR-10, called ARturn
of the century, the bullpup assault rie design had
*
*
*
15 rie. [41] [42] [43] However, despite overwhelming
achieved world-wide acceptance.
evidence that the AR-15 could bring more repower to
bear than the M14, the Army opposed the adoption of
the new rie.* [43] In January 1963, Secretary of Defense
Robert McNamara concluded that the AR-15 was the su- 11.3 Assault rie gallery
perior weapon system and ordered a halt to M14 production.* [43] At the time, the AR-15 was the only rie
The German StG 44, the rst assault rie manufacavailable that could fulll the requirement of a universal
tured in signicant numbers
infantry weapon for issue to all services. After modica A Russian AK-47 with machined receiver
tions (Most notably: the charging handle was re-located
from under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear
American 5.5645mm M16A1
of the receiver),* [42] the new redesigned assault rie was
subsequently adopted as the M16 rie.* [43]* [44]
Russian 5.4539mm AK-74 rie
In March 1970, the U.S. recommended that all NATO
forces adopt the 5.56x45mm cartridge.* [45] This shift
represented a change in the philosophy of the military's
long-held position about caliber size. By the middle of
the 1970s, other armies were looking at assault rie type
weapons. A NATO standardization eort soon started
and tests of various rounds were carried out starting
in 1977.* [45] The U.S. oered the 5.5645mm M193
round, but there were concerns about its penetration in
the face of the wider introduction of body armor.* [6] In
the end the Belgian 5.5645mm SS109 round was chosen (STANAG 4172) in October 1980.* [45] The SS109
round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new
stronger, heavier, 62 grain bullet design, with better long
range performance and improved penetration (specically, to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet
at 600 meters).* [6]
During the 1970s, the USSR developed the AK-74 assault rie and the 5.4539mm cartridge, which has similar physical characteristics to the U.S. 5.5645mm cartridge.* [46] Also during the 1970s, Finland, Israel, South
Africa and Sweden introduced AK type assault ries in
5.5645mm.* [47] During the 1990s, the Russians developed the AK-101 in 5.5645mm NATO for the world export market.* [48]* [49] In addition, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and Yugoslavia (i.e., Serbia) have
also rechambered their locally produced AK variants to
5.56mm NATO.* [50]* [51] The adoption these cartridges
cemented the world-wide trend toward small caliber, high
velocity cartridges.
The Austrian Steyr AUG was one of the rst bullpup

ries to enter widespread use.
French FAMAS G2 with bayonet
British SA-80 (L85A1) rie in 1996.
the Israeli Tavor TAR-21 with Holographic Weapon
Sight
China's People's Liberation Army's QBZ-95
Indian Army's INSAS
11.4 Assault ries vs.

weapons
assault
Main article: Assault weapon

The term assault rie when used in its proper context,
militarily or by its specic functionality, has a generally accepted denition with the rearm manufacturing
community.* [1] In more casual usage, the term assault
weaponis sometimes conated or confused with the
term assault rie.* [52]
In the United States "assault weapons" are usually dened

in legislation as semi-automatic rearms that have certain
features generally associated with military rearms, including assault ries. The 1994 Federal Assault Weapons
In 1977, Austria introduced the 5.5645mm Steyr AUG Ban, which expired on September 13, 2004, codied a
bullpup rie, often cited as the rst successful bullpup ri- denition of an assault weapon. It dened the rie type
e, nding service with the armed forces of over twenty of assault weapon as a semiautomatic rearm with the
countries. It was highly advanced for the 1970s, com- ability to accept a detachable magazine and two or more
of the following:
11.6. NOTES
a folding or telescoping stock
a pistol grip that protrudes conspicuously beneath
the action of the weapon
a bayonet mount
a ash suppressor or threaded barrel designed to accommodate a ash suppressor
a grenade launcher
Assault weapons legislation does not further restrict
weapons capable of fully automatic re, such as assault
ries and machine guns, which have been continuously
and heavily regulated since the National Firearms Act of
1934 was passed. Subsequent laws such as the Gun Control Act of 1968 and the Firearm Owners Protection Act
of 1986 also aected the importation and civilian ownership of fully automatic rearms, the latter fully prohibiting sales of newly manufactured machine guns to nonlaw enforcement or SOT (special occupational taxpayer)
dealers.* [53]
11.5 See also

Battle rie
Marksman rie
Sniper rie
Carbine
Personal defense weapon
Firearm action
List of assault ries
List of rearms
List of multiple barrel rearms
List of service ries of national armies
Comparison of the AK-47 and M16
Overview of gun laws by nation
11.6 Notes
Rose, Alexander. American Rie, A Biography.
2008, Bantam Dell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-55380517-8.
[1] ""Assault rie.Encyclopdia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 3 July 2010. Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
77
[2] http://pogoarchives.org/labyrinth/09/02.pdf M16 Rie

Case Study. Prepared for the Presidents Blue Ribbon Defense Panel. March 16, 1970. By Richard R. Hallock,
Colonel U.S. Army (Retired)
[3] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide, Ian Hogg & Terry Gander, HarperCollins Publisher, 2005, p.287
[4] Machine Carbine Promoted: MP43 Is Now Assault Rie StG44, WWII Tactical and Technical Trends, No. 57,
April 1945. Lone Sentry. 2007-05-10. Retrieved 201208-23.
[5] Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century, 7th Edition,
2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.243
[6] Major Thomas P. Ehrhart Increasing Small Arms Lethality in Afghanistan: Taking Back the Infantry HalfKilometer. US Army. 2009
[7] http://pogoarchives.org/labyrinth/09/02.pdf M16 Rie
Case Study. Prepared for the President's Blue Ribbon Defense Panel. March 16, 1970. By Richard R. Hallock,
Colonel U.S. Army (Retired)
[8] Musgave, Daniel D., and Thomas B. Nelson, The World's
Assault Ries, vol. II, The Goetz Company, Washington,
D.C. (1967)
[9] Myatt, Major Frederic, Modern Small Arms, Cresent
Books, New York (1978): 169
[10] Hogg, Ivan, and John Weeks, Military Small Arms of the
20th Century, third ed., Hippocrene Books, New York
(1977): 159
[11] Chris Bishop, The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World
War II, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2002, p. 218
[12] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century, 7th Edition, Ian
V. Hogg, page 243
[13] Rottman, Gordon. The AK-47: Kalashnikov-series assault
ries. Osprey Publishing. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-84908-8350.
[14] C. Taylor The Fighting Rie: A Complete Study of the Rie
in Combat, ISBN 0-87947-308-8
[15] F.A. Moyer Special Forces Foreign Weapons Handbook,
ISBN 0-87364-009-8
[16] R.J. Scroggie, F.A. Moyer Special Forces Combat Firing
Techniques, ISBN 0-87364-010-1
[17] Musgave, Daniel D., and Thomas B. Nelson, The World's
Assault Ries, vol. II, The Goetz Company, Washington,
D.C. (1967): 1
[18] Jane's Gun Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander.
HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 330
[19] US Army intelligence document FSTC-CW-07-03-70,
November 1970. Gunfax.com. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
[20] Machine Carbine Promoted: MP43 Is Now Assault Rie StG44, WWII Tactical and Technical Trends, No. 57,
April 1945. Lone Sentry. 2007-05-10. Retrieved 201208-23.
78

[22] Chapter 1. Symbol of violence, war and culture.
oneworld-publications.com
[23] Weapon Of Mass Destruction. The Washington Post. Retrieved on 2011-11-19.
[24] History of AK-47 Gun The Gun Book Review. Popular
Mechanics (2010-10-12). Retrieved on 2012-02-09.
[25] Scribd. Scribd. Retrieved 2012-08-23.
[26] Worldbank. Post-Conict Transitions Working Paper
No. 10. Weaponomics: The Global Market for Assault
Ries. Phillip Killicoat, Economics, Oxford University.
April 2007 (PDF). Retrieved 2010-04-03.
[27] Richard R. Hallock, Colonel (retired) of US Army M16
Case Study March 16, 1970
[28] http://www.nramuseum.com/media/940585/m14.pdf
|CUT DOWN in its Youth, Arguably Americas Best
Service Rie, the M14 Never Had the Chance to Prove
Itself. By Philip Schreier, SSUSA, September 2001, p
2429 & 46
[29] Arms of the Chosin Few. Americanrieman.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-23.
[30] Donald L. Hall An eectiveness study of the infantry rie
(PDF). Report No. 593. Ballistic Research Laboratories.
Maryland. March 1952 (released March 29, 1973)
[31] Fanaticism And Conict In The Modern Age, by Matthew
Hughes & Gaynor Johnson, Frank Cass & Co, 2005
[32] An Attempt To Explain Japanese War Crimes. Pacicwar.org.au. Retrieved 2012-08-23.
[33] South to the Naktong - North to the Yalu. History.army.mil. Retrieved 2012-08-23.
[34] HyperWar: The Big 'L'-American Logistics in World War
II. Ibiblio.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
CHAPTER 11. ASSAULT RIFLE
[42] Peter G. Kokalis Retro AR-15. nodakspud.com

[43] Danford Allan Kern The inuence of organizational culture on the acquisition of the m16 rie. m-14parts.com.
A thesis presented to the Faculty of the US Army Command and General Sta College in partial fulllment of
the requirements for the degree MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE, Military History. Fort
Leavenworth, Kansas 2006
[44] Report of the M16 assault rie review panel. Department
of the Army. dtic.mil. 1 June 1968
[45] Per G. Arvidsson Weapons & Sensors. NATO Army Armaments Group
[46] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by
Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications 2000.
page 271
pages 235, 258, 274, 278
[48] LEGION Ltd. the producer of high quality rearms with
period artistic treatment (threading, engraving, incrustation) and improved nishing. izhmash.ru
[49] http://www.militaryfactory.com/smallarms/detail.asp?
smallarms_id=256 |The Kalashnikov AK-101 is an
export assault rie in operational service withat least nine
nations worldwide
pages 233, 257, 266, 296
[51] http://www.arsenal-bg.com/defense_police/5.56_
arsenal_assault_rifle_ar-m1_ar-m1f.htm | Arsenal
AR-M1 5.56mm assault rie
[40] Hutton, Robert (ed.), The .223, Guns & Ammo Annual
Edition, 1971.
[52] Joseph P. Tartaro (1995). The Great Assault Weapon

Hoax. University of Dayton Law Review Symposium, Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act
of 1994, vol. 20, no. 2, 1995: 557. Retrieved 201301-03. One of the key elements of the anti-gun strategy
to gull the public into supporting bans on the so-called
assault weaponsis to foster confusion. As stated previously, the public does not know the dierence between a full automatic and a semi-automatic rearm.
They have been further hoodwinked by the television charades of people like New York's former Governor Mario
Cuomo talking about semi-automatic rearms while the
camera shows a full automatic ring. Fully automatic
weapons have been strictly regulated and registered since
1934. Real assault weapons are controlled by the 1934 law
and by laws in most states. There is no need for a new law
on semi-automatic rearms. However, the anti-gunners
responsible for the hoax have continued to perpetuate it
by exploiting public confusion.
[41] Ezell, Edward Clinton (1983). Small Arms of the World.

New York: Stackpole Books. pp. 4647. ISBN 978-088029-601-4.
[53] Full Text of H.R. 1022 (110th): Assault Weapons Ban

and Law Enforcement Protection Act of 2007. GovTrack.us. 2007-02-13. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
[35] The Logistics of Invasion. Almc.army.mil. Retrieved on

2011-11-23.
[36] Col. E. H. Harrison (NRA Technical Sta) New Service
Rie (PDF). June 1957
[37] Anthony G Williams Assault Ries And Their Ammunition: History and Prospects. Quarry.nildram.co.uk (revised 3 February 2012). Retrieved on 2011-11-23.
[38] M14 7.62mm Rie. Globalsecurity.org (1945-09-20).
Retrieved on 2011-11-23.
[39] Lee Emerson M14 Rie History and Development. October 10, 2006

Crawford, S. (2003). Twenty-First Century Small
Arms. MBI Publishing Company. ISBN 0-76031503-5
Cutshaw, C. (2006). Tactical Small Arms of the 21st
Century. Gun Digest Books. ISBN 0-87349-914-X
Halls, Chris. (1974) Guns in Australia, Paul Hamlyn, Sydney. ISBN 0-600-07291-6
Lewis, J. (2004). Assault Weapons: An In-Depth
Look at the Hottest Weapons Around. Krause Publications. ISBN 0-87349-658-2
Popenker, M. et al. (2004). Assault Rie: the Development of the Modern Military Rie and its Ammunition. Wiltshire: The Crowood Press Ltd. ISBN
1-86126-700-2
Senich, P. (1987). German Assault Rie: 1935
1945. Paladin Press. ISBN 0-87364-400-X
Salo, Pauli (2008) Rynnkkkivri (assault rie)7,62x39. 2. edition. ISBN 978-952-92-1328-3
11.8 External links

Assault Ries and their Ammunition: History and
Prospects
Infantry Magazine on Assault Rie Cartridges
Pre Sturmgewehr Assault Ries
79
Chapter 12
Attack helicopter
A British Apache res rockets at insurgents in Afghanistan in

2008.
An attack helicopter is an armed helicopter with the primary role of an attack aircraft, with the capability of engaging targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry and
armoured ghting vehicles. Due to their heavy armament
they are sometimes called helicopter gunships.
Weapons used on attack helicopters can include
autocannons, machine guns, rockets, and guided
anti-tank missiles such as the Hellre. Many attack helicopters are also capable of carrying air-to-air missiles,
though mostly for purposes of self-defense. Today's
attack helicopter has two main roles: rst, to provide
direct and accurate close air support for ground troops,
and the second, in the anti-tank role to destroy enemy
armor concentrations. Attack helicopters are also used
to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role.
In combat, an attack helicopter is projected to destroy
around 17 times its own production cost before it is
destroyed.* [1]
12.1 Background and development

Low-speed, xed wing Allied aircraft like the Soviet
Polikarpov Po-2 training and utility biplane had been
used as early as 1942 to provide night harassment attack
capability against the Wehrmacht Heer on the Eastern
Front, most eectively in the Battle of the Caucasus as
exemplied by the Night Witches all-female Soviet air
unit.* [2] Following Operation Overlord in 1944, the military version of the similarly slow-ying Piper J-3 Cub
high-wing civilian monoplane, the L-4 Grasshopper, begun to be used in a light anti-armor role by a few U.S.
Army artillery spotter units over France; these aircraft
were eld-outtted with either two or four bazooka rocket
launchers attached to the lift struts,* [3] against German
armored ghting vehicles. During the summer of 1944,
U.S. Army Major Charles Carpenter managed to successfully take on an anti-armor role with his rocket-armed
Piper L-4. His L-4, named Rosie the Rocketeer, armed
with six bazookas, had a notable anti-armor success during an engagement during the Battle of Arracourt on
September 20, 1944, knocking out at least four German
armored vehicles,* [4] as a pioneering example of taking
on heavy enemy armor from a slow-ying aircraft.* [5]
This role was something that was also likely to be achievable after World War II, from the increasing numbers of
post-war military helicopter designs. The only American
helicopter in use during the war years, the Sikorsky R-4,
was only being used for rescue and were still very much
experimental in nature.
In the early 1950s various countries around the world
started to make increased use of helicopters in their operations in transport and liaison roles. Later on it was
realised that these helicopters, successors to the World
War II-era Sikorsky R-4, could be armed with weapons
in order to provide them with limited combat capability.
Early examples include armed Sikorsky H-34s in service
with the US Air Force and armed Mil Mi-4 in service
with the Soviet Air Forces. This trend continued into
the 1960s with the deployment of armed Bell UH-1s and
Mil Mi-8s during the Vietnam War, to this day the pair
of most produced helicopter designs in aviation history.
These helicopters proved to be moderately successful in
these congurations, but due to a lack of armor protection
and speed, they were ultimately ineective platforms for
mounting weapons in higher-threat ground combat environments.
Since the 1960s various countries around the world
started to design and develop various types of helicopters
with the purpose of providing a heavily armed and protected aerial vehicle that can perform a variety of combat
roles, from reconnaissance to aerial assault missions.
By the 1990s, the missile-armed attack helicopter
evolved into a primary anti-tank weapon. Able to quickly
80
12.1. BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT
81
move about the battleeld and launch eeting pop-up

attacks, helicopters presented a major threat even with
the presence of organic air defenses. The helicopter gunship became a major tool against tank warfare, and most
attack helicopters became more and more optimized for
the antitank mission.* [6]
completed its rst ight and initial ight evaluations. And

while the Cheyenne program suered setbacks over the
next few years due to technical problems, the Cobra was
establishing itself as an eective aerial weapons platform,
despite its performance shortcomings compared to the
AH-56* [7] and design issues of its own. By 1972, when
the Cheyenne program was eventually cancelled to make
way for the Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH),* [7] the
interim AH-1 Snakehad built a solid reputation as
an attack helicopter. In June 1972 the USMC began deIn the mid-1960s the U.S. Army concluded that a ploying AH-1J SeaCobra Attack Helicopters for combat
purpose-built attack helicopter with more speed and re- operations in South Vietnam.
power than current armed helicopters was required in the During the late 1970s the U.S. Army saw the need of
face of increasingly intense ground re (often using heavy more sophistication within the attack helicopter corps,
machine guns and anti-tank rockets) from Viet Cong and allowing them to operate in all weather conditions.* [8]
NVA troops. Based on this realization, and with the With that the Advanced Attack Helicopter program was
growing involvement in Vietnam, the U.S. Army devel- started.* [9] From this program the Hughes YAH-64
oped the requirements for a dedicated attack helicopter, came out as the winner. The prototype YAH-64 was rst
the Advanced Aerial Fire Support System (AAFSS). The own on 30 September 1975. The U.S. Army selected
aircraft design selected for this program in 1965, was the YAH-64 over the Bell YAH-63 in 1976, and later apLockheed's AH-56 Cheyenne.* [7]
proved full production in 1982. After purchasing Hughes
Helicopters in 1984, McDonnell Douglas continued AH64 production and development. The helicopter was introduced to U.S. Army service in April 1986.
Today, the US attack helicopter has been further rened,
and the AH-64D Apache Longbow demonstrates many
of the advanced technologies being considered for deployment on future gunships. The US Marine Corps also
continued to employ attack helicopters in the direct re
support role, in the form of the AH-1 Super Cobra. While
helicopters were eective tank-killers in the Middle East,
attack helicopters are being seen more in a multipurpose
role. Tactics, such as tank plinking, showed that xedPrototype of the AH-1, the rst dedicated attack helicopter, and wing aircraft could be eective against tanks, but helicopters retained a unique low-altitude, low-speed caa canonical example to this day
pability for close air support. Other purpose-built heliAs the Army began its acquisition of a dedicated attack copters were developed for special operations missions,
helicopter, it sought options to improve performance over including the MH-6 for extremely close support.
the continued use of improvised interim aircraft (such as
the UH-1B/C). In late 1965, a panel of high-level o12.1.2 Soviet Union and its successor states
cers was selected to evaluate several prototype versions
of armed and attack helicopters to determine which pro- During the early 1960s, Soviet engineers started expervided the most signicant increase in capability to the imenting with various designs aimed at producing an
UH-1B. The three highest-ranked aircraft, the Sikorsky aerial vehicle that can provide battleeld mobility for inS-61, Kaman H-2 Tomahawk, and the Bell AH-1 fantry and provide re support to army forces on the
Cobra, were selected to compete in ight trials conducted ground. The rst of these concepts was a mock-up unby the Army's Aviation Test Activity. Upon completion veiled in 1966 in the experimental shop of the Ministry
of the ight evaluations, the Test Activity recommended of Aircraft's factory number 329 where Soviet designer,
Bell's Huey Cobra to be an interim armed helicopter un- Mikhail Leont'yevich Mil, was head designer. The mocktil the Cheyenne was elded. On 13 April 1966, the U.S. up, which was designated V-24, was based on another
Army awarded Bell Helicopter Company a production project, the V-22 utility helicopter, which itself never encontract for 110 AH-1G Cobras.* [7] The Cobra had a tered production. The V-24 had an infantry transport
tandem cockpit seating arrangement (vs UH-1 side-by- compartment that could hold eight troops sitting back to
side) to make the aircraft a smaller frontal target, in- back, and a set of small wings positioned to the top rear
creased armor protection, and greater speed.
of the passenger cabin, capable of holding up to six misIn 1967, the rst AH-1Gs were deployed to Vietnam, siles or rocket pods and a twin-barrel GSh-23L cannon
around the same time that the Cheyenne successfully xed to the landing skid.
82
Mil Mi-24P, a later production variant of the Mi-24.

These helicopters were used extensively in the Soviet war in
Afghanistan.* [10]
These designs were proposed by Mil to the Soviet armed

forces, and while he had the support of a number of
strategists, he was opposed by several more senior members of the armed forces who believed that conventional
weapons were a better use of resources. Despite the opposition, Mil managed to persuade the defence minister's
rst deputy, Marshal Andrey A. Grechko, to convene an
expert panel to look into the matter. While the panel's
opinions were mixed, supporters of the project eventually held sway and a request for design proposals for a
battleeld support helicopter was issued.* [11]
CHAPTER 12. ATTACK HELICOPTER
A Russian Mil Mi-28N. The Mil Mi-28 along with the Ka-50
represented the rst dedicated attack helicopter of the Soviet Air
Forces in the 1980s.
sign work on the Mi-28 began under Marat Tishchenko

in 1980.* [13] In 1981, a design and a mock-up were
accepted. The prototype (no. 012) was rst own
on 10 November 1982.* [13] In this same time frame,
Kamov was also attempting to submit its own designs for
a new helicopter to the military, which they had designed
throughout the early and mid 1980s. In 1984, the Mi28 completed the rst stage of state trials, but in October 1984 the Soviet Air Force chose the more advanced
Kamov Ka-50 as the new anti-tank helicopter. The Mi28 development was continued, but given lower priority. In December 1987 Mi-28 production in Rosvertol in
Rostov on Don was approved. After several prototypes
were built, production ceased in 1993 with additional development continuing into the 21st century. Changes in
the military situation after the Cold War made specialized anti-tank helicopters less useful. The advantages of
the Mi-28N, like all-weather action ability, lower cost,
and similarity to the Mi-24, have become more important. In 2003, the head of Russian Air Force stated that
the Mi-28N and Ka-50 attack helicopters will become the
standard Russian attack helicopter.* [14] The rst serial
Mi-28N was delivered to the Army on 5 June 2006.
The development of gunships and attack helicopters by

the US Army during the Vietnam War convinced the Soviets of the advantages of armed helicopter ground support doctrine, which had a positive inuence on moving
forward with the development of the Mil Mi-24. After
several mock-ups were produced, a directive was issued
on 6 May 1968 to proceed with development of a twinengine design of the helicopter. Work proceeded under
Mil until his death in 1970. Detailed design work began
in August 1968 under the codename Yellow 24. A fullscale mock-up of the design was reviewed and approved
in February 1969. Flight tests with a prototype began on
15 September 1969 with a tethered hover, and four days
later the rst free ight was conducted. A second proto- 12.1.3
type was built, followed by a test batch of ten helicopters.
A number of other design changes were made until the
production version Mi-24A entered production in 1970,
obtaining its initial operating capability in 1971 and was
ocially accepted into the state arsenal in 1972.
People's Republic of China
In 1972, following completion of the Mi-24, development

began on a unique attack helicopter with transport capability. The new design had a reduced transport capability
(3 troops instead of 8) and was called the Mil Mi-28, and
that of the Ka-50 attack helicopter, which is smaller and
more maneuverable and does not have the large cabin for
carrying troops.* [12]
In 1977, a preliminary design of the Mil Mi-28 was chosen, in a classic single-rotor layout. Its transport capabil- A CAIC WZ-10 attack helicopter at the 2012 Zhuhai Airshow
ity was removed and it lost its similarity to the Mi-24. De-
12.1. BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT
83
new design on the light helicopters then in service. The
602nd and 608th Research Institutes started development
of the 6-ton class China Medium Helicopter (CHM) program* [15] in 1994. The program was promoted as a civilian project, and was able to secure signicant Western
technical assistance, such as from Eurocopter (rotor installation design consultancy), Pratt & Whitney Canada
(PT6C turboshaft engine) and Agusta Westland (transmission).* [16] The Chinese concentrated on areas where
it could not obtain foreign help. The 602nd Research Institute's called its proposed armed helicopter design the
WZ-10 (Wu Zhi (, literally Armed Helicopter)10).
A Harbin Z-19 at the China Helicopter Exposition, Tianjin 2013
In 1979, the Chinese military studied the problem of

countering large armor formations. It concluded that the
best conventional solution was to use attack helicopters.
Eight Arospatiale Gazelle armed with Euromissile HOT
were procured for evaluation. By the mid-1980s, the Chinese decided a dedicated attack helicopter was required.
At the time, they used civilian helicopters converted for
the military; these were no longer adequate in the attack
role, and suitable only as scouts. Following this, China
evaluated the Agusta A129 Mangusta, and in 1988 secured an agreement with the USA to purchase AH-1 Cobras and a license to produce BGM-71 TOW missiles;
the latter was cancelled following the Tiananmen Square
protests of 1989 and the resulting arms embargo. The
color revolutions prevented the purchase of attack helicopters from Eastern Europe in 1990 and 1991; Bulgaria
and Russia rejected Chinese oers to purchase the Mil
Mi-24.
While attempting to import foreign designs failed, war
games determined that attack helicopters had to be commanded by the army, rather than the air force. This led
to the formation of the People's Liberation Army Ground
Force Aircraft (PLAGFAF), with an initial strength of 9
Harbin Z-9s. The PLAGFAF conducted tactical experiments that would help dene the future Z-10's requirements. Research also decided that anti-tank missiles like
the BGM-71 TOW were inadequate, and favored an analogue to the AGM-114 Hellre.
The 602nd Research Institute was assigned as the chief

designer, while Harbin Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation (HAMC) of China Aviation Industry Corporation
II (AVIC II) was assigned as the primary manufacturer.
Nearly four dozen other establishments participated in
the program. According to Chinese sources, the initial test ights were concluded on December 17, 2003,
whereas according to other sources they were completed
nine months earlier in March 2003. According to Jane's
Information Group, a total of 3 prototypes had completed
over 400 hours of test ights by this time. By 2004, 3
more prototypes were built, for a total of 6, and a second stage of test ights were concluded on December 15,
2004. In one of the test ights the future commander-inchief of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force Air
Force (PLAGAF), Song Xiangsheng (), was on
board the prototype. A third stage of intensive test ights
followed, taking place during both day and night. By January 2006 weaponry and sensor tests, including ring of
live ammunition, had taken place. The helicopter was
introduced to the general public in December 2010 and
subsequently entered service with the People's Liberation
Army.* [17]
12.1.4 France, Germany and Spain

In 1984, the French and West German governments issued a requirement for an advanced multirole battleeld
helicopter. A joint venture consisting of Arospatiale
and MBB was subsequently chosen as the preferred
supplier.* [18] According to statements by the French
Defence Minister Andr Giraud in April 1986, the collaborative eort had become more expensive than an individual national programme and was forecast to take
longer to complete as well. In July 1986, a government
report into the project alleged that the development had
become distanced from the requirements and preferences
of the military customers the Tiger was being developed
for.* [18]
The Gulf War highlighted the urgent need for attack helicopters, and revalidated the assessment that a purposebuilt design was needed. (At the time, the Chinese military depended on armed utility helicopters such as the
Changhe Z-11 and Harbin Z-9.) Also, it demonstrated
that the new attack helicopter would need to be able to
defend itself against other helicopters and aircraft. The
military perceived that once the new attack helicopter en- Both France and Germany reorganised the programme.
tered service, the existing helicopters would be used as Thomson CSF also took over the majority of the Tiger's
scouts.
electronic development work, such as the visual systems
The Armed Helicopter Developmental Work Team ( and sensors.* [18] Despite the early development prob ) was formed to develop a lems and the political uncertainty between 1984 and
new medium helicopter design, as opposed to basing the 1986, the program was formally relaunched in Novem-
84
ber 1987; it was at this point that a greater emphasis on the attack helicopter's anti-tank capabilities came
about.* [19] Much of the project's organisational framework was rapidly redeveloped between 1987 and 1989;
such as the installation of a Franco-German Helicopter
Oce to act as a program executive agency in May
1989.* [20]
India's HAL Light Combat Helicopter under development
12.1.5 India
A
French
Eurocopter
(Panzerabwehrhubschrauber)
Tiger
attack
helicopter
The Indian Army deploys the Mil Mi-35 and HAL Rudra
as of 2014. During the Kargil War in 1999, the Indian Air
Force and the Indian Army found that there was a need
for helicopters that can operate at such high-altitude conditions with ease.* [28] Limitations from operating with
high payloads and restricted maneuverability of Mil Mi35 led India to the develop the HAL Light Combat Helicopter and HAL Rudra for multi-role high-altitude combat operations.* [29] These helicopters will be used by the
Indian Air Force and the Indian Army's Aviation Corps.
12.1.6 Italy
Due to the end of the Cold War and subsequent defence
budgets decreases in the 1990s, nancial pressures led
to further questions regarding the necessity for the entire
program. In 1992, Arospatiale and MBB, among other
companies, merged to form the Eurocopter Group; this
led to considerable consolidation of the aerospace industry and the Tiger project itself.* [21] A major agreement
was struck in December 1996 between France and Germany that cemented the Tiger's prospects and committed
the development of supporting elements, such as a series
of new generation missile designs for use by the new combat helicopter.* [22]
On 18 June 1999, both Germany and France publicly
placed orders for an initial batch of 160 Tiger helicopters,
80 for each nation, valued at 3.3 billion.* [23] On 22
March 2002, the rst production Tiger was rolled out
in a large ceremony held at Eurocopter's Donauworth
factory; although production models began initial acceptance trials in 2003, the rst ocial delivery to the
French Army took place on 18 March 2005; the rst ofcial Tiger delivery to the Germany followed on 6 April
2005.* [24] Germany reduced its order to 57 in March
2013.* [25] In 2008 OCCAR estimated the project cost
at 7.3 billion.* [26] France's FY2012 budget put their
share of the project at 6.3bn (~US$8.5bn),* [27] implying a programme cost of 14.5bn (~US$19.5bn) to
the three main partners. At FY2012 prices, their 40
HAP cost 27m/unit (~US$36m) and their 40 HAD
35.6m/unit (~US$48m), including development costs
the French Tigers cost 78.8m (~US$106m) each.* [27]
In 1972, the Italian Army began forming a requirement for a light observation and anti-tank helicopter.
Agusta had initially studied the development of a combatorientated derivative of their existing A109 helicopter,
however they decided to proceed with the development of
a more ambitious helicopter design.* [30] In 1978, Agusta
formally began the design process on what would become the Agusta A129 Mangusta.* [31] On 11 September
1983, the rst of ve A129 prototypes made the type's
maiden ight; the fth prototype would rst y in March
1986. The Italian Army placed an order for a total of 60
A129s.* [30]
12.1.7 South Africa

The Rooivalk project began in early 1984 under the auspices of the Atlas Aircraft Corporation, a predecessor
of Denel Aviation. Faced with the increasingly conventional nature of the South African Border War, the South
African Defence Force recognised the need for a dedicated attack helicopter and accordingly set along the process of developing a suitable aircraft.
The Atlas XH-1 Alpha was the rst prototype to emerge
from the program. It was developed from an Arospatiale
Alouette III airframe, retaining that helicopter's engine
and dynamic components, but replacing the original
cockpit with a stepped tandem one, adding a 20 mm cannon on the nose and converting the undercarriage to taildragger conguration. The XH-1 rst ew on 3 February
12.2. IN ACTION
A Denel Rooivalk attack helicopter, in service with the South

African Air Force
85
Above, a U.S Army's AH-64 Apache attack helicopter and below,

an OH-58D armed scout helicopter
1985. The results were ultimately good enough to con- cess. Apaches red the rst shots of the war, destroyvince Atlas and the SAAF that the concept was feasible, ing enemy early warning radar and SAM sites with their
Hellre missiles. They were later used successfully in
opening the door for the development of the Rooivalk.
both of their operational roles, to direct attack against
During the Rooivalk's development it was decided to
enemy armor and as aerial artillery in support of ground
base the aircraft on the dynamic components of the
troops. Hellre missile and cannon attacks by Apache he*
Arospatiale Super Puma, [32] a larger and more powerlicopters destroyed many enemy tanks and armored cars.
ful helicopter. These components were already used on
the Atlas Oryx, a local upgrade and modication of the Thedeep attackrole of independently operating attack
helicopters came into question after a failed mission, durArospatiale Puma.* [33]
ing the 2003 Gulf War attack on the Karbala Gap.* [39] A
Unfortunately the development of the Rooivalk continsecond mission in the same area, four days later, but coued until after the conclusion of the South African Border
ordinated with artillery and xed-wing aircraft,* [40] was
War and defence budgets were slashed due to parliamenfar more successful with minimal losses.
tary changes to the requirements of the national air force.
This resulted in an extensive development and production period beginning in 1990 until 2007, during which
12 aircraft were produced for use by the South African
Air Force. These aircraft were subsequently upgraded to
the Block 1F standard by 2011. The upgrade involves improved targeting systems and other avionics which enable
the helicopter to use guided missiles for the rst time.
The Mokopa ATGM was qualied as part of the upgrade
process.* [34] Gearbox components were improved and
cooling problems with the F2 20 mm cannon were also
addressed.
On 1 April 2011, the South African Air Force received
the rst ve of eleven (one of the twelve aircraft originally delivered to the SAAF was written o after an accident) Block 1F upgraded Rooivalk.* [35]* [36] The ninth
and tenth Rooivalk attack helicopters were delivered in
September 2012 following their upgrade to the Block
1F initial operating standard.* [37] The eleventh and nal
Rooivalk was delivered on 13 March 2013.* [38]
European Eurocopter Tiger of the German Army
In 2011, France and Britain sent Eurocopter Tiger and

AgustaWestland Apache attack helicopters to Libya. The
primary objective of the 2011 military intervention was
to protect civilians in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 1973. Within days of the Apaches deployment, it had completed a variety of tasks such as destroy12.2 In action
ing tanks, checkpoints held by pro-Gadda forces and vehicles carrying ammunitions loyal to Muammar Gadda.
The 1990s could be seen as the coming-of-age for the The attack helicopters were reported to be far more eecU.S. attack helicopter. The AH-64 Apache was used ex- tive than the ghter jets which had previously been given
tensively during Operation Desert Storm with great suc- the task of completing the aforementioned tasks.
86
In 2013, the South African National Defence Force announced that it would deploy Denel Rooivalk attack helicopters to the Democratic Republic of the Congo to support the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This
was the rst combat deployment for the helicopter.* [41]
Three helicopters from 16 Squadron SAAF were deployed to the region and since November 2013 it was
involved in heavy ghting alongside the United Nations
Force Intervention Brigade, against rebels operating in
North Kivu, in particular the M23 militia, which consisted of hardened former government troops equipped
with relatively heavy weaponry such as main battle tanks
and anti-aircraft weaponry. During its rst ever combat mission it proved to be instrumental in routing the
rebels from their hilltop strongholds during an oensive by the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade
and the Military of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo.* [42]* [43]
12.3 Types
TAI/AgustaWestland T129
Bell AH-1 Cobra
Bell AH-1 SuperCobra
Bell AH-1Z Viper
Boeing AH-64 Apache
AgustaWestland Apache
CAIC WZ-10
Denel Rooivalk
HAL Light Combat Helicopter
Harbin Z-19
Kamov Ka-50/Ka-52
Mil Mi-28
Eurocopter Tiger
Mil Mi-24 Hind
12.4 Comparison
12.4.1 Dimensions
12.4.2 Performance
12.5 See also

Armed helicopter
A Russian Ka-50
Army aviation
Gunship
12.6 References
[1] Frank
Barnaby
(2010).
main+battle+tank"#v=onepage&q="main
battle
tank"&f=false The role and control of weapons in the
1990's. Psychology Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-203-16831-3.
Retrieved 14 February 2011.
[2] Noggle, Anne; White, Christine (2001). A Dance with
Death: Soviet Airwomen in World War II. Texas A&M
University Press. pp. 2021. ISBN 1-58544-177-5.
Above, an Indian HAL Light Combat Helicopter at Aero India
show 2011
Modern examples include:
AgustaWestland AW129
[3] Francis, Devon E., Mr. Piper and His Cubs, Iowa State
University Press, ISBN 0-8138-1250-X, 9780813812502
(1973), p. 117.
[4] Gantt, Marlene, Riding His Piper Cub Through The Skies
Over France, Bazooka Charlie Fought A One-man War,
World War II Magazine, September 1987
12.6. REFERENCES
[5] Fountain, Paul, The Maytag Messerschmitts, Flying Magazine, March 1945, p. 90
[6] Mazarella, Mark N. Adequacy of U.S. Army Attack
Helicopter Doctrine to Support the Scope of Attack Helicopter Operations in a Multi-Polar World. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U.S. Army Command and General Sta
College, 1994. Accessed on 12 December 2007.
[7] An Abridged History of the Army Attack Helicopter
Program. Oce of the Assistant Vice Chief of Sta of
the Army (Department of the Army). 1973.
[8] ADVANCED ATTACK HELICOPTER OPERATIONS
IN ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTS - Ocial US Army
video at Real Military Flix
[9] Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH) (1970-1981). Global
Security
[10] Glantz, David M.The Triumph of Maneuver War - Soviet Operational Art Since 1936. US Army Center of
Military History. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
[11] Culhane, Kevin V. (1977).Student research report: The
Soviet attack helicopter (PDF). DTIC. Retrieved 1 July
2011.
87
[29] Aero India: India's indigenous combat chopper

[30] Donald, David, ed. Agusta A 129 Mangusta. The
Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes & Noble
Books, 1997. ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
[31] Frawley, Gerald. AgustaWestland A129 Mangusta
.
The International Directory of Military Aircraft,
2002/2003. Aerospace Publications, 2002. ISBN 1875671-55-2.
[32] Dely, Frans (2004). Soaring with Eagles (no page numbers, section on 16 Sqdn). Avpix Publishing Pty Ltd. ISBN
0-620-32806-1.
[33] Campbell, Keith (2007-06-08). What went wrong with
the Rooivalk?". Engineering News.
[34] Denel
s Mokopa PGM ready for market. DefenceWeb.
2011-01-26. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
[35] SAAF ceremonially receives Rooivalk. DefenceWeb.
2011-04-01. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
[36] First ve Rooivalk now in service. DefenceWeb. 201104-04. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
[12] Yem Gordon & Dmitry Komissarov (2001). Mil Mi-24,

Attack Helicopter. Airlife.
[37] David Donald (2012-09-28). Gripen, Rooivalk Deliveries Bring SAAF up to Strength | Aviation International
News. Ainonline.com. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
[13] Frawley, Gerald.Mil Mi-28. The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002/2003, p. 128. Aerospace
Publications, 2002. ISBN 1-875671-55-2.
[38]Final Rooivalk Handover Cements Relationship Between

Denel and SAAF. defenceweb.co.za. Retrieved 201303-15.
[14] " " 28 October 2004.

Lenta.ru
[39] Scarborough, Ryan (April 2003). Apache operation a

lesson in defeat; Army choppers hit without air cover.
Washington Times
[15] Hewson, Robert,China

s Z-10 helicopter built on Western expertise, Janes Defence Weekly, 13 April 2005
[16] Jane's Helicopter Markets & Systems.
[17] China's 1st attack helo goes operational? - The DEW Line
[18] Krotz 2001, p. 130.
[19] Krotz 2011, p. 131.
[20] Krotz 2011, p. 133.
[21] Krotz 2011, pp. 133-135.
[22] Krotz 2011, p. 147.
[40] O'Rourke, Ryan (June 4, 2003).Iraq War: Defense Program Implications for Congress (PDF). Congressional
Research Service. p. CRS36. Retrieved 2007-12-12
[41] Exclusive: Rooivalk is going to DRC. DefenceWeb.
2013-10-11. Retrieved 2013-10-13.
[42] Mohlaoli, Tumaole. ""It was clear that the rebels didn't
expect us-- SANDF pilot. eNCA report. eNCA. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
[43] Olivier, Darren (2013-11-05). Rooivalk attack helicopters perform well in rst combat action against M23
. African Defence Review. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
[23] Krotz 2011, pp. 132, 149.

[24] Krotz 2011, p. 154.
12.6.1 Further reading
[25]Germany nalises cuts to NH90, Tiger helicopter orders

. Flightglobal.com, 18 March 2013.
Duke, R.A., Helicopter Operations in Algeria [Trans.

French], Dept. of the Army (1959)
[26] Tran, Pierre.Eurocopter: Despite Slow Economy, Tiger

Helo Deliveries On Track. Defense News, 29 Jan 2013.
France, Operations Research Group, Report of the

Operations Research Mission on H-21 Helicopter
(1957)
[27] Projet de loi de nances pour 2013 : Dfense :

quipement des forces (in French). Senate of France.
22 November 2012. Retrieved 2013-11-07.
[28] Light combat copters maiden ight a success
Leuliette, Pierre, St. Michael and the Dragon: Memoirs of a Paratrooper, New York:Houghton Miin
(1964)
88
Riley, David, French Helicopter Operations in Algeria Marine Corps Gazette, February 1958, pp. 21
26.
Shrader, Charles R. The First Helicopter War: Logistics and Mobility in Algeria, 1954-1962 Westport,
CT: Praeger Publishers (1999)
Spenser, Jay P., Whirlybirds: A History of the
U.S. Helicopter Pioneers, Seattle, WA: University of
Washington Press (1998)
Chapter 13
Carbine
For other uses, see Carbine (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with carbyne or carbene.
A carbine (/krbin/ or /krban/),* [1] from French
13.1 History
13.1.1 Word origin
Some sources derive the name of the weapon from
the name of its rst users bernarda troopers called
"carabiniers", from the French carabine, from the Old
French carabin (soldier armed with a musket), perhaps from escarrabin, gravedigger, which derives from
scarabee, scarab beetle.* [3]
13.1.2 Early history: before the 1900s
Various muzzle-loading arms, to scale; numbers 1, 10, and 11

are identied as carbines. (Encyclopdia Britannica, 1910)
carabine,* [2] is a long arm rearm but with a shorter barrel than a rie or musket. Many carbines are shortened
versions of full length ries, shooting the same ammunition, while others re lower-powered ammunition, including those designed for pistols.
The smaller size and lighter weight of carbines makes
them easier to handle. They are typically issued to highmobility troops such as special-operations soldiers and
paratroopers, as well as to mounted, supply, or other noninfantry personnel whose roles do not require full-sized Carbine model 1793, used by the French Army during the French
Revolutionary Wars.
ries.
89
90
CHAPTER 13. CARBINE

carbine, both using the same ammunition.
13.1.3 Shorter ries, shorter carbines:

World War I and World War II
Left image: Jean Lepage intlock carbine named du

Premier Consul" in honour of Napoleon , circa 1800.
Right image: Riing of Lepage carbine.
The carbine was originally a lighter, shortened weapon
developed for the cavalry. Carbines were short enough
to be loaded and red from horseback but this was rarely
done a moving horse is a very unsteady platform, and
once halted a soldier can load and re more easily if dismounted, which also makes him a smaller target. The
principal advantage of the carbine's length was portability. Troops could carry full length muskets comfortably
enough on horseback if just riding from A to B (the practice of the original dragoons and other mounted infantry).
Cavalry proper (a Regiment of Horse) had to ride
with some agility and engage in sword-wielding melees
with opposing cavalry so carrying anything long would
be a dangerous encumbrance. A carbine was typically no
longer than a sheathed sabre, both arranged to hang with
their tops clear of the rider's elbows and bottoms clear of
the horse's legs.
Carbines were usually less accurate and less powerful
than the longer muskets (and later ries) of the infantry,
due to a shorter sight plane and lower velocity of bullets
red from the shortened barrel. With the advent of fastburning smokeless powder, the velocity disadvantages of
the shorter barrels became less of an issue (see internal
ballistics). Eventually, the use of horse-mounted cavalry would decline, but carbines continued to be issued
and used by many who preferred a lighter, more compact
weapon even at the cost of reduced long-range accuracy
and power.
During the 19th century, carbines were often developed
separately from the infantry ries, and in many cases did
not even use the same ammunition, which made for supply diculties. A notable weapon developed towards the
end of the American Civil War by the Union was the
Spencer carbine. It had a spring-powered magazine in
the stock which held seven rounds. In the late 19th century it became common for a number of nations to make
bolt-action ries in both full-length and carbine versions.
One of the most popular and recognizable carbines was
the Winchester lever-action carbine, with several versions
using revolver cartridges. This made it an ideal choice for
cowboys and explorers, who could carry a revolver and a
M1 Garand and M1 Carbine
In the decades following World War I, the standard

battle rie used by armies around the world had been
growing shorter, either by redesign or by the general
issue of carbine versions instead of full-length ries.
For example, the Russian Model 1891 rie with an 800
mm (31 in) barrel was shortened to 730 mm (29 in)
in 1930, and to 510 mm (20 in) in 1938; the German
Mauser 98 ries went from 740 mm (29 in) in 1898 to
600 mm (24 in) in 1935 as the Karabiner Kurz (K98k
or Kar98k), or short carbine. The barrel lengths in
ries used by the United States did not change between
the bolt-action M1903 rie of World War I and the
World War II M1 Garand rie, but the 610 mm (24
in) barrel on the M1903 was short for its day. The US
M1 Carbine was more of a traditional carbine in that it
was signicantly shorter and lighter, with a 457.2 mm
(18.00 in) barrel, than the M1 Garand rie. The M1
Carbine was not a shorter version of the M1 Garand, as
was typical for ries vs. carbines in the 19th century, but
a wholly dierent design ring a smaller, less-powerful
cartridge.
A Lee-Eneld No. 5 Mk I "Jungle Carbine" rie, which red a

full-size .303 calibre rie cartridge.
The United Kingdom also developed a "Jungle Carbine"

version of their Lee-Eneld service rie, featuring a
shorter barrel, ash suppressor, and manufacturing modications designed to decrease the rie's weight. Ocially
titled Rie, No. 5 Mk I, it was introduced in the closing
months of World War II, but did not see widespread service until the Korean War, the Mau Mau uprising, and
the Malayan Emergency.
13.1. HISTORY
13.1.4
After World War II
Mauser Karabiner 98 Kurz. Translate as Carbine 98 Short or a

shortened carbine of the Gewehr 98
91
suppressive re). These situations did not require a heavy
rie, ring full-power rie bullets with long-range accuracy. A less-powerful weapon would still produce casualties at the shorter ranges encountered in actual combat,
and the reduced recoil would allow more shots to be red
in the short amount of time an enemy was visible. The
lower-powered round would also weigh less, allowing a
soldier to carry more ammunition. With no need of a
long barrel to re full-power ammunition, a shorter barrel could be used. A shorter barrel made the weapon
weigh less and was easier to handle in tight spaces, and
was easier to shoulder quickly to re a shot at an unexpected target. Full-automatic re was also considered a
desirable feature, allowing the soldier to re short bursts
of three to ve rounds, increasing the probability of a hit
on a moving target.
The Germans had experimented with selective-re carbines ring rie cartridges during the early years of World
War II. These were determined to be less than ideal, as the
recoil of full-power rie cartridges caused the weapon to
be uncontrollable in full-automatic re. They then developed an intermediate-power cartridge round, which was
accomplished by reducing the power and the length of
the standard 7.92x57 Mauser rie cartridge to create the
7.92x33 Kurz (Short) cartridge. A selective-re weapon
was developed to re this shorter cartridge, eventually resulting in the Sturmgewehr 44, later translated as "assault
rie". After World War II, the USSR would adopt a similar weapon, the AK-47, which became the standard Soviet infantry weapon. The United States during World
War II also had the M2 Carbine, a selective-re version
of the M1 Carbine ring the same .30 Carbine cartridge.
However, the semi-automatic M1 carbine was produced
in a 10-to-1 ratio to the M2.
Although the NATO countries did not adopt an

intermediate-power round, they continued the trend
toward shorter and lighter magazine-fed battle ries.
FN FAL rie - (left) full size, (right) carbine/paratrooper variant NATO adopted the 7.62x51 NATO round (which in reality is only slightly dierent ballistically to the .308
with a folding stock and shortened barrel
Winchester and .303 British cartridges), along with sevA shorter weapon was more convenient when riding in a eral ries such as the FN FAL and M14.
truck, armored personnel carrier, helicopter or aircraft,
and also when engaged in close-range combat. Based
on the combat experience of World War II, the criteria
used for selecting infantry weapons began to change. Unlike previous wars, which were often fought mainly from
xed lines and trenches, World War II was a highly mobile
war, often fought in cities, forests, or other areas where
mobility and visibility were restricted. In addition, improvements in artillery made moving infantry in open areas even less practical than it had been.
The majority of enemy contacts were at ranges of less
than 300 metres (330 yards), and the enemy was exposed
to re for only short periods of time as they moved from
cover to cover. Most rounds red were not aimed at an Bullet drop of the M16A2 rie (yellow) vs M4 carbine (red)
enemy combatant, but instead red in the enemy's direction to keep them from moving and ring back (see By the 1960s NATO had adopted the 5.56 NATO car-
92
CHAPTER 13. CARBINE
tridge. This round was even lighter and smaller than the 13.3 Usage
Soviet AK-47 cartridge, but possessed higher velocity. In
U.S. service, the M16 assault rie replaced the M14 as the The smaller size and lighter weight of carbines makes
standard infantry weapon, although the M14 continued to them easier to handle in close-quarter situations such as
be used by designated marksmen.
urban engagements, when deploying from military vehiLighter carbines came to be adopted as the standard in- cles, or in any situation where space is conned. The disfantry long rie. What changed was that only a certain advantages of carbines relative to ries include inferior
number of soldiers now needed to retain longer range long-range accuracy and a shorter eective range. Larger
weapons, serving as designated marksmen. Development than a submachine gun, they are harder to maneuver in
of lighter assault ries continued, matched by develop- tight encounters where superior range and stopping power
ments in even lighter carbines. At the same time the in- at distance are not great considerations. Firing the same
fantry switched to 5.56 mm weapons, carbines like the ammunition as ries gives carbines the advantage of stanAKS-74U (which red a Warsaw pact 5.45x39 round) dardization over those personal defense weapons (PDWs)
that require proprietary cartridges.
and CAR-15 were being developed.
13.2 Modern history

13.2.1
Contemporary military forces
By the 1990s, the US had adopted the M4 carbine,

a derivative of the M16 family which red the same
5.56mm cartridge but was lighter and shorter (in overall
length and barrel length), resulting in marginally reduced
range and power.
Meanwhile, many armies are experiencing a backlash
against carbines and lighter ries in general, and are
equipping selected soldiers, usually called Designated
Marksmen, or DM, with higher power ries. While ring a higher quantity of smaller bullets makes it easier to
hit a target (and is therefore good for beginner marksmen), it oers very little to more advanced marksmen.
Furthermore, the additional range of the heavier weapons
has proven to be necessary in open environments such as
deserts. As a result, the focus on more highly trained soldiers equipped with, for example, 7.62 mm NATO ring
ries, such as the U.S. Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rie variant of the M14, has increased somewhat.
A squad of soldiers armed with assault ries would have
a single soldier assigned as DM who would carry a battle rie for selectively engaging long range targets. The
DM diers from the sniper in that the DM moves with his
unit, and engages targets at ranges beyond the 500 meter
(about 550 yd) eective range of modern assault ries,
but less than the 600 meter (about 650 yd) range which
is the optimal engagement range for snipers.
The modern usage of the term carbine covers much the

same scope as it always had, namely lighter weapons (generally ries) with barrels less than 457.2 mm (18.00 in).
These weapons can be considered carbines, while ries
with barrels of 457.2 mm (18.00 in) or more are generally
not considered carbines unless specically named so, and
depending on the weapon's power. Modern carbines use
ammunition ranging from that used in light pistols up to
powerful rie cartridges, with the usual exception of high
velocity magnum cartridges. In the more powerful cartridges, the short barrel of a carbine has signicant disadvantages in velocity, and the high residual pressure when
the bullet exits the barrel results in substantially greater
muzzle blast. Flash suppressors and muzzle brakes are
common solutions to this problem, which may ease their
acceptance.
13.3.1 Pistol-caliber carbines (PCC)
Marlin Model 1894C .357 Magnum carbine
One of the more unusual classes of carbine is the pistol

caliber carbine or PCC. These rst appeared soon after
metallic cartridges became common. These were developed as companionsto the popular revolvers of the
day, ring the same cartridge but allowing more velocity
and accuracy than the revolver. These were carried by
cowboys, lawmen, and others in the Old West. The classic combination would be a Winchester lever action carbine and a Colt revolver in .44-40 or .38-40. During the
20th
century, this trend continued with more modern and
13.2.2 Special forces
powerful revolver cartridges, in the form of Winchester
Special forces need to perform fast, decisive operations. and Marlin lever action carbines chambered in .38 SpeA pistol, though light and quick to operate, is viewed cial/.357 Magnum and .44 Special/.44 Magnum.
as not having enough power. Consequently, carbines Modern equivalents also exist, such as the discontinued
have gained wide acceptance among SOCOM, UKSF and Ruger Police Carbine, which uses the same magazine as
other communities.
the Ruger pistols of the same caliber, as well as the (also
13.4. LEGAL ISSUES

discontinued) Marlin Camp Carbine (which, in .45ACP,
used M1911 magazines). The Beretta Cx4 Storm shares
magazines with many Beretta pistols, and is designed to
be complementary to the Beretta Px4 Storm pistol. The
Hi-Point 995 Carbine is a cheaper, yet reliable alternative to other pistol caliber carbines in the United States
and its magazines can be used in the Hi-Point C-9 pistol.
Another example is the Kel-Tec SUB-2000 series chambered in either 9 mm Luger or .40S&W which can be
congured to accept Glock, Beretta, S&W or SIG pistol
magazines. The SUB-2000 also has the unique ability to
fold in half.
Kel-Tec SUB-2000 carbine in 9mm.
93
Colt M1911, and the Heckler & Koch VP70. Since these
stock additions retain the short pistol barrel (as short as
100 mm (3.9 in)) they are highly restricted in the United
States under the NFA unless the shoulder stocks are of
original manufacture for the gun and the gun has been
delisted, as is the case with so-equippedBroomhandleMausers and Lugers.
13.4 Legal issues

A Browning Hi-Power, made for the Finnish military, with attached shoulder stock to turn it into a short carbine
Firearms with shoulder stocks and barrels less than 406

mm (16.0 in) in length are classied as "short barreled ries" (under the US National Firearms Act or NFA), and
are sometimes restricted in the same way that short barrel shotguns and machine guns are. Because of this, ries with barrels of less than 406 mm (16.0 in), or pistols with shoulder stocks, are rare. A list of rearms
not covered by the NFA due to their antique status may
be found here* [4] or due to their Curio and Relic status
may be found here;* [5] these lists includes a number of
carbines with barrels less than the minimum legal length
and rearms that areprimarily collector's items and are
not likely to be used as weapons and, therefore, are excluded from the provisions of the National Firearms Act.
One less-noted advantage of PCCs is their lower muzzle
" Firearms classied as machine guns are also not subject
report compared to more powerful ries; because they are
to the barrel length restriction.
less noisy when red, they are less likely to cause permanent hearing damage when red indoor without hearing Another class of carbine is a semi-automatic version
protection - this can be an important consideration during of a submachine gun, with an extended barrel, usually
home defense. Compared to regularcarbines/ries just over 406 mm (16.0 in) long, which will escape ban
(such as those in .223 and 7.62x39mm), pistol-caliber by some assault weapons legislation. While functioncarbines may suer from a shorter eective range, more ally identical to pistol-caliber carbines, these are banned
pronounced trajectory, less power, and less eectiveness in some places as assault weapons based on their cosmetic similarity to submachine guns. However, they may
against body armor.
not accept certain parts (such as magazines or collapsing stocks) from the submachine guns that they resemble.
13.3.2 Pistol conversion carbine
These are a popular compromise for (American) shooters who would like to own a submachine gun but cannot
Kits exist which will convert many pistols into carbines due to local restrictions or the prohibitive cost of buying
by the addition of a shoulder stock; notable examples a civilian legal submachine gun (full automatics or semiare the long barreled Colt Buntline revolver stock, the automatics with barrels shorter than 16 inches (410 mm)
Mauser C96 Broomhandleholster/stock, and various are restricted under Title II of the National Firearms Act).
others for models such as the Browning Hi-Power, Luger, Many owners may choose to shorten the barrels down to
The primary advantages of a carbine over a pistol using
the same ammunition are increased accuracy due to the
buttstock and longer barrel (and with it, sight radius), relatively low muzzle blast/ash/recoil, higher muzzle velocity and energy of a longer barrel for increased wounding potential and penetration (depending on the particular load used), and (sometimes, but not always) greater
adaptability for easily accepting accessories such as optics, lights, and lasers. An example of increased power is
the 9mm Luger cartridge reaching .357 magnum velocities out of a carbine. Furthermore, PCCs may not be as
legally restricted as comparable handguns, depending on
the jurisdiction.
94
CHAPTER 13. CARBINE
NFA-lengths, and register them as short barrel ries [3] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
SBRs.
Examples of PCCs that are derivatives of submachine
guns but are ries under Title I (Gun Control Act) include
the HK USC (derived from the HK .45ACP UMP submachine gun), the HK94 (derived from the MP5), pistolcaliber AR-15s (such as the Bushmaster Carbon 15 9 mm
Carbine), semi-automatic only versions of the Thompson
by Auto-Ordnance and the FN PS90 (derived from the
FN P90 SMG). Unlike the above-mentioned PCCs, these
carbines use either magazines from their SMG derivatives, or proprietary magazines (as in the case of the
USC).
In some historical cases the term machine carbine was
the ocial title for sub-machine guns, such as the British
Sten and Australian Owen guns. The semi-automatic only
version of the Sterling submachine gun was also ocially
called acarbine. The original Sterling semi-auto would
be classed a short barrel rieunder the U.S. National
Firearms Act, but fully legal long-barrel versions of the
Sterling have been made for the U.S. collector market.
13.5 See also

List of carbines
Short-barreled rie

Beard, Ross E. Carbine : the story of David Marshall
Williams. Williamstown, NJ: Phillips, 1997. ISBN
0-932-57226-X OCLC 757855022
Carbines : cal. .30 carbines M1, M1A1, M2 and M3.
Washington, DC: Headquarters, Departments of the
Army and the Air Force, 1953.
McAulay, John D. Carbines of the Civil War, 18611865. Union City, TN: Pioneer Press, 1981. ISBN
978-0-913159-45-3 OCLC 8111324
McAulay, John D. Carbines of the U.S. Cavalry, 1861-1905. Lincoln, RI: Andrew Mowbray
Publishers, 1996. ISBN 0-917-21870-1 OCLC
36087526
13.7 References
[1] Carbine. Dictionary.com. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
[2]carbine.Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2010.
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/carbine
[4] http://www.atf.gov/firearms/curios/sec3a.htm
[5] http://www.atf.gov/firearms/curios/sec3.htm
Chapter 14
Cargo aircraft
Cargo jetredirects here.
airline, see Cargojet.
For the Canadian cargo
A cargo aircraft (also known as freight aircraft,

freighter, airlifter, or cargo jet) is a xed-wing aircraft
that is designed or converted for the carriage of air cargo,
rather than passengers. Such aircraft usually do not incorporate passenger amenities, and generally feature one
or more large doors for loading cargo. Freighters may be
operated by civil passenger or cargo airlines, by private
individuals or by the armed forces of individual countries
(for the latter see military transport aircraft).
A later Ju 290 with the Trapoklappe ramp lowered, rst pioneered on the 1939 Junkers Ju 90-note personnel stairway between the vehicular trackways
14.1 History
Aircraft were put to use carrying cargo in the form of
"air mail" as early as 1911. Although the earliest aircraft
were not designed primarily as cargo carriers, by the mid1920s aircraft manufacturers were designing and building
dedicated cargo aircraft.
Volga-Dnepr An-124 ready for loading.
Aircraft designed for cargo ight usually have features

that distinguish them from conventional passenger aircraft: a wide/tall fuselage cross-section, a high-wing to
allow the cargo area to sit near the ground, a large number of wheels to allow it to land at unprepared locations,
and a high-mounted tail to allow cargo to be driven directly into and o the aircraft.
Cargo aircraft represent a small proportion of the overall
air freight market. The majority is carried in special ULD
containers in the cargo holds of normal passenger aircraft.
In Britain in the early 1920s, the need was recognized

for a freighter aircraft to transport troops and materiel
quickly to pacify tribal revolts in the newly occupied territories of the Middle East. The Vickers Vernon, a development of the Vickers Vimy Commercial, entered service with the Royal Air Force as the rst dedicated troop
transport in 1921. In February 1923 this was put to use
by the RAF's Iraq Command who ew nearly 500 Sikh
troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the rst ever strategic airlift of troops.* [1]* [2] Vickers Victorias played an
important part in the Kabul Airlift of November 1928
February 1929, when they evacuated diplomatic sta and
95
96
their dependents together with members of the Afghan
royal family endangered by a civil war.* [3] The Victorians also helped to pioneer air routes for Imperial Airways'
Handley Page HP.42 airliners.* [4]
The World War II German design, the Arado Ar 232 was
the rst purpose built cargo aircraft. The Ar 232 was intended to supplant the earlier Junkers Ju 52 freighter conversions, but only a few were built. Most other forces used
freighter versions of airliners in the cargo role as well,
most notably the C-47 Skytrain version of the Douglas
DC-3, which served with practically every Allied nation.
One important innovation for future cargo aircraft design
was introduced in 1939, with the fth and sixth prototypes of the Junkers Ju 90 four-engined military transport aircraft, with the earliest known example of a rear
loading ramp. This aircraft, like most of its era, used taildragger landing gear which caused the aircraft to have a
decided rearward tilt when landed. These aircraft introduced the Trapoklappe, a powerful ramp/hydraulic lift
with a personnel stairway centered between the vehicle
trackway ramps, that raised the rear of the aircraft into
the air and allowed easy loading.* [5] A similar rear loading ramp even appeared in a somewhat dierent form on
the nosewheel gear-equipped, late WW II era American
Budd RB-1 Conestoga twin-engined cargo aircraft.
Postwar Europe also served to play a major role in the
development of the modern air cargo and air freight industry during what became known as the "Cold War.It is
during the Berlin Airlift at the height of thisCold War,
when a massive mobilization of aircraft was undertaken
by the "free world,to supply West Berlin residents with
food and supplies, in a virtual around the clock air bridge,
after the Soviet Union closed and blockaded Berlin's borders, and land links to the west. To rapidly supply the
needed numbers of aircraft, many older types, especially
the Douglas C-47 Skytrain, were pressed into service.
In operation it was found that it took as long or longer
to unload these older designs as the much larger tricycle
landing gear Douglas C-54 Skymaster which was easier
to move about in when landed. The C-47s were quickly
removed from service, and from then on at-decks were
a requirement of all new cargo designs.
CHAPTER 14. CARGO AIRCRAFT

their own starting with the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy in the
1960s and a number of similar Soviet designs from the
70s and 80s, and culminating in the Antonov An-225, the
world's largest aircraft. These designs oer the ability to
carry the heaviest loads, even main battle tanks, at global
ranges. The Boeing 747 was originally designed to the
same specication as the C-5, but later modied as a design that could be oered as either passenger or all-freight
versions. The bumpon the top of the fuselage allows
the crew area to be clear of the cargo containers sliding
out of the front in the event of an accident.
When the Airbus A380 was announced, the maker originally accepted orders for the freighter version A380F,
oering the second largest payload capacity of any cargo
aircraft, exceeded only by the An-225.* [6] An aerospace
consultant has estimated that the A380F would have 7%
better payload and better range than the 747-8F, but also
higher trip costs.* [7] However, as of February 2013, production has not started, and rm availability dates have
not been announced.
14.2 Types of cargo aircraft

Nearly all commercial cargo aircraft presently in the eet
are derivatives or transformations of passenger aircraft.
However, there are three other methods to the development of cargo aircraft.* [8]
In the years following the war era a number of new Lockheed C-5 Galaxy
custom-built cargo aircraft were introduced, often including some experimentalfeatures. For instance, the
US's C-82 Packet featured a removable cargo area, while
the C-123 Provider introduced the now-common upswept
tail to allow for a much larger rear loading ramp. But it
was the introduction of the turboprop that allowed the
class to mature, and even one of its earliest examples,
the C-130 Hercules, is still the yardstick against which
newer military transport aircraft designs are measured.
Although larger, smaller and faster designs have been proposed for many years, the C-130 continues to improve at
a rate that keeps it in production.
Strategiccargo aircraft became an important class of Lun-class Ekranoplan, possibly meant to be a cargo aircraft.
14.2. TYPES OF CARGO AIRCRAFT
A large military transport aircraft: the Boeing C-17A Globemaster III
97
Airbus Beluga
drawback of existing air cargo aircraft is that they represent older technology; thus their direct operating costs
are higher than what might be achieved with current technology. Additionally, since they generally have not been
designed specically for air cargo, loading and unloading
can cause problems; the aircraft may be pressurized more
than necessary, and there may be apparatus manufactured
for passenger safety that is not necessary for cargo.
14.2.2 Dedicated civilian cargo aircraft

A Bristol Freighter from the 1960s, with front opening clamshell
doors and ight deck bulge
The Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter 'Dreamlifter'
14.2.1
Derivatives of non-cargo aircraft
Existing air cargo derivatives of passenger airplanes have

been very tting. For example, the Boeing-747-200F has
proven to be the big payload toiler of the air cargo eet
and could continue unmodied for a number of years.
Each derivative freighter has the benet of having most of
its development costs already assessed against the transaction of its passenger equivalent. Furthermore, the nancial arrangements for buying the airplane have already
been established and there is a quite short lead time before production (as compared to all new aircraft). A main
Excavators inside a C-5
A dedicated commercial air freighter is an airplane which

has been designed from the beginning as a freighter, with
no restrictions caused by either passenger or military re-
98
quirements. Over the years, there has been a dispute

concerning the cost eectiveness of such an airplane,
with some cargo carriers stating that they could consistently earn a prot if they had such an aircraft. To
help resolve this disagreement, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) selected two contractors, Douglas Aircraft Co. and Lockheed-Georgia
Co., to independently evaluate the possibility of producing such a freighter by 1990. This was done as part of
the Cargo/Logistics Airlift Systems Study (CLASS). At
comparable payloads, dedicated cargo aircraft was said to
provide a 20 percent reduction in trip cost and a 15 percent decrease in aircraft price compared to other cargo
aircraft. These ndings, however, are extremely sensitive
to assumptions about fuel and labor costs and, most particularly, to growth in demand for air cargo services. Further, it ignores the competitive situation brought about by
the lower capital costs of future derivative air cargo aircraft.
14.3 Today
Most conversions are carried out on older aircraft no
longer suitable for passenger use, often due to changing safety or noise requirements, or when the aircraft
type is considered to have become uncompetitive in
passenger airline service, but there is also a market for
new-build freighter designs. Freighter aircraft normally
have strengthened cabin oors and the inclusion of a
broad top-hinged door on the port fuselage in addition
to an absence of passenger cabin windows which are
plugged.
The Boeing 747 can be ordered in a freighter version with

a large nose door which can be raised above the cockpit
for loading. The bulged top deck housing the cockpit was
originally designed to allow an unobstructed main deck,
and to keep cargo from crushing the pilots in the case of
an accident. The interior size of the fuselage is matched
to the size of a standard shipping container, stacked two
The main advantage of the dedicated air freighter is that high and two wide.
it can be designed specically for air freight demand,
providing the type of loading and unloading, ooring, Other types of specialized civilian cargo aircraft confuselage conguration, and pressurization which are op- gurations, include the swing-tail Canadair CL-44 and
timized for its mission. Moreover, it can make full use of Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter, and the clamshell tail
NASAs ACEE results, with the potential of signicantly CASA CN-235.
lowering operating costs and fuel usage. Such a high overhead raises the price of the airplane and its direct operating cost (because of depreciation and insurance costs) and 14.4 Examples
increases the nancial risks to investors, especially since
it would be competing with derivatives which have much
14.4.1 Early air mail and airlift logistics
smaller development costs per unit and which themselves
aircraft
have incorporated some of the cost-reducing technology.
14.2.3
Joint civil-military cargo aircraft
One benet of a combined development is that the development costs would be shared by the civil and military sectors, and the number of airplanes required by the
military could be decreased by the number of civil reserve airplanes purchased by air carriers and available to
the military in case of emergency. There are some possible drawbacks, as the restrictions executed by joint development, the punishments that would be suered by both
civil and military airplanes, and the diculty in discovering an organizational structure that authorizes their compromise. Some features appropriate to a military aircraft
would have to be rejected, because they are not suitable
for a civil freighter. Moreover, each airplane would have
to carry some weight which it would not carry if it were independently designed. This additional weight lessens the
payload and the protability of the commercial version.
This could either be compensated by a transfer payment
at acquisition, or an operating penalty compensation payment. Most important, it is not clear that there will be an
adequate market for the civil version or that it will be cost
competitive with derivatives of passenger aircraft.
The Type 158 York
Important "airlift and logistics;"cargo-liners,mailliners,and mail aircraft.

Avro Lancastrian (Transatlantic mail)
Avro York (Berlin Airlift)
Boeing C-7000
Curtiss JN-4
Douglas M-2
14.4.2 Civilian cargo/freight aircraft

Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy
14.4. EXAMPLES
99
Air India Airbus A310-304

Two MD-11Fs of World Airways Cargo and Lufthansa Cargo
Cargolux Boeing 747-400F

A Qatar Cargo 777F
Antonov An-12
Antonov An-26
Antonov An-124 (the second largest operating cargo
aircraft in the world)
Antonov An-225 (the largest and heaviest aircraft in
the world)
British Aerospace 146QT (Conversions)
Aeroot Il-76TD
Aero Spacelines Super Guppy

Aero Spacelines Mini Guppy
Airbus A300
British Aerospace ATPF (Conversions)

Boeing 727 (Conversions)
Boeing 737 (Conversions)
Boeing 757
Boeing 767
Airbus A310
Boeing 747 Freighter
Airbus A320 (Conversions)
Boeing 747-8 Freighter
Airbus A330
Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter (Dreamlifter)
Airbus A380F
Boeing 777 Freighter
Airbus A300B4-608ST 'Beluga'
Douglas DC-3
100
14.4.6 Comparisons
Douglas DC-8
Douglas DC-9
14.5 See also
Ilyushin Il-76
Air transport
Ilyushin Il-96
Airlift
Lockheed L-100
McDonnell Douglas DC-10
McDonnell Douglas MD-11
Tupolev Tu-204
14.4.3
Light aircraft
Cessna Caravan - freight door and belly pod

equipped
Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner
14.6 References
[1] Wragg, David Airlift A History of Military Air Transport
Shrewsbury Airlife Publishing 1986 ISBN 0-906393-612 p13
[2] Johnson, Brian & Cozens, H. I. Bombers The Weapon of
Total War London Methuen 1984 ISBN 0-423-00630-4
p. 38
[3] Andrews and Morgan 1988, pp. 158159.
[4] Andrews and Morgan 1988, p. 157
LET 410
Shorts 330 - drop ramp and twin tailed vertical stabilizer
14.4.4
Cargo airline
Military cargo aircraft
[5] Kay, Anthony (2004). Junkers Aircraft and Engines 19131945. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books. ISBN 085177-985-9.
[6] A380 Freighter Specications. Airbus. Retrieved 18
April 2010.
[7] Andriulaitis, Robert. "B747-8F VS A380F" InterVISTAS,
December 2005. Retrieved: 29 September 2012.
[8] Future cargo aircraft>"http://www.princeton.edu/~{}ota/
disk3/1982/8231/823105.PDF"
14.7 External links

Airlift Cargo Aircraft
History of the Airmail Service
Indo-Russian Transport Aircraft (IRTA)
A turboprop twin-engined transport aircraft: the Antonov An-32
Further information:
Airlift
14.4.5
Military transport aircraft and
Experimental cargo aircraft
Hughes H-4 Hercules (Spruce Goose)

Lockheed R6V Constitution
LTV XC-142
Chapter 15
Cartridge (rearms)
This article addresses small-arms cartridges. For car- 15.1.1 Purpose
tridges used with larger arms, see Artillery#Ammunition
and Shell (projectile).
The cartridge case seals a ring chamber in all directions
A cartridge (also called a round or a shell) is a type excepting the bore. A ring pin strikes the primer and
of ammunition packaging a bullet or shot, a propellant ignites it. The primer compound deagrates (that is, it
substance (usually either smokeless powder or black pow- rapidly burns), it does not detonate. A jet of burning gas
der) and a primer within a metallic, paper, or plastic case from the primer ignites the propellant.
that is precisely made to t within the ring chamber of
a rearm.* [1] The primer is a small charge of an impactsensitive or electric-sensitive chemical mixture that can
be located at the center of the case head (centerre ammunition), inside a rim (rimre ammunition), or in a projection such as in a pinre or teat-re cartridge. Military
and commercial producers also make caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank. One
that is completely inert (contains no active primer and no
propellant) is called a dummy.
Gases from the burning powder pressurize and expand the

case to seal it against the chamber wall. These propellant
gases push on the bullet base. In response to this pressure,
the bullet will move in the path of least resistance which
is down the bore of the barrel. After the bullet leaves the
barrel, the chamber pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. The case, which had been elastically expanded by
chamber pressure, contracts slightly. This eases removal
of the case from the chamber.
Some artillery ammunition uses the same cartridge con15.1.2 Materials

cept as found in small arms. In other cases, the artillery
shell is separate from the propellant charge.
Brass is a commonly used case material because it is reIn popular use, the term "bullet" is often misused to refer sistant to corrosion. A brass case head can be workto a complete cartridge.
hardened to withstand the high pressures of cartridges,
and allow for manipulation via extraction and ejection
without tearing the metal. The neck and body portion
of a brass case is easily annealed to make the case ductile
enough to allow reforming so that it can be reloaded many
times.
Steel is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in
some military ammunition (mainly from the former Soviet Union and China). Steel is less expensive than brass,
A variety of rie cartridges: 1).17 HM2 2) .17 HMR 3) .22LR but it is not feasible to reload and reuse steel cases. Mil4) .22 WMR 5) .17/23 SMc 6) 5mm/35 SMc 7) .22 Hornet 8) itary forces typically consider small arms cartridge cases
.223 Remington 9) .223 WSSM 10) .243 Winchester 11) .243 to be disposable, one-time-use devices. However, case
Winchester Improved (Ackley) 12) .25-06 Remington 13) .270 weight (mass) aects how much ammunition a soldier
Winchester 14) .308 Winchester 15) .30-06 Springeld 16) .45- can carry, so the lighter steel cases do have a military
70 Government 17) .50-90 Sharps
advantage. Conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or
otherwise sealed against the elements.
15.1 Design
One downside caused by the increased strength of steel in

the neck of these cases (compared to the annealed neck of
a brass case) is that propellant gas can blow back past the
neck and into the chamber. Constituents of these gases
condense on the (relatively cold) chamber wall. This solid
101
102
CHAPTER 15. CARTRIDGE (FIREARMS)
propellant residue can make extraction of red cases difcult. This is less of a problem for small arms of the
former Warsaw Pact nations, which were designed with
much larger chamber tolerances than NATO weapons.
Aluminum cased cartridges are available commercially.
These are generally not reloaded as aluminum fatigues
easily during ring and resizing. Some calibers also have
non-standard primer sizes to discourage reloaders from
attempting to reuse these cases.
Historically paper had been used in the earliest cartridges
as detailed further below.
15.1.3
Specications
Critical cartridge specications include neck size, bullet

weight and caliber, maximum pressure, headspace, overall length, case body diameter and taper, shoulder design,
rim type, etc. Generally, every characteristic of a specic cartridge type is tightly controlled and few types are
interchangeable in any way. Exceptions do exist but generally, these are only where a shorter cylindrical rimmed
cartridge can be used in a longer chamber, (e.g., .22 Short
in .22 Long Rie chamber, and .38 Special in a .357 Magnum chamber). Centerre primer type (Boxer or Berdan,
see below) is interchangeable, although not in the same
case. Deviation in any of these specications can result
in rearm damage and, in some instances, injury or death.
Similarly, use of the wrong type of cartridge in any given
gun can damage the gun, or cause bodily injury.
Historic British handgun cartridges
tube. Thick paper is still known as cartridge paper

from its use in these cartridges. Another source states the
cartridge appeared in 1590.* [4] King Gustavus Adolphus
of Sweden had his troops use cartridges in the 1600s.* [5]
The paper was formed a cylinder with twisted ends; the
ball was at one end, and the measured powder lled the
rest.* [6]
This cartridge was used with muzzle-loading military

rearms, probably more often than for sporting shooting,
the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten o by the
soldier, the powder poured into the barrel, and the paper
and bullet rammed down the barrel.* [7] In the Civil War
era cartridge, the paper was supposed to be discarded, but
soldiers often used it as a wad.* [8] To ignite the charge an
Cartridge specications are determined by several stan- additional step was required where a ner-grained powdards organizations, including SAAMI in the United der called priming powder was poured into the pan of the
States, and C.I.P. in many European states. NATO gun to be ignited by the ring mechanism.
also performs its own tests for military cartridges for its The evolving nature of warfare required a rearm that
member nations; due to dierences in testing methods, could load and re more rapidly, resulting in the intlock
NATO cartridges (headstamped with the NATO cross) musket (and later the Baker rie), in which the pan was
may present an unsafe combination when loaded into a covered by furrowed steel. This was struck by the int
weapon chambered for a cartridge certied by one of the and red the gun. In the course of loading a pinch of
other testing bodies.* [2]
powder from the cartridge would be placed into the pan
Bullet diameter is measured either as a fraction of an inch
(usually in 1/100 or in 1/1000) or in millimetres. Cartridge case length can also be designated in inches or millimetres.
15.2 History
Paper cartridges have been in use for nearly as long as
hand-held rearms, with a number of sources dating their
use back to the late 14th century. Historians note their
use by soldiers of Christian I in 1586, while the Dresden Museum has evidence dating their use to 1591, and
Capo Bianco wrote in 1597 that paper cartridges had long
been in use by Neapolitan soldiers. Their use became
widespread by the 17th century.* [3] The 1586 cartridge
consisted of a charge of powder and a bullet in a paper
as priming, before the rest of the cartridge was rammed

down the barrel, providing charge and wadding.
Later developments rendered this method of priming unnecessary, as, in loading, a portion of the charge of powder passed from the barrel through the vent into the pan,
where it was held by the cover and hammer.
The next important advance in the method of ignition
was the introduction of the copper percussion cap. This
was only generally applied to the British military musket
(the Brown Bess) in 1842, a quarter of a century after
the invention of percussion powder and after an elaborate government test at Woolwich in 1834. The invention
that made the percussion cap possible was patented by
the Rev. A. J. Forsyth in 1807, and consisted of priming
with a fulminating powder made of potassium chlorate,
sulfur, and charcoal, which ignited by concussion. This
invention was gradually developed, and used, rst in a
15.2. HISTORY
103
steel cap, and then in a copper cap, by various gunmakers after.* [12] Pauly made an improved version, protected by
and private individuals before coming into general mili- a patent, on 29 September 1812.* [10]
tary use nearly thirty years later.
Probably no invention connected with rearms has
The alteration of the military int-lock to the percussion wrought such changes in the principle of gun construcmusket was easily accomplished by replacing the powder tion as those eected by the expansive cartridge case.
pan by a perforated nipple, and by replacing the cock or This invention has completely revolutionized the art of
hammer that held the int with a smaller hammer that gun making, has been successfully applied to all descriphad a hollow to t on the nipple when released by the tions of rearms, and has produced a new and important
trigger. The shooter placed a percussion cap (now made industry: that of cartridge manufacture. Its essential feaof three parts of potassium chlorate, two of fulminate of ture is preventing gas escaping the breech when the gun
mercury and powdered glass) on the nipple. The deto- is red, by means of an expansive cartridge case containnating cap thus invented and adopted, brought about the ing its own means of ignition. Previous to this inveninvention of the modern cartridge case, and rendered pos- tion shotguns and sporting ries were loaded by means
sible the general adoption of the breech-loading principle of powder asks and shot bags or asks, bullets, wads and
for all varieties of ries, shotguns and pistols. This greatly copper caps, all carried separately. One of the earliest efstreamlined the reloading procedure and paved the way cient modern cartridge cases was the pinre cartridge,
for semi- and full-automatic rearms.
developed by French gunsmith Casimir Lefaucheux in
*
But this big leap forward came at a price. It intro- 1836. [13] It consisted of a thin weak shell made of brass
duced an extra component into each round the car- and paper that expanded from the force of the explosion.
tridge case which had to be removed before the gun This t perfectly in the barrel, and thus formed an efcould be reloaded. While a intlock, for example, is im- cient gas check. A small percussion cap was placed in
mediately ready to reload once it has been red, adopting the middle of the base of the cartridge, and was ignited by
brass cartridge cases brought in the problems of extrac- means of a brass pin projecting from the side and struck
tion and ejection. The mechanism of a modern gun not by the hammer. This pin also aorded the means of exonly must load and re the piece but also must remove tracting the cartridge case. This cartridge was introduced
the spent case, which might require just as many added in England by Lang, of Cockspur Street, London, about
moving parts. Many malfunctions involve this process, 1845.
either through failure to extract a case properly from the
chamber or by allowing the extracted case to jam the action. Nineteenth-century inventors were reluctant to accept this added complication and experimented with a
variety of caseless or self-consuming cartridges before nally accepting that the advantages of brass cases far outweighed this one drawback.* [9]
15.2.1
Integrated paper cartridges
In the American Civil War (186165) a breech-loading

rie, the Sharps, was introduced and produced in large
numbers. It could be loaded with either a ball or a
paper cartridge. After that war many were converted to
the use of metal cartridges. The development by Smith
& Wesson (amongst many others) of revolver handguns
that used metal cartridges helped to establish cartridge
rearms as the standard in the USA by the 1870s although many continue to use percussion revolvers well
after that.* [14]
15.2.2 Metal cartridges

Early all-metal cartridges were of the pinre and rimre
types.
Chassepot paper cartridge (1866).
The rst integrated cartridge was developed in Paris in

1808 by the Swiss gunsmith Jean Samuel Pauly in association with French gunsmith Franois Prlat. Pauly
created the rst fully self-contained cartridges:* [10] the
cartridges incorporated a copper base with integrated
mercury fulminate primer powder (the major innovation
of Pauly), a paper case and a round bullet.* [11] The cartridge was loaded through the breech and red with a
needle. The needle-activated central-re breech-loading
gun would become a major feature of rearms there-
The Frenchman Louis-Nicolas Flobert invented in 1845,

for indoor shooting security, the rst rimre metallic cartridge, constituted by a bullet t in a percussion
cap.* [15]* [16] Usually derived in the 6 mm and 9 mm
calibres, it is since then called the Flobert cartridge or the
Bosquette cartridge but it doesn't contain any powder, the
only propellant substance contained in the cartridge is the
percussion cap itself.* [17] In English-speaking countries
the Flobert cartridge corresponds to .22 BB and .22 CB
ammunition.
French gunsmith Benjamin Houllier improved the
Lefaucheux pinre cardboard cartridge and patented in
Paris in 1846, the rst fully metallic cartridge containing powder (and a pinre), in a metallic shell.* [13]* [18]
104
(From Left to Right): A .577 Snider cartridge (1867), a .577/450

Martini-Henry cartridge (1871), a later drawn brass .577/450
Martini-Henry cartridge, and a .303 British Mk VII SAA Ball
cartridge.
French Army Fusil Gras mle 1874 metallic cartridge.
The 8 mm Lebel ammunition, developed in 1886, the rst

smokeless gunpowder cartridge to be made and adopted by any
country.
Houllier commercialised his weapons in association with

the gunsmiths Blanchard or Charles Robert.* [19]* [20]
The 1846 Houllier cartridges were pinre cartridges as
still were the LeMat (1856) and Lefaucheux (1858) revolvers, both used during the American Civil War.
In the United States, in 1857, the Flobert cartridge inspired the .22 Short (another rimre), especially conceived for the rst American revolver using rimre cartridges, the Smith & Wesson Model 1. A year before,
in 1856, the LeMat was the rst American (Frenchdesigned) breech-loading revolver, but it used pinre cartridges, not rimre. Formerly, an employee of the Colt's
Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company, Rollin White,
had been the rst in America to conceive the idea of having the revolver cylinder bored through to accept metallic
cartridges (circa 1852), but Samuel Colt refused this innovation. White left Colt, went to Smith & Wesson to
rent a licence for his patent, and this is how the S&W
Model 1 saw light of day in 1857. The patent didn't
denitely expire until 1870, allowing Smith & Wesson
competitors to design and commercialise their own re-

volving breech-loaders using metallic cartridges. Famous
models of that time are the Colts Open Top (1871-1872)
and Single Action Army Peacemaker (1873). But
in ries, the lever-action mechanism patents were not obstructed by Rollin White's patent infringement because
White only held a patent concerning drilled cylinders and
revolving mechanisms. Thus, larger caliber rimre cartridges were soon introduced after 1857, when the Smith
& Wesson .22 Short ammunition was introduced for the
rst time. Some of these rie cartridges were used in the
American Civil War, including the .44 Henry and 56-56
Spencer (both in 1860). However, the large rimre cartridges were soon replaced by centerre cartridges, which
could safely handle higher pressures.* [21]
In 1867 the British war oce adopted the Eley-Boxer
metallic central-re cartridge case in the Pattern 1853
Eneld ries, which were converted to Snider-Eneld
breech-loaders on the Snider principle. This consisted of
a block opening on a hinge, thus forming a false breech
against which the cartridge rested. The priming cap was
in the base of the cartridge, and was discharged by a
striker passing through the breech block. Other European
powers adopted breech-loading military ries from 1866
to 1868, with paper instead of metallic cartridge cases.
The original Eley-Boxer cartridge case was made of thincoiled brassoccasionally these cartridges could break
apart and jam the breech with the unwound remains of
the case upon ring. Later the solid-drawn, central-re
cartridge case, made of one entire solid piece of tough
hard metal, an alloy of copper, with a solid head of thicker
metal, has been generally substituted.
Central-re cartridges with solid-drawn metallic cases
containing their own means of ignition are almost universally used in all modern varieties of military and sporting
ries and pistols.
Around 1870, machined tolerances had improved to the
point that the cartridge case was no longer necessary to
seal a ring chamber. Precision-faced bolts would seal as
well, and could be economically manufactured. However,
normal wear and tear proved this system to be generally
infeasible.
15.3 Nomenclature
The name of any given cartridge does not necessarily reect any cartridge or gun dimension. The name is merely
the standardized and accepted moniker. SAAMI (Sporting Arms and Ammunition ManufacturersInstitute) and
the European counterpart (CIP) and members of those
organizations specify correct cartridge names. Cartridge
names, when correctly presented, never include a naked
leading decimal point.
It is a common misnomer to refer to a cartridge as a certain caliber,e.g. 30-06 caliber.The correct full
name for this cartridge is .30-'06 Springeld. In sporting
15.4. CENTERFIRE
105
arms the only consistent denition of caliberis bore the .38 Special. The .357 was named to reect bullet didiameter. Dozens of unique .30-caliber cartridge types ameter (in thousandths inch), not case diameter. Magexist.
numwas used to indicate its longer case and higher opThere is considerable variation in cartridge nomenclature. erating pressure.
Names sometimes reect various characteristics of the
cartridge. For example, the .308 Winchester uses a bullet of 308/1000-inch diameter and was standardized by
Winchester. Conversely, cartridge names often reect
nothing related to the cartridge in any obvious way. For
example, the .218 Bee uses a bullet of 224/1000-inch diameter, red through a .22-in bore, etc. The 218 and
Bee portions of this cartridge name reect nothing other
than the desires of those who standardized that cartridge.
Many similar examples exist, for example: .219 Zipper,
.221 Fireball, .222 Remington, .256 Winchester, .280
Remington, .307 Winchester, .356 Winchester.
Where two numbers are used in a cartridge name, the
second number may reect a variety of things. Frequently
the rst number reects bore diameter (inches or millimeters). The second number reects case length (in inches
or mm). For example, the 7.6251mm NATO refers to a
bore diameter of 7.62 mm and has an overall case length
of 51 mm. The commercial version is the .308 Winchester.)
The .30-'06 Springeld round is (nominally) a 0.30 inches

(7.6 mm) military round designed at the Springeld arsenal in 1906.
The .303 British is for a bore nominally 303/1000-inch
and this chambering was standardized by the British
Army.
15.4 Centerre
Rimmed, Mk. VII centerre .303 cartridge from WW II. Manu-
In older black powder cartridges, the second number typ- factured by Colonial Ammunition Company, New Zealand.
ically refers to powder charge, in grains. For example,
the .50-90 Sharps has a .50-inch bore and used a nominal Main article: Centerre ammunition
charge of 90.0 grains (5.83 g) of black powder.
Many such cartridges were designated by a three-number
system, e.g., 45-120-3 Sharps: 45-caliber bore, 120
grains of (black) powder, 3-inch long case. Other times
a similar three-number system indicated bore (caliber),
charge (grains), and bullet weight (grains). The 45-70500 Government is an example.
A centerre cartridge has a centrally located primer held

within a recess in the case head. Most centerre brass
cases used worldwide for sporting ammunition use Boxer
primers. It is easy to remove and replace Boxer primers
using standard reloading tools, facilitating reuse.
Some European- and Asian-manufactured military and

Often, the name reects the company or individual who sporting ammunition uses Berdan primers. Removing
standardized it, such as the .30 Newton, or some charac- the spent primer from (decapping) these cases requires
teristic important to that person.
use of a special tool because the primer anvil (on which
The .38 Special actually has a nominal bullet diameter the primer compound is crushed) is an integral part of
of 0.3570 inches (9.07 mm) (jacketed) or 0.3580 inches the case and the case therefore does not have a central
(9.09 mm) (lead) while the case has a nominal diameter hole through which a decapping tool can push the primer
of 0.3800 inches (9.65 mm),. Hence the name. This is out from the inside, as is done with Boxer primers. In
historically logical. The hole drilled through the cham- Berdan cases, the ash holes are located to the sides of
bers of .36-caliber cap-and-ball revolvers when convert- the anvil. With the right tool and components, reloading those to work with cartridges was 0.3800 inches (9.65 ing Berdan-primed cases is perfectly feasible. However,
mm) and the cartridges made to work in those revolvers Berdan primers are not readily available in the U.S.
was logically named the .38 Colt. The original cartridges
used a heeled bullet like a .22 rimre where the bullet was
the same diameter as the case. Early Colt Army .38s have 15.5 Rimre
a bore diameter that will allow a .357diameter bullet to
slide through the barrel. The cylinder is bored straight
through with no step. Later versions used an inside the Main article: Rimre ammunition
case lubricated bullet of .357diameter instead of the
original .38with a reduction in bore diameter. The dif- Rimre priming was a popular solution before centerre
ference in .38 Special bullet diameter and case diameter priming was perfected. In a rimre case, centrifugal force
reects the thickness of the case mouth (approximately pushes a liquid priming compound into the internal re11/1000-inch per side). The .357 Magnum evolved from cess of the folded rim as the manufacturer spins the case
106
at a high rate and heats the spinning case to dry the priming compound mixture in place within the hollow cavity
formed within the rim fold at the perimeter of the case
interior.
In the mid- to late-1800s, many rimre cartridge designs
existed. Today only a few, mostly for use in small-caliber
guns, remain in general and widespread use. These include the .17 Mach II, .17 Hornady Magnum Rimre
(HMR), 5mm Remington Magnum (Rem Mag), .22 (BB,
CB, Short, Long, Long Rie), and .22 Winchester Magnum Rimre (WMR).
15.6 Semi-automatic vs. revolver

cartridges
Most revolver cartridges have a rim at the base of the case
that is larger than the case body is and which seats against
or into the cylinder block to provide headspace control
(to keep the cartridge from moving too far forward in the
cylinder chamber) and to provide for easy extraction.
Nearly every semi-automatic pistol cartridge isrimless,
or more precisely has a rim of the same diameter as the
case body. An extractor engages this rim by entering a
cannelure near the base of the case. A few designs, known
assemi-rimmedhave a rim that is slightly larger than
case body diameter but these function as a rimless design. All such cartridges headspace on the case mouth (although some, such as .38 Super, at one time seated on the
rim, this was changed for accuracy reasons), which prevents the round from entering too far into the chamber.
Some cartridges have a rim that is signicantly smaller
than case body diameter. These are known as rebatedrim designs, and almost always allow a handgun to re
multiple caliber cartridges with only a barrel and magazine change.
Compared to modern centerre cases used in the

strongest types of modern guns, existing rimre cartridge
designs use loads that generate relatively low pressure because of limitations of feasible gun design the rim has
little or no lateral support from the gun. Such support
would require very close tolerances in design of the chamber, bolt, and ring pin. Because that is not cost-eective,
it is necessary to keep rimre load pressure low enough so
that the stress generated by chamber pressure that would
push the case rim outward cannot expand the rim significantly. Also, the wall of the folded rim must be thin and
ductile enough to easily deform, as necessary to allow the
blow from the ring pin to crush and thereby ignite the
primer compound, and it must do so without rupturing, For a visual comparison of similar-diameter handgun carIf it is too thick, it will be too resistant to deformation. If tridges with dierent rim designs, see 380 ACP (semiit is too hard, it will crack rather than deform. These two automatic) vs. .38 Special (revolver.)
limitations that the rim is self-supporting laterally and
that the rim is thin and ductile enough to easily crush in
response to the ring pin impact limit rimre pressures. 15.7 Bullet design types
Modern centerre cartridges are often loaded to about
65,000 psi (450,000 kPa) maximum chamber pressure.
12 gauge/70 mm standard shotgun buckshot ammuConversely, no commercialized rimre has ever been
nition loads. Listed here from largest to smallest
loaded above about 40,000 psi (280,000 kPa) maximum
shot size. Loads typically oered in the 70 mm
chamber pressure. However, with careful gun design
length hull (many other loading options are availand production, no fundamental reason exists that higher
able).
pressures could not be used. Despite the relative pressure
disadvantage, modern rimre magnums in .17-caliber, 000 Buck: 8 lead pellets (0.36 in or 9.1 mm)
5mm, and .22-caliber generate muzzle energy compara00 Buck: 9 lead pellets (0.33 in or 8.4 mm, 12 pellets for
ble to smaller centerre cartridges.
Magnum load)
Today, .22 LR (Long Rie) accounts for the vast majority
of all rimre ammunition used. Standard .22 LR rounds 0 Buck: 12 lead pellets (0.32 in or 8.1 mm)
use an essentially pure lead bullet plated with a typical 1 Buck: 16 lead pellets (0.30 in or 7.6 mm, 20 pellets for
95% copper, 5% zinc combination. These are oered in Magnum load)
supersonic and subsonic types, as well as target, plinking,
4 Buck: 27 lead pellets (0.24 in or 6.1 mm)
and hunting versions. These cartridges are usually coated
with a hard wax for fouling control.
Shotgun slug: Slugs can be made of solid lead, copThe .22 LR and related rimre .22 cartridges also use a
per, or a composite of any of various materials.
unique two-diameter bullet, where external diameter of
Slugs are stabilized in ight by riing in the barrel,
the case is the same as diameter of the forward portion
which causes the slug to spin, or are stabilized as a
of the bullet and where the rearward portion of the buldart is by the weight center of balance being forward
let, which extends into the case, is necessarily smaller in
of the aerodynamic center of balance, sometimes
diameter than the main body of the bullet. This is known
with assistance from ns. Solid or hollow-point slugs
as a heel-base bullet design.
are available but, due to the relatively low velocity,
hollow-point slugs often demonstrate relatively low
expansion.
15.7. BULLET DESIGN TYPES
A cutaway showing a Japanese Navy 7.7 mm rimmed rounds as

red by the Type 92 and Type 97 machine gunscopies of Vickers and Lewis designs. The round is eectively interchangeable
with .303 British.
Baton round: a generally non-lethal projectile red

from a riot gun.
Armor Piercing (AP): A hard bullet made from steel
or tungsten alloys in a pointed shape typically covered by a thin layer of lead and or a copper or brass
jacket. The lead and jacket are intended to prevent
barrel wear from the hard core materials. AP bullets
are sometimes less eective on unarmored targets
than FMJ bullets are. This has to do with the reduced tendency of AP projectiles to yaw (turn sideways after impact).
Flat Nose Lead (FNL): Similar to the above, with a
attened nose. Common in Cowboy Action Shooting and plinking ammunition loads.
Full Metal Jacket (FMJ): Made with a lead core
surrounded by a full covering of brass, copper, or
mild steel. These usually oer very little deformation or terminal performance expansion, but
will occasionally yaw (turn sideways). Despite the
name, a FMJ bullet typically has an exposed lead
base, which is not visible in an intact cartridge.
Main article: Full metal jacket bullet
Glaser Safety Slug: The Glaser Safety Slug dates
back to the early 1970s. The inventor, Colonel Jack
Cannon, named it for his friend Armin Glaser. Over
107
the years, these projectiles have evolved from crude,
hand-produced examples to mass-production; however, the basic concept has remained the same: copper jackets lled with bird shot and covered by a
crimped polymer endcap. Upon impact with esh,
the projectile is supposed to fragment, with the birdshot spreading like a miniature shotgun pattern. The
standard BlueGlaser uses a rather ne birdshot
that only gives 5 to 6 inches (130150 mm) of penetration in esh. The SilverGlaser adds another 1 to 2 inches (3050 mm) of penetration with
the use of slightly larger birdshot. Due to reduced
penetration in esh, some have theorized that the
Glaser would be ideal where over-penetration of a
projectile could be hazardous to bystanders. For instance, the Glaser might be entirely contained within
an arm. However, for the same reasons, terminal
performance of Glaser bullets can vary dramatically,
producing impressive successes and equally spectacular failures depending on the angle at which the target is struck. Glancing hits on hard surfaces will
result in fragmentation, reducing the risk of ricochets. However, the Glaser can penetrate barriers
such as drywall, plywood, and thin sheet metal if
struck nearly head on.
Jacketed Hollow Point (JHP): Soon after the invention of the JSP, Woolwich Arsenal in Great Britain
experimented with this design even further by forming a hole or cavity in the nose of the bullet while
keeping most of the exterior prole intact. These
bullets could theoretically deform even faster and
expand to a larger diameter than the JSP. In personal
defense use, concerns have arisen over whether
clothing, especially heavy materials like denim, can
clog the cavity of JHP bullets and cause expansion
failures.
Jacketed Soft Point (JSP): In the late 19th century,
the Indian Army at Dum-Dum Arsenal, near Calcutta, developed a variation of the FMJ design where
the jacket did not cover the nose of the bullet. The
soft lead nose was found to expand in esh while
the remaining jacket still prevented lead fouling in
the barrel. The JSP roughly splits the dierence between FMJ and JHP. It gives more penetration than
JHP but has better terminal ballistic characteristics
than the FMJ.
Round Nose Lead (RNL): An unjacketed lead bullet. Although largely supplanted by jacketed ammunition, this is still common for older revolver cartridges. Some hunters prefer roundnose ammunition for hunting in brush because they erroneously
believe that such a bullet deects less than sharpnosed spitzer bullets, regardless of the fact that this
belief has been repeatedly proven not to be true. Refer to American Rieman magazine.
Total Metal Jacket (TMJ): Featured in some Speer
108

cartridges, the TMJ bullet has a lead core completely
and seamlessly enclosed in brass, copper or other
jacket metal, including the base. According to Speer
literature, this prevents hot propellant gases from vaporizing lead from the base of the bullet, reducing
lead emissions. Sellier & Bellot produce a similar
version that they call TFMJ, with a separate end cap
of jacket material.
Wadcutter (WC): Similar to the FNL, but completely cylindrical, in some instances with a slight
concavity in the nose. This bullet derives its name
from its popularity for target shooting, because the
form factor cuts neat holes in paper targets, making
scoring easier and more accurate and because it typically cuts a larger hole than a round nose bullet, a hit
centered at the same spot can touch the next smaller
ring and therefore score higher.
Semi Wad Cutter (SWC) identical to the WC with
a smaller diameter ap pointed conical or radiused
nose added. Has the same advantages for target
shooters but is easier to load into the gun and works
more reliably in semi-automatic guns. This design
is also superior for some hunting applications.
Truncated Cone, Round Nose Flat Point, etc. Descriptive of typical modern commercial cast bullet
designs.
The Hague Convention of 1899 bans the use of expanding projectiles against the military forces of other nations.
Some countries accept this as a blanket ban against the
use of expanding projectiles against anyone, while others* [note 1] use JSP and HP against non-military forces
such as terrorists and criminals* [22]
15.8 Common cartridges
A variety of common pistol cartridges. From left to right: 22 LR,

.22 WMR, 5.728mm, 25 ACP, 7.6225mm Tokarev, 32 ACP,
380 ACP, 919mm Parabellum, 357 SIG, 40 S&W, 45 GAP, 45
ACP, .38 Special, 357 Magnum, 45 Colt
Main article: Table of handgun and rie cartridges by

year
Ammunition types are listed numerically.
22 Long Rie (22 LR): A cartridge that is often used

for target shooting and the hunting of small game
such as squirrel. Because of the small size of this
cartridge, the smallest self-defense handguns chambered in 22 rimre (though less eective than most
centerre handguns cartridges) can be concealed in
situations where a handgun chambered for a centerre cartridge could not. The 22 LR is the most
commonly red sporting arms cartridge, primarily
because, when compared to any centerre ammunition, 22 LR ammunition is much less expensive
and because recoil generated by the light 22 bullet
at modest velocity is very mild.
22-250: A very popular cartridge for medium to
long range small game and varmint hunting, pest
control and target shooting. The 22-250 is one of
the most popular cartridges for fox hunting and other
pest control in Western Europe due to its at trajectory and very good accuracy on rabbit to fox sized
pests.
300 Winchester Magnum: One of the most popular big game hunting cartridges of all time. Also, a
long-range sniping round, it is favored by US Navy
SEALs and the German Bundeswehr. While not in
the same class as the 338 Lapua, it has roughly the
same power as 7 mm Remington Magnum, and easily exceeds the performance of 7.6251mm NATO.
30-06 Springeld (7.6263mm): The standard US
Army rie cartridge for the rst half of the 20th century. It is a full-power rie cartridge suitable for
hunting most North American game and most big
game worldwide.* [23]
.303 British: the standard British Empire military
rie cartridge from 1888 to 1954.* [24]
308 Winchester: the commercial name of a centerre cartridge based on the military 7.6251mm
NATO round. Two years prior to the NATO adoption of the 7.6251mm NATO T65 in 1954, Winchester (a subsidiary of the Olin Corporation) branded
the cartridge and introduced it to the commercial
hunting market as the 308 Winchester. The Winchester Model 70 and Model 88 ries were subsequently chambered for this cartridge. Since then, the
308 Winchester has become the most popular shortaction big-game hunting cartridge worldwide. It is
also commonly used for civilian and military target
events, military sniping and police sharpshooting.
357 Magnum: Using a lengthened version of the .38
Special case loaded to about twice the maximum
chamber pressure as the 38 Spc., the 357 Magnum
was rapidly accepted by hunters and law enforcement. At the time of its introduction, 357 Magnum
bullets were claimed to easily pierce the body panels
of automobiles and crack engine blocks (to eventually disable the vehicle).* [25]
15.8. COMMON CARTRIDGES

.375 Holland & Holland Magnum: designed for
hunting African big game in the early 20th century,
and legislated as the minimum caliber for African
hunters during the mid-20th century.* [26]
40 S&W: A shorter-cased version of the 10mm
Auto.
109
available the 764mm is used on everything from
fox and geese to red deer, Scandinavian moose and
European brown bear equivalent to the North American black bear. The 7x64mm essentially duplicates
performance of the 270 Winchester and 280 Remington.
44 Magnum: A high-powered pistol cartridge designed primarily for hunting.
7 mm Remington Magnum: A long-range hunting

cartridge.
45 ACP: The standard US pistol round for about one

century. Typical 45 ACP loads are subsonic.* [27]
7.6239mm: The standard Soviet/ComBloc rie

cartridge from the mid-1940s to the mid-1970s, this
is easily one of the most widely distributed cartridges in the world due to the distribution of the
ubiquitous Kalashnikov AK-47 series.
45 Colt: A slightly more powerful 45-caliber round

using a longer shell. The 45 Colt was designed for
the Colt Single Action Army, circa 1873. Other 45caliber single action revolvers also use this round.
45-70 Government: Adopted by the US Army
in 1873 as their standard service rie cartridge.
Most commercial loadings of this cartridge are constrained by the possibility that someone might attempt to re a modern loading in a vintage 1873 rie
or replica. However, current production ries from
Marlin, Ruger, and Browning can accept loads that
generate nearly twice the pressure generated by the
original black powder cartridges.
50 BMG (12.799mm NATO): Originally designed
to destroy aircraft in the First World War,* [28] this
cartridge still serves an anti-materiel round against
light armor. It is used in heavy machine guns and
high-powered sniper ries. Such ries are intended
for destroying military matriel such as sensitive
parts of grounded aircraft and armored transports.
Civilian shooters use these for long-distance target
shooting.
5.4539mm Soviet: The Soviet response to the
5.5645mm NATO cartridge.
5.5645mm NATO: Adopted by the US military in
the 1960s, it later became the NATO standard assault rie cartridge in the early 80s, displacing the
7.6251mm. Remington later adopted this military
round as the 223 Remington, a very popular cartridge for varminting and small game hunting.
764mm: One of the most popular long range
varmint and medium- to big-game hunting cartridges in Europe, especially in the countries such
as France and (formerly) Belgium where the possession of rearms chambered for a (former) military
cartridge is forbidden or is more heavily restricted.
This cartridge is oered by European rie makers
in both bolt-action ries and a rimmed version, the
765mmR is chambered in double and combination
ries. Another reason for its popularity is its at trajectory, very good penetration and high versatility,
depending on what bullet and load are used. Combined with a large choice of dierent 7 mm bullets
7.6251mm NATO: This was the standard NATO

rie round until its replacement by the 5.5645mm.
It is currently the standard NATO sniper rie and
medium machinegun chambering. In the 1950s
it was the standard NATO cartridge for ries, but
recoil and weight proved problematic for the new
battle rie designs such as the FN FAL. Standardized commercially as the 308 Winchester.
7.6254mmR: The standard Russian rie round
from the 1890s to the mid-1940s. The Rstands
for rimmed. The 7.6254mmR rie cartridge is a
Russian design dating back to 1891. Originally designed for the Mosin-Nagant rie, it was used during
the late Tsarist era and throughout the Soviet period,
in machine guns and ries such as the SVT-40. The
Winchester Model 1895 was also chambered for this
cartridge per a contract with the Russian government. It is still in use by the Russian military in the
Dragunov and other sniper ries and some machine
guns. The round is colloquially known as the7.62
Russian. This name sometimes causes people to
confusion this round with the7.62 Sovietround,
which refers to the 7.62 39 cartridge used in the
SKS and AK-47 ries.
7.6517mm Browning SR (32 ACP): A very small
pistol round. However, this was the predominant
Police Service Cartridge in Europe until the mid1970s. TheSRstands for semi-rimmed, meaning
the case rim is slightly larger than case body diameter.
857mm IS: The standard German service rie cartridge from 1888 to 1945, the 857mmIS (aka
8 mm Mauser) has seen wide distribution around
the globe through commercial, surplus, and military sales, and is still a popular and commonly used
hunting round in most of Europe, partly because of
the abundance of aordable hunting ries in this
chambering as well as a broad availability of dierent hunting, target, and military surplus ammunition
available.* [29]
110
919mm Parabellum: Invented for the German mil- 15.10 Caseless ammunition
itary at the turn of the 20th century, the wide distribution of the 919mm Parabellum cartridge made it
the logical choice for the NATO standard pistol and Main article: Caseless ammunition
SMG round.
Many governments and companies continue to develop
9.362mm: Very common big game hunting round
in Scandinavia along with the 6.555mm, where it
is used as a very versatile hunting round on anything
from small and medium game with lightweight cast
lead bullets to the largest European big game with
heavy soft point hunting bullets. The 9.362mm is
also very popular in the rest of Europe for Big game,
especially driven Big game hunts due to its eective
stopping power on running game. And, it is the single cartridge smaller than the 375 H&H Magnum
An example of caseless ammunition. This disassembled round,
that has routinely been allowed for legal hunting of
the 4.7333mm, is used in the Heckler & Koch G11 rie.
dangerous African species.
12.7108mm: The 12.7108mm cartridge is a
heavy machine gun and anti-materiel rie cartridge
used by the Soviet Union, the former Warsaw Pact,
modern Russia, and other countries. It is the approximate Russian equivalent of the NATO .50 BMG
(12.799mm NATO) cartridge. The dierences
between the two are the bullet shape, the types of
powder used, and that the case of the 12.7108mm
is 9 mm longer and marginally more powerful.
caseless ammunition (where the entire case assembly is

either consumed when the round res or whatever remains is ejected with the bullet). So far, none of these
have been successful enough to reach the civilian market
and gain commercial success. Even within the military
market, use is limited. Around 1848, Sharps introduced
a rie and paper cartridge (containing everything but the
primer) system. When new, these guns had signicant
gas leaks at the chamber end, with progressive use, these
leaks progressively worsened. This problem plagues case 14.5114mm: The 14.5114 mm is a heavy ma- less cartridge and gun systems to this day.
chine gun and anti-materiel rie cartridge used by The Daisy Heddon VL Single Shot Rie, which used a
the Soviet Union, the former Warsaw Pact, modern caseless round in .22 caliber, was produced by the air gun
Russia, and other countries. Its most common use company, beginning in 1968. Apparently Daisy never
is in the KPV heavy machine gun found on several considered the gun an actual rearm. In 1969, the ATF
Russian Military vehicles.
ruled it was in fact a rearm, which Daisy was not licensed
to produce. Production of the guns and the ammo was
discontinued in 1969. They are still available on the secondary, mainly as collector items, as most owners report
that accuracy is not very good.<http://everything2.com/
15.9 Reloading
title/Daisy+V%252FL>
Some shooting enthusiasts reload their red brass cases
and plastic, paper, or brass shotgun shells. By using a
press and a set of dies, one can reshape, deprime, reprime,
recharge the case with gunpowder, and seat and crimp
a new bullet (or shot charge) in place. One can do this
at about half the cost of purchasing factory ammunition
partly because the case represents a signicant portion of
the total cost of a round. Reloading also allows one to use
dierent weights and shapes of bullets, as well as varying the powder type and charge, which aects accuracy
and power. Enthusiasts usually only reload boxer primed
cases as this reloading process is more easily automated
than Berdan priming is.
See also: Handloading
In 1989, Heckler & Koch, a prominent German rearms

manufacturer, began advertising the G11 assault rie,
which shot a 4.7333 square caseless round. The round
was mechanically red, with an integral primer.
In 1993 Voere of Austria began selling a gun and caseless
ammunition. Their system used a primer, electronically
red at 17.5 2 volts. The upper and lower limits prevent
re from either stray currents or static electricity. The
direct electrical ring eliminates the mechanical delays
associated with a striker, reducing lock time, and allowing
for easier adjustment of the rie trigger.
In both instances, the casewas molded directly from
solid nitrocellulose, which is itself relatively strong and
inert. The bullet and primer were glued into the propellant block.
15.13. DRILL ROUNDS
111
15.11 Trounds
is always far weaker, and some automatic guns only cycle

correctly when the gun is tted with a blank-ring adaptor
to conne gas pressure within the barrel to operate the gas
system.
Main article: Dardick tround

The Tround(Triangular Round) was a unique
type of cartridge designed in 1958 by David Dardick, for
use in specially designed Dardick 1100 and Dardick 1500
open-chamber rearms. As their name suggests, Trounds
were triangular in cross-section, and were made of plastic
or aluminum, with the cartridge completely encasing the
powder and projectile. The Tround design was also produced as a cartridge adaptor, to allow conventional .38
Special and 22 Long Rie cartridges to be used with the
Dardick rearms.
Blanks can also be used to launch a rie grenade, although

later systems used a bullet trapdesign that captures a
bullet from a conventional round, speeding deployment.
This also negates the risk of mistakenly ring a live bullet into the rie grenade, causing it to instantly explode
instead of propelling it forward.
Blanks are also used as dedicated launchers for propelling
a grappling hook, rope line or are, or for a training lure
for training gun dogs.
The power loads used in a variety of nail guns are essentially rimre blanks.
15.12 Blank ammunition

Main article: Blank (cartridge)
A blank is a charged cartridge that does not contain a pro-
15.13 Drill rounds

Main article: Dummy round
Drill rounds are inert versions of cartridges used for education and practice during military training. Other than
the lack of propellant and primer, these are the same size
as normal cartridges and will t into the mechanism of a
gun in the same way as a live cartridge does. Because dryring (releasing the ring pin with an empty chamber) a
gun can sometimes lead to ring pin (striker) damage,
dummy rounds termed snap caps are designed to protect
centerre guns from possible damage during dry-re
trigger control practices.
Blank cartridges:
7.6251mm NATO (left)
919mm Parabellum (right).
jectile. To contain the propellant, the opening where the

projectile would normally be located is crimped shut and
or it is sealed with some material that disperses rapidly
upon leaving the barrel.
This sealing material can still potentially cause harm
at extremely close range. Actor Jon-Erik Hexum died
when he shot himself in the head with a blank, and actor Brandon Lee was famously killed during lming of
The Crowwhen a blank red behind a bullet that was
stuck in the bore drove that bullet through his abdomen
and into his spine. The gun had not been properly deactivated and a primed case with a bullet instead of a dummy
had been used previously. Someone pulled the trigger and
the primer drove the bullet silently into the bore.
Blanks are used in training, but do not always cause a
gun to behave the same as live ammunition does; recoil
To distinguish drill rounds and snap-caps from live rounds

these are marked distinctively. Several forms of markings
are used; e.g. setting colored utes in the case, drilling
holes through the case, coloring the bullet or cartridge,
or a combination of these. In the case of centerre drill
rounds the primer will often be absent, its mounting hole
in the base is left open. Because these are mechanically
identical to live rounds, which are intended to be loaded
once, red and then discarded, drill rounds have a tendency to become signicantly worn and damaged with
repeated passage through magazines and ring mechanisms, and must be frequently inspected to ensure that
these are not so degraded as to be unusablefor example the cases can become torn or misshapen and snag on
moving parts, or the bullet can become separated and stay
in the breech when the case is ejected.
15.14 See also

Ammunition
Ammunition box
Antique guns
112
List of handgun cartridges
List of Magnum pistol cartridges
Nitrocellulose
Percussion cap
Simunition
15.15 Notes
[1] The US did not sign the complete Hague Convention of
1899 in any case, but still follows its guidelines in military
conicts.
[14] Cabela's still sells black powder pistols; remain in use for
hunting
[15] History of rearms (readvantages.com)
[16] How guns work (readvantages.com)
[17] Shooting section (la section de tir) of the ocial website
(in French) of a modern indoor shooting association in
Belgium, Les Arquebusier de Vis.
[18] Les Lefaucheux, by Matre Simili, Spring 1990 (in
French)
[19] An example of a Benjamin Houllier gun manufactured in
association with the gunsmith Blanchard. Littlegun.info.
Retrieved 2013-11-04.
[20] An example of a Benjamin Houllier gun manufactured
in association with the gunsmiths Blanchard and Charles
Robert. Littlegun.info. Retrieved 2013-11-04.
[21] Cartridges of the World, various editions and articles.
15.16 References
[1] Sparano, Vin T. (2000). Cartridges. The Complete
Outdoors Encyclopedia. Macmillan. p. 37. ISBN 978-0312-26722-3.
[2] Unsafe Firearm-Ammunition Combinations (PDF).
SAAMI. 3/6/2012. Retrieved 2013-11-04. Check date
values in: |date= (help)
[3] Greener, William Wellington (1907), Ammunition and
Accessories.Cartridges, The Gun and Its Development,
Cassell, p. 570.
[4] U.S. Army (September 1984), Military Explosives, Technical Manual, Department of the Army, TM 9-1300-214,
p. 2-3, stating 1590. Cartridges with ball and power
combined were introduced for small arms.
[5] U.S. Army 1984, pp. 23 indicates the period 16111632
and states the improved cartridge increased the rate of re
for the Thirty Years' War.
[6] Sharpe, Philip B. (1938),The Development of the Cartridge, The Rie in America, New York: William Morrow, pp. 2930.
[7] Greener 1907, p. 570
[22] San Francisco cops use hollow point bullets

[23] Hatcher, Julian; Barr, Al; Neuman, Charles L. (1951).
Reloading Information 1. Washington, DC: National Rie
Association. pp. 7178.
[24] Barr, Al; Teesdale, Jerald; Keith, Elmer; Hardaway, Ben
F. (1951). Reloading Information 2. Washington, DC:
National Rie Association. pp. 51&52.
[25] Barr, Al; Teesdale, Jerald; Keith, Elmer; Hardaway, Ben
F. (1951). Reloading Information 2. Washington, DC:
National Rie Association. pp. 7783.
[26] Gunyana. Classic African Cartridges Part X The
.375 H&H Magnum (PDF). African Hunter Magazine.
African Hunter. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
[28] Chinn, George M. (1951), The Machine Gun: History,
Evolution and Development of Manually Operated, Full
Automatic, and Power Driven Aircraft Machine Guns 1,
Department of the Navy, Bureau of Ordnance, p. 333
[8] Sharpe 1938, p. 30

[9] Winant, Lewis (1959). Early Percussion Firearms. Great
Britain: Herbert Jenkins Ltd. pp. 145-146. ISBN 0-60033015-X
[10] Chemical Analysis of Firearms, Ammunition, and Gunshot Residue by James Smyth Wallace p. 24.
[11] Firearms by Roger Pauly p. 94.
[12] A History of Firearms by W. Y. Carman p. 121.
[13] Kinard, Je (2004) Pistols: An Illustrated History of Their
Impact, ABC-CLIO, p. 109
15.17 External links

Cartridge Collectors
European Ammunition Box Translations
113
Chapter 16
CBRN defense
For the cyanogen bromide molecular formula, see CBrN.
CBRN (or CBN* [1]) is an initialism used to refer to
chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear warfare.
Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear defense (often abbreviated to CBRN defense or CBRND)
is the term for protective measures taken in situations in
which any of these four hazards are present. To account
for improvised devices, the term CBRNe (e for explosives) is also used. CBRN defense consists of CBRN
passive protection, contamination avoidance and CBRN
mitigation.
CBRN weapons or agents are often referred to as
weapons of mass destruction (WMD). However, this is
not entirely correct. Although CBRNe agents often cause
mass destruction, this is not necessarily the case. Terrorist use of CBRNe agents may cause a limited number of
casualties, but a large terrorizing and disruption of society. Terrorist use of CBRNe agents, intended to cause
terror instead of mass casualties, is therefore often referred to as weapons of mass disruption.* [2]
Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (NBC) disposal technicians

taking part in a training exercise
the new millennium, the term CBRNe was introduced as

an extension of CBRN - the e in this term representing
the enhanced (improvised) explosives threat.* [4] Leaders and members of the Chemical Corps also use CBRN
as Could Be Right Now.* [5]
In Spanish the term NRBQ (Nuclear, Radiolgico, BacteA CBRN incident diers from a hazardous material in- riolgico y Qumico) has replaced NBQ.
cident in both scope (i.e., CBRNe can be a mass casualty
situation) and intent. CBRN incidents are responded to
under the assumption that they are intentional and mali16.2 By country or region
cious; evidence preservation and perpetrator apprehension are of greater concern than with HAZMAT inci16.2.1 Canada
dents.
A 2011 forecast concluded that worldwide government
The term CBRN is in common use in disaster and
spending on CBRN defence products and services would
emergency services organizations across the country.* [6]
*
reach US$8.38bn that year. [3]
Since July 2005, the Canadian Forces also started using
the term CBRN Defence, instead of NBC Defence, due to
the increased threat of dirty bomb use (which is radiological in nature). CBRNe is a new term that is being used
16.1 Etymology
in both civilian and military organisations. The Canadian
In English the term CBRN is a replacement for the cold Joint Incident Response Unit is a Canadian Forces unit,
war term NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical), which under the direction of the Canadian Special Operations
had replaced the term ABC (atomic, biological, and Forces Command, charged with supporting the Govchemical) that was used in the fties. The addition of the ernment of Canada in order to prevent, control and mitR (for radiological) is a consequence of thenewthreat igate CBRN threats to Canada, Canadians and Canadian
of a radiological weapon (also known asdirty bombs), interests.
in addition to end the joke among members of the Chem- At the provincial level, cities are provided opportunities
ical Corps which called NBC as NoBody Cares. In for their emergency services with CBRN training. In On114
16.2. BY COUNTRY OR REGION
115
tario, emergency services in Windsor, Ontario; Ottawa,

Ontario; Peterborough, Ontario; and Toronto (Toronto
Fire Services, Toronto Police Service, Toronto EMS, and
Heavy Urban Search and Rescue) have obtained CBRN
standing at NFPA Standard 472 Awareness Level 3.* [7]
Army has 10,000 protective suits, enough for all its personnel.* [12] Other emergency services also have limited
CBRN expertise, such as the Health Service Executive
(HSE) and Dublin Fire Brigade (DFB).
The Ontario Provincial Police's UCRT (Urban Search &

Rescue / CBRNe Response Team) is a specialized team
responsible for CBRNe incident response for the province
of Ontario. The team was formed in 2002 and was called
the Provincial Emergency Response Team (PERT) until 2010, when the name was changed to UCRT. They
changed from Provincial Emergency Response Team to
UCRT due to the elimination of Tactical and concentrating on USAR and CBRN and explosive disposal. Under
the direction of specialist Sta Sergeant Jim Bock, UCRT
became the Provinces elite response to anti terrorism.
16.2.6 Malaysia
16.2.2
Hong Kong
The Malaysian Army formed a CBRN unit, Peperangan

Nuklear, Biologi dan Kimia 3 Divisyen (English: Chemical, Biological and Nuclear Warfare Division 3; PNBK
3D) in April 2002.* [13]
The Royal Malaysia Police has CBRN providers. The
Pasukan Gerakan Khas (PGK) has two special operations detachments with HAZMAT expertise - 69 Commandos and Special Actions Unit. The Federal Reserve
Unit (FRU) also has a CBRN unit. Both PGK and FRU
teams handle CBRN calls, before an army PNBK unit responds.* [14]
Hong Kong has had CBRN response capabilities since the

early 1990s and advanced training from 1998.* [8] Hong 16.2.7 Spain
Kong Fire Services HAZMAT and Hong Kong Police
EOD teams handle CBRN calls, with the latter dealing The Spanish Army 1st CBRN Regiment 'Valencia' was
with explosive devices.* [8]
formed in March 2005.Training in the defence against
CBRN agents as part of combat support is the main aim
of exercise 'Grifo' (Grin) the most important of this
16.2.3 India
type that the Army undertakes. The National Police and
the Spanish Civil Guard have their own CBRN units. The
The Indian Army ordered 16 CBRN monitoring vehi- Military Emergencies Unit and emergency services have
cles, of which the rst 8 were inducted in December CBRN training.* [15] * [16]
2010. It was developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and manufactured by
Ordnance Factories Board.* [9]
16.2.8 United Kingdom
16.2.4
Argentina
The Argentine Armed Forces has several CRBN response

teams. The Batalln de Ingenieros QBN 601 of the
Argentine Army, was the rst CRBN response team created, in the 1990s, as a part of the country's Rapid Deployment Force. Civil defense, and remen from Polica
Federal Argentina teams also have CRBN training.
16.2.5
Ireland
The Irish national police force, the Garda Sochna, has a

number of nationwide CBRN response teams. The teams
are based regionally (in six regions; Dublin, Eastern,
Northern, Southern, South-Eastern & Western) and began operating from 2004 with 100 trained ocers.* [10]
They are trained by the Garda Tactical Training Unit, and
supported nationally by the Emergency Response Unit
(ERU).* [11] In addition, the Irish Defence Forces has
CBRNe training and equipment capabilities - in particular the Engineer Corps and Army Ranger Wing (ARW)
- and will aid the civil authority if requested. The Irish
CBRN is also used by the UK Home Oce as a civil designation.* [17] Police, re and ambulance services in the
UK must all have some level of CBRN providers. Within
the ambulance service this is performed by the Hazardous
Area Response Team (HART) and Special Operations
Response Team (SORT). Since the introduction of new
equipment to UK re services under the New Dimension programme, CBRN decontamination of personnel
(including members of the public) has become a task carried out by re services in the UK and they regularly train
for such scenarios.

The United States Army uses CBRN as an abbreviation
for their Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear
Operations Specialists (MOS). The United States Army
trains all US Army soldiers pursuing a career in CBRN
at the United States Army CBRN School at Fort Leonard
Wood.
See also: Chemical Corps (United States Army)
116
CHAPTER 16. CBRN DEFENSE
The USAF uses Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC

3E9X1) U.S. Air Force Emergency Management, who
are also CBRN Specialists. The USAF trains all US Airmen pursuing a career in counter-CBRN operations at the
USAF CBRN School at Fort Leonard Wood.
HDT Global produces an air ltration system called

ColPro Filtration that government forces can install
in buildings, ships and vehicles to remove CBRN
threats from the air.* [25]
The USMC uses CBRN as an abbreviation for two

military occupational specialties. The Marine Corps runs
a CBRN School to train Marine CBRN Defense Ocers
and Marine CBRN Defense Specialists at Fort Leonard
Wood, Missouri. See also: Chemical Biological Incident
Response Force (USMC CBIRF)
MSA produces the Safe Escape CBRN Respirator, a

hood that lters CBRN particles for use by personnel
responding to a terrorist incident. * [26]
The USN requires all personnel to take a web-based

CBRNE training annually to get a basic understanding of
facts and procedures related to responding to a CBRNE
incident.
16.2.10
The Russian Federation
In May 2012, BioPrepWatch reported that the Russian

security service ordered over 100 capsule cradles,
which are devices that people can use to protect infants
or even small pets in the event of a nuclear, chemical,
biological, or radiological threat. According to the article, Soviet military engineers invented the capsules in the
1960s. A company is currently producing the capsules in
a factory in Russia.* [18]
16.3 CBRN Products

Numbers vary, but news reports and market forecast reports place the market for CRBN products in 2013 and
2014 between $8.7-8.8 billion.* [19]* [20] The market for
CBRN products is expected to grow to over $13 billion
by the year 2023.* [19] CBRN manufacturers include Argon Electronics, Blucher GmbH, Bruker, FLIR Systems,
HDT Global, MSA, Research International, and TSI.
Argon Electronics makes CBRN detection simulator
called RADSIM 44-9-SIM that personnel can use in
training exercises.* [21]
Blucher GmbH produces a two-piece CBRN protective suit called the SCDF CBRN Protective Suit that
gives rst responders 24-hour protection against environmental threats.* [22]
Bruker produces ion-mobility spectrometry technology for military and security personnel that separates, identies and analyzes ionized molecules
present in gas.* [23]
FLIR Systems produces several handheld detection
equipment devices, each for chemical, radiation, biological and explosives detection.* [24]
Research International creates a sensor system,

called the ASAP V For Critical Infrastructure Protection, for subways and other public areas that uses
multi-sensor surveillance technology that detects the
presence of CBRN particles.* [27]
TSI makes technology called Bioaerosol Triggers
that collect CBRN environmental samples for to
identify and conrm threats.* [28]
16.4 See also

Poison gas in World War I
NBC suit
Biological and Chemical Defence Review Committee (Canada)
16.5 References
[1] CBN (chemical, biological, and nuclear) terrorism/warfare : a bibliography. worldcat.org. Retrieved
11 April 2015.
[2] Radiological weapons use by terrorists by ib consultancy
[3] THE CBRN DEFENCE MARKET 2011-2021. visiongain. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
[4] CBRNe hosted buyer - IB Consultancy.
consultancy.eu. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
ib-
[5] GUIDON sta (6 March 2014). Army CBRN School,

Chemical Corps bids farewell to 27th Chief of Chemical
. army.mil. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
[6] Calgary Health Region CBRN Training
[7]
[8] Hong Kongs Response to a Chemical, Biological, Radiological or Nuclear Attack (PDF), retrieved 2010-04-03
[9] Indias rst NBC recce vehicle launched in Pune.
dna. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
[10] Glimpse through the gates of hell. Daily Mail (Ireland).
17 November 2006. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
[11] Boyle, Darren. Gardai get 'dirty bomb' protection. 29
March 2007. The Mirror (UK). Retrieved 4 May 2014.
[12] CBRNe World Convergence - All Hazards Response

2013, Dublin. 16 April 2013. Department of Defence
(Ireland). Retrieved 4 May 2014.
[13] Bernama (April 2011).PNBK 3D capable handling terrorist threats. Penerangan. Retrieved 2011-05-11.
[14] Thompson, Leroy (December 2008).Malaysian Special
Forces. Special Weapons. Retrieved 2011-05-11.
[15] 1st Regiment 'Valencia' Opens the Tapto CBRN Defence. Spanish Army. Retrieved 2011-12-01
[16] (Spanish) UMR, CBRN training. Spanish Defense. Retrieved 2011-12-01
117
16.7 External links

CBRNePortal - The #1 CBRNe portal providing
news, articles and media on CBRNe
NBC-Links.com - the internet's most comprehensive portal to CBRN-related information sources
NCT CBRNe Awards - the awards for the world's
best CBRNe products
IB Consultancy NCT Events - NCT Events are the
only worldwide CBRNe events
CBRN Magazines
[17] UK Resilience - Emergencies - CBRN

[18] Purlain, Ted (29 May 2013). Russian security service
orders VIP CBRN-proof baby cradles. BioPrepWatch.
Retrieved 6 June 2013.
[19] Sievers, Lisa (3 March 2014).SDI predicts CBRN market will surpass $13.69 billion by 2023. BioPrepWatch
(Chicago, Illinois). Retrieved 24 March 2014.
[20] CBRN Defence Market Forecast 2014-2024. visiongain. London, U.K. 14 February 2014. Retrieved 24
March 2014.
[21] Cohen, Bryan (11 March 2014). Argon launches new
CBRN detection simulator. BioPrepWatch (Chicago,
Illinois). Retrieved 24 March 2014.
[22]SCDF CBRN PROTECTIVE SUIT. Blucher. Erkrath,
Germany. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
[23] Ion Mobility Spectrometry. Bruker Corporation. Billerica, Massachusetts. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
[24] FLIR Detection & Protection.
FLIR Systems.
Wilsonville, Oregon. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
[25] CBRN/ColPro Filtration. HDT Global. Solon, Ohio.
Retrieved 24 March 2014.
[26] Safe Escape CBRN Respirator. MSA United States.
Cranberry Township, Pennsylvania. Retrieved 24 March
2014.
[27] CBRN Products. Research International, Inc. Monroe,
Washington. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
[28] Safety and Homeland Security (CBRN Defense)". TSI.
Shoreview, Minnesota. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
16.6 Bibliography
John Eldridge, ed. (2006). Jane's Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Defense 20062007 (19th ed.).
Coulsdon, Surrey, UK; Alexandria, Va.: Jane's Information Group. ISBN 0-7106-2763-7.
CBNW - The best CBRN magazine

CBRNe World Magazine - The World's largest
CBRNe magazine and information exchange
Video links
Featured video of Singapore Army's Chemical,
Biological and Radiological Defence Group on
YouTube
NCT CBRNe Asia 2013: Malaysian Army Demonstration on YouTube
Chapter 17
Combat engineer
This article is about soldiers who perform construction
and demolition tasks in battle. For designing military
structures and the logistics behind military tactics, see
Military engineering.
A combat engineer (also called eld engineer,
Combat engineers inspect a Bailey bridge erected in Iraq
Mobile eld-deployable bridge (EFA) of the engineers of the

French Army
World War II recruiting poster for combat engineers created by

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
pioneer or sapper in many armies) is a soldier specialist

who performs a variety of construction and demolition
tasks under combat conditions.
The combat engineer's goals involve facilitating movement and support of friendly forces while impeding those
of the enemy. Combat engineers build, repair and maintain buildings, roads and power supplies. They employ
explosives for construction and demolition projects, and
clear mineelds using specialized vehicles. Such tasks
typically include constructing and breaching trenches,
tank traps and other fortications, bunker construction,
Pontoon bridge built in World War II by the 291st Engineer Combat Battalion across the Rhine, downstream from the Ludendor
Bridge at Remagen
bridge and road construction or destruction, laying or

clearing land mines, and other physical work in the bat-
118
17.1. TERMINOLOGY
119
Usually, a combat engineer is also trained as an
infantryman, and combat engineering units often have
a secondary role ghting as infantry. There are no advanced academic qualications required to be a combat
engineer. The term engineeris not to be confused
with the term applied to Professional Engineer or Chartered Engineer.
17.1 Terminology
Combat Engineer depicted in the Vietnam Combat Artists Program
A general combat engineer is often called a pioneer or

sapper, terms derived respectively from the French and
British armies. In some armies, pioneer and sapper indicate specic military ranks and levels of combat engineers, who work under re in all seasons, may be allocated to dierent corps, as they were in the former Soviet Army, or they may be organized in the same corps.
Geomatics (surveying and cartography) is another area of
military engineering but is often performed by the combat engineers of some nations and in other cases is a separate responsibility, as was formerly the case in the Australian Army. While the ocers of a combat engineering
unit may be professionally-certied civil or mechanical
engineers, the non-commissioned members are generally
not.
Sapper:
In the U.S., British, Indian, Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand armies, is a soldier
who has specialized combat engineer training.
In the Israeli Defence Forces, Sapper 06 (
06 ) is a military profession code denoting a
combat engineer who has graduated from basic general engineering training.
In the Canadian Army, is a term for soldiers
that have completed the basic Combat Engineer training.* [1]
In the Portuguese Army, a sapador de engenharia (engineering sapper) is a soldier of the
engineering branch that has specialized combat engineer training. A sapador de infantaria (infantry sapper) is a soldier of the infantry branch that has a similar training and
that usually serves in the combat support sapper platoon of an infantry battalion.
Pioneer:
French Foreign Legion sappers in ceremonial dress
tleeld.
In the Finnish army, pioneeri is the private

equivalent rank in the army for a soldier who
has completed the basic combat engineering
training. Naval engineers retain the rank matruusi but bear the pioneeri insignia on their
sleeves.
120
CHAPTER 17. COMBAT ENGINEER

The German Bundeswehr uses the term Pionierfor their combat engineers and other
specialized units, who are associated with Special Forces to clear obstacles and perform engineering duties. Also the combat engineers
in the Austro-Hungarien k.u.k. Forces were
called Pioniere.
Assault pioneer:
In the British, Canadian and Australian
armies, an assault pioneer is an infantry soldier with some limited combat engineer training in clearing obstacles during assaults and
light engineering duties. Until recently, assault
pioneers were responsible for the operation of
amethrowers.
Field engineer:
is a term used (or formerly used) in many
Commonwealth armies. In modern usage, it
is often synonymous with combat engineer
. However, the term originally identied those
military engineers who supported an army operating in the eld as opposed to garrison engineers who built and supported permanent x
bases. In its original usage, eld engineeringwould have been inclusive of but broader
than combat engineering.
Miner
Pontonier
17.2 Practices and techniques

Combat engineers are force multipliers and enhance
the survival of other troops through the use and practice of camouage, reconnaissance, communications and
other services. These include the construction of roads,
bridges, eld fortications, obstacles and the construction and running of water points . In these roles, combat engineers use a wide variety of hand and power
tools. They are also responsible for construction rigging, the use of explosives, and the carrying out of demolitions, obstacle clearance, and obstacle construction,
assault of fortications, use of assault boats in water obstacle crossings, helipad construction, general construction, route reconnaissance and road reconnaissance, and
erecting communication installations. Combat engineers
build and run water distribution points, carrying out water ltration, and NBC decontamination when necessary,
and storage prior to distribution.
All these role activities and technologies are divided into
several areas of combat engineering:
Mobility
Improving the ability of one's own force to move around

the battleeld. Combat engineers typically support this
role through reduction of enemy obstacles which include point and row mineelds, anti-tank ditches, wire
obstacles, concrete and metal anti-vehicle barriers, and
Improvised Explosive Devices (IED) and wall and door
breaching in urban terrain. Mechanized combat engineer
units also have armored vehicles capable of laying short
bridges for limited gap-crossing.
Clearing terrain obstacles
Overcoming trenches and ditches
Opening routes for armored ghting vehicles
Constructing roads and bridges
Route clearance
Countermobility
Building obstacles to prevent the enemy from moving
around the battleeld. Destroying bridges, blocking
roads, creating airstrips, digging trenches, etc. Can also
include planting land mines and anti-handling devices
when authorized and directed to do so.
When the defender must retreat it is often desirable to destroy anything that may be of use to the enemy, particularly bridges, as their destruction can slow the advance of
the attackers. The retreating forces may also leave booby
traps for enemy soldiers, even though these often wreak
their havoc upon non-combatant civilians.
Planting land mines
Digging trenches and ditches
Demolishing roads and bridges
Explosive material handling
The placement of land mines to create mineelds and
their maintenance and removal.
Clearing elds of land mines
Demolition
Assault
Opening routes during assault
Demolishing enemy structures (using bulldozers or
explosive charges).
Defense structures
17.3. EQUIPMENT AND VEHICLES
121
Building structures which enable one's own soldiers to tools (shovels, posthole diggers, picks, and mattocks);
survive on the battleeld. Examples include trenches, portable power tools and trailer-mounted tools (electric
bunkers, shelters, and armored vehicle ghting positions. tool trailer and generator, portable power tools); miscelDefensive fortications are designed to prevent intrusion laneous tools.
into the inner works by infantry. For minor defensive loVehicles
cations these may only consist of simple walls and ditches.
The design principle is to slow down the advance of attackers to where they can be destroyed by defenders from
sheltered positions. Most large fortications are not a single structure but rather a concentric series of fortications
of increasing strength.
Building fortications
Building outposts
Building fences
Defense against NBC weapon threats
Armored front loader
17.3 Equipment and vehicles

Combat engineers employ a wide range of transportation
vehicles and equipment, and uses weapons unique to the
engineers, including those used in land mine warfare.
Equipment used by Combat Engineers
German Army combat engineer vehicle Dachs
IED detonator in Iraq
Basic combat engineering tools include safe use of: driving tools and chopping tools (hammers, mauls, sledges,
screwdriver, and bits); cutting tools and smoothing tools
(saws, chisels, planes, les and rasps, brush-cutting tools,
miscellaneous cutting tools); drilling tools, boring tools,
and countersinking tools; measuring tools, leveling tools
and layout tools (rules, tapes, marking tools, levels, plumb
bobs, squares); gripping tools, prying tools and twisting
tools (pliers, wrenches, bars); holding tools, raising tools
and grinding tools (vises, clamps, jacks, grinders, and oilstones); timber handling tools and climbing tools; digging
This EBG combat engineering vehicle is used by the engineers of

the French Army for a variety of missions
Main article: Military engineering vehicles

Obstacle breaching
For obstacle breaching, including mineelds, the combat
engineers use a variety of vehicles, explosive devices and
plastic explosives including:
122
CHAPTER 17. COMBAT ENGINEER
Mineeld breaching devices

Dozer blade
Mine rollers
Bangalore torpedo
Antipersonnel Obstacle Breaching System
Mine-clearing line charge (MICLIC)
Bomb disposal robots
Explosives, mines and bombs
Field-deployable bridges, for example, French
EFA* [2] and Bailey bridge.
17.5 Historical Publications

The Basic Field Manual, Engineer Soldier's Handbook, 2
June 1943 (FM 21-105) was written to provide guidance
to a new combat engineer.* [4]
17.6 See also

List of combat engineering corps
17th Armored Engineer Battalion
17.7 Notes
[1] Sapeur / Sapeuse de combat. Forces.Ca. Retrieved
2013-01-20.
17.4 Combat Engineering Corps
[2] French EFA

[3] Explosive Ordnance Clearance Agent (PDF). US
Army.
[4] Engineer soldier's handbook
17.8 External links

German Engineers
Bualo MRAP, a common vehicle used to interrogate IED's by

combat engineer units.
Combat engineers are a key role in all armed forces

of the world, and invariably found either closely integrated into the force structure, or even into the combat
units of the national troops. In many countries, combat engineers are members of broader military engineering corps or branches. However, some nations have distinct combat engineering corps or branches which are
separate from other types of military engineers. The
Danish military engineering corps is almost entirely organized into one regiment of combat engineers, simply
(
Engineering Regiment
named IngenirregimentetThe
). During the US war in Afghanistan and the 20032011 Iraq War the US Army tasked its combat engineers
with Route clearance missions designed to counter rising
threats of IEDs. To increase the eectiveness of these
units EOD and mechanic teams are typically embedded
with the combat engineer platoon. Due to rising IED
threats US Army requires its combat engineers rank specialist or higher to complete Explosive Ordnance Clearance Agent training to familiarize themselves with types
of unexploded ordnance.* [3]
Chapter 18
Designated marksman rie

A designated marksman rie (DMR) is the weapon
used by soldiers in the designated marksman (DM) role.
The DM's role lls the gap between a regular infantryman
and a sniper (typically being deployed at ranges of 250
500 metres or 270550 yards) and DMRs have been developed with this middle ground in mind.
These ries have to be eective, in terms of accuracy and
terminal ballistics, at ranges exceeding those of ordinary
assault ries and battle ries (typically 250 m or 270 yd
or less, and up to 500 m or 550 yd, respectively) but do
not require the extended range of a dedicated sniper rie
(typically employed for targets at ranges from 5002,000
m or 5502,190 yd).
DMRs, however, often share some basic characteristics
with sniper ries in dierence to the weapons carried by
others in the DMs unit. DMRs may have an attached
telescopic sight, quickly deployed stabilizing bipod to allow optimized accuracy and low-recoil in temporarily
xed situations or an adjustable stock.
They will, though, generally retain semi-automatic ring
capability (more rapid than bolt-action sniper ries) and
a larger magazine capacity of 10, 20, or 30 rounds depending on the rearm in question.
Designated marksman with an SR-25
18.1 Compared to sniper ries,

battle ries, and assault ries
18.1.1 Sights
All designated marksman ries will have some type of optical sight with a higher magnication level than the standard issue rie. For example, the SDM-R issued to the
United States Army is tted with a Trijicon 4x ACOG,
while the standard-issue M4 carbine is equipped with an
unmagnied Aimpoint CompM2 or CompM4. Sometimes, the sighting system will be the only dierence between the standard rie and the designated marksman rie, as is the case with the F88S DMR issued to the Australian Army.
Most designated marksman ries are based on an assault

rie that is currently issued by a nation's military, or on
a battle rie that was formerly issued. A battle rie is a
semi-automatic or full-automatic rie that res 7.62mm
NATO or similar full-power rounds. Classic examples
include the M14, FN FAL, AR-10 and Heckler & Koch
G3. These ries were largely replaced by assault ries
ring the 5.56mm NATO cartridge during the 1970s and Sniper ries often have even greater magnication than
1980s.
designated marksman ries, for example, the M110
Some nations have also built ries that were designed for SASS used by the United States Army, is equipped with a
the designated marksman from the ground up.
Leupold 3.5-10x variable-power scope. However, some
123
124
CHAPTER 18. DESIGNATED MARKSMAN RIFLE

AR-15 based
designated marksman ries, such as the Mk 12 Special

Purpose Rie or the USMC Squad Advanced Marksman
Rie are tted with scopes with similar magnication.
18.1.2
Barrels
In some cases, the designated marksman rie will have a

longer barrel than the standard issued rie. However, this
is not universally true. In fact, the M16A4 rie is still
standard issue to the United States Marine Corps. The
barrel on the Mk 12 Special Purpose Rie, the current rie used by the squad designated marksman in the USMC,
is only 18 inches long - two inches shorter than the barrel
on the standard rie. Also, some ries, such as the F88S
Austeyr, have a barrel that is the same length as the standard service rie. The FD-200 has an accurised barrel,
also found on designated marksman ries.
Most sniper ries, such as the Accuracy International
Arctic Warfare have a barrel with a length of 24 inches or
greater. Only the SVD and similar designated marksman
ries have a barrel of this length. The designated marksman ries based on the M14 have barrels 18-22 inches
long.
18.1.3
SR-25; 7.62mm NATO sniper rie is often used to provide re support.* [2]* [3]
HK417; 7.62mm NATO gas-piston battle
rie,* [4] interim F88S replacement for
Afghanistan deployments.
Ammunition
Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rie; 7.62mm NATO

rie is in limited service.* [5]
Austria: The Steyr AUG HBAR-T, is a longer

heavier-barreled version of the Steyr AUG designed
for use as a designated marksman rie that can be
tted with a variety of optical sights.
Canada: The Canadian Forces issue the C7CT

and C8CT designated marksman ries, which are
based on the C7 and C8 rie. * [6] They also use
the AR-10T.
Chile: The FD-200 is a variant of the SIG 542

with an accurised barrel, sniper stock and bipod.
France: The FAMAS G2 Sniper is a designated

marksman rie elded by the French Army. It is
based on the FAMAS G2.* [7]
The German Army uses the G3A3ZF-DMR,

a modied version of the Heckler & Koch G3
battle rie, as a designated marksman rie and
recently introduced the G28 .
In most cases, a designated marksman rie will share the

ammunition used by standard issue ries. In the U.S. military, designated marksman ries chambered for 5.56mm
NATO have available the 77 grain match-grade Mk 262
Mod 0/1 cartridge that enhances range to roughly 700 meters.
DM ries may be issued with standard ball ammunition,
or special match-grade loads, such as 7.62mm NATO
'M118LR' sniper round in the U.S. military.
18.1.4
The Heckler & Koch HK417 is chambered for

7.62mm NATO and has been adopted by several nations for use as a designated marksman
rie.* [8]* [9]* [10]
Hungary manufactures the bull-pup designed

Szp sniper rie chambered for 7.62x51 mm
NATO.
All designated marksman ries in use today use a semiautomatic action, with some also being able to re in fullautomatic mode.
Hungarian Special Forces uses also the M24

Sniper Weapon System. * [12]
Some sniper ries are semi-automatic, though the vast

majority are bolt-action.
Australia
F88S Austeyr 5.56 NATO standard issue rie, tted with an enhanced optic is issued to
one rieman in each reteam in the Australian
Army.* [1]
Hungary
The SVD is the main designated marksman rie for the Hungarian Armed Forces.* [11]
Action
18.2 Designated marksman ries

in service by nation
Germany
Hungarian Armed Forces designed the antimaterial sniper weapons family called Geprd.
India
The SVD is the designated DMR for the Indian
Army. Dierent variants of the INSAS family of weapons modied with scopes and other
tactical upgrades are used as DMR's as well.
The IMI Tavor TAR-21 and the IMI Galil
chambered for the 7.62 NATO round are issued to units of the Special Forces of India as
a Designated Marksman Rie.
18.2. DESIGNATED MARKSMAN RIFLES IN SERVICE BY NATION
125
Indonesia: The Pindad SS2-V4 is a designated

marksman rie said to be used by the Indonesian
special forces. It is based on the Pindad SS2, with
a lengthened barrel and a telescopic scope mounted
on a Picatinny rail.
Accurised former standard service South

African Defence Force R1 ries are used by
the South African Army as designated marksman ries. Being phased out in favour of the
new R4 DMR modied rie being introduced
at section level.* [15]
Iraq: The Tabuk is an adaptation of the RPK

machine gun used as a designated marksman rie by
the Iraqi Army. It is chambered for 7.62x39mm
Scoped and accurised Vektor R4 ries are used

as designated marksman ries by soldiers of
the South African Army.* [16]
Israel
The Israel Defense Forces formerly used the
Galatz as a designated marksman rie. The
Galatz is a variant of the Galil assault rie
chambered for 7.62mm NATO.
The M4A1 is used as a marksman rie,
equipped with Harris bipod and Trijicon
ACOG telescopic sights.
The Swiss Armed Forces use the standard issue SIG SG 550 with a Kern 4x24 telescopic
sight as a marksman rie.* [17]
Japan: The Howa Type 64 as a marksman rie.
Norway: HK417; 7.62mm NATO gas-piston

battle rie.* [14]
People's Republic of China: The QBU-88 is a

designated marksman rie intended for aimed semiautomatic re at ranges beyond the capabilities of
standard infantry assault ries.
Philippines: The Philippine Marine Scout

Snipers developed and use the Marine Scout Sniper
Rie, a derivative of the M16 rie. The Philippine
Army uses the SR-25 as marksman rie.
Portugal: The Portuguese Army uses the

Heckler & Koch G3 as a marksman rie.
Romania: The PSL (rie) is a purposebuilt designated marksman rie chambered for
7.62x54mmR based on a modied Kalashnikov action. It is similar in appearance to the SVD, though
the two ries share little in common.
Russia
The SVD was the rst rie designed from the
outset as what is now known as a designated
marksman rie.
The Dragunov SVU is a bullpup variant of the
SVD rie
South Africa
United Kingdom
L129A1; a 7.62 NATO, 16 in (410 mm) barrel variant of the Stoner rie developed by
Lewis Machine and Tool Company has been
procured for use in Afghanistan. A 6x power
ACOG is the standard issue sight.
The STAR-21 Tavor is a variant of the Tavor

assault rie used as a designated marksman
rie by the Israeli Defense Forces. It is tted with a picatinny rail that allows for the attachment of various optical sights (typically an
ACOG scope) and a bipod.* [13]
Switzerland
The L86A2 LSW is chambered for 5.56 mm

NATO was originally elded as a section
LMG, but was later re-purposed as a designated marksman rie.
United States
The M14 rie has formed the basis of several
designated marksman ries used by the United
States Military:
Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rie: Used
by the United States Army and Navy
SEALs* [18]
M14SE Crazy Horse: Used by the 101st
Airborne Division and the 2nd Infantry
Division of the US Army.* [19]
M39 Enhanced Marksman Rie: Used by
the United States Marine Corps, replacing the United States Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rie* [20]
The M16 rie has formed the basis of several
designated marksman ries used by the United
States Military:
SDM-R: Used by the United States Army
in limited numbers
SAM-R: Used by the United States Marine Corps. Replaced by the Mk 12 Special Purpose Rie
Mk 12 Special Purpose Rie: Used by
the United States Navy SEALs, Rangers.
Replacing the SAM-R in United States
Marine Corps service.* [21]* [22]
SR-25: Used by the United States Marine
Corps, United States Navy SEALs, and
the United States Army.
126
CHAPTER 18. DESIGNATED MARKSMAN RIFLE

Colt Model 655 and 656: Never standardized. Predecessor to other M16-based
designated marksman ries.
Yugoslavia: The Zastava M76 is a designated

marksman rie based on a modied Kalashnikov
action. It is chambered for 7.92 x 57 IS (8mm
Mauser). It has also been chambered in 7.6251
NATO and 7.62 54R.
[14] http://forsvaret.no/om-forsvaret/utstyrsfakta/vapen/
Sider/hk417.aspx
[15] Engelbrecht, Leon. Fact le: R1 battle rie. defenceweb.co.za. defenceweb. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
[16] Engelbrecht, Leon. R6.2 million for R4. defenceweb.co.za. DefenceWeb. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
[17] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIG_SG_550#Sights
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: The Zastava [18] https://peosoldier.army.mil/newpeo/Equipment/Temp.

asp?id=IW_M14
M91 is a purpose-built designated marksman rie
based on a modied Kalashnikov action and cham- [19] Kokalis, Peter (2005). M14 reborn: Crazy Horse and
bered for 7.62x54mmR.
the Romanian Option. Shotgun News 50 (12): 2022,
24, 26.
PSL (left) and SVD (right) ries in Iraqi service.

U.S. Marine ring the M14 DMR
US Marine manning a Mk 12 Mod 1 Special Purpose Rie whilst others pinpoint targets.
[20] http://www.americanspecialops.com/
special-ops-weapons/m39-emr.php
[21] http://www.fbodaily.com/archive/2008/08-August/
03-Aug-2008/FBO-01629550.htm
[22] Bryant and Bryant, Weapons of the US Army Rangers.
Copyright 2005, Zenith Press.
18.3 References
[1] Muir, Tom (1 February 2010). Land Force: Army's
broad re capabilities key to mission success | ADM Feb
2010. Australian Defence Magazine. Retrieved 9 June
2011.
[2] Wellfare, John (2011-04-14). Shooting for modern
combat. Army News (Australia). Retrieved 9 June 2011.
18.4 See also

Assault rie
Battle rie
Sniper rie
[3] Pratt, Anthony.COMBAT SHOOTING, A NEW PERSPECTIVE. Australian Army Journal.

[4] Contract Notice View - CN352591. AusTender.
Australian Government. 14 December 2010. Retrieved
2011-01-30.
[5] Hetherington, Andrew (3 February 2011). Extreme
Peril. Army News (Australia). Retrieved 9 June 2011.
[6] http://coltcanada.com/ct-page.htm
[7] http://www.pmulcahy.com/assault_rifles/french_
assault_rifles.htm
[8] http://www.operacional.pt/
hk-417-calibre-762x51mm-nato/
[9] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pomD16sAV5s
[10] http://www.mil.no/hv/start/article.jhtml?articleID=
140199K
[11] http://www.defenseimagery.mil/imagery.html#guid=
7712ecc946c9d0cea6d40c00c5c8878f43b1e2d3
[12] http://shadowspear.com/hungary-special-operations/
34-berceseny-laszlo-kulonleges-muveleti-zaszloalj.html
[13] http://www.israel-weapon.com/?catid=
\protect\__xunadd_text_character:
nN{\textbraceleft}{{}5BFF4796-19A2-422C-8C88-ADDC0BEA8DFA}
Chapter 19
Electronic warfare
For warfare on the Internet, see Cyberwarfare.
Electronic warfare (EW) is any action involving the use
of the electromagnetic spectrum or directed energy to
control the spectrum, attack an enemy, or impede enemy assaults via the spectrum.* [1] The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent the advantage of,
and ensure friendly unimpeded access to, the EM spectrum. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by
manned and unmanned systems, and can target humans,
communications, radar, or other assets.* [2]
19.1 The electromagnetic environment

Military operations are executed in an information environment increasingly complicated by the electromagnetic
(EM) spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum portion
of the information environment is referred to as the electromagnetic environment (EME). The recognized need
for military forces to have unimpeded access to and use
of the electromagnetic environment creates vulnerabilities and opportunities for electronic warfare (EW) in support of military operations.* [2]
Within the information operations construct, EW is an
element of information warfare; more specically, it is
an element of oensive and defensive counterinformation.* [3]
NATO has a dierent and arguably more encompassing
and comprehensive approach to EW. A Military Committee conceptual document from 2007 (MCM_0142 Nov
2007 Military Committee Transformation Concept for
Future NATO Electronic Warfare) recognised the EME
as an operational manoeuvre space and warghting environment/domain. In NATO, EW is considered to be
warfare in the EME. NATO has adopted simplied language which parallel those used in the other warghting
environments like maritime, land and air/space. For example, Electronic Attack is oensive use of EM energy.
ED is electronic defence and ES electronic surveillance.
The use of the traditional NATO EW measures (ECM,
EPM and ESM) has been retained as they contribute to
and support EA, ED and ES. Besides EW, other EM operations include ISTAR and SIGINT. Subsequently NATO
has issued EW Policy and Doctrine and is addressing the
other NATO defence lines of development.
19.1.1 Electronic warfare applications

Electronic warfare is any military action involving the use
of the EM spectrum to include directed energy (DE) to
control the EM spectrum or to attack an enemy. This is
not limited to radio or radar frequencies but includes IR,
visible, ultraviolet, and other less used portions of the EM
spectrum. This includes self-protection, stando, and escort jamming, and antiradiation attacks. EW is a specialized tool that enhances many air and space functions at
multiple levels of conict.* [3]
The purpose of EW is to deny the opponent an advantage
in the EM spectrum and ensure friendly unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and
space by manned and unmanned systems. EW is employed to support military operations involving various
levels of detection, denial, deception, disruption, degradation, protection, and destruction.* [2]
EW contributes to the success of information operations
(IO) by using oensive and defensive tactics and techniques in a variety of combinations to shape, disrupt, and
exploit adversarial use of the EM spectrum while protecting friendly freedom of action in that spectrum. Expanding reliance on the EM spectrum increases both the
potential and the challenges of EW in information operations. All of the core, supporting, and related information operations capabilities either directly use EW or
indirectly benet from EW.* [3]
The principal EW activities have been developed over
time to exploit the opportunities and vulnerabilities that
are inherent in the physics of EM energy. Activities
used in EW include: electro-optical, infrared and radio
frequency countermeasures; EM compatibility and deception; communications jamming, radar jamming and
anti-jamming; electronic masking, probing, reconnaissance, and intelligence; electronics security; EW reprogramming; emission control; spectrum management; and
127
128
CHAPTER 19. ELECTRONIC WARFARE
wartime reserve modes.* [2]* [3]
19.2 Subdivisions
A right front view of a USAF Boeing E-4 advanced airborne

command post (AABNCP) on the electromagnetic pulse (EMP)
simulator (HAGII-C) for testing.
RAF Menwith Hill, a large ECHELON site in the United Kingdom, and part of the UK-USA Security Agreement
control (EMCON), and low observability or stealth

.* [2]
An Electronic Warfare Self Protection (EWSP) is a suite

Electronic warfare includes three major subdivisions: of countermeasure systems tted primarily to aircraft for
electronic attack (EA), electronic protection (EP), and the purpose of protecting the aircraft from weapons re
and can include among others: DIRCM (protects against
electronic warfare support (ES).* [2]
IR missiles), Infrared countermeasures (protects against
IR missiles), Cha (protects against RADAR guided mis19.2.1 Electronic attack (EA)
siles), DRFM Decoys (Protects against Radar guided missiles), Flare (protects against IR missiles).
Electronic attack (EA) involves the use of EM energy, diAn Electronic Warfare Tactics Range (EWTR) is a pracrected energy, or anti-radiation weapons to attack persontice range which provides for the training of aircrew in
nel, facilities, or equipment with the intent of degrading,
electronic warfare. There are two such ranges in Europe;
neutralizing, or destroying enemy combat capability. In
one at RAF Spadeadam in the United Kingdom and the
the case of EM energy, this action is referred to as jamPOLYGON range in Germany and France. EWTRs are
ming and can be performed on communications systems
equipped with ground-based equipment to simulate elec(see Radio jamming) or radar systems (see Radar jamtronic warfare threats that aircrew might encounter on
ming and deception).
missions.
19.2.2
Electronic Protection (EP)
Main article: Electronic counter-countermeasures
Antifragile EW is a step beyond standard EP, occurring

when a communications link being jammed actually increases in capability as a result of a jamming attack, although this is only possible under certain circumstances
such as reactive forms of jamming. * [4]
Electronic Protection (EP) (previously known as electronic protective measures (EPM) or electronic counter
countermeasures (ECCM)) involves actions taken to pro- 19.2.3 Electronic warfare support (ES)
tect personnel, facilities, and equipment from any eects
of friendly or enemy use of the electromagnetic spectrum Main article: Electronic warfare support measures
that degrade, neutralize, or destroy friendly combat capability. Jamming is not part of EP, it is an EA measure.
Electronic Warfare Support (ES), is the subdivision of
The use of are rejection logic on an Infrared homing EW involving actions tasked by, or under direct conmissile to counter an adversarys use of ares is EP. trol of, an operational commander to search for, interWhile defensive EA actions and EP both protect person- cept, identify, and locate or localize sources of intennel, facilities, capabilities, and equipment, EP protects tional and unintentional radiated electromagnetic (EM)
from the eects of EA (friendly and/or adversary). Other energy for the purpose of immediate threat recognition,
examples of EP include spread spectrum technologies, targeting, planning, and conduct of future operations.* [2]
use of Joint Restricted Frequency List (JRFL), emissions These measures begin with systems designed and opera-
19.4. FURTHER READING

tors trained to make Electronic Intercepts (ELINT) and
then classication and analysis broadly known as Signals
intelligence from such detections to return information
and perhaps actionable intelligence (e.g. a ship's identication from unique characteristics of a specic radar) to
the commander.
129
Battle of Latakia: the rst use of deception EW in a
naval battle
Battle of the Beams
No. 100 Group RAF
The overlapping discipline, signals intelligence (SIG 36th Bombardment Squadron

INT) is the related process of analyzing and identifying
the intercepted frequencies (e.g. as a mobile phone or
radar). SIGINT is broken into three categories: ELINT, US specic:
COMINT, and FISINT. the parameters of intercepted
txn are-: communication equipment-: freq, bandwidth,
Association of Old Crows
modulation, polarisation etc. The distinction between intelligence and electronic warfare support (ES) is deter Electronic Warfare Ocer
mined by who tasks or controls the collection assets, what
they are tasked to provide, and for what purpose they
Fleet Electronic Warfare Center
are tasked. Electronic warfare support is achieved by assets tasked or controlled by an operational commander.
Joint Functional Component Command for NetThe purpose of ES tasking is immediate threat recogwork Warfare
nition, targeting, planning and conduct of future opera U.S. Marine Corps Radio Reconnaissance
tions, and other tactical actions such as threat avoidance
and homing. However, the same assets and resources that
Historical Electronics Museum
are tasked with ES can simultaneously collect intelligence
that meets other collection requirements.* [2]
USACEWP (United States Army Computer NetWhere these activities are under the control of an operwork Operations-Electronic Warfare Proponents)
ational commander and being applied for the purpose of
situational awareness, threat recognition, or EM target Cyber Operations
ing, they also serve the purpose of Electronic Warfare
surveillance (ES).

19.3 See also
Directed-energy weapon
Electromagnetic pulse
Electromagnetic interference
Electronic harassment
Electronic warfare support measures
Radar jamming and deception
Radio jamming
Electronic Warfare Systems:
FM 3-36: Electronic Warfare In Operations. Safeguarding Soldiers Through Technology.

Fort
Leavenworth, U.S. Army Combined Arms Center
(CAC), 26 February 2009 PDF, 114 p., 4,5 MB.
See also: John Milburn: Army manual raises emphasis on electronic warfare. Washington Post, 26
February 2009.
Jon Latimer, Deception in War, London: John Murray, 2001
David Adamy EW 101: A First Course in Electronic
Warfare
David Adamy EW 102: A Second Course in Electronic Warfare
Cha
Joint Publication 3-13.1: Electronic Warfare* [2]
Digital Radio Frequency Memory (DRFM)
Aadu Jogiaas: Disturbing soviet transmissions in

August 1991.
Electronic Intelligence (ELINT)

Radar Warning Receiver (RWR)
Historic:
Words: MATT BOLTON Photographs: MATT

MUNRO The Tallinn Cables, A GLIMPSE INTO
TALLINNS SECRET HISTORY OF ESPIONAGE Lonely Planet Magazine, December 2011
130
19.5 References
[1] Tembarai Krishnamachari, Rajesh. Dawn of the Ebomb: High-power microwave technology and military
implications for India, South Asia Analysis Group, Paper 1089, May 2004.
[2] Joint Publication 3-13.1 Electronic Warfare (ONLINE PDF AVAILABLE FOR DOWNLOAD). Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Sta (CJCS) - Armed Forces
of the United States of America. 25 January 2007. pp.
i, v x. Retrieved 2011-05-01. This publication provides...doctrine for electronic warfare planning, preparation, execution, and assessment in support of joint operations across the range of military operations.
[3] Electronic Warfare; Air Force Doctrine Document
2-5.1 (ONLINE PDF AVAILABLE FOR DOWNLOAD). Secretary of the Air Force. 5 November 2002.
pp. i, v x. Retrieved 2011-05-01. This AFDD establishes operational doctrine for United States Air Force EW
operations. This doctrine provides guidance for planning
and conducting electronic warfare operations in support
of national and joint force commander (JFC) campaign
objectives.
[4] Lichtman, Marc (2014). Antifragile Electronic Warfare. arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.5429. Retrieved
September 29, 2014.
This article incorporates public domain material

from websites or documents of the United States Air
Force.
from websites or documents of the United States
Government.
19.6 General references

The Changing Capability of Manpack Electronic
Warfare Systems
Carlo Kopp "Electronic Warfare in Operation Desert Storm",
Australian Aviation,
June/July/August, 1993
Association of Old Crows
Electronic Warfare Jamming Systems
Information Warfare, Information Operations and
Electronic Attack on APA
Electronic Warfare Products
Joint Publication 3-13.1 Electronic Warfare; PDF674k (text version)
Air Force Instruction on Electronic Warfare (EW)
Operations PDF
CHAPTER 19. ELECTRONIC WARFARE
Chapter 20
Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles

The Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (FMTV) is Long-Term Armor Strategy (LTAS) type version.* [3]
a series of vehicles, based on a common chassis, that
vary by payload and mission requirements. FMTV vehicles were manufactured by Stewart and Stevenson (1996- 20.1 Variants
2006) and then Armor Holdings (2006-2007) and then
BAE Systems Land and Armaments until 2011 when
Oshkosh Corporation began producing the eet. The 20.1.1 Trucks
FMTV were derived from the Austrian military truck
M1078 standard cargo truck
Steyr 12M18. The 4x4 Light Medium Tactical Vehicle (LMTV) has a 2.5-ton capacity (cargo and van mod M1079 shop van conguration
els) while the 6x6 Medium Tactical Vehicle (MTV) has
a 5-ton capacity (cargo and long-wheelbase cargo with
M1081 standard cargo LVAD, 2.5 ton capacity, airand without material handling equipment, tractor, van,
droppable
wrecker, and dump truck models). Three truck variants
and two companion trailers, with the same cube and pay M1083 standard cargo truck, 5 ton payload
load capacity as their prime movers, provide air drop ca M1084 standard cargo truck, 5 ton payload, with
pability. M1078s have been deployed to Iraq with armateriel handling equipment
mored cabs with roof gun mounts with shields, similar
to those tted on High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled
M1085 Long Wheel Base (LWB) truck (extended
Vehicles (HMMWV) and M113s. Beginning in October
cargo bed)
2010, Oshkosh Corporation commenced production on
their newly awarded re-buycontract. The last truck
M1086 Long Wheel Base (LWB) truck with mabuilt under the S023 contract in TX was produced by
teriel handling equipment
BAE in June 2011.
M1087 Expansible Van
The cab-over FMTV replaces the 2.5 ton and 5 ton M35
and M939 series of trucks and performs local and line
M1088 tractor truck
haul, unit mobility, unit resupply, and other missions
in combat, combat support and combat service support
M1089 wrecker
units. It is rapidly deployable worldwide and operates
on primary and secondary roads, trails, and cross-country
M1090 dump truck
terrain, in all climatic conditions. Commonality of parts
M1093 Standard Cargo Truck, LVAD, 5 ton capacacross truck chassis variants signicantly reduces the loity, air-droppable
gistics burden and operating and support costs. New vehicle applications are being developed to meet new re M1094 dump truck, LVAD, air-droppable
quirements.
XM140 High Mobility Artillery Rocket System
The FMTV A1 series includes a 1999 Environmental
Protection Agencycertied engine, upgraded transmission, electronic data bus, an anti-lock brake system and
20.1.2 Trailers
interactive electronic technical manuals.
The FMTV shares its drivetrain with the Caiman MRAP
vehicle.* [2] All vehicles are equipped with the Central
Tire Ination System.
The FMTV are being supplemented with the improved
131
M1082 LMTV Trailer, single axle, 5000 lb payload

XM1091 fuel/water tanker, 1500 gallons
M1095 MTV Trailer, dual axle, 10,000 lb payload
132
20.1.3
CHAPTER 20. FAMILY OF MEDIUM TACTICAL VEHICLES
FMTV dimensions
On December 14, the U.S. Government Accountability

Oce upheld the protests, but on February 12 the United
Note that these weights are for the versions with armored States Army again awarded the contract to Oshkosh Decabs.
fense.* [5]* [6]
20.2 Model gallery

M1082 trailer
M1083 5-ton
M1084 with MHE
M1085 Long Wheel Base
M1086 Long Wheel Base with MHE
M1087 Expansible van
M1088 Tractor
M1089 Wrecker
20.6 Further sales

On 11 May 2010, Oshkosh reported a trucks and trailers delivery order from the U.S. Army valued at more
than $410 million for the production and delivery between March and December 2011 of 2,634 FMTV trucks
and 404 trailers. There were several subsequent orders
in 2010, the largest being an order for 2060 FMTVs in
September 2010.* [7]
On August 20, 2012, Oshkosh announced it had delivered
the 10,000th FMTV truck.* [8]
20.7 Operators
M1090 Dump Truck
United States
M1093 LVAD
Thailand
M1095 trailer
Iraq
Jordan
20.3 Gallery
Armored cabin of the High Mobility Artillery
Rocket System
M142 high-mobility artillery rocket system (HIMARS) launcher
New York National Guard LMTV with armored cab
Romanian and US military conduct an operation in
Afghanistan
20.4 Statistics
20.5 2009 procurement and protest
On February 27, 2009, the United States Army Tank Automotive and Armaments Command issued a solicitation
for the upcoming round of FMTV procurement. BAE,
Oshkosh Defense (a division of Oshkosh Corporation),
and Navistar submitted proposals by the May 27 closing
date.
Oshkosh Defense won the award on August 26, 2009.
Navistar and BAE were debriefed on September 2 and 3,
respectively, after which time both companies protested
the award.
20.8 See also

M939 Truck
M35 2-1/2 ton cargo truck Previous cargo truck
M809 series trucks
Navistar 7000 series - based on Workstar chassis
Faulty brake issue found not to be fraud against USG
20.9 References
[1] Ware, Pat (2010). The World Encyclopedia of Military
Vehicles. Lorenz Books. p. 244. ISBN 0-7548-2052-1.
[2] prnewswire : Armor Holdings, Inc. Receives $518 Million MRAP Award
[3] Long-Term Armor Strategy (LTAS)
[4] Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles. Oshkosh Corp.
2010. Retrieved 7 Dec 2014.
[5] GAO Decision on Protest
[6] News Release: Army Makes FMTV Competitive Rebuy Contract Award Decision. Defense.gov. Retrieved
2010-07-07.
[7] FMTV 20102015: Oshkosh Wins The Re-Compete

. Retrieved 2010-09-13.
[8] http://oshkoshdefense.com/news/413/
oshkosh-defense-delivers-10000-fmtvs-to-the-us-army-in-less-than-two-years

Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (FMTV) fact
le
Global Security's description
FMTV Technical Manuals FMTV Technical Library
133
Chapter 21
Firearm
This article is about the projectile weapon. For the
rearm as a tool, see Firearm (tool). For other uses, see
Firearm (disambiguation).
A rearm is a portable gun, being a barreled weapon
ing either iron sights or optical sights. The accurate range

of pistols is generally limited to 50 metres (55 yd), while
most ries are accurate to 500 metres (550 yd) using iron
sights, or longer ranges using optical sights. (Firearm
rounds may be dangerous or lethal well beyond their accurate range; minimum distance for safety is much greater
than specied range.) Some purpose-built sniper ries
are accurate to ranges of more than 2,000 metres (2,200
yd). A successful sniper attack has been made from
slightly more than 1.75 mi (2.82 km).
21.1 Types of rearms

21.1.1 Conguration
Handguns
US Navy sailor shoots a rearm at a target.
that launches one or more projectiles often driven by the Main article: Handgun
action of an explosive force.* [1]* [2]* [3] The rst primi- The smallest of all rearms is the handgun. There
tive rearms were invented in 13th century China when
the man portable re lance was combined with projectiles.* [4] The technology gradually spread through the
rest of East Asia, South Asia, Middle East and then into
Europe. In older rearms, the propellant was typically
black powder, but modern rearms use smokeless powder
or other propellants. Most modern rearms (with the notable exception of smoothbore rearms) have ried barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved ight
stability.
Modern rearms are typically described by their bore
diameter (7.5mm) or calibre (.357) or gauge (12 ga.),
the type of action employed (muzzle, breech, lever, bolt,
pump, revolver, semi-automatic, or automatic) together
with the usual means of deportment (hand-held or mechanical mounting). They may be further distinguished
by reference to the type of barrel used (ried) and the barrel length (19 inch), the design's primary intended target
(anti-aircraft), or the commonly accepted name for a particular variation (Gatling gun). The word rearms usually
is used in a sense restricted to small arms (weapons that
can be carried by a single person),* [5] whereas the word
artillery covers larger gunpowder-red weapons.
A Colt Single Action Army revolver
are three common types of handguns: single-shot pistols (more common historically), revolvers, and semiautomatic pistols. Revolvers have a number of ring
chambers orcharge holesin a revolving cylinder; each
chamber in the cylinder is loaded with a single cartridge
or charge. Semi-automatic pistols have a single xed ring chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and a
Firearms are aimed visually at their targets by hand us- magazine so they can be used to re more than one round.
134
21.1. TYPES OF FIREARMS
135
ically have a barrel between 10 and 30 inches (there are
restrictions on minimum barrel length in many jurisdictions; maximum barrel length is usually a matter of practicality), that along with the receiver and trigger group is
mounted into a wood, plastic, metal or composite stock,
composed of one or more pieces that form a foregrip,
rear grip, and optionally (but typically) a shoulder mount
called the butt. Early long arms, from the Renaissance
up to the mid-1800s, were generally smoothbore rearms
that red one or more ball shot, called muskets.
A Glock 17 semi-automatic pistol
Ries and shotguns Main articles: Rie and Shotgun

Most modern long guns are either ries or shotguns.
Each press of the trigger res a cartridge, using the energy of the cartridge to activate the mechanism so that
the next cartridge may be red immediately. This is opposed to "double-action" revolvers which accomplish the
same end using a mechanical action linked to the trigger Springeld Armory M1903 rie
pull.
Prior to the 19th century, all handguns were single-shot
muzzleloaders. With the invention of the revolver in
1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. Certain designs of auto-loading pistol appeared beginning in the 1870s and had largely supplanted
revolvers in military applications by the end of World
War I. By the end of the 20th century, most handguns
carried regularly by military, police and civilians were
semi-automatic, although revolvers were still widely used.
Generally speaking, military and police forces use semiautomatic pistols due to their high magazine capacities
(10 to 17 or, in some cases, over 25 rounds of ammunition) and ability to rapidly reload by simply removing the
empty magazine and inserting a loaded one. Revolvers
are very common among handgun hunters because revolver cartridges are usually more powerful than similar
caliber semi-automatic pistol cartridges (which are designed for self-defense) and the strength, simplicity and
durability of the revolver design is well-suited to outdoor
use. Revolvers, especially in .22LR and 38 Special/357
Magnum, are also common concealed weapons in jurisdictions allowing this practice because their simple mechanics make them smaller than many autoloaders while
remaining reliable. Both designs are common among
civilian gun owners, depending on the owner's intention
(self-defense, hunting, target shooting, competitions, collecting, etc.).
Both are the successors of the musket, diverging from

their parent weapon in distinct ways. A rie is so named
for the spiral uting (Riing) carved into the inner surface of its barrel, which imparts a self-stabilizing spin
to the single bullets it res. Shotguns are predominantly
smoothbore rearms designed to re a number of shot;
pellet sizes commonly ranging between 2 mm #9 birdshot
and 8.4 mm #00 (double-aught) buckshot. Shotguns are
also capable of ring single slugs, or specialty (often "less
lethal") rounds such as bean bags, tear gas or breaching
rounds. Ries have a very small impact area but a long
range and high accuracy. Shotguns have a large impact
area with considerably less range and accuracy. However, the larger impact area can compensate for reduced
accuracy, since shot spreads during ight; consequently,
in hunting, shotguns are generally used for ying game
(See Spreading details).
Ries and shotguns are commonly used for hunting and
often to defend a home or place of business. Usually,
large game are hunted with ries (although shotguns can
be used, particularly with slugs), while birds are hunted
with shotguns. Shotguns are sometimes preferred for defending a home or business due to their wide impact area,
multiple wound tracks (when using buckshot), shorter
range, and reduced penetration of walls (when using
lighter shot), which signicantly reduces the likelihood
of unintended harm, although the handgun is also common.
There are a variety of types of ries and shotguns based

on the method they are reloaded. Bolt-action and leveraction ries are manually operated. Manipulation of the
Main article: Long gun
bolt or the lever causes the spent cartridge to be removed,
the ring mechanism recocked, and a fresh cartridge inA long gun is generally any rearm that is larger than a serted. These two types of action are almost exclusively
handgun and is designed to be held and red with both used by ries. Slide-action (commonly called 'pumphands, either from the hip or the shoulder. Long guns typ- action') ries and shotguns are manually cycled by shutLong guns
136
CHAPTER 21. FIREARM
tling the foregrip of the rearm back and forth. This type U.S. civilian carbines include compact customizations of
of action is typically used by shotguns, but several major the AR-15, Ruger Mini-14, Beretta Cx4 Storm, Kel-Tec
manufacturers make ries that use this action.
SUB-2000, bolt-action ries generally falling under the
Both ries and shotguns also come in break-action vari- specications of a scout rie, and aftermarket conversion
eties that do not have any kind of reloading mechanism kits for popular pistols including the M1911 and Glock
at all but must be hand-loaded after each shot. Both models.
ries and shotguns come in single- and double-barreled
varieties; however due to the expense and diculty of
manufacturing, double-barreled ries are rare. Double- 21.1.2 Function
barreled ries are typically intended for African big-game
hunts where the animals are dangerous, ranges are short, Main article: Firearm action
and speed is of the essence. Very large and powerful calibers are normal for these rearms.
Firearms are also categorized by their functioning cycle or
Ries have been in nationally featured marksmanship actionwhich describes its loading, ring, and unloading
events in Europe and the United States since at least cycle.
the 18th century, when ries were rst becoming widely
available. One of the earliest purely Americanrieshooting competitions took place in 1775, when Daniel Manual
Morgan was recruiting sharpshooters in Virginia for the
impending American Revolutionary War. In some coun- The earliest evolution of the rearm, there are many types
tries, rie marksmanship is still a matter of national pride. of manual action rearms. These can be divided into two
Some specialized ries in the larger calibers are claimed basic categories: single shot and repeating.
to have an accurate range of up to about 1 mile (1,600 A single shot rearm can only be red once per equipped
m), although most have considerably less. In the second barrel before it must be reloaded or charged via an exhalf of the 20th century, competitive shotgun sports be- ternal mechanism or series of steps. A repeating rearm
came perhaps even more popular than riery, largely due can be red multiple times, but can only be red once
to the motion and immediate feedback in activities such with each subsequent pull of the trigger. Between trigger
as skeet, trap and sporting clays.
pulls, the rearm's action must be reloaded or charged via
In military use, bolt-action ries with high-power scopes an internal mechanism.
are common as sniper ries, however by the Korean War
the traditional bolt-action and semi-automatic ries used
by infantrymen had been supplemented by select-re de- Semi-automatic
signs known asautomatic ries(seeAutomatic Rie
Main article: Semi-automatic rearm
below).
A semi-automatic, or self-loading, rearm is one that
performs all steps necessary to prepare the it to discharge again after ringassuming cartridges remain in
A carbine is a rearm similar to a rie in form and in- the weapon's feed device or magazine.
tended usage, but generally shorter or smaller than the
typical full-sizehunting or battle rie of similar time
period, and sometimes using a smaller or less-powerful Automatic
cartridge. Carbines were and are typically used by members of the military in roles that are expected to engage An automatic rearm is generally dened as one that conin combat, but where a full-size rie would be an im- tinues to load and re cartridges from its magazine as
pediment to the primary duties of that soldier (vehicle long as the trigger is depressed (or until the magazine
drivers, eld commanders and support sta, airbornes, is depleted). The rst weapon generally considered in
engineers, etc.). Carbines are also common in law en- this category is the Gatling gun, originally a carriageforcement and among civilian owners where similar size, mounted, crank-operated rearm with multiple rotating
space and/or power concerns may exist. Carbines, like ri- barrels that was elded in the American Civil War. The
es, can be single-shot, repeating-action, semi-automatic modern trigger-actuated machine gun began with various
or select-re/fully automatic, generally depending on the designs developed in the late 1800s and elded in World
time period and intended market. Common historical ex- War I, such as the Maxim gun, Lewis Gun, and MG 08
amples include the Winchester Model 1892, Lee-Eneld Spandau. Most automatic weapons are classed as long
"Jungle Carbine", Mauser K98 Kurz, SKS, M1 carbine guns (as the ammunition used is of similar type as for
(no relation to the larger M1 Garand) and M4 carbine (a ries, and the recoil of the weapon's rapid re is better
more compact variant of the current M16 rie). Modern controlled with two hands), but handgun-sized automatic
Carbines Main article: Carbine
21.1. TYPES OF FIREARMS
137
weapons also exist, generally in the submachine gun

or machine pistolclass.
Machine guns Main article: Machine gun
A machine gun is a fully automatic emplaceable weapon,
most often separated from other classes of automatic
weapon by the use of belt-fed ammunition (though
some designs employ drum, pan or hopper magazines),
generally in a rie-inspired caliber ranging between
5.5645mm NATO (.223 Remington) for a light machine gun to as large as .50 BMG or even larger for crewed
or aircraft weapons. Although not widely elded until
World War I, early machine guns were being used by militaries in the second half of the 19th century. Notables
in the U.S. arsenal during the 20th century included the
M2 Browning .50 caliber heavy machine gun and M1919
Browning .30 caliber medium machine gun, and the M60
7.6251mm NATO general-purpose machine gun which
came into use around the Vietnam War. Machine guns of
this type were originally defensive rearms crewed by at
least two men, mainly because of the diculties involved
in moving and placing them, their ammunition, and their
tripod. In contrast, modern light machine guns such as
the FN Minimi are often wielded by a single infantryman.
They provide a large ammunition capacity and a high rate
of re, and are typically used to give suppressing re during infantry movement. Accuracy on machine guns varies
based on a wide number of factors from design to manufacturing tolerances, most of which have been improved
over time. Machine guns are often mounted on vehicles
or helicopters, and have been used since World War I as
oensive rearms in ghter aircraft and tanks (e.g. for
air combat or suppressing re for ground troop support).
Czechoslovak 7.65 mm submachine gun korpion vz. 61 designed in 1959.
are commonly favored by military, paramilitary and police forces for close-quarters engagements such as inside
buildings, in urban areas or in trench complexes.
Submachine guns were originally about the size of carbines. Because they re pistol ammunition, they have
limited long-range use, but in close combat can be used in
fully automatic in a controllable manner due to the lighter
recoil of the pistol ammunition. They are also extremely
inexpensive and simple to build in time of war, enabling a
nation to quickly arm its military. In the latter half of the
20th century, submachine guns were being miniaturized
to the point of being only slightly larger than some large
handguns. The most widely used submachine gun at the
end of the 20th century was the Heckler & Koch MP5.
The MP5 is actually designated as a machine pistol
by Heckler & Koch (MP5 stands for Maschinenpistole 5,
or Machine Pistol 5), although some reserve this designation for even smaller submachine guns such as the MAC10 and Glock 18, which are about the size and shape of
The denition of machine gun is dierent in U.S. law. pistols.
The National Firearms Act and Firearm Owners Protection Act dene a machine gunin the United States
Personal defense weapons Main article: Personal
code Title 26, Subtitle E, Chapter 53, Subchapter B, Part
defense weapon
1, 5845 as: "... any rearm which shoots ... automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a
single function of the trigger. Machine gunis there- A related class of rearm to the submachine gun is the
fore largely synonymous withautomatic weaponin the Personal Defense Weaponor PDW, which is in simplest terms a submachine gun designed to re rounds simU.S. civilian parlance, covering all automatic rearms.
ilar to rie cartridges. A submachine gun is desirable
for its compact size and ammunition capacity, however
Submachine guns Main article: Submachine gun
a pistol round lacks the penetrating capability of a riA submachine gun is a magazine-fed rearm, usually e round. Conversely, rie bullets can pierce light arsmaller than other automatic rearms, that res pistol- mor and are easier to shoot accurately, but even a carbine
caliber ammunition; for this reason certain submachine such as the Colt M4 is larger and/or longer than a submaguns can also be referred to as machine pistols, espe- chine gun, making it harder to maneuver in close quarcially when referring to handgun-sized designs such as ters. The solution many rearms manufacturers have
the korpion vz. 61 and Glock 18. Well-known exam- presented is a weapon resembling a submachine gun in
ples are the Israeli Uzi and Heckler & Koch MP5 which size and general conguration, but which res a higheruse the 919mm Parabellum cartridge, and the American powered armor-penetrating round (often specially deThompson submachine gun which res .45 ACP. Be- signed for the weapon), thus combining the advantages of
cause of their small size and limited projectile penetration a carbine and submachine gun. The FN P90 and Heckler
compared to high-power rie rounds, submachine guns & Koch MP7 are examples.
138
Automatic ries Main article: Automatic rie
An automatic rie is a magazine-fed rearm, wielded by a
single infantryman, that is chambered for rie cartridges
and capable of automatic re. The M1918 Browning Automatic Rie was the rst U.S. infantry weapon of this
type, and was generally used for suppressive or support
re in the role now usually lled by the light machine
gun. Other early automatic ries include the Fedorov
Avtomat and the Huot Automatic Rie. Later, German
forces elded the Sturmgewehr 44 during World War II, a
light automatic rie ring a reduced power "intermediate
cartridge". This design was to become the basis for the
"assault rie" subclass of automatic weapons, as contrasted with "battle ries", which generally re a traditional full-powerrie cartridge.
CHAPTER 21. FIREARM

In the United States, the assault rie design was later in
coming; the replacement for the M1 Garand of WWII
was another John Garand design chambered for the new
7.6251mm NATO cartridge; the select-re M14, which
was used by the U.S. military until the 1960s. The signicant recoil of the M14 when red in full-automatic
mode was seen as a problem as it reduced accuracy, and
in the 1960s it was replaced by Eugene Stoner's AR-15,
which also marked a switch from the powerful .30 caliber
cartridges used by the U.S. military up until early in the
Vietnam War to the much less powerful but far lighter
and light recoiling .223 caliber (5.56mm) intermediate
cartridge. The military later designated the AR-15 as the
"M16". The civilian version of the M16 continues to be
known as the AR-15 and looks exactly like the military
version, although to conform to B.A.T.F.E. regulations in
the U.S., it lacks the mechanism that permits fully automatic re.
Variants of both of the M16 and AK-47 are still in wide
international use today, though other automatic rie designs have since been introduced. A smaller version of
the M16A2, the M4 carbine, is widely used by U.S. and
NATO tank and vehicle crews, airbornes, support sta,
and in other scenarios where space is limited. The IMI
Galil, an Israeli-designed weapon similar to the AK-47,
is in use by Israel, Italy, Burma, the Philippines, Peru,
and Colombia. Swiss Arms of Switzerland produces the
SIG SG 550 assault rie used by France, Chile, and Spain
among others, and Steyr Mannlicher produces the AUG,
a bullpup rie in use in Austria, Australia, New Zealand,
Ireland, and Saudi Arabia among other nations.
United States Marines train with the AK-47.
Military Style Semi or Full Automatic Ries In

World War II, Germany brought to the forefront of
rearm technology what eventually became the class of
rearm most widely adopted by the military: the assault
rie (see StG 44). An assault rie is usually slightly
smaller than a battle rie such as the Karabiner 98k, but
the chief dierences dening an assault rie are selectre capability and the use of a rie round of lesser power,
known as an intermediate cartridge. This reduces recoil allowing for controllable bursts at short range like
a submachine gun, while retaining rie-like accuracy at
medium ranges. Generally, assault ries have mechanisms that allow the user to select between single shots,
fully automatic bursts, or fully automatic re. Universally, civilian versions of military assault ries are strictly
semi-automatic.
Soviet engineer Mikhail Kalashnikov quickly adapted the
German concept, using a less-powerful 7.6239mm cartridge derived from the standard 7.6254mmR Russian
battle rie round, to produce the AK-47, which has become the world's most widely used assault rie. Soon
after World War II, the Automatic Kalashnikov AK-47
assault rie began to be elded by the Soviet Union and
its allies in the Eastern Bloc, as well as by nations such as
China, North Korea, and North Vietnam.
Modern designs call for compact weapons retaining repower. The bullpup design, by mounting the magazine
behind the trigger, unies the accuracy and repower of
the traditional assault rie with the compact size of the
submachine gun (though submachine guns are still used);
examples are the French FAMAS or the British SA80.
Recently, smaller but exceedingly penetrative ammunition types have been introduced to allow countermeasure
against ballistic armour. Such designs are the basis for
the FN P90 and Heckler & Koch MP7. Caseless ammunition is another trend; an example is the German Heckler
& Koch G11. The echette is yet another improvement
over traditional ammunition, allowing for extreme penetration abilities and a very at trajectory. However, it is
gained at the cost of stopping power.
21.2 History
Main article: History of the rearm
See also: History of gunpowder
Some say the rst primitive rearms were invented
about 1250 A.D. in China when the man-portable re
lance (a bamboo or metal tube that could shoot ignited
21.2. HISTORY
139
a universal standard for the reloading of most handheld rearms and continues to be so with some notable
exceptions (such as mortars). Instead of loading individual rounds into weapons, magazines holding multiple munitions were adoptedthese aided rapid reloading. Automatic and semi-automatic ring mechanisms
meant that a single soldier could re many more rounds
in a minute than a vintage weapon could re over the
course of a battle. Polymers and alloys in rearm construction made weaponry progressively lighter and thus
easier to deploy. Ammunition changed over the centuries
from simple metallic ball-shaped projectiles that rattled
down the barrel to bullets and cartridges manufactured to
high precision. Especially in the past century has particular attention been devoted to accuracy and sighting to
make rearms altogether far more accurate than ever before. More than any single factor though, rearms have
proliferated due to the advent of mass productionenabling arms manufacturers to produce large quantities of
weaponry to a consistent standard.
The force of a projectile is related to the kinetic energy
imparted to it, given by the formula Ek = 21 mv 2 where
m is the mass and v is the velocity of the projectile.
Generally, kinetic energy can be enhanced in two ways:
Page showing a musketeer (Plate 4) from Jacob van Gheyn's

Wapenhandelingen van Roers, Musquetten ende Spiesen (1608)
gunpowder) was combined with projectiles such as scrap

metal, broken porcelain, or darts/arrows.* [4]* [6] Historian W.H.B. Smith says that Greek re predates the early
Chinese technology by 600 years and that the origin of
gunpowder and rearms are unknown because records
have been mistranslated and misquoted.* [7]
The earliest depiction of a rearm is a sculpture from
a cave in Sichuan, China. The sculpture dates to the
12th century and is of a gure carrying a vase-shaped
bombard, with ames and a cannonball coming out of
it.* [8] The oldest surviving gun, made of bronze, has
been dated to 1288 because it was discovered at a site in
modern-day Acheng District, Heilongjiang, China, where
the Yuan Shi records that battles were fought at that
time.* [9] The rearm had a 6.9 inch barrel of a 1-inch
diameter, a 2.6 inch chamber for the gunpowder and a
socket for the rearm's handle. It is 13.4 inches long and
7.8 pounds without the handle, which would have been
made of wood.* [10]
By increasing the mass of the bullet, either by increasing caliber (and thus size and weight), or by
using denser materials like uranium or tungsten.
By increasing the projectile's velocity, through better or larger propellant charges, through better manufacturing tolerances and materials in bullet and barrel, or through longer barrels.
Velocities of bullets increased with the use of ajacket
of a metal such as copper or copper alloys that covered a
lead core and allowed the bullet to glide down the barrel
more easily than exposed lead. Such bullets are designated as full metal jacket(FMJ). Such FMJ bullets
are less likely to fragment on impact and are more likely
to traverse through a target while imparting less energy.
Hence, FMJ bullets impart less tissue damage than nonjacketed bullets that expand. (Dougherty and Eidt, 2009)
This led to their adoption for military use by countries
adhering to the Hague Convention in 1899.
That said, the basic principle behind rearm operation
remains unchanged to this day. A musket of several centuries ago is still similar in principle to a modern-day assault rieusing the expansion of gases to propel projectiles over long distances albeit less accurately and
rapidly.
The Europeans and Arabs obtained rearms in the 14th

century.* [10] The Turks, Iranians, and Indians all had
rearms no later than the 15th century, in each case
directly or indirectly from the Europeans.* [10] The
Japanese did not acquire rearms until the 16th century, and then from the Portuguese rather than the Chi21.2.1
nese.* [10]
Evolution
The development behind rearms accelerated during the Early models

1800s and 1900s. Breech-loading became more or less
140
Fire lances Main article: Fire lance
The Chinese re lance was the direct predecessor to the
modern concept of the rearm. It was not a gun itself,
but an addition to the soldiers' spears. Originally it consisted of paper or bamboo barrels that would have incendiary gunpowder within it, that could be lit one time and
would project ames at the enemy. Sometimes the Chinese troops would place small projectiles within the barrel that would also be projected when the gunpowder was
lit, but most of the explosive force would create ames.
Later, the barrel was changed to be made of metal, so that
a more explosive gunpowder could be used and put more
force into the propulsion of the projectile.* [10]
Hand cannons Main article: Hand cannon

The original predecessor of all rearms, the Chinese re
CHAPTER 21. FIREARM

Muzzle-loading muskets (smooth-bored long guns) were
among the rst rearms developed. The rearm was
loaded through the muzzle with gunpowder, optionally
some wadding and then a bullet (usually a solid lead ball,
but musketeers could shoot stones when they ran out of
bullets). Greatly improved muzzleloaders (usually ried
instead of smooth-bored) are manufactured today and
have many enthusiasts, many of whom hunt large and
small game with their guns. Muzzleloaders have to be
manually reloaded after each shot; a skilled archer could
re multiple arrows faster than most early muskets could
be reloaded and red, although by the mid-18th century,
when muzzleloaders became the standard small armament of the military, a well-drilled soldier could re six
rounds in a minute using prepared cartridges in his musket. Before then, eectiveness of muzzleloaders was hindered by both the low reloading speed and, before the ring mechanism was perfected, the very high risk posed
by the rearm to the person attempting to re it.
One interesting solution to the reloading problem was the
Roman Candle Gunwith superposed loads. This was
a muzzleloader in which multiple charges and balls were
loaded one on top of the other, with a small hole in each
ball to allow the subsequent charge to be ignited after the
one ahead of it was ignited. It was neither a very reliable
nor popular rearm, but it enabled a form ofautomatic
re long before the advent of the machine gun.* [11]
Loading techniques
Main article: Muzzleloader
Most early rearms were muzzle-loading. This form of
Hand cannon being red from a stand, Belli Fortis,

manuscript, by Konrad Kyeser, 1400
lance and European hand cannon were loaded with gunpowder and the shot (initially lead shot, later replaced by
cast iron) through the muzzle, while a fuse was placed
at the rear. This fuse was lit, causing the gunpowder to
ignite and propel the cannonball. In military use, the standard hand cannon was tremendously powerful, while also
being somewhat useless due to relative inability of the
gunner to aim the weapon, or control the ballistic properties of the projectile. Recoil could be absorbed by bracing the barrel against the ground using a wooden support, the forerunner of the stock. Neither the amount of
gunpowder, nor the consistency in projectile dimensions
were controlled, with resulting inaccuracy in ring due to
windage, and due to the dierence in diameter between
the bore and the shot. The hand cannons were replaced by
lighter carriage-mounted artillery pieces, and ultimately
the arquebus.
Muskets Main article: Musket
Percussion cap and early bolt-action form
loading has several disadvantages, such as a slow rate of

re and having to expose oneself to enemy re to reload
as the weapon had to be pointed upright so the powder could be poured through the muzzle into the breech
followed by the ramming the projectile into the breech.
As eective methods of sealing the breech were developed through the development of sturdy, weatherproof,
21.2. HISTORY
141
self-contained metallic cartridges, muzzle-loaders were to solvents and oil. Some notable weapons that use belts
replaced by single-shot breech loaders. Eventually single- are the M240, the M249, the M134 Minigun, and the PK
shot weapons were replaced by the following repeater Machine Gun.
type weapons.
Internal Magazines
Main article: Magazine (rearms)
Many rearms made in the late 19th century through the
1950s used internal magazines to load the cartridge into
the chamber of the weapon. The most notable and revolutionary weapons of this period appeared during the U.S.
Civil War and they were the Spencer and Henry repeating ries. Both used xed tubular magazines, the former having the magazine in the buttstock and the latter
under the barrel which allowed a larger capacity. Later
weapons used xed box magazines that could not be removed from the weapon without dissembling the weapon
itself. Fixed magazines permitted the use of larger cartridges and eliminated the hazard of having the bullet of
one cartridge butting next to the primer or rim of another
cartridge. These magazines are loaded while they are in
the weapon, often using a stripper clip. A clip is used
to transfer cartridges into the magazine. Some notable
weapons that use internal magazines include the Mosin
Nagant, the Mauser Kar 98k, the Springeld M1903, the
M1 Garand, and the SKS. Firearms that have internal
magazines are usually, but not always, ries. Some exceptions to this include the Mauser C96 pistol, which uses
an internal magazine, and the Breda 30, an Italian light
machine gun.
Firing mechanisms
Further information: Trigger (rearms) and Firearm
action
Matchlock Main article: Matchlock

Matchlocks were the rst and simplest rearms ring
mechanisms developed. Using the matchlock mechanism, the powder in the gun barrel was ignited by a piece
of burning cord called amatch. The match was wedged
into one end of an S-shaped piece of steel. As the trigger
(often actually a lever) was pulled, the match was brought
into the open end of atouch holeat the base of the gun
barrel, which contained a very small quantity of gunpowder, igniting the main charge of gunpowder in the gun
barrel. The match usually had to be relit after each ring.The main parts to the matchlock ring mechanism
are the pan, match, arm and trigger.* [12] A benet of
the pan and arm swivel being moved to the side of the
gun was it gave a clear line of re.* [13] An advantage to
the matchlock ring mechanism is that it did not misre.
However, it also came with some disadvantages. One disadvantage was if it was raining the match could not be
kept lit to re the weapon. Another issue with the match
was it could give away the position of soldiers because of
the glow, sound, and smell.* [14]
Detachable Magazines
Many modern rearms use what are called detachable or
box magazines as their method of chambering a cartridge.
Detachable magazines can be removed from the weapon
without disassembling the rearms, usually by pushing
the magazine release. Some notable weapons that use detachable magazines include the the AK-47, the M14, the
AR-15, and the Glock 17.
Wheellock
Main article: Wheellock
The wheellock action, a successor to the matchlock, predated the intlock. Despite its many faults, the wheellock was a signicant improvement over the matchlock
in terms of both convenience and safety, since it eliminated the need to keep a smoldering match in proximity
to loose gunpowder. It operated using a small wheel much
like that on cigarette lighters which was wound up with a
Belt-Fed Weapons
key before use and which, when the trigger was pulled,
spun against a int, creating the shower of sparks that igMain article: Belt (rearm)
nited the powder in the touch hole. Supposedly invented
by Leonardo da Vinci, the Italian Renaissance man, the
A belt or ammunition belt is a device used to retain and wheellock action was an innovation that was not widely
feed cartridges into a rearm commonly used on machine adopted due to the high cost of the clockwork mechaguns. Belts were originally composed of canvas or cloth nism.
with pockets spaced evenly to allow the belt to be mechanically fed into the gun. These designs were prone to
malfunctions due to the eects of oil and other contam- Flintlock Main article: Flintlock
inants altering the belt. Later belt designs used permanently connected metal links to retain the cartridges dur- The intlock action was a major innovation in rearm
ing feeding. These belts were more tolerant to exposure design. The spark used to ignite the gunpowder in the
142
CHAPTER 21. FIREARM
touch hole was supplied by a sharpened piece of int

clamped in the jaws of a cockwhich, when released
by the trigger, struck a piece of steel called the "frizzen"
to create the necessary sparks. (The spring-loaded arm
that holds a piece of int or pyrite is referred to as a
cock because of its resemblance to a rooster.) The cock
had to be manually reset after each ring, and the int
had to be replaced periodically due to wear from striking
the frizzen. (See also intlock mechanism, snaphance,
Miquelet Lock) The intlock was widely used during the
18th and 19th centuries in both muskets and ries.
percussion caps except those built as replicas of the intlock or earlier rearms.
Antique rearm display in the main entrance to the Cody

Firearms Museum.
Before this, acartridgewas simply a premeasured quantity of gunpowder together with a ball in a small cloth bag
(or rolled paper cylinder), which also acted as wadding for
the charge and ball. This early form of cartridge had to
be rammed into the muzzleloader's barrel, and either a
small charge of gunpowder in the touch hole or an external percussion cap mounted on the touch hole ignited the
gunpowder in the cartridge. Cartridges with built-in percussion caps (called primers) continue to this day to
be the standard in rearms. In cartridge-ring rearms,
a hammer (or a ring pin struck by the hammer) strikes
the cartridge primer, which then ignites the gunpowder
within. The primer charge is at the base of the cartridge,
either within the rim (a "rimre" cartridge) or in a small
percussion cap embedded in the center of the base (a
"centerre" cartridge). As a rule, centerre cartridges are
more powerful than rimre cartridges, operating at considerably higher pressures than rimre cartridges. Centerre cartridges are also safer, as a dropped rimre cartridge has the potential to discharge if its rim strikes the
ground with sucient force to ignite the primer. This is
practically impossible with most centerre cartridges.
Percussion cap Further information: Percussion cap

and Caplock mechanism
Percussion caps (caplock mechanisms), coming into wide
service in the 19th century, were a dramatic improvement
over intlocks. With the percussion cap mechanism, the
small primer charge of gunpowder used in all preceding
rearms was replaced by a completely self-contained explosive charge contained in a small brass cap. The
cap was fastened to the touch hole of the gun (extended
to form a nipple) and ignited by the impact of the
gun's hammer. (The hammer is roughly the same as
the cock found on intlocks except that it doesn't clamp
onto anything.) In the case of percussion caps the hammer was hollow on the end to t around the cap in order to
keep the cap from fragmenting and injuring the shooter.
Once struck, the ame from the cap in turn ignited the
main charge of gunpowder, as with the intlock, but there
was no longer any need to charge the touch hole with gunpowder, and even better, the touch hole was no longer
exposed to the elements. As a result, the percussion
cap mechanism was considerably safer, far more weatherproof, and vastly more reliable (cloth-bound cartridges
containing a premeasured charge of gunpowder and a ball
had been in regular military service for many years, but
the exposed gunpowder in the entry to the touch hole had
long been a source of misres). All muzzleloaders manufactured since the second half of the 19th century use
Cartridges
Main article: Cartridge (rearms)
Further information:
Magazine
Ammunition
(rearms)
and
A major innovation in rearms and light artillery came

in the second half of the 19th century when ammunition, previously delivered as separate bullets and powder,
was combined in a single metallic (usually brass) cartridge
containing a percussion cap, powder, and a bullet in one
weatherproof package. The main technical advantage of
the brass cartridge case was the eective and reliable sealing of high pressure gasses at the breech, as the gas pressure forces the cartridge case to expand outward, pressing it rmly against the inside of the gun barrel chamber.
This prevents the leakage of hot gas which could injure
the shooter. The brass cartridge also opened the way for
modern repeating arms, by uniting the bullet, gunpowder
and primer into one assembly that could be fed reliably
into the breech by a mechanical action in the rearm.
Nearly all contemporary rearms load cartridges directly

into their breech. Some additionally or exclusively load
from a magazine that holds multiple cartridges. A magazine is dened as a part of the rearm which exists to store
ammunition and assist in its feeding by the action into the
breech (such as through the rotation of a revolver's cylinder or by spring-loaded platforms in most pistol and rie
designs). Some magazines, such as that of most centerre
hunting ries and all revolvers, are internal to and inseparable from the rearm, and are loaded by using aclip
21.3. SEE ALSO
143
. A clip, often mistakingly used to refer to a detachable

magazine, is a device that holds the ammunition by
the rim of the case and is designed to assist the shooter in
reloading the rearm's magazine. Examples include revolver speedloaders, the stripper clip used to aid loading
ries such as the Lee-Eneld or Mauser 98, and the enbloc clip used in loading the M1 Garand. In this sense,
magazinesand clips, though often used synonymously, refer to dierent types of devices.
ring could be used to operate it, thus the operator needed

only to pull a trigger (which made the ring mechanisms
trulyautomatic). An automatic (orfully automatic
) rearm is one that automatically re-cocks, reloads, and
res as long as the trigger is depressed. An automatic
rearm is capable of ring multiple rounds with one pull
of the trigger. The Gatling gun may have been the rst automatic weapon, though the modern trigger-actuated machine gun was not widely introduced until the First World
War with the German "Spandau" and British Lewis Gun.
Automatic ries such as the Browning Automatic Rie
Repeating, semi-automatic, and automatic rearms were in common use by the military during the early part
of the 20th century, and automatic ries that red handFurther information: Single-shot
gun rounds, known as submachine guns, also appeared in
Main article: Repeating rie
this time. Many modern military rearms have a selective
Main article: Semi-automatic rearm
re option, which is a mechanical switch that allows the
Many rearms are single shot": i.e., each time a car- rearm be red either in the semi-automatic or fully automatic mode. In the current M16A2 and M16A4 variants of the U.S.-made M16, continuous fully automatic
re is not possible, having been replaced by an automatic
burst of three cartridges (this conserves ammunition and
increases controllability).
The French FAMAS, example of a bullpup rie
The M4 carbine, a modern-day service rie capable of being

red automatically. It is in service by the U.S. Military and has
a wide ability for customization.
tridge is red, the operator must manually re-cock the

rearm and load another cartridge. The classic singlebarreled shotgun is a good example. A rearm that can
load multiple cartridges as the rearm is re-cocked is considered a repeating rearmor simply a repeater
. A lever-action rie, a pump-action shotgun, and most
bolt-action ries are good examples of repeating rearms.
A rearm that automatically re-cocks and reloads the
next round with each trigger pull is considered a semiautomatic or autoloading rearm.
The rst rapid ringrearms were usually similar to
the 19th century Gatling gun, which would re cartridges
from a magazine as fast as and as long as the operator
turned a crank. Eventually, the rapidring mechanism was perfected and miniaturized to the extent that
either the recoil of the rearm or the gas pressure from
Automatic weapons are largely restricted to military and

paramilitary organizations, though many automatic designs are infamous for their use by civilians. Automatic
rearms have long been available to U.S. civilians, under increasingly restrictive conditions. Importation of
machine guns for civilian sale in the U.S. was banned
by the Gun Control Act of 1968. The Hughes Amendment to the Firearm Owners Protection Act now prohibits United States civilian ownership or transfer of automatic weapons unless they were registered before May
19, 1986. Non-prohibited automatic weapons can be
legally owned by civilians who pay a $200 tax to the
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
(BATFE), pass a background investigation, and, in some
jurisdictions, receive approval from local law enforcement. Permission must be received directly from the
BATFE to move a machine gun between states, even if it
does not change ownership. An extremely limited number of U.S. citizens have special permits from the BATFE
to buy, and even import, automatic weapons produced
and registered after 1986. The use of such weapons is
tightly restricted to the lm industry under direct supervision of the master of arms holding the permit, and the
weapons are often altered so they will not re factoryammunition, but rather only speciallight-primer
blank cartridges produced specically for the lm industry. This arrangement allows weapons rst produced after
1986 to be used by actors in lms and T.V. series produced inside the U.S.
21.3 See also

Glossary of rearms terms
Index of gun politics articles
144
CHAPTER 21. FIREARM
Firearm science and technology
List of weapons of military aircraft of Germany during World War II
Ballistics (Internal ballistics, Transitional ballistics,

Firearms groups around the world
External ballistics, Terminal ballistics)
Electrothermal-chemical technology
Dominion of Canada Rie Association
Firearm action
National Rie Association
Gunsmith
National Rie Association of the United Kingdom
Physics of rearms
PROGUN (Philippines)
Guns and society

Celebratory gunre
Shooters and Fishers Party

Sporting Shooters Association of Australia
21.4 References
Firearms law and Gun politics

Gun control, Small arms trade and Right to keep and
bear arms
Gun culture
Gun safety
Gun violence
Open carry and Concealed carry
Saturday night special
Shooting range
Shooting sport
List of rearms
List of rearm brands
List of aircraft weapons
List of battle ries
[1] Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Firearm"". Merriamwebster.com. 2012-08-31. Retrieved 2014-04-19.

[2]Firearm. American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4 ed.). Houghton Miin Company.
2000."Firearm. Collins English Dictionary Complete
and Unabridged. HarperCollins Publishers. 2003.
[3] US Federal Govt does not consider an air gun to be a
rearm and does not regulate them as rearms
[4] Helaine Selin (1 January 1997). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western
Cultures. Springer. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9.
Retrieved 30 July 2013.
[5] Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Merriam-Webster.
[6] Ho Peng Yoke (1 January 1997).Gunpowder. In Selin,
Helaine. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p.
389. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
[7] Smith, W.H.B., Small Arms of the World, seventh edition,
The Stackpole Company (1962): 3.
List of pistols
[8] Chase 2003:3132
List of shotguns
[9] Needham 1986:293294
List of sniper ries

List of submachine guns
World War I Firearms
List of infantry weapons of World War I
World War II Firearms
List of World War II rearms
List of common World War II infantry
weapons
List of secondary and special-issue World War
II infantry weapons
[10] Chase & 2003 pp32

[11] Roman Candle Gun. Scotwars.com. Archived from
the original on March 2, 2009.
[12]
"> Where Are You From?". Credo Reference. Retrieved
2014-04-19.
[13] Weir, William. 50 Weapons That Changed Warfare.
Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page, 2005. 71-74. Print.

[14] Saidel, Benjamin. ": Matchlocks, Flintlocks, and Saltpetre: The Chronological Implications for the Use of
Matchlock Muskets among Ottoman-Period Bedouin in
the Southern Levant.International Journal of Historical
Archaeology 4 (2000): 191-215. Print.

Sources
Chase, Kenneth (2003). Firearms: A Global History
to 1700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52182274-2.
Crosby, Alfred W. (2002). Throwing Fire: Projectile
Technology Through History. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-79158-8.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science & Civilisation in
China. 7 The Gunpowder Epic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30358-3.

Pyhrr, Stuart W. (1985). Firearms from the collections of the Prince of Liechtenstein. New
York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN
9780870994258.
145
Chapter 22
General-purpose machine gun

purpose machine gun (GPMG).* [2]* [3]* [4] In itself the
MG 34 was an excellent weapon: an air-cooled, recoiloperated machine gun that could run through belts of
7.92mm ammunition at a rate of 850 rounds per minute,
delivering killing repower at ranges of more than 1,000
meters.* [5]* [6] Yet simply by changing its mount and
feed mechanism, the operator could radically transform
its function. On its standard bipod it was a light machine
gun, ideal for infantry assaults; on a tripod it could serve
as a sustained-re medium machine gun; aircraft or vehicular mounts turned it into an air defence weapon; and
it also served as the coaxial machine gun on numerous
tanks.* [7]* [8]
During World War II, the MG 34 was superseded (although it remained in combat use) by a new GPMG - the
MG 42.* [9]* [10]* [11] The MG 42 was more ecient to
manufacture and more robust, and had a blistering 1,200RPM rate of re.* [12]* [13]* [14] Nicknamed 'Hitler's
buzzsaw' by Allied troops, it was arguably the nest allround GPMG ever produced, and alongside the MG 34 it
inicted heavy casualties on Allied soldiers on all European and North African fronts.* [15]* [16]* [17] Such were
its qualities of repower and usability that it became the
foundation of an entire series of postwar machine guns,
including the MG 1 and MG 3 - the latter is still in production and service to this day.* [18]* [19]* [20]* [21]
The MG-42 type general-purpose machine guns in both bipod
and tripod congurations
22.2 Notable post-WWII examples
A general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) is an aircooled, belt-fed weapon with a quick change barrel that
can be used in a variety of roles, from bipod- or tripodmounted infantry support, to deployment as a helicopter
door gun, or a vehicle-mounted support weapon.* [1]
Modern GPMGs re full-power rie cartridges such
as the 7.6251mm NATO, 7.6254mmR, 7.92x57mm
Mauser, etc.
22.1 History
With the MG 34, the German Wehrmacht introduced an
entirely new concept in automatic repower - the general146
German MG3, a direct descendant of the MG42, is

still in service with the German Army and others.
Belgian FN MAG, which copied the MG42's feedsystem and trigger-mechanism.* [22] It is the most
widely used GPMG among western armies.
American M60, which uses the MG42's feed-system
and stamp-steel construction.* [23] It has been replaced in U.S. service by the M240 itself an FN
MAG variant.
French AA-52, which more or less copies the MG42
feed-system.* [24] It has been largely phased out in
favour of the FN MAG and FN Minimi.
22.5. REFERENCES
Russian PK/PKM family of
machine-guns, widely exported.
147
multi-purpose
People's Republic of China, the Type 67 and later

improved models.
German Heckler & Koch HK21, based on the
Heckler & Koch G3 rie and widely exported
22.3 Gallery
MG34
MG42 top & StG 44 below
MG3 on display
IMI Negev and FN MAG GPMG
FN MAG GPMG
An M60 machine gun
AA-52
PKM general-purpose machine gun
The Type 67 on a tripod eld mount.
Belgian M240
Russian Pecheneg
HK21A1 general-purpose machine gun
22.4 See also

Light machine gun
Medium machine gun
Heavy machine gun
Squad automatic weapon
List of rearms
22.5 References
[1] http://www.army.mod.uk/equipment/support-weapons/
1463.aspx
[2] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 375
[3] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian
V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000.
page 326
[4] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris
Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 245
& 246
page 326
& 246
page 326
& 246
page 329
page 329
page 328 & 329
[18] MG 34 and MG 42 Machine Guns. by Chris McNab.
Published by Random House Publishing Group. Oct 23,
2012. Quote taken from leaf.
page 329
[22] Modern Firearms - FN MAG. World.guns.ru. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
[23] Weapons: An International Encyclopedia From 5000
B.C. To 2000 A.D. Diagram Visual, p. 217. ISBN 0312-03950-6.
[24] http://world.guns.ru/machine/fr/aat-mod52-e.html
Chapter 23
Grenade launcher
M79 grenade launcher
A grenade launcher or grenade discharger is a weapon

that launches a specially-designed grenade or a grenade
cartridge with more accuracy, higher velocity, and to
greater distances than a soldier could throw it by hand.
Grenade launchers can either come in the form of standalone weapons (either single-shot or repeating) or attachments mounted under the barrel of a rie. Some ries
have been designed to re rie grenades, either from their
muzzle or from a detachable muzzle-mounted launcher.
Larger grenade launchers, such as the Mk-19, may be
mounted on vehicles.
Today, most grenade launchers are man-portable,
shoulder-red weapons issued on a squad level, although
larger launchers are issued at the company or battalion
level. The most common grenade-round in use by NATO
is the 40 mm fragmentation grenade, which is eective
against a wide range of targets, including infantry and
lightly armored vehicles.* [1] The ability of the grenade
launcher to loft payloads in a high arc has resulted in many
specialtygrenades, such as less-lethal sponge grenades,
ares, and even a video camera that surveys the battleeld
Japanese soldier with the Type 89 discharger.
from a bird's-eye view.
The Japanese Army, noting that grenades were shortranged weapons, began eorts to optimize these weapons
for close-in infantry ghting. After studying the use
of grenades and mortars on the battleeld, the Japanese
23.1.1 Grenade discharger
Army developed hand grenades, rie grenades, and
The Type 10 grenade discharger ( Juu- grenade dischargers (small mortars) suited to warfare in
nen-shiki tekidant) and Type 89 grenade discharger ( typical short-range combat environments, such as urban,
Hachiky-shiki j-tekidant), colloquially trench, and jungle warfare.
known as a knee mortars by Allied forces, were Japanese As part of this eort, by 1932, the Japanese Army had
grenade launchers or light mortars that were widely used adopted a set of fragmentation grenades with almost uniin the Pacic Ocean theatre of World War II.
versal adaptability. The Type 91 fragmentation grenade
23.1 Types
148
23.1. TYPES
149
The disadvantage of this method is that when a soldier
wants to launch a grenade, he must mount the grenade
to the muzzle prior to each shot. If he is surprised by a
close-range threat while preparing to re the grenade, he
has to reverse the procedure before he can respond with
rie re. Rie grenades also tend to be more dicult
to re accurately compared to under-barrel or standalone
designs. The IMI Refaim represents an advancement in
technology as it uses an air-burst telescopic bullet trap
rie grenade with point detonation, time delay and selfdestruct functions. The grenade is launched by a standard rie bullet and the soldier can continue to engage
threats with rie re if he has the need.* [5] This is based
on the older SIMON breach grenade, which is a muzzlered grenade for breaching doors. The SIMON launches
using a bullet trap to capture a standard 5.56 bullet red
from an M4 carbine or M16.* [6]
Type 91 Fragmentation grenade with propellant base and time

fuse.
could be thrown by hand, red from a cup-type grenade

23.1.3
launcher (the Type 100),* [2] discharged by a lightweight
mortar-like grenade discharger.* [3] or tted with nned
tail-assembly and red from a spigot-type rie grenade
launcher.* [2]
23.1.2
Standalone
Muzzle-red
Royal Thai Army Volunteer Regiment soldier with M79 in Vietnam, 1967
The shoulder red 40mm grenade launcher can come in

the form of either a single-shot weapon or a repeating
weapon resembling a large revolver or pump-action shotMain article: Rie grenade
gun. Examples include the M79 (single-shot), Heckler &
Koch HK69A1 and the Milkor MGL (revolver). They ll
*
Many grenades have been designed to launch from a ri- the gap between the hand grenade and the mortar. [7]
e's muzzle, usually using either a special blank propel- Modern developments tend toward faster-ring grenades
lant cartridge, or more modernbullet trapandshoot with a smaller blast radius to reduce collateral damthroughtypes, which allow the grenade to be red usage. The XM25 CDTE is a shoulder-red, magazine-fed
ing live rounds.* [4] This system has two key advantages: semi-automatic launcher ring 25 mm projectiles. It was
the grenade can generally be made larger and more pow- originally a component of the XM29 Objective Individerful as compared to underbarrel or standalone weapons, ual Combat Weapon program, but modied to a larger
and the rie's weight and handling characteristics are not caliber. A 12 gauge grenade round called the Frag-12 has
also been developed for the Atchisson Assault Shotgun.
aected as with underbarrel systems.
Rie grenade on an M1 Garand
150
CHAPTER 23. GRENADE LAUNCHER
M203 grenade launcher attached to M16 assault rie.
The Mk 19 grenade launcher

GP-25 grenade launcher attached to AK-74 assault rie.
erally function as large-caliber machine guns with a relatively low rate of re, used from an emplaced position or
mounted on a vehicle or vessel in a similar way to a heavy
Since grenade launchers require relatively low internal machine gun.* [9]* [10]* [11]
pressure and only a short barrel, a lightweight launcher
can be mounted under the barrel of a traditional rie.
This reduces the weight the soldier must carry by elim- 23.2 See also
inating the grenade launcher's buttstock and makes the
grenade launcher available for use at a moment's notice.
Comparison of automatic grenade launchers
Underbarrel 40mm grenade launchers generally have
Hand mortar
their own trigger group; to re, one simply changes grips,
disengages the safety, and pulls the trigger. In Western
List of grenade launchers
systems, the barrel slides forward or pivots to the side
Recoilless rie
to allow reloading; most re a 4046mm grenade cartridge.* [8]
Rocket-propelled grenade
Soviet/Russian launchers are instead loaded from the
muzzle, with the cartridge casing axed to the projectile in the style of a mortar shell. For aiming, underbarrel 23.3 References
grenade launchers typically use a separate sight attached
to the rie's frame alongside the iron sights, or attach a [1] Zaloga, Steven (19 July 2011). HMMWV Humvee 1980ip-up sight directly to one of the rie's sights.
2005: US Army tactical vehicle. Osprey Publishing. p. 10.
23.1.4
Attached
Examples of modern underbarrel grenade launchers are

the M203, GP-30, AG36, FN40GL GP-25, the wz.
1974, the GL1, the M320 the Milkor 40mm UBGL
which mount to service ries.
A late development is the 3GL from Metal Storm. As
with most Metal Storm products, this weapon contains
three electrically ignited grenades stacked front-to-back
in a single tube to eliminate reloading.
23.1.5
Automatic
Main article: Automatic grenade launcher

An automatic grenade launcher or grenade machine gun
res rounds in quick succession from an ammunition belt
or large-capacity magazine. They can be attached to a
tripod. Automatic launchers include the Mk 19, Vektor
Y3, AGS-17, and the HK GMG, which all re at a higher
velocity than related shoulder-red grenades. They gen-
ISBN 978-1-84908-968-5.
[2] http://www.tekidanki.com/book/ Imperial Japanese
Grenade Ries and Launchers By Gregory A. Babich and
Thomas A. Keep
[3] George, John B. (LTC), Shots Fired In Anger, NRA Press
(1981), ISBN 0-935998-42-X, p. 343
[4] https://www.fbo.gov/index?s=opportunity&mode=
form&id=a0e2f0e52cfbd2e696b608d30fb6260f&tab=
core&tabmode=list&print_preview=1
[5] REFAIM Advanced Infantry Weapon System Israel Military Industries (Israel)". Defense Update. 2004.
[6] SIMON. Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd.
[7] Rottman, Gordon (18 September 2012). US Army Infantryman in Vietnam 1965-73. Osprey Publishing. p.
57. ISBN 978-1-78200-468-4.
[8] Clancy, Tom (1996). Marine: A Guided Tour of a Marine
Expeditionary Unit. Berkley Books. pp. 8687. ISBN
978-0-425-15454-0.
[9] Tucker, Spencer C. (20 May 2011). The Encyclopedia of

the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History.
ABC-CLIO. p. 431. ISBN 978-1-85109-961-0.
[10] Blasko, Dennis J. (17 June 2013). The Chinese Army Today: Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century.
Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-136-51997-0.
[11] Usa, Ibp (30 March 2009). Us Future Combat & Weapon
Systems Handbook. Int'l Business Publications. p. 265.
ISBN 978-1-4387-5447-5.
23.4 External links

Modern Firearms & Ammunition grenade launcher
intro
MF&A page on the AICW
151
Chapter 24
Heavy machine gun

some to move quickly, as well as requiring a crew of several soldiers to operate them. Thus, in this sense, the
heavyaspect of the weapon referred to the weapon's
bulk and ability to sustain re, not the cartridge caliber.
This class of weapons was best exemplied by the Maxim
gun, invented by the American inventor Hiram Maxim,
who had traveled to England to market his design and
became a British subject in 1900. The Maxim was the
most ubiquitous machine gun of World War I, variants of
which were elded simultaneously by three separate warring nations (Germany with the MG 08, Britain with the
Vickers, and Russia with the PM M1910).
The M2 Browning machine gun with a tripod weighs 58 kg (128
lb).
The heavy machine gun or HMG is a class of machine

gun implying greater characteristics than medium machine guns.
There are two generally recognized classes of weapons
identied as heavy machine guns. The rst is weapons
from World War I identied asheavydue to the weight
and encumberment of the weapons themselves. The second is large-caliber (generally .50 or 12.7mm) machine
guns, pioneered by John Moses Browning with the M2
machine gun, designed to provide increased range, penetration and destructive power against vehicles, buildings,
aircraft and light fortications beyond the standard rie calibers used in medium or general-purpose machine
guns, or the intermediate cartridges used in light machine
guns.
24.1 Classication
The term was originally used to refer to the generation
of machine guns which came into widespread use in
World War I. These red standard rie cartridges such
as the 7.92 Mauser, .303 British or 7.6254mmR, but
featured heavy construction, elaborate mountings, and
water-cooling mechanisms that enabled long-range sustained automatic re with excellent accuracy. However,
these advantages came at the cost of being too cumber-
The modern denition refers to a class of large-caliber

(generally .50 or 12.7mm) machine guns, pioneered by
John Moses Browning with the M2 machine gun. These
weapons are designed to provide increased range, penetration and destructive power against vehicles, buildings,
aircraft and light fortications beyond the standard rie calibers used in medium or general-purpose machine
guns, or the intermediate cartridges used in light machine
guns. In this sense, the heavyaspect of the weapon
refers to its superior power and range over light- and
medium-caliber weapons, in addition to its weight. This
class of machine gun came into widespread use during
World War II, when the M2 was used widely in fortications, on vehicles and in aircraft by American forces. A
similar HMG capacity was later elded by the Soviets in
the form of Vasily Degtyaryov's DShK in 12.7x108mm.
The ubiquitous German MG42 general-purpose machine
gun, though well-suited against infantry, lacked the M2's
anti-fortication and anti-vehicle capability, a fact that
was noted and lamented by the Germans. The continued
need for a longer-range machine gun with anti-materiel
capability to bridge the gap between exclusively antiinfantry weapons and exclusively anti-materiel weapons
has led to the widespread adoption and modernization of
the class, and most nations' armed forces are equipped
with some type of HMG.
Currently, rearms with calibers smaller than 12.7 mm
are generally considered medium or light machine guns,
while those larger than 15.24 mm are generally classied
as autocannons instead of heavy machine guns.
152
24.3. VARIOUS DESIGNS
153
24.2 History
In the late 19th century, Gatling guns and other externally
powered types such as the Nordenfelt were often made in
a variety of calibers, such as 0.5-inch and 1-inch. Due to
their multiple barrels, overheating was not so much of an
issue, but they were also quite heavy.
When Maxim developed his recoil-powered machine gun
using a single barrel, his rst main design weighed a modest 26 pounds (11.8 kg) and red a .45-inch rie-caliber
bullet from a 24-inch barrel. A famous photo of Maxim
showed him picking it up by its 15-pound tripod (6.8 kg)
with one arm. It was similar to present-day medium machine guns, but it could not be red for extended periods
due to overheating. As a result, Maxim created a water
jacket cooling system to enable it to re for extended periods. However, this added signicant weight, as did the
change to more powerful rie cartridges.
MG 08 system (7.92 mm) and crew circa 1931.
hours, given sucient ammunition, replacement barrels

and cooling water. Carefully positioned heavy machine
guns could stop an attacking force before they reached
There were thus two main types of heavy, rapid-re their objectives.
weapons: the manually powered, multiple-barrel machine guns and the single-barrel Maxim guns. By the end
of the 19th century, many new designs such as the M1895 24.3.1 Light machine guns
Colt-Browning and Hotchkiss were developed, powered
by gas operation or recoil operation. Also, rather than the However, during the same period a number of lighter and
heavy water jacket, new designs introduced other types more portable air-cooled designs were developed weighof barrel cooling, such as barrel replacement, metal ns, ing less than 30 lbs (15 kg). In World War I they were to
be as important as the heavier designs, and were used to
heat sinks or some combination of these.
support infantry on the attack, on aircraft, and on many
types of vehicles.
24.3 Various designs
The lightest of the new designs were not capable of sustained automatic re, as they did not have water jackets
and were fed from comparatively small magazines. Essentially machine ries with a bipod, weapons like the
Lewis Gun, Chauchat and the Madsen were portable by
one soldier, but were made for single and burst re.
24.3.2 Medium models
Wheeled mounted DShK heavy machine gun.
Machine guns diverged into heavier and lighter designs.

The later model water-cooled Maxim guns and its derivatives the MG 08 and the Vickers, as well as the American M1917 Browning machine gun, were all substantial
weapons. The .303 Vickers, for example, weighed 33 lb
(15 kg) and was mounted on a tripod that brought the total
weight to 50 lb (23 kg). The heavier designs could, and in
some cases did, re for days on end, mainly in xed defensive positions to repel infantry attacks. These machine
guns were typically mounted on tripods and were watercooled, and a well-trained crew could re nonstop for
The medium designs oered greater exibility, either being tted with a bipod in the light machine gun role, or
on a tripod or other weapon mount as medium machine
guns. An example was the Hotchkiss M1909 machine
gun weighing 27.6 lb (12.2 kg) tted with a mini-tripod
and using linkable 30-round ammunition strips, but there
was also a belt-fed version.
This type of multipurpose machine gun would be further developed, and later given names such as universal machine gun, and later "general-purpose machine
gun", and would eventually supplant the water-cooled designs. These later designs used quick-change barrel replacement to reduce overheating, which further reduced
the weapon's weight, but at the cost of increasing the soldier's load due to the extra barrels. Some earlier designs
like the Vickers had this feature, but it was mainly for
barrel wear, as they normally used water cooling. It was
in the 1920s and 1930s that quick barrel replacement for
154
cooling purposes became more popular in weapons such
as the ZB vz. 30, the Bren, the MG34 and the MG42.
CHAPTER 24. HEAVY MACHINE GUN
24.6 External links

Heavy Machine Guns at World Guns
Heavy Machine Guns used in WWI and WWII
US .50 caliber heavy machine gun developments Browning M2,

Browning M2E2 Quick Change Barrel, XM806 Lightweight .50
Caliber Machine Gun (LW50)
24.4 World War II and later

The heavier designs continued to be used throughout
WWII and into the 1960s, but were gradually phased
out in favor of air-cooled designs. The mediums were
now used both as medium machine guns while mounted
on tripods and as light machine guns while mounted on
bipods. This was possible in part because a heavy, static
MG position was not a very eective tactic in vehiclecentered warfare, and the signicantly lighter air-cooled
designs could nearly match the capabilities of the watercooled versions.
Gatling-type machine guns such as the Minigun and
GShG-7.62 reappeared after WWII. These are typically
mounted on ships and helicopters because of their weight
and large ammunition requirements (due to their extremely high rate of re.) The need for sustained automatic re on the ground, however, is now nearly entirely
lled by air-cooled medium machine guns.
24.5 See also

Light machine gun
Medium machine gun
Machine gun
List of rearms
List of machine guns
List of multiple barrel machine guns
Chapter 25
Helicopter
Helicoptersredirects here.
For other uses, see early as 1907 in France, and other types of multicopter
Helicopter (disambiguation).
have been developed for specialized applications such as
A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and unmanned drones.
25.1 History
25.1.1 Early design
See also: Bamboo-copter and Science and inventions of
Leonardo da Vinci
The earliest references for vertical ight have come
A police department Bell 206 helicopter
thrust are supplied by rotors. This allows the helicopter

to take o and land vertically, to hover, and to y forward, backward, and laterally. These attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where
xed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL (vertical
takeo and landing) aircraft cannot perform.
The word helicopter is adapted from the French language
hlicoptre, coined by Gustave Ponton d'Amcourt in
1861, which originates from the Greek helix () heA decorated Japanese taketombo bamboo-copter
lix, spiral, whirl, convolution* [1] and pteron ()
*
*
*
*
wing. [2] [3] [4] [5] English-language nicknames for
from China. Since around 400 BC,* [8] Chinese children
helicopter includechopper,copter,helo,heli
have played with bamboo ying toys.* [9]* [10]* [11] This
, and whirlybird.
bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a roHelicopters were developed and built during the rst half- tor. The spinning creates lift, and the toy ies when recentury of ight, with the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 being the leased.* [8] The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by
rst operational helicopter in 1936. Some helicopters Ge Hong (Master who Embraces Simplicity)
reached limited production, but it was not until 1942 that reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary
a helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky reached full-scale wing aircraft.* [12]
production,* [6] with 131 aircraft built.* [7] Though most
earlier designs used more than one main rotor, it is the This Chinese helicopter toy was introduced into Euappeared in Renaissance paintings and other
single main rotor with anti-torque tail rotor conguration rope and
*
*
[11]
[13]* [14] Early Western scientists develworks.
that has become the most common helicopter congumachines based on the original Chinese
ration. Tandem rotor helicopters are also in widespread oped ying
*
*
[15]
[16]
model.
use due to their greater payload capacity. Coaxial helicopters, tiltrotor aircraft, and compound helicopters are It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci
all ying today. Quadcopter helicopters pioneered as created a design for a machine that could be described as
155
156
CHAPTER 25. HELICOPTER
Leonardo's aerial screw
an aerial screw, that any recorded advancement was

made towards vertical ight. His notes suggested that he
built small ying models, but there were no indications for
any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate.* [17]* [18] As scientic knowledge increased and became more accepted, men continued to pursue the idea of
vertical ight. Many of these later models and machines
would more closely resemble the ancient bamboo ying
Prototype created by M. Lomonosov, 1754
top with spinning wings, rather than Leonardo's screw.
In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but
powered by wound-up spring device * [16] and demonstrated it to the Russian Academy of Sciences. It was
powered by a spring and suggested as a method to
lift meteorological instruments. In 1783, Christian de
Launoy, and his mechanic, Bienvenu, used a coaxial version of Chinese top in a model consisting of a contrarotating of turkey ight feathers * [16] as rotor blades, and
in 1784, demonstrated it to the French Academy of Sciences. Sir George Cayley, inuenced by a childhood fascination with the Chinese ying top, grew up to develop
a model of feathers, similar to Launoy and Bienvenu, but
powered by rubber bands. By the end of the century, he
had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and
springs for power. His writings on his experiments and
models would become inuential on future aviation pioneers.* [17] Alphonse Pnaud would later develop coaxial rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, also powered by
rubber bands. One of these toys, given as a gift by their
father, would inspire the Wright brothers to pursue the
dream of ight.* [19]
In 1861, the wordhelicopterwas coined by Gustave de
Ponton d'Amcourt, a French inventor who demonstrated
a small, steam-powered model. While celebrated as an innovative use of a new metal, aluminum, the model never
lifted o the ground. D'Amecourt's linguistic contribution would survive to eventually describe the vertical ight
he had envisioned. Steam power was popular with other
inventors as well. In 1878 the Italian Enrico Forlanini's
unmanned vehicle that was also powered by a steam engine, was the rst of its type that rose to a height of 12
meters (40 ft), where it hovered for some 20 seconds after

a vertical take-o. Emmanuel Dieuaide's steam-powered
design featured counter-rotating rotors powered through
a hose from a boiler on the ground.* [17]
In 1885, Thomas Edison was given US$1,000 by James
Gordon Bennett, Jr., to conduct experiments towards developing ight. Edison built a helicopter and used the
paper for a stock ticker to create guncotton, with which
he attempted to power an internal combustion engine.
The helicopter was damaged by explosions and one of
his workers was badly burned. Edison reported that it
would take a motor with a ratio of three to four pounds
per horsepower produced to be successful, based on his
experiments.* [20] Jn Bah, a Slovak inventor, adapted
the internal combustion engine to power his helicopter
model that reached a height of 0.5 meters (1.6 ft) in 1901.
On 5 May 1905, his helicopter reached four meters (13 ft)
in altitude and ew for over 1,500 meters (4,900 ft).* [21]
In 1908, Edison patented his own design for a helicopter
powered by a gasoline engine with box kites attached to
a mast by cables for a rotor, but it never ew.* [22]
25.1.2 First ights

In 1906, two French brothers, Jacques and Louis Breguet,
began experimenting with airfoils for helicopters. In
1907, those experiments resulted in the Gyroplane No.1,
possibly as the earliest known example of a quadcopter.
Although there is some uncertainty about the date, sometime between 14 August and 29 September 1907, the Gy-
25.1. HISTORY
roplane No. 1 lifted its pilot into the air about two feet
(0.6 m) for a minute.* [6] The Gyroplane No. 1 proved
to be extremely unsteady and required a man at each corner of the airframe to hold it steady. For this reason, the
ights of the Gyroplane No. 1 are considered to be the
rst manned ight of a helicopter, but not a free or untethered ight.
157
Castelluccio, while working in Europe, demonstrated one
of the rst successful applications of cyclic pitch.* [6]
Coaxial, contra-rotating, biplane rotors could be warped
to cyclically increase and decrease the lift they produced.
The rotor hub could also be tilted forward a few degrees,
allowing the aircraft to move forward without a separate
propeller to push or pull it. Pateras-Pescara was also able
to demonstrate the principle of autorotation. By January
1924, Pescara's helicopter No. 1 was tested but was found
to be underpowered and could not lift its own weight. His
2F fared better and set a record.* [24] The British government funded further research by Pescara which resulted
in helicopter No. 3, powered by a 250 hp radial engine
which could y for up to ten minutes.* [25]* [26]
Paul Cornu's helicopter in 1907
That same year, fellow French inventor Paul Cornu designed and built a Cornu helicopter that used two 20-foot
(6 m) counter-rotating rotors driven by a 24 hp (18 kW)
Antoinette engine. On 13 November 1907, it lifted its
inventor to 1 foot (0.3 m) and remained aloft for 20 seconds. Even though this ight did not surpass the ight
of the Gyroplane No. 1, it was reported to be the rst
truly free ight with a pilot.* [n 1] Cornu's helicopter completed a few more ights and achieved a height of nearly Oehmichen N2, 1923
6.5 feet (2 m), but it proved to be unstable and was abandoned.* [6]
On 14 April 1924 Frenchman tienne Oehmichen set the
The Danish inventor Jacob Ellehammer built the rst helicopter world record recognized by the Fdration
ying his quadrotor
Ellehammer helicopter in 1912. It consisted of a frame Aronautique Internationale (FAI),
*
helicopter
360
meters
(1,181
ft).
[27]
On 18 April 1924,
equipped with two counter-rotating discs, each of which
Pescara
beat
Oemichen's
record,
ying
for a distance of
was tted with six vanes around its circumference. After
*
736
meters
[24]
(nearly
a
half
mile)
in
4
minutes and 11
indoor tests, the aircraft was demonstrated outdoors and
seconds
(about
8
mph,
13
km/h),
maintaining
a height of
made several free take-os. Experiments with the heli*
six
feet
(1.8
meters).
[28]
On
4
May,
Oehmichen
set the
copter continued until September 1916, when it tipped
rst
1
km
closed-circuit
helicopter
ight
in
7
minutes
40
over during take-o, destroying its rotors.* [23]
seconds with his No. 2 machine.* [6]* [29]
25.1.3
Early development
In the USA, George de Bothezat built the quadrotor helicopter de Bothezat helicopter for the United States Army
Air Service but the Army cancelled the program in 1924,
and the aircraft was scrapped.
Albert Gillis von Baumhauer, a Dutch aeronautical engineer, began studying rotorcraft design in 1923. His rst
prototype ew(hoppedand hovered in reality)
on 24 September 1925, with Dutch Army-Air arm Captain Floris Albert van Heijst at the controls. The controls
that Captain van Heijst used were Von Baumhauer's inventions, the cyclic and collective. Patents were granted
to von Baumhauer for his cyclic and collective controls
by the British ministry of aviation on 31 January 1927,
under patent number 265,272.
Arthur M. Young, American inventor, started work on

model helicopters in 1928 using converted electric hover
motors to drive the rotor head. Young invented the staSilent lm of a test ight of Pescara's helicopter, 1922. EYE Film bilizer bar and patented it shortly after. A mutual friend
introduced Young to Lawrence Dale, who once seeing his
Institute Netherlands.
work asked him to join the Bell Aircraft company. When
In the early 1920s, Argentine Ral Pateras-Pescara de Young arrived at Bell he signed his patent over and began
158
work on the helicopter. His budget was US$250,000 to

build 2 working helicopters. In just 6 months they completed the rst Bell Model 1, which spawned the Bell 30,
later succeeded by the Bell 47.
year, on 26 September 1936, Claisse set a height record

of 158 meters (520 ft).* [38] And, nally, on 24 November 1936, he set a ight duration record of one hour, two
minutes and 50 seconds* [39] over a 44 kilometer (27 mi)
In 1928, Hungarian aviation engineer Oszkr Asbth closed circuit at 44.7 kilometers per hour (27.8 mph).
constructed a helicopter prototype that took o and The aircraft was destroyed in 1943 by an Allied airstrike
landed at least 182 times, with a maximum single ight at Villacoublay airport.
duration of 53 minutes.* [30]* [31]
In 1930, the Italian engineer Corradino D'Ascanio built 25.1.4 Autogyro
his D'AT3, a coaxial helicopter. His relatively large machine had two, two-bladed, counter-rotating rotors. Con- Main article: Autogyro
trol was achieved by using auxiliary wings or servo-tabs Early rotor winged ight suered failures primarily ason the trailing edges of the blades,* [32] a concept that
was later adopted by other helicopter designers, including Bleeker and Kaman. Three small propellers mounted
to the airframe were used for additional pitch, roll, and
yaw control. The D'AT3 held modest FAI speed and altitude records for the time, including altitude (18 m or 59
ft), duration (8 minutes 45 seconds) and distance own
(1,078 m or 3,540 ft).* [32]* [33]
In the Soviet Union, Boris N. Yuriev and Alexei M.
Cheremukhin, two aeronautical engineers working at the
Tsentralniy Aerogidrodinamicheskiy Institut (TsAGI, the
Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute), constructed and
ew the TsAGI 1-EA single rotor helicopter, which used
an open tubing framework, a four-blade main rotor, and
twin sets of 1.8-meter (6-foot) diameter, two-bladed antitorque rotors: one set of two at the nose and one set of two
at the tail. Powered by two M-2 powerplants, up-rated
copies of the Gnome Monosoupape 9 Type B-2 100 CV
output rotary radial engine of World War I, the TsAGI
1-EA made several low altitude ights.* [34] By 14 August 1932, Cheremukhin managed to get the 1-EA up to
an unocial altitude of 605 meters (1,985 ft), shattering
d'Ascanio's earlier achievement. As the Soviet Union was
not yet a member of the FAI, however, Cheremukhin's
record remained unrecognized.* [35]
Nicolas Florine, a Russian engineer, built the rst twin
tandem rotor machine to perform a free ight. It ew in
Sint-Genesius-Rode, at the Laboratoire Arotechnique de
Belgique (now von Karman Institute) in April 1933, and
attained an altitude of six meters (20 ft) and an endurance
of eight minutes. Florine chose a co-rotating conguration because the gyroscopic stability of the rotors would
not cancel. Therefore the rotors had to be tilted slightly in
opposite directions to counter torque. Using hingeless rotors and co-rotation also minimised the stress on the hull.
At the time, it was one of the most stable helicopters in
existence.* [36]
The Brguet-Dorand Gyroplane Laboratoire was built in
1933. It was a coaxial helicopter, contra-rotating. After many ground tests and an accident, it rst took ight
on 26 June 1935. Within a short time, the aircraft was
setting records with pilot Maurice Claisse at the controls.
On 14 December 1935, he set a record for closed-circuit
ight with a 500-meter (1,600 ft) diameter.* [37] The next
Pitcairn PCA-2 autogyro, built in the U.S. under licence to the

Cierva Autogiro Company
sociated with the unbalanced rolling movement generated

when attempting take-o, due to dissymmetry of lift between the advancing and retreating blades. This major
diculty was resolved by Juan de la Cierva's introduction
of the apping hinge. In 1923, de la Cierva's rst successful autogyro was own in Spain by Lt. Gomez Spencer.
In 1925 he brought his C.6 to Britain and demonstrated
it to the Air Ministry at Farnborough, Hampshire. This
machine had a four blade rotor with apping hinges but
relied upon conventional airplane controls for pitch, roll
and yaw. It was based upon an Avro 504K fuselage, initial
rotation of the rotor was achieved by the rapid uncoiling
of a rope passed around stops on the undersides of the
blades.
A major problem with the autogyro was driving the rotor before takeo. Several methods were attempted in
addition to the coiled rope system, which could take the
rotor speed to 50% of that required, at which point movement along the ground to reach ying speed was necessary, while tilting the rotor to establish autorotation. Another approach was to tilt the tail stabiliser to deect engine slipstream up through the rotor. The most acceptable
solution was nally achieved with the C.19 Mk.4, which
was produced in some quantities; a direct drive from the
engine to the rotor was tted, through which the rotor
could be accelerated up to speed. The system was then
declutched before the take-o run.
As de la Cierva's autogyros achieved success and accep-
25.1. HISTORY
159
tance, others began to follow and with them came further

innovation. Most important was the development of direct rotor control through cyclic pitch variation, achieved
initially by tilting the rotor hub and subsequently by the
Austrian engineer Raoul Hafner, by the application of
a spider mechanism that acted directly on each rotor
blade. The rst production direct control autogyro was
the C.30, produced in quantity by Avro, Liore et Olivier,
and Focke-Wulf.
The production model, called the C.30A by Avro, was
built under licence in Britain, France and Germany and
was similar to the C.30P. It carried small movable trimming surfaces. Each licensee used nationally built engines
and used slightly dierent names. In all, 143 production First airmail service by helicopter in Los Angeles, 1947
C.30s were built, making it by far the most numerous prewar autogyro.
Between 1933 and 1936, de la Cierva used one C.30A
(G-ACWF) to perfect his last contribution to autogyro development before his death in late 1936.* [40] To enable
the aircraft to take o without forward ground travel, he
produced theAutodynamicrotor head, which allowed
the rotor to be spun up by the engine in the usual way but
to higher than take-o r.p.m at zero rotor incidence and
then to reach operational positive pitch suddenly enough
to jump some 20 ft (6 m) upwards.* [41]
25.1.5
Birth of an industry
Igor Sikorsky and the world's rst mass-produced helicopter, the

Sikorsky R-4, 1944
Heinrich Focke at Focke-Wulf was licensed to produce

the Cierva C.30 autogyro in 1933. Focke designed the
world's rst practical transverse twin-rotor helicopter, the
Focke-Wulf Fw 61, which rst ew on 26 June 1936. The
Fw 61 broke all of the helicopter world records in 1937,
demonstrating a ight envelope that had only previously
been achieved by the autogyro. Nazi Germany used helicopters in small numbers during World War II for observation, transport, and medical evacuation. The Flettner
Fl 282 Kolibri synchropter using the same basic conguration as Anton Flettner's own pioneering Fl 265
was used in the Mediterranean, while the Focke Achgelis

Fa 223 Drache twin-rotor helicopter was used in Europe.
Extensive bombing by the Allied forces prevented Germany from producing any helicopters in large quantities
during the war.
In the United States, Russian-born engineer Igor Sikorsky
and W. Lawrence LePage competed to produce the U.S.
military's rst helicopter. LePage received the patent
rights to develop helicopters patterned after the Fw 61,
and built the XR-1.* [42] Meanwhile, Sikorsky settled on
a simpler, single rotor design, the VS-300, which turned
out to be the rst practical single lifting-rotor helicopter
design and potentially the best-ying one since the Soviet
TsAGI 1-EA, which had own nearly a decade before.
After experimenting with congurations to counteract the
torque produced by the single main rotor, Sikorsky settled
on a single, smaller rotor mounted on the tailboom.
Developed from the VS-300, Sikorsky's R-4 was the rst
large-scale mass-produced helicopter, with a production
order for 100 aircraft. The R-4 was the only Allied helicopter to serve in World War II, when it was used primarily for rescue in Burma, Alaska, and other areas with
harsh terrain. Total production reached 131 helicopters
before the R-4 was replaced by other Sikorsky helicopters
such as the R-5 and the R-6. In all, Sikorsky produced
over 400 helicopters before the end of World War II.* [43]
While LePage and Sikorsky built their helicopters for the
military, Bell Aircraft hired Arthur Young to help build
a helicopter using Young's two-blade teetering rotor design, which used a weighted stabilizing bar placed at a
90 angle to the rotor blades. The subsequent Model 30
helicopter showed the design's simplicity and ease of use.
The Model 30 was developed into the Bell 47, which became the rst helicopter certied for civilian use in the
United States. Produced in several countries, the Bell
47 was the most popular helicopter model for nearly 30
years.
160
25.1.6
Turbine age
Bell 205 dropping water on re
Main articles: Gas turbine and turboshaft
HH-65 Dolphin demonstrating hoist rescue capability
In 1951, at the urging of his contacts at the Department of the Navy, Charles Kaman modied his K-225
synchropter a design for a twin-rotor helicopter concept rst pioneered by Anton Flettner in 1939, with the
aforementioned Fl 265 piston-engined design in Germany with a new kind of engine, the turboshaft engine. This adaptation of the turbine engine provided a
large amount of power to Kaman's helicopter with a lower
weight penalty than piston engines, with their heavy engine blocks and auxiliary components. On 11 December 1951, the Kaman K-225 became the rst turbinepowered helicopter in the world. Two years later, on
26 March 1954, a modied Navy HTK-1, another Kaman helicopter, became the rst twin-turbine helicopter
to y.* [44] However, it was the Sud Aviation Alouette
II that would become the rst helicopter to be produced
with a turbine-engine.* [45]
A Spanish Maritime Safety Agency AW139SAR

rescue helicopter
Reliable helicopters capable of stable hover ight were

developed decades after xed-wing aircraft. This is
largely due to higher engine power density requirements
than xed-wing aircraft. Improvements in fuels and engines during the rst half of the 20th century were a critical factor in helicopter development. The availability of
lightweight turboshaft engines in the second half of the
20th century led to the development of larger, faster, and
higher-performance helicopters. While smaller and less
expensive helicopters still use piston engines, turboshaft
engines are the preferred powerplant for helicopters today.
25.2 Uses
Due to the operating characteristics of the helicopterits
ability to take o and land vertically, and to hover for extended periods of time, as well as the aircraft's handling
properties under low airspeed conditions it has been
chosen to conduct tasks that were previously not possible
with other aircraft, or were time- or work-intensive to accomplish on the ground. Today, helicopter uses include
transportation of people and cargo, military uses, construction, reghting, search and rescue, tourism, medical transport, law enforcement, agriculture, news and media, and aerial observation, among others.* [46]
Sikorsky S-76C+ air ambulance

An Eurocopter EC145 of the Swiss Air-Rescue
(REGA)
A Ukrainian Naval Aviation Ka-27 preparing for
take o from the USS Taylor
Search and rescue training in Estonia with Mil Mi-8
A helicopter used to carry loads connected to long cables
or slings is called an aerial crane. Aerial cranes are used
to place heavy equipment, like radio transmission towers
and large air conditioning units, on the tops of tall buildings, or when an item must be raised up in a remote area,
such as a radio tower raised on the top of a hill or mountain. Helicopters are used as aerial cranes in the logging
industry to lift trees out of terrain where vehicles cannot travel and where environmental concerns prohibit the
building of roads.* [47] These operations are referred to
as longline because of the long, single sling line used to
carry the load.* [48]
The largest single non-combat helicopter operation in history was the disaster management operation following
the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Hundreds of pilots
were involved in airdrop and observation missions, making dozens of sorties a day for several months.
Helitack is the use of helicopters to combat wildland
res.* [49] The helicopters are used for aerial reghting (or water bombing) and may be tted with tanks
or carry helibuckets. Helibuckets, such as the Bambi
bucket, are usually lled by submerging the bucket into
lakes, rivers, reservoirs, or portable tanks. Tanks tted
onto helicopters are lled from a hose while the helicopter is on the ground or water is siphoned from lakes
or reservoirs through a hanging snorkel as the helicopter
hovers over the water source. Helitack helicopters are
also used to deliver reghters, who rappel down to inaccessible areas, and to resupply reghters. Common
reghting helicopters include variants of the Bell 205
and the Erickson S-64 Aircrane helitanker.
Helicopters are used as air ambulances for emergency

medical assistance in situations when an ambulance canA United States Navy Sikorsky HO3S-1 in action
not easily or quickly reach the scene, or cannot transport
during the Korean War (1950-1953)
the patient to a medical facility in time. Helicopters are
also used when a patient needs to be transported between
Sikorsky S-64 Skycrane lifting a prefab house
medical facilities and air transportation is the most practical method for the safety of the patient. Air ambulance
AgustaWestland Apache attack helicopter
helicopters are equipped to provide medical treatment to
Harbin Z-19 reconnaissance/attack helicopter
a patient while in ight. The use of helicopters as air
25.3. DESIGN FEATURES
161
ambulances is often referred to as MEDEVAC, and patients are referred to as being airlifted, or medevaced. This use was pioneered in the Korean war, when
time to reach a medical facility was reduced to 3 hours
from 8 hours in World War II, and again to 2 hours by
the Vietnam war.* [50]
Police departments and other law enforcement agencies
use helicopters to pursue suspects. Since helicopters can
achieve a unique aerial view, they are often used in conjunction with police on the ground to report on suspects'
locations and movements. They are often mounted with
lighting and heat-sensing equipment for night pursuits.
Military forces use attack helicopters to conduct aerial attacks on ground targets. Such helicopters are mounted
with missile launchers and miniguns. Transport helicopters are used to ferry troops and supplies where the
lack of an airstrip would make transport via xed-wing
aircraft impossible. The use of transport helicopters
to deliver troops as an attack force on an objective is
referred to as Air Assault. Unmanned Aerial Systems
(UAS) helicopter systems of varying sizes are being developed by companies for military reconnaissance and
surveillance duties. Naval forces also use helicopters
equipped with dipping sonar for anti-submarine warfare,
since they can operate from small ships.
A teetering rotor system
from the main rotors. The rotor consists of a mast, hub

and rotor blades.
The mast is a cylindrical metal shaft that extends upwards

from the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the hub. The rotor
blades are attached to the hub. Main rotor systems are
classied according to how the rotor blades are attached
and move relative to the hub. There are three basic types:
hingeless, fully articulated, and teetering; although some
Oil companies charter helicopters to move workers and modern rotor systems use a combination of these.
parts quickly to remote drilling sites located out to sea
or in remote locations. The speed over boats makes the
high operating cost of helicopters cost eective to ensure 25.3.2 Anti-torque features
that oil platforms continue to ow. Various companies
specialize in this type of operation.
Other uses of helicopters include, but are not limited to:
Aerial photography
Motion picture photography
Electronic news gathering
Reection seismology
Search and Rescue
Tourism or recreation
Transport
MD Helicopters 520N NOTAR
25.3 Design features

25.3.1
Rotor system
Main article: Helicopter rotor

The rotor system, or more simply rotor, is the rotating
part of a helicopter that generates lift. A rotor system may
be mounted horizontally, as main rotors are, providing
lift vertically, or it may be mounted vertically, such as a
tail rotor, to provide horizontal thrust to counteract torque
Most helicopters have a single main rotor, but torque created as the engine turns the rotor causes the body of the
helicopter to turn in the opposite direction to the rotor (by
conservation of angular momentum). To eliminate this
eect, some sort of anti-torque control must be used.
The design that Igor Sikorsky settled on for his VS-300
was a smaller tail rotor. The tail rotor pushes or pulls
against the tail to counter the torque eect, and this has
become the most common conguration for helicopter
design.
162
Some helicopters use other anti-torque controls instead 25.3.3 Engines

of the tail rotor, such as the ducted fan (called Fenestron
or FANTAIL) and NOTAR. NOTAR provides anti-torque
similar to the way a wing develops lift through the use of Main articles: Aircraft engine and Turboshaft
the Coand eect on the tailboom.* [51]
The number, size and type of engine(s) used on a helicopter determines the size, function and capability of that
helicopter design. The earliest helicopter engines were
simple mechanical devices, such as rubber bands or spindles, which relegated the size of helicopters to toys and
small models. For a half century before the rst airplane
ight, steam engines were used to forward the development of the understanding of helicopter aerodynamics,
but the limited power did not allow for manned ight. The
introduction of the internal combustion engine at the end
of the 19th century became the watershed for helicopter
development as engines began to be developed and produced that were powerful enough to allow for helicopters
able to lift humans.
Boeing CH-47 Chinook is the most common dual rotor helicopter
deployed today
The use of two or more horizontal rotors turning in opposite directions is another conguration used to counteract
the eects of torque on the aircraft without relying on an
anti-torque tail rotor. This allows the power normally required to drive the tail rotor to be applied to the main
rotors, increasing the aircraft's lifting capacity. There
are several common congurations that use the counterrotating eect to benet the rotorcraft:
Early helicopter designs utilized custom-built engines or

rotary engines designed for airplanes, but these were soon
replaced by more powerful automobile engines and radial
engines. The single, most-limiting factor of helicopter
development during the rst half of the 20th century was
that the amount of power produced by an engine was not
able to overcome the engine's weight in vertical ight.
This was overcome in early successful helicopters by using the smallest engines available. When the compact,
at engine was developed, the helicopter industry found
a lighter-weight powerplant easily adapted to small helicopters, although radial engines continued to be used for
larger helicopters.
Turbine engines revolutionized the aviation industry, and

Tandem rotors are two counter-rotating rotors with the turboshaft engine nally gave helicopters an engine
one mounted behind the other.
with a large amount of power and a low weight penalty.
Turboshafts are also more reliable than piston engines,
Coaxial rotors are two counter-rotating rotors especially when producing the sustained high levels of
mounted one above the other with the same axis.
power required by a helicopter. The turboshaft engine
was able to be scaled to the size of the helicopter being
Intermeshing rotors are two counter-rotating rotors designed, so that all but the lightest of helicopter models
mounted close to each other at a sucient angle to are powered by turbine engines today.
let the rotors intermesh over the top of the aircraft Special jet engines developed to drive the rotor from the
without colliding.
rotor tips are referred to as tip jets. Tip jets powered
Transverse rotors are pair of counter-rotating rotors
mounted at each end of the wings or outrigger structures. They are found on tiltrotors and some earlier
helicopters.
by a remote compressor are referred to as cold tip jets,

while those powered by combustion exhaust are referred
to as hot tip jets. An example of a cold jet helicopter is
the Sud-Ouest Djinn, and an example of the hot tip jet
helicopter is the YH-32 Hornet.
Some radio-controlled helicopters and smaller,

helicopter-type unmanned aerial vehicles, use electric
motors. Radio-controlled helicopters may also have
piston engines that use fuels other than gasoline, such
as nitromethane. Some turbine engines commonly
used in helicopters can also use biodiesel instead of jet
*
*
Tip jet designs let the rotor push itself through the air and fuel. [53] [54]
avoid generating torque.* [52]
There are also human-powered helicopters.
Quadcopters have four rotors often with parallel
axes (sometimes rotating in the same direction with
tilted axes) which are commonly used on model aircraft.
25.4. FLIGHT
25.3.4
163
Flight controls
range of RPM.* [55]* [56]* [57]* [58]* [59] The throttle

controls the power produced by the engine, which is conMain article: Helicopter ight controls
nected to the rotor by a xed ratio transmission. The purA helicopter has four ight control inputs. These are pose of the throttle is to maintain enough engine power
to keep the rotor RPM within allowable limits so that the
rotor produces enough lift for ight. In single-engine helicopters, the throttle control is a motorcycle-style twist
grip mounted on the collective control, while dual-engine
helicopters have a power lever for each engine.
A swashplate controls the collective and cyclic pitch of the
main blades. The swashplate moves up and down, along
the main shaft, to change the pitch of both blades. This
causes the helicopter to push air downward or upward,
depending on the angle of attack. The swashplate can
also change its angle to move the blades angle forwards
or backwards, or left and right, to make the helicopter
move in those directions.
Controls from a Bell 206
25.4 Flight
the cyclic, the collective, the anti-torque pedals, and the

throttle. The cyclic control is usually located between the
pilot's legs and is commonly called the cyclic stick or just
cyclic. On most helicopters, the cyclic is similar to a joystick. However, the Robinson R22 and Robinson R44
have a unique teetering bar cyclic control system and a
few helicopters have a cyclic control that descends into
the cockpit from overhead.
The control is called the cyclic because it changes the
pitch of the rotor blades cyclically. The result is to tilt
the rotor disk in a particular direction, resulting in the
helicopter moving in that direction. If the pilot pushes
the cyclic forward, the rotor disk tilts forward, and the
rotor produces a thrust in the forward direction. If the
pilot pushes the cyclic to the side, the rotor disk tilts to
that side and produces thrust in that direction, causing Helicopter hovering over boat in rescue exercise
the helicopter to hover sideways.
The collective pitch control or collective is located on the There are three basic ight conditions for a helicopter:
left side of the pilot's seat with a settable friction control hover, forward ight and the transition between the two.
to prevent inadvertent movement. The collective changes
the pitch angle of all the main rotor blades collectively
(i.e. all at the same time) and independently of their po- 25.4.1 Hover
sition. Therefore, if a collective input is made, all the
blades change equally, and the result is the helicopter in- Hovering is the most challenging part of ying a helicopter. This is because a helicopter generates its own
creasing or decreasing in altitude.
gusty air while in a hover, which acts against the fuselage
The anti-torque pedals are located in the same position as and ight control surfaces. The end result is constant conthe rudder pedals in a xed-wing aircraft, and serve a sim- trol inputs and corrections by the pilot to keep the heliilar purpose, namely to control the direction in which the copter where it is required to be.* [60] Despite the comnose of the aircraft is pointed. Application of the pedal in plexity of the task, the control inputs in a hover are sima given direction changes the pitch of the tail rotor blades, ple. The cyclic is used to eliminate drift in the horizontal
increasing or reducing the thrust produced by the tail roplane, that is to control forward and back, right and left.
tor and causing the nose to yaw in the direction of the The collective is used to maintain altitude. The pedals
applied pedal. The pedals mechanically change the pitch are used to control nose direction or heading. It is the
of the tail rotor altering the amount of thrust produced. interaction of these controls that makes hovering so difHelicopter rotors are designed to operate in a narrow cult, since an adjustment in any one control requires an
164
adjustment of the other two, creating a cycle of constant

correction.
25.4.2
Transition from hover to forward

ight
As a helicopter moves from hover to forward ight it enters a state called translational lift which provides extra
lift without increasing power. This state, most typically,
occurs when the airspeed reaches approximately 1624
knots, and may be necessary for a helicopter to obtain
ight.
25.4.3
Royal Australian Navy Squirrel helicopters during a display at

the 2008 Melbourne Grand Prix
Forward ight
In forward ight a helicopter's ight controls behave more

like those of a xed-wing aircraft. Displacing the cyclic
forward will cause the nose to pitch down, with a resultant increase in airspeed and loss of altitude. Aft cyclic
will cause the nose to pitch up, slowing the helicopter and
causing it to climb. Increasing collective (power) while
maintaining a constant airspeed will induce a climb while
decreasing collective will cause a descent. Coordinating
these two inputs, down collective plus aft cyclic or up collective plus forward cyclic, will result in airspeed changes
while maintaining a constant altitude. The pedals serve A Robinson R44 Raven II arrives for the 2014 Royal Internathe same function in both a helicopter and a xed-wing tional Air Tattoo, England
aircraft, to maintain balanced ight. This is done by applying a pedal input in whichever direction is necessary
the outer tips of the rotor travel at a speed determined by
to center the ball in the turn and bank indicator.
the length of the blade and the RPM. In a moving helicopter, however, the speed of the blades relative to the air
depends on the speed of the helicopter as well as on their
25.5 Safety
rotational velocity. The airspeed of the advancing rotor
blade is much higher than that of the helicopter itself. It is
possible for this blade to exceed the speed of sound, and
thus produce vastly increased drag and vibration. (See
wave drag.)
HAL Dhruv at the 2008 Royal International Air Tattoo, England
25.5.1
Limitations
Because the advancing blade has higher airspeed than the

retreating blade and generates a dissymmetry of lift, rotor blades are designed to ap lift and twist in such
a way that the advancing blade aps up and develops a
smaller angle of attack. Conversely, the retreating blade
aps down, develops a higher angle of attack, and generates more lift. At high speeds, the force on the rotors is
such that theyapexcessively and the retreating blade
can reach too high an angle and stall. For this reason, the
maximum safe forward airspeed of a helicopter is given
a design rating called VNE , Velocity, Never Exceed.* [61]
In addition it is possible for the helicopter to y at an airspeed where an excessive amount of the retreating blade
stalls, which results in high vibration, pitch -up, and roll
into the retreating blade.
The main limitation of the helicopter is its low speed. During the closing years of the 20th century designers beThere are several reasons a helicopter cannot y as fast gan working on helicopter noise reduction. Urban comas a xed-wing aircraft. When the helicopter is hovering, munities have often expressed great dislike of noisy air-
25.5. SAFETY
165
craft, and police and passenger helicopters can be unpopular. The redesigns followed the closure of some city
heliports and government action to constrain ight paths
in national parks and other places of natural beauty.
jamming and subsequent fatalities, whereas loss of lubrication can trigger onboard re. Another weakness of mechanical gearboxes is their transient power limitation, due
to structural fatigue limits. Recent EASA studies point to
as prime cause of crashes just
Helicopters also vibrate; an unadjusted helicopter can engines and transmissions
*
after
pilot
errors.
[62]
easily vibrate so much that it will shake itself apart. To
reduce vibration, all helicopters have rotor adjustments By contrast, electromagnetic transmissions do not use any
for height and weight. Blade height is adjusted by chang- parts in contact; hence lubrication can be drastically siming the pitch of the blade. Weight is adjusted by adding plied, or eliminated. Their inherent redundancy oers
or removing weights on the rotor head and/or at the blade good resilience to single point of failure. The absence of
end caps. Most also have vibration dampers for height gears enables high power transient without impact on serand pitch. Some also use mechanical feedback systems vice life. The concept of electric propulsion applied to heto sense and counter vibration. Usually the feedback sys- licopter and electromagnetic drive was brought to reality
tem uses a mass as a stable referenceand a linkage by Pascal Chretien who designed, built and ew world's
from the mass operates a ap to adjust the rotor's angle rst man-carrying, free-ying electric helicopter. The
of attack to counter the vibration. Adjustment is di- concept was taken from the conceptual computer-aided
cult in part because measurement of the vibration is hard, design model on September 10, 2010 to the rst testing
usually requiring sophisticated accelerometers mounted at 30% power on March 1, 2011 - less than six months.
throughout the airframe and gearboxes. The most com- The aircraft rst ew on August 12, 2011. All developmon blade vibration adjustment measurement system is ment was conducted in Venelles, France.* [63]* [64]
to use a stroboscopic ash lamp, and observe painted
markings or coloured reectors on the underside of the
rotor blades. The traditional low-tech system is to mount 25.5.3 Hazards
coloured chalk on the rotor tips, and see how they mark
a linen sheet. Gearbox vibration most often requires a As with any moving vehicle, unsafe operation could result
gearbox overhaul or replacement. Gearbox or drive train in loss of control, structural damage, or loss of life. The
vibrations can be extremely harmful to a pilot. The most following is a list of some of the potential hazards for
severe being pain, numbness, loss of tactile discrimina- helicopters:
tion and dexterity.
Settling with power, also known as a vortex ring
state, is when the aircraft is unable to arrest its de25.5.2 Transmission
scent due to the rotor's downwash interfering with
the aerodynamics of the rotor.* [65]
Retreating blade stall is experienced during high
speed ight and is the most common limiting factor
of a helicopter's forward speed.
Ground resonance is a self-reinforcing vibration that
occurs when the lead/lag spacing of the blades of an
articulated rotor system becomes irregular.
Low-G condition is an abrupt change from a positive G-force state to a negative G-force state that
results in loss of lift (unloaded disc) and subsequent
roll over. If aft cyclic is applied while the disc is unloaded, the main rotor could strike the tail causing
catastrophic failure.* [66]
Pascal Chretien hovering the world's rst manned electric helicopter, August 2011
Conventional rotary-wing aircraft use a set of complex

mechanical gearboxes to convert the high rotation speed
of gas turbines into the low speed required to drive main
and tail rotors. Unlike powerplants, mechanical gearboxes cannot be duplicated (for redundancy) and have always been a major weak point in helicopter reliability.
In-ight catastrophic gear failures often result in gearbox
Dynamic rollover in which the helicopter pivots

around one of the skids and 'pulls' itself onto its side.
Powertrain failures, especially those that occur
within the shaded area of the height-velocity diagram.
Tail rotor failures which occur from either a mechanical malfunction of the tail rotor control system
or a loss of tail rotor thrust authority, called Loss of
Tail-rotor Eectiveness (LTE).
166
Brownout in dusty conditions or whiteout in snowy
conditions.
25.6 World records
Low rotor RPM, or rotor droop, is when the engine

cannot drive the blades at sucient RPM to maintain
ight.
25.7 Types and makes
Rotor overspeed, which can over-stress the rotor hub

pitch bearings (Brinelling) and, if severe enough,
There are many types of helicopters ranging from the ulcause blade separation from the aircraft.
tralight Mosquito to the much heavier Mi-26. While the
Wire and tree strikes due to low altitude operations same principles apply to all of them, the shapes, sizes,
and take-os and landings in remote locations.* [67] and styles of helicopters vary as much as one bird does
from the next. Size can be the most noticeable dier Controlled ight into terrain in which the aircraft is ence, although some shapes of dierent parts can also be
own into the ground unintentionally due to lack of more obvious (such as the Robinson's characteristic tall
situational awareness.
main rotor mount). Helicopters also typically have varying paints and markings signifying the type of work for
Mast bumping in some helicopters* [68]
which they are used, e.g. military ones can vary from
camouage to dark green, while commercial ones may
have a greater variance.
25.5.4 Deadliest crashes
1. 2002: a Russian Mil Mi-26 was shot down over
Chechnya; 127 killed.
2. 1997: two Israeli Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallions
collided over Israel; 73 killed.
3. 14 December 1992: despite being heavily escorted,
a Russian Army Mil Mi-8 was shot down by Georgian forces in Abkhazia using SA-14 MANPADs,
with the loss of three crew members and 58 passengers composed of mainly Russian refugees.* [69]
4. 4 October 1993: Russian forces shot down a Georgian Mi-8 transporting 60 refugees from eastern
Abkhazia; all on board were killed.* [69]
5. 10 May 1977: an Israeli CH-53 crashed near Yitav
in the Jordan Valley; 54 killed.
6. 11 September 1982: a U.S. Army Boeing CH-47
Chinook crashed at an air show in Mannheim, Germany; 46 killed.* [70]
7. 1986: a Boeing 234LR Chinook operated by British
International Helicopters crashed in the Shetland Islands; 45 killed.
25.8 See also

Backpack helicopter
Helicopter dynamics
Helicopter manufacturers
Cyclogyro
Disk loading
Gyrodyne
Helicopter heightvelocity diagram
Jesus nut, the top central big nut that holds the rotor
on
List of helicopter airlines
List of rotorcraft
8. 1992: an Azerbaijani Mil Mi-8 was shot down; 44

killed.
Monocopter
9. 2009: a Pakistan Army Mil Mi-17 crashed; 41

killed.
Transverse ow eect
10. 2011: a US CH-47 Chinook was shot down in

Afghanistan: 38 killed.* [71]
11. 26 January 2005: An USMC Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion crashed near Ar Rutbah, Iraq killing all
31 service members on board.* [72]
Utility helicopter
Wire strike protection system, WSPSfor helicopters.
Helicopter Underwater Escape Training
25.9. REFERENCES
25.9 References
25.9.1
Notes
[1] Leishman, Dr. J. Gordon, Technical Fellow of AHS International. Paper.64th Annual Forum of the American
Helicopter Society International, on the aerodynamic capability of Cornu's design, arguing that the aircraft lacked
the power and rotor loading to lift free of the ground in
manned ight.
25.9.2
Footnotes
[1] GEN helikos (the being romanised as a c); see

and (as an adjective). Liddell, Henry George;
Scott, Robert; A GreekEnglish Lexicon at the Perseus
Project.
[2] in Liddell and Scott.
[3] Harper, Douglas. helicopter. Online Etymology Dictionary.
[4] For various reasons, the word is often erroneously, from
an etymological point of view, analysed by English speakers into heli- and copter; see helicopter. The Free
Dictionary.
[5] Cottez 1980, p. 181.
[6] Munson 1968.
167
[16] Leishman, J. Gordon (2006). Principles of Helicopter

Aerodynamics. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN
0-521-85860-7.
[17] Rumerman, Judy. Early Helicopter Technology.Centennial of Flight Commission, 2003. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
[18] Pilotfriend.comLeonardo da Vinci's Helical Air Screw.
Pilotfriend.com. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
[19] Hallion, Richard P. Pioneers of Flight: Alphonse Pnaud. Air Force Link. Retrieved: 12 December 2010.
[20] Bryan, George S. Edison: the Man and His Work. New
York: Garden City Publishers, 1926. p. 249.
[21] Pioneers 1900/1930. Helicopter History Site. Retrieved: 3 May 2007.
[22] Dowd, George L.Flops of famous inventors. Popular
Science, December 1930.
[23] Taylor, Michael J. H. Jane's Encyclopedia of Aviation, p.
348. London: Studio Editions, 1989.
[24] "FAI Record ID #13094 - Straight distance. Class E former G (Helicopters), piston " Fdration Aronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 21 September 2014.
[25] New Helicopter Rises in Vertical Flight. Popular Science, November 1930, p. 70.
[26] Helicopter With Six Blades Succeeds In Tests.Popular
Mechanics, March 1931.
[7] Hirschberg, Michael J. and David K. Dailey, Sikorsky [27] "FAI Record ID #13093 - Straight distance. Class E for. US and Russian Helicopter Development In the 20th Cenmer G (Helicopters), piston " Fdration Aronautique Intury, American Helicopter Society, International. 7 July
ternationale (FAI). Retrieved: 21 September 2014.
2000.
[28] Rumerman, Judy. Helicopter Development in the Early
[8] Leishman, J. Gordon. Principles of Helicopter AerodyTwentieth Century. Centennial of Flight Commission.
namics. Cambridge aerospace series, 18. Cambridge:
Retrieved 28 November 2007.
Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-521[29] The JAviator Quadrotor Rainer K. L. Trummer, Uni85860-1. Web extract
versity of Salzburg, Austria, 2010, p. 21
[9] Early Helicopter History. Aerospaceweb.org. Re[30] Asboth Helicopter. The Evening Post (New Zealand),
trieved: 12 December 2010.
27 April 1935.
[10] Taking Flight: Inventing the Aerial Age, from Antiquity
Through the First World War. Oxford University Press. [31] The rst Hungarian helicopter (1929) on YouTube Retrieved: 12 December 2010.
8 May 2003. pp. 2223. ISBN 978-0-19-516035-2.
[11] Goebel, Greg. The Invention Of The Helicopter. at
the Wayback Machine (archived June 29, 2011) Vectorsite.net. Retrieved: 11 November 2008.
[12] Fay, John. Helicopter Pioneers Evolution of Rotary
Wing Aircraft. Helicopter History Site. Retrieved: 28
November 2007.
[13] Charles H. Gibbs-Smith, Origins of the helicopter, New
Scientist, vol. 14.4, May 3, 1962, p. 229.
[32] Spenser 1998

[34] video.
[35] Savine, Alexandre. TsAGI 1-EA. ctrl-c.liu.se, 24
March 1997. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
[36] Watkinson 2004, p. 358.
[14] Donald F. Lach. (1977). Asia in the making of Europe.

Volume II, A Century of Wonder. p. 403.
[15] Chinese Inventions.
168
[38] "FAI Record ID #13084 - Altitude. Class E former G

(Helicopters), piston " Fdration Aronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 21 September 2014.
[39] "FAI Record ID #13062 - Duration in closed circuit.
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2014.
[58]
The UH-60 permits 95101% rotor RPM UH-60 limits US Army Aviation. Retrieved 2 January 2010
[59] John M. Seddon, Simon Newman. Basic Helicopter

Aerodynamics p216, John Wiley and Sons, 2011. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
ISBN 1-119-99410-1.
Quote:The rotor is best served by rotating at a constant rotor speed
[60] Lombardi, Frank (April 2015). Under the big top.
Rotor & Wing. p. 48. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
[40] Brian Daugherty. Former Pages from the North East

Aircraft Museum.
[61] Rotorcraft Flying Handbook 2007, pp. 37.
[41] Autogyro History and Theory.
[62] EASA-Annual-Safety-Review-2011
[42] Francillon 1997
[63] Challenges of Aircraft Hybridization. IDTechEx. Retrieved 2013-04-29.
[43] Day, Dwayne A. Igor Sikorsky VS 300. Centennial

of Flight Commission, 2003. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
[44] Twin Turborotor Helicopter.Popular Mechanics, August 1954, p. 139.
[45] Connor, R.D. and R.E. Lee. Kaman K-225.Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, 27 July 2001. Retrieved 9 December 2007. Archived January 1, 2008 at
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[65] http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a526709.pdf
[66] http://www.robinsonheli.com/service_library/safety_
notices/rhc_sn11.pdf
[67] Helicopter Accidents in Hawaii. kauaihelicoptertoursafety.com. Retrieved: 12 December 2010.
[46] Helicopter Pilot Training Schools, Careers - Heliventures. heliventuresnc.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[68] FAA RFH, page 11-10
[47] Day, Dwayne A.Skycranes. Centennial of Flight Commission. Retrieved 1 October 2008.
[69] Cooper, Tom. Georgia and Abkhazia, 19921993: the

War of Datchas.acig.org, 29 September 2003. Retrieved
12 December 2010.
[48] Webster, L.F. The Wiley Dictionary of Civil Engineering

and Construction. New York: Wiley, 1997. ISBN 0-47118115-3.
[70] Crash Death, 3rd in 8 Years, Not Expected to Halt Future Shows. Retrieved: 12 December 2010.
[49] Butler, Bret W. et al. Appendix A: Glossary: Fire Behavior Associated with the 1994 South Canyon Fire on
Storm King Mountain, Colorado research paper. U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, September 1998. Retrieved 2 November 2008.
[50] Kay, Marcia Hillary. "40 Years Retrospective: It's Been
a Wild Ride" Rotor & Wing, August 2007. Accessed: 8
June 2014. Archived June 8, 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
[51] Frawley 2003, p. 151.
[52] Helicopter Yaw Control Methods. aerospaceweb.org.
Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[53] Jay Leno's EcoJet Concept. businessweek.com, 2
November 2006. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
[54] Skinner, Tony. Eurosatory 2010: Industry celebrates
rst helicopter biofuel ight. shephard.co.uk, 17 June
2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
[71] 31 U.S. troops, 7 Afghans killed as insurgents down

NATO chopper. LA Times, 6 August 2011. Retrieved
6 August 2011.
[72] Incident Date 050126 HMH-361 CH-53D BuNo unknown incident not yet classied near Ar Rutbah,
Iraq. Marine Corps Combat Helicopter Association, 20
November 2007. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
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[76] Record File n754. Fdration Aronautique Internationale. Retrieved 10 Sep 2013.
[55] Croucher, Phil. Professional helicopter pilot studies page

2-11. ISBN 978-0-9780269-0-5. Quote: [Rotor speed]
is constant in a helicopter.
[56] Johnson, Pam. Delta D2 page 44 Pacic Wings. Retrieved

2 January 2010
[79] Record File n11597. Fdration Aronautique Internationale. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
[57] Helicopters.Helicopter Vietnam. Retrieved: 16 February 2011.
[80] Record File n15629. Fdration Aronautique Internationale. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
169
[81] First electric helicopter. Guinness World Record. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
Flights of the Imagination. 1918 article on

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[82] Video: Canadians win long-unclaimed $250,000 prize

for pedal-powered helicopter. John Stevenson. uploaded
Jul 22, 2013. Retrieved 6 February 2014. Check date
values in: |date= (help)
Twin Windmill Blades Fly Wingless ShipPopular

Mechanics, April 1936
25.9.3
Bibliography
Chiles, James R. The God Machine: From

Boomerangs to Black Hawks: The Story of the Helicopter. New York: Bantam Books, 2007. ISBN
0-553-80447-2.
Cottez, Henri. Dictionnaire des structures du vocabulaire savant. Paris: Les Usuels du Robert. 1980.
ISBN 0-85177-827-5.
Francillon, Ren J. McDonnell Douglas Aircraft
since 1920: Volume II. London: Putnam, 1997.
ISBN 0-85177-827-5.
Frawley, Gerard. The International Directory of
Civil Aircraft, 20032004. Fyshwick, Canberra,
Act, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd.,
2003, p. 155. ISBN 1-875671-58-7.
Munson, Kenneth. Helicopters and other Rotorcraft
since 1907. London: Blandford Publishing, 1968.
ISBN 978-0-7137-0493-8.
Rotorcraft Flying Handbook. Washington: Skyhorse
Publishing, Inc., 2007. ISBN 1-60239-060-6.
Rotorcraft Flying Handbook: FAA Manual H-808321.. Washington, D.C.: Federal Aviation Administration (Flight Standards Division), U.S. Dept. of
Transportation, 2001. ISBN 1-56027-404-2.
Thicknesse, P. Military Rotorcraft (Brassey's World
Military Technology series). London: Brassey's,
2000. ISBN 1-85753-325-9.
Watkinson, John. Art of the Helicopter. Oxford:
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2004. ISBN 07506-5715-4
Wragg, David W. Helicopters at War: A Pictorial
History. London: R. Hale, 1983. ISBN 0-70900858-9.

"www.helicopterpage.com - How Helicopters
Work Complete site explaining dierent aspects
of helicopters and how they work.
Planes That Go Straight Up. 1935 article about
early development and research into helicopters.
Russian-language video about the Cheremukhin/Yuriev TsAGI 1-EA pioneer helicopter
Chapter 26
HK 4.630mm
The HK 4.630mm cartridge is a type of ammunition used in the Heckler & Koch MP7 Personal Defense
Weapon (PDW) and by the canceled HK UCP pistol. It
is an indigenous German cartridge. It is designed to minimize weight and recoil while increasing penetration of
body armor. It features a bottlenecked case and a pointed,
steel-core, brass-jacketed bullet.
26.1 Development
The 4.630mm cartridge was introduced in 1999.* [7] It
was designed as a competitor to FN Herstal's 5.728mm
cartridge.* [7]
26.2 Overview
Compared to conventional assault rie cartridges one can
carry more 4.630mm ammunition due to the lighter
weight and relative small dimensions of the cartridge.
Also, due to the lighter weight of the bullet, aiming in
rapid re is much easier as recoil depends much on the
weight of the bullet. CRISAT testing shows that because
of the smaller diameter and high projectile velocity of
the round, body armor penetration is higher than that of
traditional handgun projectiles.
The 4.630mm cartridge has been claimed to have low
terminal eectiveness, especially by those who disagree
with theenergy dumptheory of wound ballistics, such
as Dr. Martin Fackler. Kinetic energy manifests itself
in human tissue in temporary stretching of tissue, which
most tissue except for liver and neural tissue is able to
withstand with little ill eect. Slow motion videos show
that the 4.6 mm bullet yaws at impact on soft tissue. This
is because the center of mass of the bullet is behind the
geometric center, causing the back to come forward at
impact, and therefore tumbling through soft tissue, creating much greater damage, according to the energy
dumptheory.
analyzed by a group formed of experts from France, the

United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom and the
group's conclusion was that the 5.728mm was undoubtedlythe more ecient cartridge.* [7]
Among other points, the NATO group cited superior
eectiveness (27% greater) for the 5.728mm against
unprotected targets and equal eectiveness against protected targets.* [7] It also cited less sensitivity to extreme
temperatures for the 5.728mm and cited a greater potential risk of barrel erosion with the 4.630mm.* [7] In
addition, the group pointed out that 5.728mm is close
to the 5.5645mm NATO by its design and manufacture process, allowing it to be manufactured on existing production lines.* [7] The group also pointed out that
5.728mm weapons are more mature than 4.630mm
weapons, and the 5.728mm FN Five-seven pistol was
already in production at that time, while the 4.630mm
Heckler & Koch UCP pistol was still only an early concept.* [7] However, the German delegation and others rejected the NATO recommendation that 5.728mm be
standardized, and as a result, the standardization process
was indenitely halted.* [1]* [7]
A series of tests performed by NATO in the United Kingdom and France indicated that 5.728mm was the supe- The 4.630mm has 0.87 ml (13.4 grains) H2 O cartridge
rior cartridge.* [7] The results of the NATO tests were case capacity.
170
26.4. VARIATIONS
171
projectile will be travelling at approximately Mach 1.25
(425 m/s) under ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions
at sea level (air density = 1.225 kg/m3 ).
26.4.2 2 g Action Law Enforcement Hollow

Point
The Action 4.630mm Law Enforcement cartridge
weighs 6.5 g and is loaded with a 2 g CuZn-alloy (brass)
Solid Hollow Point projectile that achieves 700 m/s
(2,300 ft/s) muzzle velocity. The cartridge is designed for
the MP7. This ammunition is optimized for energy transfer in soft targets and should oer decent penetration performance on hard and combined targets like car doors or
glass and body armour.* [10] The muzzle velocity V0 and
V50 indicate a G1 ballistic coecient of approximately
0.112 to 0.119 (BC's are somewhat debatable). At the
stated eective range of 200 m the 2 g Action projectile
4.630mm maximum C.I.P. cartridge dimensions.
will be travelling at approximately Mach 1.67 (586 m/s)
*
All sizes in millimeters (mm). [8]
under ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level
Americans would dene the shoulder angle at alpha/2 (air density = 1.225 kg/m3 ).
22 degrees. The common riing twist rate for this carAction Law Enforcement cartridge technical data:* [11]
tridge is 160 mm (1 in 6.3 in), 6 grooves, lands = 4.52
mm, grooves = 4.65 mm, land width = 1.21 mm and
Temperature range: 30 C to + 52 C
the primer type is small rie.* [2]
According to the ocial C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes Feu Portatives) guidelines, the 4.630mm case can handle up to
400 MPa (58,015 psi) piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated
countries every pistol cartridge combo has to be proofed
at 130% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for
sale to consumers.
Velocity/energy at 0 m: 700 m/s /480 Joule
The Belgian 5.728mm cartridge introduced in 1993 is

probably the closest currently available ballistic twin of
the 4.630mm.
Penetration in 20% gelatine: bare at 25 m: < 30 cm
Velocity/energy at 50 m: 568 m/s / 322 Joule

Ballistic coecient C 1:
(ICAO)/(Army Metro)
0.112 - 0.119
Mean chamber pressure: max. 400 MPa
Accuracy at 50 m: 5 cm
Eective service range: 200 m (656 ft)
26.4 Variations
26.4.1
26.4.3 2.7 g Full Metal Jacket 4.630mm
2 g DM11 Penetrator Ultimate ComThe Ball 4.630mm cartridge weighs 7 g and is loaded
bat
with a 2.7 g Full Metal Jacket projectile with a PbSb
The German Army version of the 4.630mm cartridge

(DM11 Penetrator) weighs 6.5 g and uses a 2 g copper
plated steel bullet projectile at 720 m/s (2,362 ft/s) muzzle velocity. The DM11 Penetrator cartridge is designed
for the MP7. The Ultimate Combat can penetrate the
NATO CRISAT target at more than 300 meters. This
ammunition should combine energy transfer in soft targets and very good penetration.* [9] The muzzle velocity
V0 and V100 indicate a G1 ballistic coecient of approximately 0.141 to 0.150 (BC's are somewhat debatable)
making the DM11 projectile aerodynamically more efcient compared to typical service handgun projectiles,
but less ecient compared to typical assault rie projectiles. At the stated eective range of 200 m the DM11
alloy core and a steel copper plated jacket that achieves

600 m/s (2,000 ft/s) muzzle velocity. The cartridge is
designed for the MP7. This ammunition is optimized for
energy transfer in soft targets and should oer good precision.* [12] The muzzle velocity V0 and V100 indicate a
G1 ballistic coecient of approximately 0.171 to 0.187
(BC's are somewhat debatable). At the stated eective
range of 200 m the 2.7 g Ball projectile will be travelling at approximately Mach 1.36 (463 m/s) under ICAO
Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level (air density
= 1.225 kg/m3 ).
Ball cartridge technical data:* [13]
Temperature range: between 54 C and +52 C
172
CHAPTER 26. HK 4.630MM

Ballistic coecient C 1:
(ICAO)/(Army Metro)
0.171 - 0.187
Mean chamber pressure: max. 400 MPa

Penetration in gelatine bare at 25 m: < 35 cm
Accuracy at 100 m: 8 cm
Eective range:~300 m (984 ft) (HK claims that
the FMJ round has more retained energy than the
Combat Steeldue to the FMJ's heavier projectile.)
26.4.4
Others
VBR produces a 4.630mm 2-part controlled fragmenting projectile that is claimed to increase the content of
the permanent wound cavity and double the chance to hit
a vital organ.* [14] Heckler & Koch claims that the CPS
Black Tip ammunition made by Fiocchi has a muzzle energy of approximately 525 J that would be comparable to
9 mm rounds.* [15]* [16]
26.5 See also

4 mm caliber
4.3830mm Libra
4.526mm MKR
5.728mm
5.8x21mm DAP92
7.9224mm
List of cartridges by caliber
26.6 References
[1] Gourley, S.; Kemp, I (November 26, 2003). The Duellists. Jane's Defence Weekly (ISSN: 02653818), Volume
40 Issue 21, pp 2628.
[2] Suppressed Rie Cartridges. Raygun.10gauge.de.
2007-04-23. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
[3] Fiocchi - SFN Ram. Heckler-koch.com. Retrieved
2012-02-13.
[4] Heckler & Koch :: Products. Hkd-usa.com. Retrieved
2012-02-13.
[5] Modern Firearms - Pistol / SMG ammunition.
World.guns.ru. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
[6] 01 December 2011, brochure (Energy and velocity at
10 m)". Retrieved 2012-02-13.
[7] Oliver, David (2007). Global Defence Review In the
Line of Fire. GDR Publications. Retrieved 2009-10-19.
[8] Current C.I.P. decisions, texts and tables (Free C.I.P. CDROM version download in ZIP and RAR format)
[9] RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g German Army 4.630mm Penetrator DM11 cartridge factsheet
[10] RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g Law Enforcement 4.630mm cartridge factsheet
[11] RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g Law Enforcement 4.630mm cartridge factsheet
[12] RUAG Ammotec 2.7 g Full Metal Jacket 4.630mm cartridge factsheet
[13] RUAG Ammotec 2.7 g Full Matal Jacket 4.630mm cartridge factsheet
[14] The 4.6x30 mm B2F cartridge. Fsdip.com. Retrieved
2012-02-13.
[15] Heckler & Koch :: Products. Heckler-koch.de. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
[16] Modern Firearms - Pistol / SMG ammunition.
World.guns.ru. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
26.5.1
Weapons
Heckler & Koch MP7

Heckler & Koch UCP
ST Kinetics CPW
TVGK
VBR-CQBW
C.I.P. decisions, texts and tables (free current C.I.P.

CD-ROM version download (ZIP and RAR format))
RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g German Army 4.630mm
Penetrator DM11 cartridge factsheet
RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g Law Enforcement
4.630mm cartridge factsheet
RUAG Ammotec 2.7 g Ball 4.630mm cartridge
factsheet
26.7 External links

UCP overview on world.guns.ru
MP7 PDW overview on world.guns.ru
PDW and 4.6 ammo overview on hkpro.com
JBM Small Arms Ballistics Ballistic Coecient
(Velocity) Calculator
173
Chapter 27
Infantry
Foot soldierredirects here. For other uses of foot
soldier, see Foot soldier (disambiguation). For the
computer game, see Infantry (computer game).
Infantry is the branch of a military force that ghts on
foot. As the troops who are intended to engage, ght, and
defeat the enemy in face-to-face combat, they bear the
brunt of warfare and typically suer the greatest number of casualties. Historically, as the oldest branch of
the combat arms, the infantry are the tip of the spear of
a modern army, and continually undergo training that is
more physically stressful and psychologically demanding
than that of any other branch of the combat arms.
Ancient Greek infantry: The GrcoPersian wars (449499 BC)
featured the light infantry slinger or peltast, and the heavy infantry hoplites; the shield of the hoplite had an anti-arrow curtain, meant to thwart the archer.
describes soldiers who walk to the battleeld, and there

engage, ght, and defeat the enemy in direct combat,
usually to take and occupy the terrain. As describing
the branch of the combat arms, the term Infantry derives from the French Infanterie, which, in turn, is derived from the Italian Fanteria and ultimately from the
Latin Infantera; the individual-soldier term InfantryEarly 20th-century infantry: The Royal Irish Ries at the Battle man (1837) was not coined until the 19th century. Hisof the Somme (JulyNovember 1916) during the First World War torically, before the invention and the introduction of
rearms to warfare, the foot soldiers of previous eras
(191418).
armed with blunt and edged weapons, and a shieldalso
Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is in- are considered and identied as infantrymen.
accessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served The term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which
infantry support weapons that provide greater and more boasted the rst professional standing army seen in Eusustained repower. The transport and delivery tech- rope since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint
niques of modern infantrymen to engage in battle include royal princes (Infantes) to military commands, and the
marching, mechanised transport, airborne (by parachute men under them became known as Infanteria.
or by helicopter) and amphibious landing from the sea.
In the Western world, during the GrcoRoman
Antiquity (8th7th centuries BC), and during the Middle
Ages (AD 4761453), infantry soldiers were categorized,
characterised, and identied according to the type of
weapons and armour with which they were armed, thus
Main article: History of infantry
heavy infantry (hoplite) and light infantry (Greek peltasts,
In English, the 16th-century term Infantry (ca. 1570s) Roman velites). Since the application of rearms to war174
27.3. ORGANIZATION
fare, the classications of infantrymen have changed to
reect their formations on the battleeld, such as line
infantry, and to reect the modes of transporting them
to the battleeld, and the tactics deployed by specic
types of combat units, such as mechanized infantry and
airborne infantry.
27.2 Combat role

As a branch of the armed forces, the role of the infantry
in warfare is to engage, ght, and kill the enemy at close
rangeusing either a rearm (rie, pistol, machine gun),
an edged-weapon (knife, bayonet), or bare hands (close
quarters combat)as required by the mission to hand;
thus
175
However, the most eective method for locating all enemy forces on a battleeld is still the infantry patrol, and it
is the presence or absence of infantry that ultimately determines whether a particular piece of ground has been
captured or held. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most eectively as part of a combined
arms team including artillery, armour, and combat aircraft. Studies have shown that of all casualties, 50% or
more were caused by artillery; about 10% were caused by
machine guns; 25% by rie re; and 1% or less by hand
grenades, bayonets, knives, and unarmed combat combined. Several infantry divisions both Allied and Axis
in the European theatre of WWII suered higher than
100% combat and non combat casualties and some above
200%, meaning that the number of service personnel that
became casualties was greater than the sum of the divisions' available service positions at full strength.
27.3 Organization
20th-century infantry: Australian infantry at Tobruk, Libya, in

1941, during the Second World War (193945).
19th-century infantry: Brigadier General Wineld Scott leads
American line infantry into the Battle of Chippawa (5 July 1814)
in Canada, during the AngloAmerican War of 1812(181215).
in the Australian Army and New Zealand Army the

role of the infantry is to seek out and close with
the enemy, to kill or capture him, to seize and hold Infantry is notable by its reliance on organized formations
ground, to repel attack, by day or night, regardless to be employed in battle. These have been developed over
of season, weather or terrain.* [1]
time, but remain a key element to eective infantry development and deployment. Until the end of the 19th cen in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry isto
tury, infantry units were for the most part employed in
*
*
close with, and destroy the enemy. [2] [3]
closely organized formations up until the actual moment
in the U.S. Army, the infantry closes with the en- of contact with the enemy. This was necessary to allow
emy, by means of re and maneuver, in order to de- commanders to retain control of the unit, especially while
stroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by re, maneuvering, as well as allowing ocers to retain discipline amongst the ranks.
close combat, and counterattack.* [4]
With the development of machine guns and other
in the U.S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is weapons with increased repower, it became necessary
to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy with to disperse soldiers in infantry units to make them less
re and maneuver, and to repel the enemy assault by vulnerable to such weapons. From World War I, it was
re and close combat.* [5]
recognized that infantry were most successfully employed
when using their ability to maneuver in constricted terBeginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th rain, and evade detection in ways not possible for other
century, artillery has become an increasingly dominant weapons such as vehicles. This decentralization of comforce on the battleeld. Since World War I, combat air- mand was made possible by improved communications
craft and armoured vehicles have also become dominant. equipment and greater focus on small unit training.
176
CHAPTER 27. INFANTRY
Among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium French Resistance WWII, Iraqi Insurgency in Fallujah,
infantry.This refers to infantry which are less heavily American Revolution)
armed and armored than heavy infantry, but more so than
light infantry. In the early modern period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of 27.5 Operations
body armour up until the 20th century. In the United
States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavierthan light infantry but
lighterthan mechanized infantry.
27.4 Doctrine
Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry
forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles,
and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard
and fast rules.
Doctrine provides a very common frame of reference
across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms
operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks. Doctrine links theory, history,
experimentation, and practice. Its objective is to foster
initiative and creative thinking in the infantry's tactical
combat environment.
Doctrine provides the infantry with an authoritative body
of statements on how infantry forces conduct operations
and provides a common lexicon for use by infantry planners and leaders.
Until the development of eective artillery doctrines, and
more recently precision guided air delivered ordnance,
the most recent important role of the infantry has been
as the primary force of inicting casualties on the enemy
through aimed re. The infantry is also the only combat
arm which can ultimately decide whether any given tactical position is occupied, and it is the presence of infantry
that assures control of terrain. While the tactics of employment in battle have changed, the basic missions of the
infantry have not.
Retractions to the Infantry Concept: Although it has
been argued that infantrymen and infantry tactics are an
antiquated and careless use of military manpower and resources, the infantryman has proven quite capable against
many units, some much more technological and modern.
For instance, light infantry has proven to be extremely
eective against tank units by being able to take advantage of a tank's limited eld of re and sight by swarming enemy armor units and utilizing anti-armor rockets at
long range or grenades in close quarters. Furthermore,
air bombardment that can atten entire cities has been
shown to be completely useless against a dug in infantry
force. (see Battle of Stalingrad 19421943) Even an occupying enemy police force has sometimes been shown
to be a poor match against a clandestine infantry that
has secreted itself away in a civilian population. (see
Canadian army reserve infantrymen train in urban operations.
Attack operations are the most basic role of the infantry,

and along with defense, form the main stances of the infantry on the battleeld. Traditionally, in an open battle, or meeting engagement, two armies would maneuver to contact, at which point they would form up their
infantry and other units opposite each other. Then one
or both would advance and attempt to defeat the enemy
force. The goal of an attack remains the same: to advance
into an enemy-held objective, most frequently a hill, river
crossing, city or other dominant terrain feature, and dislodge the enemy, thereby establishing control of the objective.
Attacks are often feared by the infantry conducting them
because of the high number of casualties suered while
advancing to close with and destroy the enemy while under enemy re. In mechanized infantry the armored personnel carrier (APC) is considered the assaulting position. These APCs can deliver infantrymen through the
front lines to the battle and in the case of infantry
ghting vehiclescontribute supporting repower to engage the enemy. Successful attacks rely on sucient
force, preparative reconnaissance and battleeld preparation with bomb assets. Retention of discipline and cohesion throughout the attack is paramount to success. A
subcategory of attacks is the ambush, where infantrymen
lie in wait for enemy forces before attacking at a vulnerable moment. This gives the ambushing infantrymen the
combat advantage of surprise, concealment and superior
ring positions, and causes confusion. The ambushed unit
does not know what it is up against, or where they are attacking from.
Defense operations are the natural counter to attacks, in
which the mission is to hold an objective and defeat enemy forces attempting to dislodge the defender. Defensive posture oers many advantages to the infantry, including the ability to use terrain and constructed forti-
27.5. OPERATIONS
cations to advantage; these reduce exposure to enemy re
compared with advancing forces. Eective defense relies
on minimizing losses to enemy re, breaking the enemy's
cohesion before their advance is completed, and preventing enemy penetration of defensive positions.
Patrol is the most common infantry mission. Full-scale
attacks and defensive eorts are occasional, but patrols
are constant. Patrols consist of small groups of infantry
moving about in areas of possible enemy activity to locate
the enemy and destroy them when found. Patrols are used
not only on the front-lines, but in rear areas where enemy
inltration or insurgencies are possible.
Pursuit is a role that the infantry often assumes. The objective of pursuit operations is the destruction of withdrawing enemy forces which are not capable of eectively engaging friendly units, before they can build their
strength to the point where they are eective. Infantry
traditionally have been the main force to overrun these
units in the past, and in modern combat are used to pursue
enemy forces in constricted terrain (urban areas in particular), where faster forces, such as armoured vehicles are
incapable of going or would be exposed to ambush.
177
armored vehicles for transport. These units can quickly
disembark and transition to light infantry, without vehicles, to access terrain which armoured vehicles can't effectively access.
Reconnaissance/intelligence gathering Surveillance
operations are often carried out with the employment of
small recon units or sniper teams which gather information about the enemy, reporting on characteristics such
as size, activity, location, unit and equipment. These infantry units typically are known for their stealth and ability to operate for periods of time within close proximity
of the enemy without being detected. They may engage
high prole targets, or be employed to hunt down terrorist
cells and insurgents within a given area. These units may
also entice the enemy to engage a located recon unit, thus
disclosing their location to be destroyed by more powerful
friendly forces.
Reserve assignments for infantry units involve deployment behind the front, although patrol and security operations are usually maintained in case of enemy inltration. This is usually the best time for infantry units to integrate replacements into units and to maintain equipment.
Escort consists of protecting support units from ambush, Additionally, soldiers can be rested and general readiness
should improve. However, the unit must be ready for departicularly from hostile infantry forces. Combat support
units (a majority of the military) are not as well armed ployment at any point.
or trained as infantry units and have a dierent mission. Construction can be undertaken either in reserve or on
Therefore, they need the protection of the infantry, par- the front, but consists of using infantry troops as labor for
ticularly when on the move. This is one of the most im- construction of eld positions, roads, bridges, airelds,
portant roles for the modern infantry, particularly when and all other manner of structures. The infantry is often
operating alongside armored vehicles. In this capacity, given this assignment because of the physical quantity of
infantry essentially conducts patrol on the move, scouring strong men within the unit, although it can lessen a unit's
terrain which may hide enemy infantry waiting to ambush morale and limit the unit's ability to maintain readiness
friendly vehicles, and identifying enemy strong points for and perform other missions. More often, such jobs are
attack by the heavier units.
given to specialist engineering corps.
Base defense Infantry units are tasked to protect certain
areas like command posts or airbases. Units assigned to
this job usually have a large number of military police
attached to them for control of checkpoints and prisons.
Raid/Hostage Rescue Infantry units are trained to
quickly mobilise, inltrate, enter and neutralise threat
forces when appropriate combat intelligence indicates to
secure a location, rescue or capture high prole targets.
Canadian soldiers of the Royal 22* e Rgiment.
Maneuver operations consume much of an infantry unit's

time. Infantry, like all combat arms units, are often maneuvered to meet battleeld needs, and often must do so
under enemy attack. The infantry must maintain their
cohesion and readiness during the move to ensure their
usefulness when they reach their objective. Traditionally,
infantry have relied on their own legs for mobility, but
mechanised or armoured infantry often uses trucks and
Urban Combat Urban combat poses unique challenges

to the combat forces. It is one of the most complicated
type of operations an infantry unit will undertake. With
many places for the enemy to hide and ambush from, infantry units must be trained in how to enter a city, and
systematically clear the buildings, which most likely will
be booby trapped, in order to kill or capture enemy personnel within the city. Care must be taken to dierentiate innocent civilians who often hide and support the enemy from the nonuniformed armed enemy forces. Civilian and military casualties both are usually very high.* [6]
178
27.6 Day to day service
U.S. Army Rangers, Vietnam, 1969.

German Army mechanized infantry (Panzergrenadiers) on an
alert post during an exercise in 2006.
slang term among both Marine and Army infantrymen

for themselves is grunt.In the British Army, they are
thesquaddies.The infantry is a small close-knit comBecause of an infantryman's duties with rearms, explomunity, and the slang names are terms of endearment that
sives, physical and emotional stress, physical violence, caconvey mutual respect and shared experiences.
sualties and deaths are not uncommon in both war and in
peacetime training or operations. It is a highly dangerous
and demanding combat service and in World War II military doctors concluded that even physically unwounded 27.7 Equipment and training
soldiers were psychologically worn out after about 200
days of combat.
In the past infantrymen were just a mass of hastily trained
The physical, mental and environmental operating de- conscripts hastily armed with whatever could be quickly
mands of the infantryman are high. All of the com- provided. In modern times, the infantryman can be a
bat necessities such as ammunition, weapon systems, highly trained and equipped specialist in his own right.
food, water, clothing and shelter are carried on the backs The equipment of infantry forces has evolved along with
of the infantrymen, at least in light role as opposed to the development of military technology and tactics in
mounted/mechanised. Combat loads of over 36 kg (80 general, but certain constants remain regarding the design
lbs) are standard, and greater loads in excess of 45 kg and selection of this equipment. Primary types of equip(100 lbs) are very common. , These heavy loads, com- ment are weaponry, protective gear, survival gear, and
bined with long foot patrols of over 40 km (25 mi) a day, special, mission specic equipment. Infantry tactics have
in any climate from 43 to 29 C (109 to 20 F) in tem- become much more involved, and yet must be learned
perature, require the infantryman to be in good physical and rehearsed until they become second nature when the
and mental shape. Infantrymen live, ght and die out- infantry soldier is stumbling with fatigue and in the middoors in all types of brutal climates, often with no phys- dle of the "fog of war.Spreading out, making use of
ical shelter. Poor climate conditions adds misery to this cover and concealment, monitoring team-mates and leadalready demanding existence. Disease epidemics, frost- ers, and watching for the enemy must all become instincbite, heat stroke, trench foot, insect and wild animal bites tive and simultaneous.
are common along with stress disorders and these have
on multiple occsions caused more casualties than enemy Infantry weapons have included all types of personal
weapons, i.e., anything that can be handled by individual
action.* [7]
soldiers, as well as some light crew-served weapons that
Despite the hardships, infantrymen are expected to con- can be carried. During operations, especially in modern
tinue with their combat missions despite death and injury times, the infantry often scavenge and employ whatever
of friends, fear, despair, fatigue and bodily injury.
weapons and equipment they can acquire from both friend
Some infantry units are considered Special Forces. The and foe, in addition to those issued to them by their availearliest Special Forces commando units were more highly able supply chain.
trained infantrymen, with special weapons, equipment Infantry of ancient times through the Renaissance
and missions. Special Forces units recruit heavily from wielded a wide array of non-gunpowder weaponry. Inregular infantry units to ll their ranks.
fantry formations used all sorts of melee weapons, such as
Foreign and domestic militaries typically have a slang various types of swords, axes, and maces; shock weapons,
term for their infantrymen. In the U.S. military, the such as spears and pikes; and ranged weapons such as
27.7. EQUIPMENT AND TRAINING
179
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force infantry wearing helmets and

camouage, 2006.
A French infantryman wearing a FLIN suit electronically linked

to a modied FAMAS
javelins, bows, and slings. Their crew-served weapons

were the ballista and the battering ram. Infantry of these
premodern periods also wore a variety of personal body
armour, including chain mail and cuirasses. Many of the
premodern infantry weapons evolved over time to counter
these advances in body armor, such as the falchion and
crossbow, which were designed to pierce chain mail armor and wound the underlying body.
Modern infantrymen may be trained to use equipment
in addition to their personal ries, such as hand guns or
pistols, shotguns, machine guns, anti-tank missiles, antipersonnel mines, other incendiary and explosive devices,
bayonets, GPS, map and compass, encrypted communications equipment, booby traps, surveillance equipment,
night vision equipment, sensitive intelligence documents,
classied weapon systems and other sensitive equipment.
27.7.1
tive gear comprises personal armor of some type. Ancient and medieval infantry used shields and wore leather
and metal alloys for armour, as defense against both missile and hand-to-hand weapons. With the advent of eective rearms such as the arquebus, large numbers of men
could be quickly trained into eective ghting forces, and
such armour became thicker while providing less overall coverage to meet the threat of early rearms, which
could only pierce this armour at close range. Generally, only pikemen were armoured in this fashion; gunners went largely unarmoured, due to the expense as well
as the impracticality of armouring large numbers of men
who were not expected to ght in close quarters where it
would be most useful. As rearms became more powerful
and armour became less useful against gunre, the ratio
of gunners to pikemen increased, until the advent of the
bayonet rendered the latter entirely obsolete. While it became clear to most military leaders that the pikeman was
now outdated, some armies stubbornly clung to the pike,
though pikemen, too, would abandon their armour, until only specialized and prestigious cavalry units retained
any signicant armour coverage; the infantryman from
this point went entirely unarmoured. The return to the
use of the helmet was prompted by the need to defend
against high explosive fragmentation and concussion, and
further developments in materials led to eective bulletdefeating body armour such as Kevlar, within the weight
acceptable for infantry use.
Beginning in the Vietnam War, the use of personal body

armour has again become widespread among infantry
units. Infantrymen must also often carry protective measures against chemical and biological attack, including gas
masks, counter-agents, and protective suits. All of these
protective measures add to the weight an infantryman
must carry, and may decrease combat eciency. Modern
militaries are struggling to balance the value of personal
Protective equipment and survival body protection versus the weight burden and ability to
move under such weight.
gear
Infantry survival gear includes all of the items soldiers reInfantry protective gear includes all equipment designed quire for day-to-day survival in the combat environment.
to protect the soldier against enemy attack. Most protec- These include basic environmental protections, medical
180
supplies, food, and sundries. As the amount of equipment

a soldier can carry is very limited, eorts have been made
to make equipment light and compact. Equipment is carried in tactical gear (such as ALICE), which should be
comfortable to wear for extended periods of time, hamper movement as little as possible and be compatible with
other things a soldier can be expected to carry, such as
eld radios and spare ammunition. Infantry have suered
high casualty rates from disease, exposure, and privation
often in excess of the casualties suered from enemy
attacks. Better equipment of troops to protect against
these environmental factors greatly reduces these rates
of loss. One of the most valuable pieces of gear is the
entrenching toolbasically a folding spadewhich can U.S. Army infantrymen in a reght with Taliban guerrillas, Kunar Province, Afghanistan (31 March 2011).
be employed not only to dig important defenses, but also
in a variety of other daily tasks and even as a weapon.
Specialized equipment consists of a variety of gear which
may or may not be carried, depending on the mission and
the level of equipment of an army. Communications gear
has become a necessity, as it allows eective command of
infantry units over greater distances, and communication
with artillery and other support units. In some units, individual communications are being used to allow the greatest level of exibility. Engineering equipment, including
explosives, mines, and other gear, is also commonly carried by the infantry or attached specialists. A variety of
other gear, often relating to a specic mission, or to the
particular terrain in which the unit is employed, can be
Canadian Army infantrymen from 3PPCLI search for al-Qaeda
carried by infantry units.
and Taliban guerrillas north of Qualat, Afghanistan.
27.8 Other infantry

Infantry in air forces, such as the Royal Air Force Regiment and the Royal Australian Air Force Aireld Defence
Guards, are used primarily for ground-based defence of
air bases and other, air force facilities. They also have a
number of other, specialist roles, including Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) defence and
training other, air force personnel in basic ground defence
tactics.
Naval infantry, commonly known as marines, are a category of infantry that form part of a state
s naval forces and
perform roles on land and at sea, including amphibious
operations, as well as other, naval roles. They also perform other tasks, including land warfare, separate from
naval operations.
27.9 Descriptions of infantry

Ah, yes, mere infantry poor beggars. ...
Plautus* [8]
Let us be clear about three facts: First, all battles
and all wars are won, in the end, by the infantryman. Secondly, the infantryman always bears the
brunt; his casualties are heavier, he suers greater

extremes of discomfort and fatigue than the other
[combat] arms. Thirdly, the art of the infantryman
is less stereotyped, and far harder to acquire in modern war, than that of any other arm.Field Marshal Earl Wavell* [9]
I love the infantry, because they are the underdogs.
They are the mud-rain-frost-and-wind boys. They
have no comforts, and they even learn to live without
the necessities; and, in the end, they are the guys that
wars can't be won without.Ernie Pyle* [10]
Im convinced that the infantry is the group in the
army which gives more, and gets less, than anybody
else.Up Front (1945), by Bill Mauldin* [11]
Never think that war, no matter how necessary, nor
how justied, is not a crime. Ask the infantry, and
ask the dead.Ernest Hemingway* [12]
The infantry doesn't change. We're the only arm
[of the army] where the weapon is the man, himself.C.T. Shortis* [13]
The army's infantry is its most essential component. Even today, no army can take and hold
any ground without the use of infantry.George
Nafziger* [14]
27.12. REFERENCES
Aerial bombardment can obliterate, but only infantry can occupy. a Finnish Army ocer,
Operation Allied Force (1999), Kosovo.
There is no beating these [British and Spanish]
troops, in spite of their generals. I always thought
they were bad soldiers, now I am sure of it. I had
turned their right, pierced their centre, and, everywhere, victory was mine but they did not know
how to run!" Field Marshal Jean de Dieu Soult,
Battle of Albuera (16 May 1811), the Peninsular
War (180814).
Americans in 1950 rediscovered something that
since Hiroshima they had forgotten: you may y
over a land forever; you may bomb it, atomize it,
pulverize it and wipe it clean of life but if you desire to defend it, protect it, and keep it for civilization, you must do this on the ground, the way the
Roman legions did, by putting your young men into
the mud.Military historian T.R. Fehrenbach
181
[9] In Praise of Infantry, by Field Marshal Archibald Wavell,

1st Earl Wavell, The Times, Thursday, 19 April 1945
[10] p. 257, Tobin
[11] p. 5, Mauldin & Ambrose
[12] p. 262, Trogdon
[13] The New York Times, Shortis
[14] p. 13, Nafziger
27.12 References
English, John A., Gudmundsson, Bruce I., On Infantry, (Revised edition), The Military Profession
series, Praeger Publishers, London, 1994 ISBN 0275-94972-9
The Times, Earl Wavell, Thursday, 19 April 1945 In
Praise of Infantry
27.10 See also
Tobin, James, Ernie Pyle's War: America's Eyewitness to World War II, Free Press, 1997
Airborne infantry
Mauldin, Bill, Ambrose, Stephen E., Up Front, W.

W. Norton, 2000
Light infantry
Line Infantry
Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol
Mounted infantry
School of Infantry
Naval Infantry
Air force infantry and special forces units
27.11 Citations and notes

[1] Royal Australian Corps of Infantry at www.army.gov.au
[2] Canadian Forces Publication B-GL-392-001/FP-001 The
Infantry Battalion in Battle, Volume 1
[3] Canadian Forces Publication B-GL-301-002/FP-001 The
battle Group in Operations, Change 2, 1992-02-03.
[4] FM7-8, Infantry Rie Platoon and Squad
[5] MOS 0311
[6] The United States Army's Preparedness to Conduct Urban
Combat: A Strategic Priority, pp. 23
[7] http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/other_pub/
LoadCarriagePDF.pdf
[8] p. 156, Heinl
Trogdon, Robert W., Ernest Hemingway: A Literary

Reference, Da Capo Press, 2002
The New York Times, Maj Gen C T Shortis, British
Director of Infantry, 4 February 1985
Heinl, Robert Debs, Dictionary of Military and
Naval Quotations, Plautus in The Braggart Captain
(3rd century CE), Naval Institute Press, Annapolis,
1978
Nafziger, George, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia,
Presidio Press, 1998
McManus, John C. Grunts: inside the American infantry combat experience, World War II through Iraq
New York, NY: NAL Caliber. 2010 ISBN 978-0451-22790-4 plus Webcast Author Lecture at the
Pritzker Military Library on September 29, 2010

Historic lms and photos showing Infantries in
World War I at europeanlmgateway.eu
In Praise of Infantry, by Field-Marshal Earl Wavell;
First published inThe Times,Thursday, 19 April
1945.
Photographic history of the U.S. Army's 1st Air
Cavalry Division LRRP / Rangers in Vietnam 1968.
182
The Lagunari SerenissimaRegiment KFOR:
KFOR Chronicle.
Twenty-second and Last Patrol: A Struggle against
Bad Luck"---a U.S. Army LRRP / Ranger team's
experience during the Vietnam War.
Web Version of U.S. Army Field Manual 3-21.8
The Infantry Rie Platoon and Squad.
Chapter 28
Infantry ghting vehicle

from 1958 until the early 1980s. The SPz 12-3 mounted
a 20 mm autocannon in a small turret and carried a halfsquad of ve armoured infantrymen.
Western powers were surprised when the Soviet Union
paraded the BMP-1, in 1967. The BMP possessed a very
low prole and was armed with both a 73 mm smoothbore
gun and an AT-3 Sagger ATGM. Its steeply-sloped front
armour oered full protection against NATO's standard
.50 calibre machine gun and partial protection against 20
millimetre Oerlikon cannon both in a 60 degree frontal
arc, while its 73 mm gun and ATGM were a threat to
NATO APCs and even MBTs.
Russian BMP-3
Since then, all major military powers have developed

or adopted IFVs. The German Marder and Puma followed the Schtzenpanzer, the Chinese ZBD-97, the
Soviet/Russian BMP-3, the Indian Abhay IFV, the
Yugoslavian BVP M-80, the Canadian LAV III, the
British Warrior, the American M2 Bradley, the Spanish Pizarro/ASCOD, the Italian Dardo, the Greek ELVO
'Leonidas-2', the South African Ratel, the French AMX10P and VBCI, the Swedish Combat Vehicle 90 and the
Dutch YPR-765 AIFV.
An infantry ghting vehicle (IFV), or mechanized infantry combat vehicle (MICV), is a type of armoured
ghting vehicle used to carry infantry into battle and provide direct re support.* [1] The Treaty on Conventional
Armed Forces in Europe denes infantry ghting vehicle
as an armoured combat vehicle which is designed and
equipped primarily to transport a combat infantry squad,
which is armed with an integral or organic cannon of at
least 20 millimeters calibre and sometimes an antitank
Combat applications in close-combat environments are
missile launcher.
likely to drive up survivability requirements necessitatIFVs are distinct from armoured personnel carrier, which ing the same protection level required by main battle
are purely transport vehicles armed only for self-defense tanks.* [2]
and not intended to provide direct re support. IFVs
also often have improved armour and some have ports
which allow the infantry to re personal weapons while
on board.
They are typically armed with a 20 to 40 mm caliber
autocannon, a coaxial machine gun and sometimes antitank guided missiles (ATGMs). IFVs are usually tracked,
28.2 Doctrine
but there are some wheeled vehicles too. IFVs are much
less heavily armed and armoured than main battle tanks,
but if they carry anti-tank guided missiles they pose a sigIn times of asymmetrical warfare, local crises, and urban
nicant threat to main battle tanks.
combat, the IFV is more important than ever. The IFV
oers a viable compromise between mobility, protection,
and repower. They can be used in high and low intensity
28.1 History
conicts as well as peacekeeping operations. The latest
vehicles, like the Patria AMV, have been designed with
The rst mass-produced IFV was the West German an emphasis on modularity that improves their ability to
Schtzenpanzer 12-3 which served in the Bundeswehr be repaired in the eld.
183
184
CHAPTER 28. INFANTRY FIGHTING VEHICLE

sia's BMP-3, can withstand frontal hits from 30 mm autocannon. The sides, roof, and oor of IFVs have thinner armour. Vehicles must also protect crew against antipersonnel mines and against anti-tank mines.
Typical conguration of a tracked Infantry Fighting Vehicle
Newer vehicles like the Finnish Patria AMV use armour

made in interchangeable modules of various thickness.
This permits the vehicle to be tailored for particular missions such as decreasing the weight of vehicle for air
transportation or strengthening the protection if it engages in dangerous missions. The latest models of the
Russian BMP-3 use the Arena active protection system
(APS) that protects the vehicle from missiles and rockets
with velocities from 70 to 700 metres per second. Israeli IFVs will soon employ the Iron Fist (countermeasure) which can defeat kinetic APFSDS tank rounds.
The most common countermeasures are smoke grenade

dischargers. These help IFVs to avoid attacks from AT28.3 Design
GMs by providing a smoke screen. Some vehicles, such
as the French VBCI, employ infra-red jamming are disInfantry ghting vehicles are typically well armoured, al- pensers. These are eective against missiles with IR
though usually with less protection than main battle tanks. guidance systems.
Typical armament is an autocannon and machine guns.
The term heavy infantry ghting vehicle is often applied
IFVs have a door for dismounts.
to IFVs that are heavily armoured.
28.3.1
Protection
28.3.2 Weaponry
A Marder of the German Army res a MILAN anti-tank missile.

The German Puma is one of the best protected infantry ghting
vehicles
Generally, IFVs have thinner and less complex armour

than tanks to ensure mobility. Most IFVs are resistant against heavy machine guns, artillery fragments, and
small arms. The IFV's mission does not include anti-tank
duties except in support of tank units or in emergencies;
therefore, it needs less protection from heavy weapons
re. Instead, the IFV, as its name implies, is supposed
to carry riemen and their weapons into the battleeld
where they dismount and ght outside the vehicle with
the support of the IFV's main armament.
In IFVs, the thickness of armour varies widely between
models. Some vehicles are proof against .50 in (12. mm)
bullets while others, such as Sweden's CV90 and Rus- Nagmachon of the IDF
28.4. SEE ALSO

The primary weapon on most IFVs is an autocannon, usually of a calibre between 2040 mm, although the BMP-3
and BMD-4 carries a 100 mm gun/missile launcher along
with a 30 mm autocannon. It is eective against a wide
range of targets such as unarmoured and lightly armoured
vehicles, infantry, helicopters and low-ying aircraft. It
can re several types of munitions, including high explosive, incendiary, and kinetic penetrator rounds. Germany's Puma and Sweden's CV90 can re air burst munitions that contain hundreds of tungsten rods that are effective against vehicles, helicopters, and stationary strong
points. IFV cannons can elevate their barrels by as much
as 70 degrees to permit their crews to engage aircraft.
On many IFVs, a coaxial machine gun is mounted on the
turret along with the main armament. The most common
calibre is 7.62 mm (.30 cal). Some vehicles mount more
machine guns; for example, on the German Marder, one
machine gun res from the rear of the vehicle, and the
Russian BMP-3 has two machine guns mounted in the
hull facing forward.
Many IFVs utilize ring ports allowing infantry to re
without leaving the protection of the vehicle.
Some IFVs are equipped with anti-tank missiles. These
missiles are mostly medium range (20004000 m),
though some such as 9M117M1 Arkan has a range of
5,500 m.* [3] Others may carry surface-to-air missiles or
a combination of the two, such as the 2T Stalker.
Some new vehicles, such as the BTR-90 or Puma, come
equipped with 30, 40, 76, or 81 mm grenade launchers.
Most IFVs also have a smoke grenade dischargers for concealment.
28.3.3
Mobility
185
railway, as required by tracked IFVs. Tracked IFVs need
to have their treads serviced or replaced on a regular basis. The tracks themselves and the weight of the IFVs
tend to be tough on road surfaces, wearing them down
more quickly than a wheeled IFV. Many wheeled IFVs
can extract themselves from a battleeld with specialised
run-at tires when not operating in dicult terrain, while
an IFV with damaged tracks would require its tracks repaired in the eld or an armoured recovery vehicle to tow
it out. However, tracks cannot be punctured like a tire so
are more dicult to immobilize. A weapon that destroys
a track will do signicantly more damage to a wheeled
vehicle (such as destroying the axles in which case the
vehicle will have to be towed away as well). Tracks also
oer far greater o-road mobility, greater obstacle climbing capabilities and greater maneuverability than wheels.
Unlike a wheeled vehicle, a tracked vehicle will not be
stopped by a spike strip or roadblock. A tracked vehicle can reach places a wheeled vehicle can not. As IFVs
often operate alongside tanks, being tracked means that
the vehicle can go everywhere that the tanks go, which a
wheeled vehicle could not. In this case wheeled vehicles
would either have to take another route (leaving the tanks
without IFV support and the IFVs without tank protection) or the tanks would have to stay where the wheeled
IFVs can go and drastically limit their own tactical mobility. Tracked vehicles can attack and operate from and in
areas which a wheeled vehicle could not which is a great
tactical advantage. A wheeled vehicle is limited to roads
and less dicult terrain which may enable the enemy to
predict where they will come from. Generally, therefore,
tracked vehicles have greater mobility except on roads
where wheeled vehicles have a greater top speed. Many
countries only use wheeled armour for support functions
or low-risk peacekeeping missions whereas combat functions are performed by tracked vehicles. A compromise
between wheels and tracks is the band track, which combines some of the advantages of wheels and tracks.
The mobility oered by IFVs is an asset in close combat, especially against xed artillery. American military
simulations in the 1980s concluded a three to ve-fold increase in artillery defence eectiveness when IFVs were
deployed.* [4]
Throughout its life cycle, an IFV is expected to gain 30%
more weight from armour additions. This complicates the
design by requiring additional power.* [5]
28.4 See also

Vhicule blind de combat d'infanterie ascending a slope
Some IFVs are amphibious and air transportable. A few,

such as the Soviet BMD series or the Chinese ZBD2000,
can be deployed by a parachute system from aircraft directly into battle.
Wheeled IFVs can travel great distances on their own
without needing to be transported by at-bed trucks and
List of AFVs
List of modern armoured ghting vehicles
Armoured warfare
BMP development
186
Improvised ghting vehicle
Mechanized infantry
Tank desant
28.5 References
[1] Martin J. Dougherty, Chris McNab (2010). Combat Techniques: An Elite Forces Guide to Modern Infantry Tactics. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-36824-1. Retrieved
5 March 2011.
[2] Scott Boston (Winter 2004).Toward a Protected Future
Force (PDF). p. 67. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
[3] http://www.military-today.com/apc/bmd_4.htm
[4] Jonathan B. A. Bailey (2004). Field artillery and repower. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-029-3. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
[5] Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security
Studies. Method Publishing. 2004. p. 30. Retrieved 31
March 2011.
CHAPTER 28. INFANTRY FIGHTING VEHICLE
Chapter 29
Iraq War
This article is about the war that started in 2003 and heavy criticism within the U.S. and internationally.
ended in 2011. For other conicts in Iraq, see Iraq War
As a result of the war, Iraq held multi-party elections in
(disambiguation).
2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006
and remained in oce until 2014. The Maliki governThe Iraq War* [nb 1] was a protracted armed conict ment enacted policies that were widely seen as having the
that began with the 2003 invasion of Iraq led by the eect of alienating the country's Sunni minority, worsenUnited States. The invasion toppled the government of ing sectarian tensions. In the summer of 2014, the Islamic
Saddam Hussein. The conict, however, continued for State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) launched a military
much of the next decade as an insurgency emerged to oensive in Northern Iraq and declared a worldwide Isoppose the occupying forces and the post-invasion Iraqi lamic caliphate, eliciting another military response from
government.* [43] The United States ocially withdrew the United States and its allies. The Iraq War caused hunfrom the country in 2011, but the insurgency and various dreds of thousands of civilian and military casualties (see
estimates below). The majority of casualties occurred as
dimensions of the civil armed conict continue.
The invasion began on 20 March 2003. The U.S., a result of the insurgency and civil conicts between 2004
joined by the United Kingdom and several coalition al- and 2007.
lies, launched a "shock and awe" surprise attack without
declaring war. Iraqi forces were quickly overwhelmed as
U.S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led
to the collapse of the Ba'athist government; Saddam was
captured in December 2003 and executed by a military
court three years later. However, the power vacuum following Saddam's demise and the mismanagement of the
occupation led to widespread sectarian violence between
Shias and Sunnis as well as a lengthy insurgency against
U.S. and coalition forces. The United States responded
with a troop surge in 2007, identied as the COIN strategy; the heavy American security presence and deals
made between the occupying forces and Sunni militias reduced the level of violence. The U.S. began withdrawing
its troops in the winter of 20072008. The winding down
of U.S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President
Barack Obama. The U.S. formally withdrew all combat
troops from Iraq by December 2011.* [44]
The Bush Administration based its rationale for war principally on the assertion that Iraq possessed weapons of
mass destruction (WMDs) and that Saddam's government
posed an immediate threat to the United States and its
coalition allies.* [45]* [46] Select U.S. ocials accused
Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda,* [47]
while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship and bring democracy to the people of Iraq.* [48]* [49]
After the invasion, no substantial evidence was found
to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and misrepresentation of pre-war intelligence faced
29.1 Background
29.1.1 Iraq disarmament and pre-war intelligence
See also: Lead up to the Iraq War, Rationale for the
Iraq War, Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion
of Iraq, Governments' pre-war positions on invasion of
Iraq, Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda, Iraq and weapons
of mass destruction and Stovepiping
Main articles: Iraq disarmament timeline 19902003
and 2002 in Iraq
Prior to September 2002, the CIA was the Bush administration's main provider of intelligence on Iraq. In September, a Pentagon unit called Oce of Special Plans
(OSP), was created by Paul Wolfowitz and Douglas Feith,
and headed by Feith, as charged by then-United States
Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, to supply senior
George W. Bush administration ocials with raw intelligence pertaining to Iraq.* [50] Seymour Hersh writes that,
according to a Pentagon adviser, "[OSP] was created in
order to nd evidence of what Wolfowitz and his boss,
Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, wanted to be true
that Saddam Hussein had close ties to Al Qaeda, and
that Iraq had an enormous arsenal of chemical, biological,
187
188
CHAPTER 29. IRAQ WAR
and possibly even nuclear weapons (WMD) that threatened the region and, potentially, the United States. [...]
'The agency [CIA] was out to disprove linkage between
Iraq and terrorism,' the Pentagon adviser told me.* [51]
U.N. weapons inspections resume

The issue of Iraq's disarmament reached a turning point
in 20022003, when President Bush demanded a complete end to alleged Iraqi production of weapons of
mass destruction and full compliance with U.N. Security Council Resolutions requiring U.N. weapons inspectors unfettered access to suspected weapons production
facilities. The U.N. had prohibited Iraq from developing
or possessing such weapons after the Persian Gulf War
and required Iraq to permit inspections conrming compliance. During inspections in 1999, U.S. intelligence
agents supplied the United States with a direct feed of
conversations between Iraqi security agencies as well as
other information. This was conrmed by the New York
Times and the Wall Street Journal.* [52]
During 2002, U.S. President George Bush repeatedly
warned of military action against Iraq unless inspections
were allowed to progress unfettered. In accordance with
U.N. Security Council Resolution 1441 Iraq agreed to
new inspections in late 2002. With the cooperation of
the Iraqis, a third weapons inspection team in 2003 led
by David Kelly viewed and photographed two alleged mobile weapons laboratories, which were actually facilities
for the production of hydrogen gas to ll balloons.* [53]
As part of its weapons inspection obligations, Iraq was required to supply a full declaration of its current weapons
capabilities and manufacturing. On 3 November 2002,
Iraq supplied an 11,800-page report to the UN Security
Council and the IAEA, stating that it had no WMDs.
Copies of the report were also unocially supplied to
several European journalists. Columbia, chair of the Security Council, allowed US ocials to secretly remove
8,000 pages from the report before it was viewed by the
full security council, and on the basis of this the report
was declared incomplete and Iraq in breach of its obligations. The removed pages contained details of US and
European companies and government agencies who had
historically assisted Iraq in developing its chemical and
biological weapons capabilities.* [54]
Shortly before the invasion, Hans Blix, the lead weapons
inspector, advised the U.N. Security Council that Iraq
was cooperating with inspections and the conrmation
of disarmament through inspections could be achieved
quickly if Iraq remained cooperative.* [55]
29.1.2
Weapons of mass destruction
A UN weapons inspector examines an Iraqi factory in 2002.
Yellowcake uranium
In 1990, before the Persian Gulf War, Iraq had stockpiled 550 short tons (500 t) of yellowcake uranium at the
Tuwaitha nuclear complex about 20 kilometres (12 mi)
south of Baghdad.* [56] In late February 2002, the CIA
sent former Ambassador Joseph C. Wilson to investigate
reports (later found to be forgeries) that Iraq was attempting to purchase additional yellowcake from Niger. Wilson returned and informed the CIA that reports of yellowcake sales to Iraq were unequivocally wrong.The
Bush administration, however, continued to allege Iraq's
attempts to obtain additional yellowcake were a justication for military action, most prominently in the January
2003, State of the Union address, in which President Bush
declared that Iraq had sought uranium, citing British intelligence sources.* [57]
In response, Wilson wrote a critical New York Times oped piece in June 2003 stating that he had personally investigated claims of yellowcake purchases and believed
them to be fraudulent.* [58] After Wilson's op-ed, Wilson's wife Valerie Plame was publicly identied as an
undercover CIA analyst by a columnist. This led to a
Justice Department investigation into the source of the
leak. The federal investigation led to the conviction of
I. Lewis (Scooter) Libby, Vice President Dick Cheney's
chief of sta, on charges of perjury and obstruction of
justice.* [56]
On 1 May 2005, the "Downing Street memo" was published in The Sunday Times. It contained an overview of a
secret 23 July 2002, meeting among British government,
Ministry of Defence, and British intelligence gures who
discussed the build-up to the Iraq warincluding direct
references to classied US policy of the time. The memo
stated that Bush wanted to remove Saddam, through
military action, justied by the conjunction of terrorism
and WMD. But the intelligence and facts were being xed
around the policy.* [59]
In September 2002, the Bush administration, the CIA and
the DIA said attempts by Iraq to acquire high-strength
aluminum tubes that were prohibited under the UN mon-
29.1. BACKGROUND
itoring program and which they said pointed to a clandestine eort to make centrifuges to enrich uranium for
nuclear bombs.* [60] This analysis was opposed by the
United States Department of Energy (DOE) and INR,
which was signicant because of DOE's expertise in such
gas centrifuges and nuclear weapons programs. The DOE
and INR argued that the Iraqi tubes were poorly suited for
centrifuges and that while it was technically possible with
additional modication, conventional military uses were
more plausible.* [61] A report released by the Institute for
Science and International Security in 2002 reported that
it was highly unlikely that the tubes could be used to enrich uranium.* [62]
189
Colin Powell presented evidence to the United Nations security council that Iraq had an active biological
weapons programs. On 15 February 2011, the defector
a scientist identied as Rad Ahmed Alwan al-Jana
admitted to journalists working for The Guardian newspaper that he lied to the Bundesnachrichtendienst in order
to strengthen the case against Saddam Hussein, whom he
wished to see removed from power.* [71]
Post-invasion views on WMD
In December 2009, the former British prime minister,

Tony Blair, stated that he would still have thought it
An eort by the DOE to correct this detail in com- right to remove [Saddam Hussein]" regardless of whether
ments prepared for United States Secretary of State Colin Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction or not.* [72]
Powell's UN appearance was rebued by the administration* [62]* [63] and Powell, in his address to the UN Security Council just before the war, referenced the aluminum 29.1.3 Preparations for Iraq war
tubes, stating that while experts disagreed on whether
or not the tubes were destined for a centrifuge program,
the specications of the tubes were unusually tight.* [64]
Powell later admitted he had presented what turned out to
be an inaccurate case to the UN on Iraqi weapons, and the
intelligence he was relying on was, in some cases, deliberately misleading.* [65]* [66]* [67] After the 2008
US presidential election, and the election of Democratic
party nominee Barack Obama, President Bush stated that
"[my] biggest regret of all the presidency has to have been
the intelligence failure in Iraq.* [68]
Poison gas
The CIA had contacted Iraq's foreign minister, Naji
Sabri, who was being paid by the French as an agent.
Sabri informed them that Saddam had hidden poison gas
among Sunni tribesmen, had ambitions for a nuclear program but that it was not active, and that no biological
weapons were being produced or stockpiled, although
research was underway.* [69] According to Sidney Blumenthal, George Tenet briefed Bush on 18 September
2002, that Sabri had informed them that Iraq did not have
WMD.
On 21 June 2006 the US House of Representatives Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence released key
points from a classied report from the National Ground
Intelligence Center on the recovery of a small number of
degraded chemical munitions in Iraq. The report stated
thatCoalition forces have recovered approximately 500
weapons munitions which contain degraded mustard or
sarin nerve agent.However, all are thought to be preGulf War munitions.* [70]
President George Bush, surrounded by leaders of the House and

Senate, announces the Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of
United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, 2 October 2002
Excerpt from Donald Rumsfeld memo dated 27 November

2001* [73]
In the days immediately following 9/11, the Bush Administration national security team actively debated an invasion of Iraq. A memo written by Sec. Rumsfeld dated 27
November 2001 considers a US-Iraq war. One section of
the memo questions How start?", listing multiple possible justications for a US-Iraq War.* [73]* [74]
During 2002 the amount of ordnance used by British and

American aircraft patrolling the no-y zones of Iraq increased compared to the previous years* [75] and by AuBiological weapons
gust hadbecome a full air oensive. Tommy Franks,
the allied commander, later stated that the bombing was
Based on reports obtained by the German intelligence designed todegradethe Iraqi air defense system before
service from an Iraqi defector codenamed "Curveball", an invasion.* [76]
190
In October 2002, a few days before the US Senate voted

on the Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United
States Armed Forces Against Iraq, about 75 senators were
told in closed session that Iraq had the means of attacking the Eastern Seaboard of the US with biological or
chemical weapons delivered by unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs.)* [46] On 5 February 2003, Colin Powell presented further evidence in his Iraqi WMD program presentation to the UN Security Council that UAVs were
ready to be launched against the United States. At the
time, there was a vigorous dispute within the US military and intelligence communities as to whether CIA
conclusions about Iraqi UAVs were accurate* [77] and
other intelligence agencies suggested that Iraq did not United States Secretary of State Colin Powell holding a model
possess any oensive UAV capability, saying the few vial of anthrax while giving a presentation to the United Nations
they had were designed for surveillance and intended for Security Council
reconnaissance.* [78] The Senate voted to approve the
Joint Resolution with the support of large bipartisan majorities on 11 October 2002, providing the Bush administration with a legal basis for the US invasion under US
law.
The resolution granted the authorization by the
Constitution of the United States and the United
States Congress for the President to command the
military to ght anti-United States violence. Citing the
Iraq Liberation Act of 1998, the resolution reiterated that
it should be the policy of the United States to remove the
Saddam regime and promote a democratic replacement.
The authorization was signed by President George W.
Bush on 16 October 2002.
From the left: French President Jacques Chirac, US President
Chief UN weapons inspector Hans Blix remarked in January 2003 that Iraq appears not to have come to a genuine acceptancenot even todayof the disarmament,
which was demanded of it and which it needs to carry out
to win the condence of the world and to live in peace.
*
[79] Among other things he noted that 1,000 short tons
(910 t) of chemical agent were unaccounted for, information on Iraq's VX nerve agent program was missing, and
thatno convincing evidencewas presented for the destruction of 8,500 litres (1,900 imp gal; 2,200 US gal) of
anthrax that had been declared.* [79]
In the 2003 State of the Union address, President Bush
said we know that Iraq, in the late 1990s, had several mobile biological weapons labs. On 5 February 2003, Secretary of State Colin Powell appeared before the UN to present evidence that Iraq was hiding
unconventional weapons.* [80] The French government
also believed that Saddam had stockpiles of anthrax and
botulism toxin, and the ability to produce VX.* [81] In
March, Blix said progress had been made in inspections,
and no evidence of WMD had been found.* [82] Iraqi scientist Rad Ahmed Alwan al-Janabi codenamedCurveball, admitted in February 2011, that he lied to the CIA
about biological weapons in order to get the US to attack
and remove Saddam from power.* [83]
George W. Bush, UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and Italian

Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi. Chirac was against the invasion, the other three leaders were in favor.
proposed the so-called eighteenth resolutionto give

Iraq a deadline for compliance with previous resolutions
enforced by the threat of military action. This proposed resolution was subsequently withdrawn due to lack
of support on the UN Security Council. In particular,
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) members
France, Germany and Canada and non-NATO member
Russia were opposed to military intervention in Iraq,
due to the high level of risk to the international community's security, and defended disarmament through diplomacy.* [84]* [85]
A meeting between George W. Bush and Tony Blair took

place on 31 January 2003, in the White House. A secret
memo of this meeting purportedly showed that the Bush
administration had already decided on the invasion of
Iraq at that point. Bush was allegedly oating the idea of
painting a U2 spyplane in UN colors and letting it y low
over Iraq to provoke Iraqi forces into shooting it down,
thereby providing a pretext for the United States and
Britain to invade. Bush and Blair made a secret deal to
carry out the invasion regardless of whether WMD were
In early 2003, the US, British, and Spanish governments discovered by UN weapons inspectors, in direct contradiction with statements Blair made to the British House
29.2. THE INVASION

of Commons afterwards that the Iraqi regime would be
given a nal chance to disarm. In the memo, Bush is
paraphrased as saying, The start date for the military campaign was now pencilled in for 10 March. This
was when the bombing would begin.* [86] Bush said
to Blair that he thought it unlikely that there would be
internecine warfare between the dierent religious and
ethnic groupsin Iraq after the war.
191
almost 3,000 protests against war in Iraq, with demonstrations on 15 February 2003, being the largest and most
prolic.* [90] Nelson Mandela voiced his opposition in
late January, stating All that (Mr. Bush) wants is Iraqi
oil,.* [91]
In February 2003, the US Army's top general, Eric Shinseki, told the Senate Armed Services Committee that it
would takeseveral hundred thousand soldiersto secure
Iraq.* [92] Two days later, US Defense Secretary Donald
Rumsfeld said the post-war troop commitment would be
29.1.4 Opposition to invasion
less than the number of troops required to win the war,
Further information: criticism of the Iraq War, and that the idea that it would take several hundred
legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, legality of the thousand US forces is far from the mark.Deputy Defense Secretary Paul Wolfowitz said Shineski's estimate
Iraq War and Protests against the Iraq War
was way o the mark,because other countries would
take part in an occupying force.* [93]
In October 2002 former US President Bill Clinton
warned about possible dangers of pre-emptive military In March 2003, Hans Blix reported that No evidence
action against Iraq. Speaking in the UK on a Labour Party of proscribed activities have so far been foundin Iraq,
conference he said:As a preemptive action today, how- saying that progress was made in inspections which would
ever well-justied, may come back with unwelcome con- continue. He estimated the time remaining for disarmabeing veried through inspections to be months
sequences in the future....I don't care how precise your ment
*
.
[82]
But the US government announced that diplobombs and your weapons are, when you set them o, inmacy
has
failed, and that it would proceed with a coalinocent people will die.* [87]* [88]
tion of allied countriesnamed the "coalition of the willing"to rid Iraq of its alleged WMD. The US government abruptly advised UN weapons inspectors to leave
Baghdad immediately.
There were serious legal questions surrounding the
launching of the war against Iraq and the Bush Doctrine
of preemptive war in general. On 16 September 2004,
Ko Annan, the Secretary General of the United Nations,
said of the invasion, I have indicated it was not in conformity with the UN Charter. From our point of view,
from the Charter point of view, it was illegal.
Anti-War protest in London, 2002.
In November 2008 Lord Bingham, the former British

Law Lord, described the war a serious violation of
international law, and accused Britain and the United
States of acting like a world vigilante". He also criticized the post-invasion record of Britain as an occupying power in Iraq. Regarding the treatment of Iraqi
detainees in Abu Ghraib, Bingham said: Particularly
disturbing to proponents of the rule of law is the cynical
lack of concern for international legality among some top
ocials in the Bush administration.* [94] In July 2010,
Deputy Prime Minister of the UK Nick Clegg, in an ofcial PMQs session in Parliament, condemned the invasion of Iraq as illegal.* [95] Theorist Francis Fukuyama
has argued that the Iraq war and the close association
it created between military invasion and democracy promotion tarnished the latter.* [96]
On 20 January 2003, French Foreign Minister

Dominique de Villepin declared we believe that
military intervention would be the worst solution.* [89]
Meanwhile anti-war groups across the world organ- 29.2 The invasion
ised public protests. According to French academic
Dominique Reyni, between 3 January and 12 April Main articles: 2003 invasion of Iraq, 2003 in Iraq, 2003
2003, 36 million people across the globe took part in Iraq war timeline and List of people associated with the
192
2003 invasion of Iraq
See also: Coalition military operations of the Iraq War
and Iraq War order of battle
The rst Central Intelligence Agency team entered Iraq
Destroyed remains of Iraqi tanks near Al Qadisiyah.

pose the invasion, and to identify all of the initial leadership targets during very high risk reconnaissance missions.* [98]
Most importantly, their eorts organized the Kurdish
Peshmerga to become the northern front of the invasion.
Together this force defeated Ansar al-Islam in Iraqi Kurdistan before the invasion and then defeated the Iraqi
army in the north.* [98]* [99] The battle against Ansar alIslam led to the death of a substantial number of militants and the uncovering of a chemical weapons facility
at Sargat.* [97]* [100]
At 5:34 a.m. Baghdad time on 20 March 2003 (9:34
p.m., 19 March EST) the surprise* [101] military invasion of Iraq began.* [102] There was no declaration of
war.* [103] The 2003 invasion of Iraq, led by US Army
General Tommy Franks, under the codename Operation Iraqi Freedom,* [104] the UK codename Operation
Telic, and the Australian codename Operation Falconer.
Coalition forces also cooperated with Kurdish Peshmerga
forces in the north. Approximately forty other governments, the "Coalition of the Willing,participated by
providing troops, equipment, services, security, and special forces, with 248,000 soldiers from the United States,
45,000 British soldiers, 2,000 Australian soldiers and 194
Polish soldiers from Special Forces unit GROM sent to
Kuwait for the invasion.* [105] The invasion force was
also supported by Iraqi Kurdish militia troops, estimated
to number upwards of 70,000.* [106]
US Marines escort captured enemy prisoners to a holding area in

the desert of Iraq on 21 March 2003.
Iraqi tank on Highway 27 destroyed in April 2003
US soldiers at the Hands of Victory monument in Baghdad
According to General Tommy Franks, the objectives of

the invasion were, First, end the regime of Saddam
Hussein. Second, to identify, isolate and eliminate Iraq's
weapons of mass destruction. Third, to search for, to capture and to drive out terrorists from that country. Fourth,
to collect such intelligence as we can related to terrorist
networks. Fifth, to collect such intelligence as we can related to the global network of illicit weapons of mass destruction. Sixth, to end sanctions and to immediately deliver humanitarian support to the displaced and to many
needy Iraqi citizens. Seventh, to secure Iraq's oil elds
and resources, which belong to the Iraqi people. And last,
to help the Iraqi people create conditions for a transition
to a representative self-government.* [107]
on 10 July 2002.* [97] This team was composed of members of the CIA's Special Activities Division and was later
joined by members of the US military's elite Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC).* [98] Together, they
prepared for the invasion of conventional forces. These
eorts consisted of persuading the commanders of sev- The invasion was a quick and decisive operation encouneral Iraqi military divisions to surrender rather than op- tering major resistance, though not what the US, British
29.2. THE INVASION
193
westward and then northward through the western desert
toward Baghdad, while the 1st Marine Expeditionary
Force moved more easterly along Highway 1 through the
center of the country, and 1 (UK) Armoured Division
moved northward through the eastern marshland. The US
1st Marine Division fought through Nasiriyah in a battle
to seize the major road junction and nearby Talil Aireld.
The United States Army 3rd Infantry Division defeated
Iraqi forces entrenched in and around the aireld.
Map of the invasion routes and major operations/battles of the

Iraq War as of 2007.
and other forces expected. The Iraqi regime had prepared

to ght both a conventional and irregular war at the same
time, conceding territory when faced with superior conventional forces, largely armored, but launching smaller
scale attacks in the rear using ghters dressed in civilian
and paramilitary clothes. Since the initiation of the war
in Iraq, numerous programs were created to enhance
psychological resilience and prevent psychological morbidity in troops.* [108]
Coalition troops launched air and amphibious assault on
the Al-Faw peninsula to secure the oil elds there and
the important ports, supported by warships of the Royal
Navy, Polish Navy, and Royal Australian Navy. The
United States Marine Corps' 15th Marine Expeditionary
Unit, attached to 3 Commando Brigade and the Polish
Special Forces unit GROM attacked the port of Umm
Qasr, while the British Army's 16 Air Assault Brigade
secured the oil elds in southern Iraq.
With the Nasiriyah and Talil Airelds secured in its rear,

the 3rd Infantry Division supported by 101st Airborne
Division continued its attack north toward Najaf and Karbala, but a severe sand storm slowed the coalition advance
and there was a halt to consolidate and make sure the
supply lines were secure. When they started again they
secured the Karbala Gap, a key approach to Baghdad,
then secured the bridges over the Euphrates River, and
US forces poured through the gap on to Baghdad. In the
middle of Iraq, the 1st Marine Division fought its way to
the eastern side of Baghdad, and prepared for the attack
into Baghdad to seize it.* [109]
In the north, OIF1 used the largest special operations
force since the successful attack on the Taliban government of Afghanistan just over a year earlier.
On 9 April, Baghdad fell, ending Saddam's 24year rule.
US forces seized the deserted Ba'ath Party ministries
and stage-managed* [110] the tearing down of a huge
iron statue of Saddam, photos and video of which became symbolic of the event, although later controversial. Not seen in the photos or heard on the videos, shot
with a zoom lens, was the chant of the inamed crowd
for Muqtada al-Sadr, the radical Shiite cleric.* [111]
In November 2008, Iraqi protesters staged a similar
stomping on and burning of an egy of George W.
Bush.* [112] The abrupt fall of Baghdad was accompanied by a widespread outpouring of gratitude toward the
invaders, but also massive civil disorder, including the
looting of public and government buildings and drastically increased crime.* [113]* [114]
According to the Pentagon, 250,000 short tons (230,000
t) (of 650,000 short tons (590,000 t) total) of ordnance
was looted, providing a signicant source of ammunition
for the Iraqi insurgency. The invasion phase concluded
when Tikrit, Saddam's home town, fell with little resistance to the US Marines of Task Force Tripoli.
In the invasion phase of the war (19 March30 April), an
estimated 9,200 Iraqi combatants were killed by coalition
forces along with an estimated 3,750 non-combatants, i.e.
civilians who did not take up arms.* [115] Coalition forces
reported the death in combat of 139 US military personnel* [116] and 33 UK military personnel.* [117]
US Marines from 1st Battalion 7th Marines enter a palace during

the Fall of Baghdad.
The heavy armor of the US 3rd Infantry Division moved
194
29.3 Post-invasion phase

Main article: Post-invasion Iraq, 2003present
Further information: Iraqi insurgency (Iraq War) and
Iraq War insurgent attacks
29.3.1
2003: Beginnings of insurgency
Marines from D Company, 3rd Light Armored Reconnaissance

Battalion guard detainees prior to loading them into their vehicle
On 1 May 2003, President Bush visited the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln operating a few miles west of
San Diego, California. At sunset Bush held his nationally televised "Mission Accomplished" speech, delivered
before the sailors and airmen on the ight deck: Bush
declared victory due to the defeat of Iraq's conventional
forces.
A Marine Corps M1 Abrams tank patrols a Baghdad street after
its fall in 2003 during Operation Iraqi Freedom.
18 May 2004: Sta Sgt. Kevin Jessen checks the underside of

two anti-tank mines found in a village outside Ad Dujayl in the
Sunni Triangle.
Nevertheless, Saddam remained at large and signicant

pockets of resistance remained. After President Bush's
speech, coalition forces noticed a gradually increasing
urry of attacks on its troops in various regions, especially
in the "Sunni Triangle".* [118] The initial Iraqi insurgents
were supplied by hundreds of weapons caches created before the invasion by the Iraqi army and Republican Guard.
Initially, Iraqi resistance (described by the coalition as
Anti-Iraqi Forces) largely stemmed from fedayeen and
Saddam/Ba'ath Party loyalists, but soon religious radicals
and Iraqis angered by the occupation contributed to the
insurgency. The three provinces with the highest number
of attacks were Baghdad, Al Anbar, and Salah Ad Din.
Those three provinces account for 35% of the population,
but as of 5 December 2006, were responsible for 73% of
U.S. military deaths and an even higher percentage of recent U.S. military deaths (about 80%.)* [119]
Insurgents used guerrilla tactics including: mortars, missiles, suicide attacks, snipers, improvised explosive devices (IEDs), car bombs, small arms re (usually with
assault ries), and RPGs (rocket propelled grenades), as
well as sabotage against the petroleum, water, and electrical infrastructure.
Post-invasion Iraq coalition eorts commenced after the
fall of Saddam's regime. The coalition nations, together
with the United Nations, began to work to establish a stable, compliant democratic state capable of defending itself from non-coalition forces, as well as overcoming internal divisions.* [120]* [121]
Polish GROM forces in sea operations during Operation Iraqi

Freedom
Meanwhile, coalition military forces launched several operations around the Tigris River peninsula and in the
Sunni Triangle. A series of similar operations were
launched throughout the summer in the Sunni Triangle.
Toward the end of 2003, the intensity and pace of insur-
29.3. POST-INVASION PHASE

gent attacks began to increase. A sharp surge in guerrilla
attacks ushered in an insurgent eort that was termed the
"Ramadan Oensive", as it coincided with the beginning
of the Muslim holy month of Ramadan.
195
called the decision acatastrophic failure* [123] Bremer
served until the CPA's dissolution in July 2004.
Another group created by the multinational force in Iraq
post-invasion was the 1,400-member international Iraq
Survey Group who conducted a fact-nding mission to
nd Iraqi weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programmes. In 2004 the ISG's Duelfer Report* [124] stated
that Iraq did not have a viable WMD program.
To counter this oensive, coalition forces begin to use air

power and artillery again for the rst time since the end of
the invasion by striking suspected ambush sites and mortar launching positions. Surveillance of major routes, patrols, and raids on suspected insurgents were stepped up.
In addition, two villages, including Saddam's birthplace
of al-Auja and the small town of Abu Hishma were sur- Capturing former government leaders
rounded by barbed wire and carefully monitored.
See also: Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal and Trial of
Saddam Hussein
Coalition Provisional Authority and the Iraq Survey In the summer of 2003, the multinational forces focused
Group
See also: Iraqi Governing Council, International Advisory and Monitoring Board, CPA Program Review
Board, Development Fund for Iraq and Reconstruction
of Iraq
Shortly after the invasion, the multinational coalition cre-
Saddam Hussein being pulled from his hideaway in Operation

Red Dawn, 13 December 2003.
Occupation zones in Iraq as of September 2003.
ated the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA; Arabic:

) , based in the Green Zone, as a
transitional government of Iraq until the establishment of
a democratic government. Citing United Nations Security Council Resolution 1483 (22 May 2003) and the laws
of war, the CPA vested itself with executive, legislative,
and judicial authority over the Iraqi government from the
period of the CPA's inception on 21 April 2003, until its
Two insurgents in Iraq with SA-7b and SA-14 MANPADS
dissolution on 28 June 2004.
The CPA was originally headed by Jay Garner, a former
US military ocer, but his appointment lasted only until 11 May 2003, when President Bush appointed L. Paul
Bremer. On 16 May 2003 on his rst day on the job Paul
Bremer issued CPA executive order No1 to exclude from
the new Iraqi government and administration members of
the Baathist party. This eventually led to the removal of
85,000 to 100,000 Iraqi people from their job. * [122] including 40,000 school teachers who had joined the Baath
Party simply to keep their jobs. US army general Sanchez
on capturing the remaining leaders of the former government. On 22 July, a raid by the U.S. 101st Airborne Division and soldiers from Task Force 20 killed Saddam's
sons (Uday and Qusay) along with one of his grandsons.
In all, over 300 top leaders of the former government
were killed or captured, as well as numerous lesser functionaries and military personnel.
Most signicantly, Saddam Hussein himself was captured on 13 December 2003, on a farm near Tikrit
196
in Operation Red Dawn.* [125] The operation was conducted by the United States Army's 4th Infantry Division
and members of Task Force 121. Intelligence on Saddam's whereabouts came from his family members and
former bodyguards.* [126]
With the capture of Saddam and a drop in the number
of insurgent attacks, some concluded the multinational
forces were prevailing in the ght against the insurgency.
The provisional government began training the new Iraqi
security forces intended to police the country, and the
United States promised over $20 billion in reconstruction
money in the form of credit against Iraq's future oil revenues. Oil revenue was also used for rebuilding schools
and for work on the electrical and rening infrastructure. Coalition Provisional Authority director L. Paul Bremer signs
Shortly after the capture of Saddam, elements left out of
the Coalition Provisional Authority began to agitate for
elections and the formation of an Iraqi Interim Government. Most prominent among these was the Shia cleric
Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani. The Coalition Provisional Authority opposed allowing democratic elections
at this time.* [127] The insurgents stepped up their activities. The two most turbulent centers were the area
around Fallujah and the poor Shia sections of cities from
Baghdad (Sadr City) to Basra in the south.
29.3.2
over sovereignty to the appointed Iraqi Interim Government, 28

June 2004.
the multinational forces' tactics and planning a renewed

oensive. However, violence did increase during the Iraq
Spring Fighting of 2004 with foreign ghters from around
the Middle East as well as al-Qaeda in Iraq (an aliated
al-Qaeda group), led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi helping
to drive the insurgency.
2004: Insurgency expands
Main article: 2004 in Iraq
See also: Military operations of the Iraq War

for a list of all Coalition operations for this
period, 2004 in Iraq, Iraqi coalition counterinsurgency operations, Iraqi insurgency (2003
11), United States occupation of Fallujah, Iraq
Spring Fighting of 2004
US troops re mortars
As the insurgency grew there was a distinct change in targeting from the coalition forces towards the new Iraqi
Security Forces, as hundreds of Iraqi civilians and police were killed over the next few months in a series of
massive bombings. An organized Sunni insurgency, with
deep roots and both nationalist and Islamist motivations,
was becoming more powerful throughout Iraq. The Shia
Mahdi Army also began launching attacks on coalition
targets in an attempt to seize control from Iraqi security
forces. The southern and central portions of Iraq were
beginning to erupt in urban guerrilla combat as multinational forces attempted to keep control and prepared for
a counteroensive.
The most serious ghting of the war so far began on 31
March 2004, when Iraqi insurgents in Fallujah ambushed
a Blackwater USA convoy led by four U.S. private milThe start of 2004 was marked by a relative lull in violence. itary contractors who were providing security for food
Insurgent forces reorganised during this time, studying caterers Eurest Support Services.* [129] The four armed
Footage from the gun camera of a U.S. Apache helicopter killing
suspected Iraqi insurgents.* [128]
197
29.3.3 2005: Elections and transitional

government
Further information: 2005 in Iraq and Military transition
team
On 31 January, Iraqis elected the Iraqi Transitional Gov-
A USMC M198 artillery piece ring outside Fallujah in October

2004.
contractors, Scott Helvenston, Jerko Zovko, Wesley Batalona, and Michael Teague, were killed with grenades and
small arms re. Subsequently, their bodies were dragged
from their vehicles by local people, beaten, set ablaze,
and their burned corpses hung over a bridge crossing the
Euphrates.* [130] Photos of the event were released to
news agencies worldwide, causing a great deal of indignation and moral outrage in the United States, and prompting an unsuccessful pacicationof the city: the First
Battle of Fallujah in April 2004.
Convention center for Council of Representatives of Iraq
of the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, as well as graphic

pictures showing U.S. military personnel taunting and
abusing Iraqi prisoners, came to public attention from
a 60 Minutes II news report (28 April) and a Seymour
M. Hersh article in The New Yorker (posted online on
30 April.)* [133] Military correspondent Thomas Ricks
claimed that these revelations dealt a blow to the moral
justications for the occupation in the eyes of many people, especially Iraqis, and was a turning point in the
war.* [134]
Hopes for a quick end to the insurgency and a withdrawal of US troops were dashed in May, Iraq's bloodiest month since the invasion. Suicide bombers, believed
to be mainly disheartened Iraqi Sunni Arabs, Syrians and
Saudis, tore through Iraq. Their targets were often Shia
gatherings or civilian concentrations of Shias. As a result,
over 700 Iraqi civilians died in that month, as well as 79
U.S. soldiers.
ernment in order to draft a permanent constitution. Although some violence and a widespread Sunni boycott
marred the event, most of the eligible Kurd and Shia populace participated. On 4 February, Paul Wolfowitz announced that 15,000 U.S. troops whose tours of duty had
been extended in order to provide election security would
be pulled out of Iraq by the next month.* [135] February to April proved to be relatively peaceful months comThe oensive was resumed in November 2004 in the pared to the carnage of November and January, with inbloodiest battle of the war so far: the Second Battle of surgent attacks averaging 30 a day from the prior average
Fallujah, described by the U.S. military as the heavi- of 70.
est urban combat (that they had been involved in) since The Battle of Abu Ghraib on 2 April 2005 was an
the battle of Hue City in Vietnam.* [131] During the attack on United States forces at Abu Ghraib prison,
assault, U.S. forces used white phosphorus as an incen- which consisted of heavy mortar and rocket re, under
diary weapon against insurgent personnel, attracting con- which armed insurgents attacked with grenades, small
troversy. The 46day battle resulted in a victory for the arms, and two vehicle-borne improvised explosive decoalition, with 95 U.S. soldiers killed along with approx- vices (VBIED). The U.S. force's munitions ran so low that
imately 1,350 insurgents. Fallujah was totally devastated orders to x bayonets were given in preparation for handduring the ghting, though civilian casualties were low, as to-hand ghting. An estimated 80120 armed insurgents
they had mostly ed before the battle.* [132]
launched a massive coordinated assault on the U.S. miliAnother major event of that year was the revelation of tary facility and internment camp at Abu Ghraib, Iraq. It
was considered to be the largest coordinated assault on a
widespread prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib which received
*
international media attention in April 2004. First reports U.S. base since the Vietnam War. [136]
The summer of 2005 saw ghting around Baghdad and at

Tall Afar in northwestern Iraq as U.S. forces tried to seal
2004 also marked the beginning of Military Transition o the Syrian border. This led to ghting in the autumn
Teams in Iraq, which were teams of U.S. military advisors in the small towns of the Euphrates valley between the
assigned directly to New Iraqi Army units.
capital and that border.* [137]
198
A referendum was held on 15 October in which the new crimes for the involvement in the war crime, that became
Iraqi constitution was ratied. An Iraqi national assem- known as the Mahmudiyah killings.* [141]* [142]
bly was elected in December, with participation from the
Sunnis as well as the Kurds and Shia.* [137]
Insurgent attacks increased in 2005 with 34,131 recorded
incidents, compared to a total 26,496 for the previous
year.* [138]
29.3.4
2006: Civil war and permanent

Iraqi government
Further information: 2006 in Iraq, Civil war in Iraq

(200607), Operation Together Forward and Provincial
Reconstruction Team
The beginning of 2006 was marked by government cre-
U.S. Marines from 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines clear a house in Al

Anbar Governorate.
ation talks, growing sectarian violence, and continuous

anti-coalition attacks. Sectarian violence expanded to a
new level of intensity following the al-Askari Mosque
bombing in the Iraqi city of Samarra, on 22 February
2006. The explosion at the mosque, one of the holiest
sites in Shi'a Islam, is believed to have been caused by a
bomb planted by al-Qaeda.
Although no injuries occurred in the blast, the mosque
was severely damaged and the bombing resulted in violence over the following days. Over 100 dead bodies with
bullet holes were found on 23 February, and at least 165
people are thought to have been killed. In the aftermath
of this attack the U.S. military calculated that the average
homicide rate in Baghdad tripled from 11 to 33 deaths per
day. In 2006 the UN described the environment in Iraq
as a "civil war-like situation.* [139]
Nouri al-Maliki meets with George W. Bush, June 2006
On 6 June 2006, the United States was successful in tracking Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the leader of al-Qaeda in
Iraq who was killed in a targeted killing, while attending a meeting in an isolated safehouse approximately 8
km (5.0 mi) north of Baqubah. Having been tracked
by a British UAV, radio contact was made between the
controller and two United States Air Force F-16C jets
which identied the house and at 14:15 GMT, the lead
jet dropped two 500pound (230 kg) guided bombs, a
laser-guided GBU12 and GPS-guided GBU38 on the
building where he was located at. Six othersthree male
and three female individualswere also reported killed.
Among those killed were one of his wives and their child.
The current government of Iraq took oce on 20 May

2006, following approval by the members of the Iraqi
National Assembly. This followed the general election
in December 2005. The government succeeded the Iraqi
Transitional Government which had continued in oce
On March 12, ve United States Army soldiers of the in a caretaker capacity until the formation of the perma502nd Infantry Regiment, raped the 14-year-old Iraqi girl nent government.
Abeer Qassim Hamza alJanabi, and then murdered her,
her father, her mother Fakhriya Taha Muhasen and her
six-year-old sister Hadeel Qassim Hamza al-Janabi. The Iraq Study Group report and Saddam's execution
soldiers then set re to the girl's body to conceal evidence
of the crime.* [140] Four of the soldiers were convicted Main articles: Iraq Study Group and Execution of
of rape and murder and the fth was convicted of lesser Saddam Hussein
199
Further information: 2007 in Iraq, Iraq War troop surge

The Iraq Study Group Report was released on 6 Decem- of 2007, Timeline of the Iraq War troop surge of 2007
ber 2006. Iraq Study Group, made up of people from and Strategic reset
both of the major U.S. parties, was led by co-chairs James
Baker, a former Secretary of State (Republican), and Lee In a 10 January 2007, televised address to the US pubH. Hamilton, a former U.S. Representative (Democrat). lic, Bush proposed 21,500 more troops for Iraq, a job
It concluded thatthe situation in Iraq is grave and deteri- program for Iraqis, more reconstruction proposals, and
oratingandU.S. forces seem to be caught in a mission $1.2 billion for these programs.* [146] On 23 January
that has no foreseeable end.The report's 79 recommen- 2007, in the 2007 State of the Union Address, Bush andations include increasing diplomatic measures with Iran nounceddeploying reinforcements of more than 20,000
and Syria and intensifying eorts to train Iraqi troops. additional soldiers and Marines to Iraq.
On 18 December, a Pentagon report found that insurgent On 10 February 2007, David Petraeus was made comattacks were averaging about 960 attacks per week, the mander of Multi-National Force Iraq (MNF-I), the
highest since the reports had begun in 2005.* [143]
four-star post that oversees all coalition forces in country,
Coalition forces formally transferred control of a
province to the Iraqi government, the rst since the war.
Military prosecutors charged eight U.S. Marines with the
murders of 24 Iraqi civilians in Haditha in November
2005, 10 of them women and children. Four ocers
were also charged with dereliction of duty in relation to
the event.* [144]
replacing General George Casey. In his new position, Petraeus oversaw all coalition forces in Iraq and employed
them in the newSurgestrategy outlined by the Bush administration.* [147]* [148] 2007 also saw a sharp increase
in insurgent chlorine bombings.
On 10 May 2007, 144 Iraqi Parliamentary lawmakers

signed onto a legislative petition calling on the United
Saddam Hussein was hanged on 30 December 2006, after States to set a timetable for withdrawal.* [149] On 3 June
being found guilty of crimes against humanity by an Iraqi 2007, the Iraqi Parliament voted 85 to 59 to require the
court after a year-long trial.* [145]
Iraqi government to consult with Parliament before requesting additional extensions of the UN Security Council Mandate for Coalition operations in Iraq.* [150] Despite this, the mandate was renewed on 18 December
29.3.5 2007: U.S. troops surge
2007, without the approval of the Iraqi parliament.* [151]
Pressures on US troops were compounded by the continuing withdrawal of coalition forces. In early 2007,
British Prime Minister Blair announced that following
Operation Sinbad British troops would begin to withdraw
from Basra Governorate, handing security over to the
Iraqis.* [152] In July Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh
Rasmussen also announced the withdrawal of 441 Danish troops from Iraq, leaving only a unit of nine soldiers
manning four observational helicopters.* [153]
Planned troop reduction

See also: Provincial Iraqi Control
President George W. Bush announces the new strategy on Iraq

from the White House Library, 10 January 2007.
In a speech made to Congress on 10 September 2007, Petraeusenvisioned the withdrawal of roughly 30,000 U.S.
troops by next summer, beginning with a Marine contingent [in September].* [154] On 13 September, Bush
backed a limited withdrawal of troops from Iraq.* [155]
Bush said 5,700 personnel would be home by Christmas
2007, and expected thousands more to return by July
2008. The plan would take troop numbers back to their
level before the surge at the beginning of 2007.
200

Risha one of the dogs of Bushand described Thursday's killing as aheroic operation that took over a month
to prepare.* [168]
U.S. soldiers take cover during a reght with insurgents in the

Al Doura section of Baghdad 7 March 2007.
A graph of U.S. troop fatalities in Iraq March 2003 July 2010,

the orange and blue months are the period of the troop surge and
its aftermath.
There was a reported trend of decreasing U.S. troop

deaths after May 2007,* [169] and violence against coaliEects of the surge on security
tion troops had fallen to the lowest levels since the rst
*
By March 2008, violence in Iraq was reported curtailed year of the American invasion. [170] These, and sevby 4080%, according to a Pentagon report.* [156] Inde- eral other positive developments, were attributed to the
*
pendent reports* [157]* [158] raised questions about those surge by many analysts. [171]
assessments. An Iraqi military spokesman claimed that Data from the Pentagon and other U.S. agencies such
civilian deaths since the start of the troop surge plan were as the Government Accountability Oce (GAO) found
265 in Baghdad, down from 1,440 in the four previous that daily attacks against civilians in Iraq remained
weeks. The New York Times counted more than 450 Iraqi about the samesince February. The GAO also stated
civilians killed during the same 28day period, based on that there was no discernible trend in sectarian vioinitial daily reports from Iraqi Interior Ministry and hos- lence.* [172] However, this report ran counter to reports
pital ocials.
to Congress, which showed a general downward trend in
Historically, the daily counts tallied by the New York civilian deaths and ethno-sectarian violence since Decem*
Times have underestimated the total death toll by 50% or ber 2006. [173] By late 2007, as the U.S. troop surge bemore when compared to studies by the United Nations, gan to wind down, violence in Iraq had begun to decrease
*
which rely upon gures from the Iraqi Health Ministry from its 2006 highs. [174]
and morgue gures.* [159]
Entire neighborhoods in Baghdad were ethnically
The rate of U.S. combat deaths in Baghdad nearly dou- cleansed by Shia and Sunni militias and sectarian
bled to 3.14 per day in the rst seven weeks of thesurge violence has broken out in every Iraqi city where there
*
*
*
in security activity, compared to previous period. Across is a mixed population. [175] [176] [177] Investigative
reporter Bob Woodward cites U.S. government sources
the rest of Iraq it decreased slightly.* [160]* [161]
according to which the U.S.surgewas not the primary
On 14 August 2007, the deadliest single attack of the reason for the drop in violence in 20072008. Instead,
whole war occurred. Nearly 800 civilians were killed according to that view, the reduction of violence was
by a series of coordinated suicide bomb attacks on the due to newer covert techniques by U.S. military and
northern Iraqi settlement of Kahtaniya. More than 100 intelligence ocials to nd, target and kill insurgents,
homes and shops were destroyed in the blasts. U.S. of- including working closely with former insurgents.* [178]
cials blamed alQaeda. The targeted villagers belonged
to the non-Muslim Yazidi ethnic minority. The attack In the Shia region near Basra, British forces turned over
may have represented the latest in a feud that erupted security for the region to Iraqi Security Forces. Basra is
earlier that year when members of the Yazidi commu- the ninth province of Iraq's 18 provinces to be returned
nity stoned to death a teenage girl called Du'a Khalil to local security forces' control since the beginning of the
*
Aswad accused of dating a Sunni Arab man and con- occupation. [179]
verting to Islam. The killing of the girl was recorded on
camera-mobiles and the video was uploaded onto the inPolitical developments
ternet.* [162]* [163]* [164]* [165]
On 13 September 2007, Abdul Sattar Abu Risha was
killed in a bomb attack in the city of Ramadi.* [166] He
was an important U.S. ally because he led the "Anbar
Awakening", an alliance of Sunni Arab tribes that opposed al-Qaeda. The latter organisation claimed responsibility for the attack.* [167] A statement posted on the
Internet by the shadowy Islamic State of Iraq called Abu
More than half of the members of Iraq's parliament rejected the continuing occupation of their country for the
rst time. 144 of the 275 lawmakers signed onto a legislative petition that would require the Iraqi government
to seek approval from Parliament before it requests an
extension of the UN mandate for foreign forces to be in
Iraq, which expires at the end of 2008. It also calls for
201
proof for these allegations. Further sanctions on Iranian
organizations were also announced by the Bush administration in the autumn of 2007. On 21 November 2007,
Lieutenant General James Dubik, who is in charge of
training Iraqi security forces, praised Iran for its contribution to the reduction of violencein Iraq by upholding its pledge to stop the ow of weapons, explosives and
training of extremists in Iraq.* [185]
Tensions with Turkey
Further information: 2008 Turkish incursion into northern Iraq
Ocial Iraq-benchmark of the Congress, 2007.
a timetable for troop withdrawal and a freeze on the size

of foreign forces. The UN Security Council mandate for
U.S.led forces in Iraq will terminateif requested by the
government of Iraq.* [180] Under Iraqi law, the speaker
must present a resolution called for by a majority of lawmakers.* [181] 59% of those polled in the U.S. support a
timetable for withdrawal.* [182]
In mid-2007, the Coalition began a controversial program to recruit Iraqi Sunnis (often former insurgents) for
the formation of Guardianmilitias. These Guardian
militias are intended to support and secure various Sunni
neighborhoods against the Islamists.* [183]
Tensions with Iran

Further information: United States-Iran relations and
Karbala provincial headquarters raid
Border incursions by PKK militants based in Northern

Iraq have continued to harass Turkish forces, with casualties on both sides. In the fall of 2007, the Turkish military stated their right to cross the Iraqi Kurdistan border
inhot pursuitof PKK militants and began shelling Kurdish areas in Iraq and attacking PKK bases in the Mount
Cudi region with aircraft.* [186]* [187] The Turkish parliament approved a resolution permitting the military to
pursue the PKK in Iraqi Kurdistan.* [188] In November,
Turkish gunships attacked parts of northern Iraq in the
rst such attack by Turkish aircraft since the border tensions escalated.* [189] Another series of attacks in midDecember hit PKK targets in the Qandil, Zap, Avashin
and Hakurk regions. The latest series of attacks involved
at least 50 aircraft and artillery and Kurdish ocials reported one civilian killed and two wounded.* [190]
Additionally, weapons that were given to Iraqi security
forces by the U.S. military are being recovered by authorities in Turkey after being used by PKK in that
state.* [191]
Blackwater private security controversy
Main article: Blackwater Baghdad shootings
On 17 September 2007, the Iraqi government announced
that it was revoking the license of the U.S. security rm
Blackwater USA over the rm's involvement in the killing
of eight civilians, including a woman and an infant,* [192]
in a reght that followed a car bomb explosion near a
State Department motorcade.
In 2007, tensions increased greatly between Iran and Iraqi

Kurdistan due to the latter's giving sanctuary to the militant Kurdish secessionist group Party for a Free Life in
Kurdistan (PEJAK.) According to reports, Iran had been
shelling PEJAK positions in Iraqi Kurdistan since 16 August. These tensions further increased with an alleged
border incursion on 23 August by Iranian troops who at29.3.6 2008: Civil war continues
tacked several Kurdish villages killing an unknown number of civilians and militants.* [184]
Further information: 2008 in Iraq
Coalition forces also began to target alleged Iranian Quds Throughout 2008, U.S. ocials and independent think
force operatives in Iraq, either arresting or killing sus- tanks began to point to improvements in the security sitpected members. The Bush administration and coalition uation, as measured by key statistics. According to the
leaders began to publicly state that Iran was supplying U.S. Defense Department, in December 2008 theoverweapons, particularly EFP devices, to Iraqi insurgents all level of violencein the country had dropped 80%
and militias although to date have failed to provide any since before the surge began in January 2007, and the
202
3D Map of southern Turkey and northern Iraq.

Soldiers of the 3rd Brigade, 14th Iraqi Army division graduate
from basic training.
Turkey and PKK* [200]* [201]* [202] intensied on 21

February, when Turkey launched a ground attack into
the Quandeel Mountains of Northern Iraq. In the nineday-long operation, around 10,000 Turkish troops adcountry's murder rate had dropped to prewar levels. They vanced up to 25 km into Northern Iraq. This was the
also pointed out that the casualty gure for U.S. forces in rst substantial ground incursion by Turkish forces since
1995.* [203]* [204]
2008 was 314 against a gure of 904 in 2007.* [193]
According to the Brookings Institution, Iraqi civilian fatalities numbered 490 in November 2008 as against 3,500
in January 2007, whereas attacks against the coalition
numbered somewhere between 200 and 300 per week in
the latter half of 2008, as opposed to a peak of nearly
1,600 in summer 2007. The number of Iraqi security
forces killed was under 100 per month in the second
half of 2008, from a high of 200 to 300 in summer
2007.* [194]
Meanwhile, the prociency of the Iraqi military increased
as it launched a spring oensive against Shia militias
which Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki had previously
been criticized for allowing to operate. This began with a
March operation against the Mehdi Army in Basra, which
led to ghting in Shia areas up and down the country, especially in the Sadr City district of Baghdad. By October, the British ocer in charge of Basra said that since
the operation the town had become secureand had a
murder rate comparable to Manchester in England.* [195]
The U.S. military also said there had been a decrease of
about a quarter in the quantity of Iranian-made explosives
found in Iraq in 2008, possibly indicating a change in Iranian policy.* [196]
Progress in Sunni areas continued after members of the
Awakening movement were transferred from U.S. military to Iraqi control.* [197] In May, the Iraqi army
backed by coalition support launched an oensive in
Mosul, the last major Iraqi stronghold of al-Qaeda. Despite detaining thousands of individuals, the oensive
failed to lead to major long-term security improvements
in Mosul. At the end of the year, the city remained a
major ashpoint.* [198]* [199]
In the regional dimension, the ongoing conict between
Shortly after the incursion began, both the Iraqi cabinet and the Kurdistan regional government condemned
Turkey's actions and called for the immediate withdrawal
of Turkish troops from the region.* [205] Turkish troops
withdrew on 29 February.* [206] The fate of the Kurds
and the future of the ethnically diverse city of Kirkuk remained a contentious issue in Iraqi politics.
U.S. military ocials met these trends with cautious
optimism as they approached what they described as
the transitionembodied in the U.S.-Iraq Status of
Forces Agreement which was negotiated throughout
2008.* [193] The commander of the coalition, U.S. General Raymond T. Odierno, noted thatin military terms,
transitions are the most dangerous timein December
2008.* [193]
Spring oensives on Shia militias
Further information: Iraq Spring Fighting of 2008, Siege
of Sadr City and Battle of Basra (2008)
At the end of March, the Iraqi Army, with Coalition
air support, launched an oensive, dubbed Charge of
the Knights, in Basra to secure the area from militias.
This was the rst major operation where the Iraqi Army
did not have direct combat support from conventional
coalition ground troops. The oensive was opposed by
the Mahdi Army, one of the militias, which controlled
much of the region.* [207]* [208] Fighting quickly spread
to other parts of Iraq: including Sadr City, Al Kut, Al
Hillah and others. During the ghting Iraqi forces met
sti resistance from militiamen in Basra to the point that
the Iraqi military oensive slowed to a crawl, with the
high attrition rates nally forcing the Sadrists to the ne-
203
An Iraqi soldier and vehicles from the 42nd Brigade, 11th Iraqi
Army Division during a reght with armed militiamen in the
Sadr City district of Baghdad 17 April 2008.
gotiating table.
Following talks with Brig. Gen. Qassem Suleimani,
General David Petraeus in testimony before Congress on 8 April
commander of the Qods brigades of Iran's Revolutionary 2008.
Guard Corps, and the intercession of the Iranian government, on 31 March 2008, alSadr ordered his followers
to ceasere.* [209] The militiamen kept their weapons.
Iraqi security forces rearm
By 12 May 2008, Basra residents overwhelmingly reported a substantial improvement in their everyday lives
according to the New York Times. Government forces
have now taken over Islamic militants' headquarters and
halted the death squads and 'vice enforcers' who attacked
women, Christians, musicians, alcohol sellers and anyone
suspected of collaborating with Westerners, according
to the report; however, when asked how long it would take
for lawlessness to resume if the Iraqi army left, one resident replied, one day.* [208]
In late April roadside bombings continued to rise from a
low in Januaryfrom 114 bombings to more than 250,
surpassing the May 2007 high.
Congressional testimony
Speaking before the Congress on 8 April 2008, General
David Petraeus urged delaying troop withdrawals, saying,
I've repeatedly noted that we haven't turned any corners,
we haven't seen any lights at the end of the tunnel,referencing the comments of then President Bush and former Vietnam-era General William Westmoreland.* [210]
When asked by the Senate if reasonable people could disagree on the way forward, Petraeus said, We ght for
the right of people to have other opinions.* [211]
An Iraqi Army unit prepares to board a Task Force Baghdad

UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter for a counterinsurgency mission in
Baghdad in 2007.
Iraq became one of the top current purchasers of U.S.

military equipment with their army trading its AK47 assault ries for the U.S. M16 and M4 ries, among other
equipment.* [213] In 2008 alone, Iraq accounted for more
than $12.5 billion of the $34 billion U.S. weapon sales to
foreign countries (not including the potential F-16 ghter
*
Upon questioning by then Senate committee chair Joe planes.). [214]
Biden, Ambassador Crocker admitted that AlQaeda in Iraq sought 36 F16s, the most sophisticated weapons sysIraq was less important than the Al Qaeda organization tem Iraq has attempted to purchase. The Pentagon notiled by Osama bin Laden along the Afghan-Pakistani bored Congress that it had approved the sale of 24 Amerider.* [212] Lawmakers from both parties complained that can attack helicopters to Iraq, valued at as much as $2.4
U.S. taxpayers are carrying Iraq's burden as it earns bil- billion. Including the helicopters, Iraq announced plans
lions of dollars in oil revenues.
to purchase at least $10 billion in U.S. tanks and armored
204
vehicles, transport planes and other battleeld equipment

and services. Over the summer, the Defense Department announced that the Iraqi government wanted to order more than 400 armored vehicles and other equipment worth up to $3 billion, and six C-130J transport
planes, worth up to $1.5 billion.* [215]* [216] From 2005
to 2008, the United States had completed approximately
$20 billion in arms sales agreements with Iraq.* [217]
Iraqi courts. He said that Iraqi rule in the country is not

complete while the occupiers are present, but that ultimately the Iraqi people would judge the pact in a referendum.* [232] Thousands of Iraqi have gathered weekly
after Friday prayers and shouted antiU.S. and anti-Israeli
slogans protesting the security pact between Baghdad and
Washington. A protester said that despite the approval of
the Interim Security pact, the Iraqi people would break it
in a referendum next year.* [234]
Status of forces agreement
29.3.7 2009: Coalition redeployment
Main article: U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement
The U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement was approved

by the Iraqi government on 4 December 2008.* [218] It
establishes that U.S. combat forces will withdraw from Transfer of Green Zone
Iraqi cities by 30 June 2009, and that all U.S. forces will
be completely out of Iraq by 31 December 2011. The
pact is subject to possible negotiations which could delay
withdrawal and a referendum scheduled for mid-2009 in
Iraq which may require all U.S. forces to completely leave
by the middle of 2010.* [219]* [220] The pact requires
criminal charges for holding prisoners over 24 hours, and
requires a warrant for searches of homes and buildings
that are not related to combat.* [221]
U.S. contractors working for U.S. forces will be subject to
Iraqi criminal law, while contractors working for the State
Department and other U.S. agencies may retain their immunity. If U.S. forces commit still undecided major
premeditated felonieswhile o-duty and o-base, they
will be subject to the still undecided procedures laid out
by a joint U.S.Iraq committee if the United States certi- Aerial view of the Green Zone, Baghdad International Airport,
and the contiguous Victory Base Complex in Baghdad.
es the forces were o-duty.* [222]* [223]* [224]* [225]
Some Americans have discussedloopholes* [226] and
some Iraqis have said they believe parts of the pact remain
a mystery.* [227] U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert
Gates has predicted that after 2011 he would expect to see
perhaps several tens of thousands of American troops
as part of a residual force in Iraq.* [228]
Several groups of Iraqis protested the passing of the
SOFA accord* [229]* [230]* [231] as prolonging and legitimizing the occupation. Tens of thousands of Iraqis
burned an egy of George W. Bush in a central Baghdad square where U.S. troops ve years previously organized a tearing down of a statue of Saddam Hussein.* [110]* [227]* [232] Some Iraqis expressed skeptical
optimism that the U.S. would completely end its presence
by 2011.* [233] On 4 December 2008, Iraq's presidential
council approved the security pact.* [218]
On 1 January 2009, the United States handed control

of the Green Zone and Saddam Hussein's presidential
palace to the Iraqi government in a ceremonial move described by the country's prime minister as a restoration of
Iraq's sovereignty. Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki
said he would propose 1 January be declared national
Sovereignty Day. This palace is the symbol of Iraqi
sovereignty and by restoring it, a real message is directed
to all Iraqi people that Iraqi sovereignty has returned to
its natural status, alMaliki said.
The U.S. military attributed a decline in reported civilians
deaths to several factors including the U.S.led troop
surge, the growth of U.S.-funded Awakening Councils,
and Shiite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr's call for his militia to
abide by a cease re.* [235]
A representative of Grand Ayatollah Ali Husseini

alSistani's expressed concern with the ratied version of Provincial elections
the pact and noted that the government of Iraq has no
authority to control the transfer of occupier forces into Main article: Iraqi governorate elections, 2009
and out of Iraq, no control of shipments, and that the On 31 January, Iraq held provincial elections.* [236]
pact grants the occupiers immunity from prosecution in Provincial candidates and those close to them faced some
205
stretched from the Sadr City slum in northeast Baghdad
to the square around 5 km (3.1 mi) away, where protesters
burned an egy featuring the face of U.S. President
George W. Bush.* [248] There were also Sunni Muslims
in the crowd. Police said many Sunnis, including prominent leaders such as a founding sheikh from the Sons of
Iraq, took part.* [249]
Coalition forces withdraw
Election map.
governorate.
Shows what was the largest list in every
On 30 April, the United Kingdom formally ended combat

operations. Prime Minister Gordon Brown characterized
the operation in Iraq as a success storybecause of
UK troops' eorts. Britain handed control of Basra to the
United States Armed Forces.* [250]
On 28 July, Australia withdrew its combat forces as the

Australian military presence in Iraq ended, per an agreepolitical assassinations and attempted assassinations, and ment with the Iraqi government.
there was also some other violence related to the elecThe withdrawal of U.S. forces began at the end of June,
tion.* [237]* [238]* [239]* [240]
with 38 bases to be handed over to Iraqi forces. On 29
Iraqi voter turnout failed to meet the original expecta- June 2009, U.S. forces withdrew from Baghdad. On 30
tions which were set and was the lowest on record in November 2009, Iraqi Interior Ministry ocials reported
Iraq,* [241] but U.S. Ambassador Ryan Crocker char- that the civilian death toll in Iraq fell to its lowest level in
acterized the turnout as large.* [242] Of those who November since the 2003 invasion.* [251]
turned out to vote, some groups complained of disenfranchisement and fraud.* [241]* [243]* [244] After the postelection curfew was lifted, some groups made threats
about what would happen if they were unhappy with the Iraq awards oil contracts
results.* [245]
Exit strategy announcement
On 27 February, United States President Barack Obama
gave a speech at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune
in the US state of North Carolina announcing that the
US combat mission in Iraq would end by 31 August
2010. A transitional forceof up to 50,000 troops
tasked with training the Iraqi Security Forces, conducting counterterrorism operations, and providing general
support may remain until the end of 2011, the president
added.* [246]
The day before Obama's speech, Prime Minister of
Iraq Nuri alMaliki said at a press conference that the U.S. Navy and Coast Guard personnel stand guard aboard the
government of Iraq hadno worriesover the impending Al Basrah Oil Terminal in July 2009.
departure of U.S. forces and expressed condence in the
ability of the Iraqi Security Forces and police to maintain
On 30 June and again on 11 December, the Iraqi minorder without US military support.* [247]
istry of oil awarded contracts to international oil companies for some of Iraq's many oil elds. The winning oil
companies enter joint ventures with the Iraqi ministry of
Sixth anniversary protests
oil, and the terms of the awarded contracts include exOn 9 April, the 6th anniversary of Baghdad's fall to coali- traction of oil for a xed fee of approximately $1.40 per
tion forces, tens of thousands of Iraqis thronged Bagh- barrel.* [252]* [253]* [254] The fees will only be paid once
dad to mark the anniversary and demand the immedi- a production threshold set by the Iraqi ministry of oil is
ate departure of coalition forces. The crowds of Iraqis reached.
206
29.3.8
2010: U.S. drawdown and Operation New Dawn
Further information: 2010 in Iraq and Withdrawal of

U.S. troops from Iraq
On 17 February 2010, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert
Gates announced that as of 1 September, the nameOperation Iraqi Freedomwould be replaced byOperation
New Dawn.* [255]
On 18 April, US and Iraqi forces killed Abu Ayyub alMasri the leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq in a joint American
and Iraqi operation near Tikrit, Iraq.* [256] The coalition
forces believed al-Masri to be wearing a suicide vest and
proceeded cautiously. After the lengthy exchange of re
and bombing of the house, the Iraqi troops stormed inside and found two women still alive, one of whom was
al-Masri's wife, and four dead men, identied as al-Masri,
Abu Abdullah al-Rashid al-Baghdadi, an assistant to alMasri, and al-Baghdadi's son. A suicide vest was indeed found on al-Masri's corpse, as the Iraqi Army subsequently stated.* [257] Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri alMaliki announced the killings of Abu Omar al-Baghdadi
and Abu Ayyub al-Masri at a news conference in Baghdad and showed reporters photographs of their bloody
corpses. The attack was carried out by ground forces
which surrounded the house, and also through the use of
missiles,Mr Maliki said. During the operation computers were seized with e-mails and messages to the two
biggest terrorists, Osama bin Laden and [his deputy] Ayman al-Zawahiri, Maliki added. U.S. forces commander Gen. Raymond Odierno praised the operation.The
death of these terrorists is potentially the most signicant
blow to alQaeda in Iraq since the beginning of the insurgency, he said. There is still work to do but this is a
signicant step forward in ridding Iraq of terrorists.
Iraqi commandos training under the supervision of soldiers from

the US 82nd Airborne in December 2010.
parted Iraq in the early morning of 19 August. Convoys

of US troops had been moving out of Iraq to Kuwait for
several days, and NBC News broadcast live from Iraq
as the last convoy crossed the border. While all combat brigades left the country, an additional 50,000 personnel (including Advise and Assist Brigades) remained
in the country to provide support for the Iraqi military.* [261]* [262] These troops are required to leave Iraq
by 31 December 2011 under an agreement between the
US and Iraqi governments.* [263]
The desire to step back from an active counter-insurgency
role did not however mean that the Advise and Assist
Brigades and other remaining US forces would not be
caught up in combat. A standards memo from the Associated Press reiteratedcombat in Iraq is not over, and we
should not uncritically repeat suggestions that it is, even
if they come from senior ocials.* [264]
State Department spokesman P. J. Crowley stated "...we

are not ending our work in Iraq, We have a long-term
commitment to Iraq.* [265] On 31 August, Obama anU.S. Vice President Joe Biden stated that the deaths of nounced the end of Operation Iraqi Freedom from the
the top two alQaeda gures in Iraq arepotentially dev- Oval Oce. In his address, he covered the role of the
astatingblows to the terror network there and proof that United States' soft power, the eect the war had on the
United States economy, and the legacy of the Afghanistan
Iraqi security forces are gaining ground.* [258]
and Iraq wars.* [266]
On 20 June, Iraq's Central Bank was bombed in an attack
that left 15 people dead and brought much of downtown On the same day in Iraq, at a ceremony at one of Saddam
Baghdad to a standstill. The attack was claimed to have Hussein's former residences at Al Faw Palace in Baghdad,
been carried out by the Islamic State of Iraq. This attack a number of US dignitaries spoke in a ceremony for telewas followed by another attack on Iraq's Bank of Trade vision cameras, avoiding overtones of the triumphalism
present in US announcements made earlier in the war.
building that killed 26 and wounded 52 people.* [259]
Vice President Joe Biden expressed concerns regarding
In late August 2010, insurgents conducted a major at- the ongoing lack of progress in forming a new Iraqi govtack with at least 12 car bombs simultaneously detonating ernment, saying of the Iraqi people that they expect a
from Mosul to Basra and killing at least 51. These attacks government that reects the results of the votes they cast
coincided with the U.S. plans for a withdrawal of combat . Gen. Ray Odierno stated that the new era in no way
troops.* [260]
signals the end of our commitment to the people of Iraq
From the end of August 2010, the United States at- . Speaking in Ramadi earlier in the day, Gates said that
tempted to dramatically cut its combat role in Iraq, with U.S. forces have accomplished something really quite
the withdrawal of all US ground forces designated for ac- extraordinary here, [but] how it all weighs in the balance
tive combat operations. The last US combat brigades de- over time I think remains to be seen. When asked by

reporters if the seven-year war was worth doing, Gates
commented thatIt really requires a historian's perspective in terms of what happens here in the long run. He
noted the Iraq Warwill always be clouded by how it beganin regards Saddam Hussein's supposed weapons of
mass destruction, which were never conrmed to have existed. Gates continued, This is one of the reasons that
this war remains so controversial at home.* [267] On
the same day Gen. Ray Odierno was replaced by Lloyd
Austin as Commander of US forces in Iraq.
Alabama Army National Guard MP, MSG Schur, during a joint

community policing patrol in Basra, 3 April 2010.
207
Iraqi security forces transition towards self-reliance
Preparing to buy $13 billion worth of American arms, the
Iraq Defense Ministry intends to transform the country's
degraded conventional forces into a state-of-the-art military and become among the world's biggest customers
for American military arms and equipment. Part of the
planned purchase includes 140 M1 Abrams main battle
tanks. Iraqi crews have already begun training on them.
In addition to the $13 billion purchase, the Iraqis have
requested 18 F-16 Fighting Falcons as part of a $4.2 billion program that also includes aircraft training and maintenance, AIM9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles, laserguided bombs and reconnaissance equipment.* [276] If
approved by Congress, the rst aircraft could arrive in
spring 2013. Under the plan, the rst 10 pilots would be
trained in the United States.* [277]
The Iraqi navy also inaugurated U.S.built Swift Class patrol boat at Umm Qasr, Iraq's main port at the northern
end of the gulf. Iraq is to take delivery of 14 more of
these $20 million, 50foot craft before U.S. forces depart. The high-speed vessels' main mission will be to
protect the oil terminals at alBasra and Khor al-Amiya
through which some 1.7 million barrels a day are loaded
into tankers for export. Two U.S.built oshore support
vessels, each costing $70 million, were expected to be delivered in 2011.* [276]
On 7 September, two US troops were killed and nine

wounded in an incident at an Iraqi military base. The
incident is under investigation by Iraqi and US forces,
but it is believed that an Iraqi soldier opened re on US
forces.* [268]
On 8 September, the U.S. Army announced the arrival
in Iraq of the rst specically-designated Advise and Assist Brigade, the 3d Armored Cavalry Regiment. It was
announced that the unit would assume responsibilities in
ve southern provinces.* [269] From 1013 September,
Second Advise and Assist Brigade, 25th Infantry Division fought Iraqi insurgents near Diyala.
According to reports from Iraq, hundreds of members of
the Sunni Awakening Councils may have switched alle- M1 Abrams tanks in Iraqi service, January 2011
giance back to the Iraqi insurgency or al Qaeda.* [270]
The United States Department of Defense had issued noWikileaks disclosed 391,832 classied U.S. military doc- tication of an additional $100 million proposed sales of
uments on the Iraq War.* [271]* [272]* [273] Approxi- arms from the US to Iraq. General Dynamics is to be
mately, 58 people were killed with another 40 wounded the prime contractor on a $36 million deal for the supin an attack on the Sayidat alNejat church, a Chaldean ply of ammunition for Iraq's Abrams M1 A1 tanks. The
Catholic church in Baghdad. Responsibility for the at- sale consists of: 14,010 TP-T M831A1 120mm Cartack was claimed by the Islamic State in Iraq organiza- tridges; 16,110 TPCSDS-T M865 120mm Cartridges;
tion.* [274]
and 3,510 HEAT-MP-T M830A1 120mm Cartridges.
Coordinated attacks in primarily Shia areas struck Raytheon is proposed as the prime contractor for a $68
throughout Baghdad on 2 November, killing ap- million package of Command, Control, Communicaproximately 113 and wounding 250 with around 17 tions, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconbombs.* [275]
naissance (C4ISR) Systems.* [278]
208
UN lifts restrictions on Iraq

heed Martin F-16 warplanes, becoming the 26th nation
to operate the F-16. Because of windfall prots from oil,
the Iraqi government is planning to double this originally
planned 18, to 36 F-16s. Iraq is relying on the U.S. military for air support as it rebuilds its forces and battles a
stubborn Islamist insurgency.* [286]
In a move to legitimize the existing Iraqi government,

the United Nations lifted the Saddam Hussein-era UN restrictions on Iraq. These included allowing Iraq to have
a civilian nuclear program, permitting the participation
of Iraq in international nuclear and chemical weapons
With the collapse of the discussions about extending the
treaties, as well as returning control of Iraq's oil and gas
stay of any U.S. troops beyond 2011, where they would
revenue to the government and ending the Oil-for-Food
not be granted any immunity from the Iraqi government,
Programme.* [279]
on 21 October 2011, President Obama announced at a
White House press conference that all remaining U.S.
troops and trainers would leave Iraq by the end of the year
29.3.9 2011: U.S. withdrawal
as previously scheduled, bringing the U.S. mission in Iraq
to an end.* [287] The last American soldier to die in Iraq
Main article: Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq
before the withdrawal was killed by a roadside bomb in
Baghdad on 14 November.* [288]
Muqtada al-Sadr returned to Iraq in the holy city of Najaf
In November 2011, the U.S. Senate voted down a resolution to formally end the war by bringing its authorization
by Congress to an end.* [289]
U.S. troops in Iraq and US casualties by month, 20032011.
U.S. and Kuwaiti troops closing the gate between Kuwait and Iraq
on 18 December 2011.
to lead the Sadrist movement after being in exile since

The last U.S. troops withdrew from Iraq on 18 Decem2007.* [280]
ber, although the US embassy and consulates continue
On 15 January 2011, three U.S. troops were killed in Iraq. to maintain a sta of more than 20,000 including US
One of the troops was killed on a military operation in Marine Embassy Guards and between 4,000 and 5,000
central Iraq, while the other two troops were deliberately private military contractors.* [290]* [291] The next day,
shot by one or two Iraqi soldiers during a training exer- Iraqi ocials issued an arrest warrant for the Sunni Vicecise.* [281]
President Tareq Al-Hashemi. He has been accused of inin assassinations and ed to the Kurdish part
On 6 June, ve U.S. troops were killed in an appar- volvement
*
of
Iraq.
[292]
ent rocket attack on Camp Victory, located near Baghdad International Airport.* [282] A sixth soldier, who
was wounded in the attack, died 10 days later of his
wounds.* [283]
On 29 June, three U.S. troops were killed in a rocket attack on a U.S. base located near the border with Iran.
It was speculated that the militant group responsible for
the attack was the same one which attacked Camp Victory just over three weeks before.* [284] With the three
deaths, June 2011, became the bloodiest month in Iraq
for the U.S. military since June 2009, with 15 U.S. soldiers killed, only one of them outside combat.* [285]
29.4 Aftermath
withdrawal
post
U.S.-
Main article: Iraqi insurgency (post-U.S. withdrawal)

See also: Northern Iraq oensive (June 2014) and
Northern Iraq oensive (August 2014)
See also: 2014 American intervention in Iraq
The invasion and occupation led to sectarian violence
which caused widespread displacement among Iraqi civilIn September, Iraq signed a contract to buy 18 Lock- ians. The Iraqi Red Crescent organization estimated
29.5. CASUALTY ESTIMATES
209
On 22 July 2013, at least ve hundred convicts, most
of whom were senior members of al-Qaida who had received death sentences, broke out of Iraq's Abu Ghraib
jail when comrades launched a military-style assault to
free them. The attack began when a suicide bomber drove
a car packed with explosives into prison gates.* [296]
James F. Jerey, the United States ambassador in Baghdad when the last American troops exited, said the assault
and resulting escape will provide seasoned leadership
and a morale boost to Al Qaeda and its allies in both Iraq
and Syria ... it is likely to have an electrifying impact on
the Sunni population in Iraq, which has been sitting on
the fence.* [297]
12 May 2015 military situation:

Controlled by Iraqi government
Controlled by the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIS)
Controlled by Iraqi Kurds
Controlled by Syrian government
Controlled by Syrian rebels
Controlled by Syrian Kurds
the total internal displacement was around 2.3 million in

2008, and as many as 2 million Iraqis leaving the country. Poverty led many Iraqi women to turn to prostitution
to support themselves and their families, attracting sex
tourists from regional lands. The invasion led to a constitution which supported democracy as long as laws did not
violate traditional Islamic principles, and a parliamentary
election was held in 2005. In addition the invasion preserved the autonomy of the Kurdish region, and stability
brought new economic prosperity. Because the Kurdish
region is historically the most democratic area of Iraq,
many Iraqi refugees from other territories ed into the
Kurdish land.* [293]
Iraqi insurgency surged in the aftermath of the U.S. withdrawal. The terror campaigns have since been engaged by
Iraqi, primarily radical Sunni, insurgent groups against
the central government and the warfare between various
factions within Iraq. The events of post U.S. withdrawal
violence succeeded the previous insurgency in Iraq (prior
to 18 December 2011), but have showed dierent patterns, raising concerns that the surging violence might
slide into another civil war. Some 1,000 people were
killed across Iraq within the rst two months after U.S.
withdrawal.
Sectarian violence continued in the rst half of 2013
at least 56 people died in April when a Sunni protest in
Hawija was interrupted by a government-supported helicopter raid and a series of violent incidents occurred in
May. On 20 May 2013, at least 95 people died in a wave
of car bomb attacks that was preceded by a car bombing on 15 May that led to 33 deaths; also, on 18 May, 76
people were killed in the Sunni areas of Baghdad. Some
experts have stated that Iraq could return to the brutal
sectarian conict of 2006.* [294]* [295]
By mid-2014 the country was in chaos with a new government yet to be formed following national elections, and
the insurgency reaching new heights. In early June 2014
the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) took over
the cities of Mosul and Tikrit and said it was ready to
march on Baghdad, while Iraqi Kurdish forces took control of key military installations in the major oil city of
Kirkuk. Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki asked his parliament to declare a state of emergency that would give
him increased powers, but the lawmakers refused.* [298]
In the summer of 2014 President Obama announced the
return of U.S. Forces to Iraq, but only in the form of aerial
support, in an eort to halt the advance of ISIS forces,
render humanitarian aid to stranded refugees and stabilize the political situation.* [299] On 14 August 2014,
Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki succumbed to pressure
at home and abroad to step down. This paved the way
for Haidar al-Abadi to take over On 19 August 2014. In
what was claimed to be revenge for the aerial bombing
ordered by President Obama, ISIS, which by this time
had changed their name to the Islamic State, beheaded
an American journalist, James Foley, who had been kidnapped two years previously. Despite U.S. bombings and
breakthroughs on the political front, Iraq remained in
chaos with the Islamic State consolidating its gains, and
sectarian violence continuing unabated. On 22 August
2014, suspected Shia militants opened re on a Sunni
mosque during Friday prayers, killing 70 worshippers.
Separately, Iraqi forces in helicopters killed 30 Sunni
ghters in the town of Dhuluiya.* [300] A day later, apparently in retaliation for the attack on the mosque, three
bombings across Iraq killed 35 people.* [301]
29.5 Casualty estimates

Main article: Casualties of the Iraq War
See also: Foreign hostages in Iraq and Suicide bombings
in Iraq since 2003
For coalition death totals see the infobox at the top
right. See also Casualties of the Iraq War, which has
casualty numbers for coalition nations, contractors, nonIraqi civilians, journalists, media helpers, aid workers,
and the wounded. Casualty gures, especially Iraqi ones,
210
Wounded U.S. personnel own from Iraq to Ramstein, Germany,

for medical treatment (February 2007).
A local memorial in North Carolina in December 2007; U.S. casualty count can be seen in the background.* [302]
with many U.S. citizens nding many parallels with the

Vietnam War.* [303] For example, a former CIA ocer described the Oce of Special Plans as a group of
ideologues who were dangerous to U.S. national security
and a threat to world peace, and stated that the group lied
and manipulated intelligence to further its agenda of removing Saddam.* [304] The Center for Public Integrity
alleges that the Bush administration made a total of 935
false statements between 2001 and 2003 about Iraq's alleged threat to the United States.* [305]
Marines unload a wounded comrade from an Army UH-60

Blackhawk helicopter for medical treatment at Al Qaim.
Both proponents and opponents of the invasion have also

criticized the prosecution of the war eort along a number
of other lines. Most signicantly, critics have assailed the
United States and its allies for not devoting enough troops
to the mission, not adequately planning for post-invasion
Iraq, and for permitting and perpetrating human rights
abuses. As the war has progressed, critics have also railed
against the high human and nancial costs.
are highly disputed.

There have been several attempts by the media, coalition
governments and others to estimate the Iraqi casualties.
The table below summarizes some of these estimates and
methods.
29.6 Criticism and cost
States participating in the invasion of Iraq

States in support of an invasion
States in opposition to an invasion
States with an uncertain or no ocial standpoint
Further information: Criticism of the Iraq War,

Opposition to the Iraq War, Legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Legality of the Iraq War, Views on the 2003
invasion of Iraq, Protests against the Iraq War, American
popular opinion on invasion of Iraq, Governmental po- Criticisms include:
sitions on the Iraq War prior to the 2003 invasion of
Legality of the invasion* [306]* [307]
Iraq, Media coverage of the Iraq War and Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq
Human casualties
See also: Iraq War misappropriations, Habbush letter and
The Way of the World (book)
Insucient post-invasion plans, in particular inadThe Bush Administration's rationale for the Iraq War has
equate troop levels (a RAND Corporation study
faced heavy criticism from an array of popular and ofstated that 500,000 troops would be required for
cial sources both inside and outside the United States,
success)* [308]
29.7. HUMANITARIAN CRISES
211
Financial costs with approximately $612 billion

spent as of 4/09 the CBO has estimated the total
cost of the war in Iraq to the United States will be
around $1.9 trillion.* [309]
used, said Stuart W. Bowen, Jr., director of the Oce

of the Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction.
The CPA did not establish or implement sucient managerial, nancial and contractual controls to ensure that
funds were used in a transparent manner.* [326] Bowen
Adverse eect on US-led global "war on ter- told the Times the missing money may represent the
ror"* [310]* [311]
largest theft of funds in national history.* [327]
Damage to U.S.' traditional alliances and inuence
in the region, especially Israel* [312] and Saudi Arabia.* [313]
29.7 Humanitarian crises
Endangerment and ethnic cleansing of religious and ethnic minorities by insur- Main articles: Humanitarian crises of the Iraq War and
gents* [176]* [314]* [315]* [316]* [317]
Refugees of Iraq
The child malnutrition rate rose to 28%.* [328] Some 60
Disruption of Iraqi oil production and related energy
security concerns (the price of oil has quadrupled
since 2002)* [318]* [319]
After President Barack Obama was inaugurated in 2009,
some anti-war groups decided to stop protesting even
though the war was still going on. Some of them decided to stop because they felt they should give the new
President time to establish his administration, and others
stopped because they believed that Obama would end the
war.* [320]
29.6.1
Financial cost
The nancial cost of the war has been more than 4.55
billion ($9 billion) to the UK,* [321] and over $845 billion to the US government. According to Nobel Prizewinning economist Joseph E. Stiglitz and Harvard public
nance lecturer Linda J. Bilmes it costs the United States
$720 million a day to wage the Iraq war. This number
takes into account the long-term health care for veterans, interest on debt and replacement of military hardware.* [322]
Child killed by a car bomb in Kirkuk, July 2011
70% of Iraqi children were reported to be suering from

psychological problems in 2007.* [329] Most Iraqis had
no access to safe drinking water. A cholera outbreak in
northern Iraq was thought to be the result of poor water quality.* [330] As many as half of Iraqi doctors left
the country between 2003 and 2006.* [331] The use of
depleted uranium and white phosphorus by the U.S. military has been blamed for birth defects and cancers in the
Iraqi city of Fallujah.* [332]* [333]* [334] A study entitled
Birth defects in Iraq and the plausibility of environmental exposure: A reviewwas completed to review the impact of other war-related environmental factors on birth
defects in Iraq.* [335]
In March 2013, the total cost of the Iraq War was estimated to have been $1.7 trillion by the Watson Institute
of International Studies at Brown University.* [323] Critics have argued that the total cost of the war to the US
economy is estimated to be from $3 trillion* [324] to $6
trillion,* [325] including interest rates, by 2053.
As of 2011, nearly 3 million Iraqis have been displaced,
in neighA CNN report noted that the United States-led interim with 1.3 million within the Iraq and 1.6 million
*
[336]
More
boring
countries,
mainly
Jordan
and
Syria.
government, the Coalition Provisional Authority lasting
Iraqi
Christians
have
ed
to
neighboring
than
half
of
until 2004 in Iraq had lost $8.8 billion in the Development
*
*
Fund for Iraq. In June 2011, it was reported by CBS countries since the start of the war. [337] [338]
News that $6 billion in neatly packaged blocks of $100
bills was air-lifted into Iraq by the George W. Bush administration, which ew it into Baghdad aboard C130
military cargo planes. In total, the Times says $12 billion
in cash was own into Iraq in 21 separate ights by May
2004, all of which has disappeared. An inspector general's report mentioned that "'Severe ineciencies and
poor management' by the Coalition Provisional Authority would leave no guarantee that the money was properly
The Foreign Policy Association reported that Perhaps

the most perplexing component of the Iraq refugee crisis...has been the inability for the United States to absorb more Iraqis following the 2003 invasion of the country. To date, the United States has granted around 84,000
Iraqis refugee status, of the more than two million global
Iraqi refugees. By contrast, the United States granted asylum to more than 100,000 Vietnamese refugees during
the Vietnam War.* [339]* [340]* [341]
212
29.8 Human rights abuses

Main articles: Human rights in post-invasion Iraq and
Suicide bombings in Iraq since 2003
Murder of an Iraqi girl and her family.* [344]

The torture and killing of prisoner of war, Iraqi Air
Force commander, Abed Hamed Mowhoush
The killing of Baha Mousa
Throughout the entire Iraq war, there have been human

rights abuses on all sides of the conict.
29.8.1
Iraqi government
The use of torture by Iraqi security forces.* [342]

Iraqi police from the Interior Ministry accused of
forming Death Squads and committing numerous
massacres and tortures of Sunni Arabs* [343] and
the police collusion with militias in Iraq have compounded the problems.
29.8.2
Coalition forces and private contractors
Mukaradeeb wedding party massacre* [345] where

42 civilians were allegedly killed by coalition forces.
Planting weapons on noncombatant, unarmed
Iraqis by three U.S. Marines after killing
them.* [346]* [347] According to a report by
The Nation, other similar acts have been witnessed
by U.S. soldiers.* [348] Members of Iraq Veterans
Against the War tell similar stories.* [349]
Blackwater Baghdad shootings
Allegations of beatings, electrocution, mock executions, and sexual assault by British troops were presented to the International Criminal Court (ICC)
by Public Interest Lawyers (PIL) and the European
Center for Constitutional and Human Rights (ECCHR) on 12 January 2014.* [350]
29.8.3 Insurgent groups

Main article: Iraq War insurgent attacks
Further information: List of massacres of the Iraq War,
List of suicide bombings in Iraq since 2003, and Tactics
of the Iraqi insurgency
Car bombings are a frequently used tactic by insurgents in Iraq.
This photograph released in 2006 shows several naked Iraqis in

hoods, of whom one has the words I'm a rapeist[sic] written
on his hip.
Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse

Haditha killings of 24 civilians (ongoing with some
charges dropped)
White phosphorus use in Iraq
Killing over 12,000 Iraqis from January 2005 to

June 2006, according to Iraqi Interior Minister
Bayan Jabr, giving the rst ocial count for the
victims of bombings, ambushes and other deadly
attacks.* [351] The insurgents have also conducted
numerous suicide attacks on the Iraqi civilian population, mostly targeting the majority Shia community.* [352]* [353] An October 2005 report from
Human Rights Watch examines the range of civilian
attacks and their purported justication.* [354]
29.9. PUBLIC OPINION ON THE WAR
213
Attacks against civilians including children through by the BBC found that two-thirds of the world's popubombing of market places and other locations reach- lation believed the U.S. should withdraw its forces from
able by suicide bombers.
Iraq.* [366]
Attacks against civilians by sectarian death squads In 2006 it was found that majorities in the UK and Canada
believed that the war in Iraq was unjustiedand in
primarily during the Iraqi Civil war.
the UK were critical of their government's support of
*
Attacks on diplomats and diplomatic facilities in- U.S. policies in Iraq. [367]
cluding; the bombing of the UN headquarters in According to polls conducted by the Arab American
Baghdad in August 2003 killing the top UN rep- Institute, four years after the invasion of Iraq, 83%
resentative in Iraq and 21 other UN sta mem- of Egyptians had a negative view of the U.S. role in
bers;* [355] beheading several diplomats: two Al- Iraq; 68% of Saudi Arabians had a negative view;
gerian diplomatic envoys Ali Belaroussi and Azze- 96% of the Jordanian population had a negative view;
dine Belkadi,* [356] Egyptian diplomatic envoy al- 70% of the population of the United Arab Emirates
Sherif,* [357] and four Russian diplomats.* [358]
and 76% of the Lebanese population also described
their view as negative.* [368] The Pew Global Attitudes
The February 2006 bombing of the al-Askari
Project reports that in 2006 majorities in the Netherlands,
Mosque, destroying one of the holiest Shiite shrines,
Germany, Jordan, France, Lebanon, Russia, China,
killing over 165 worshipers and igniting sectarian
Canada, Poland, Pakistan, Spain, Indonesia, Turkey, and
strife and reprisal killings.* [359]
Morocco believed the world was safer before the Iraq
War
and the toppling of Saddam, while pluralities in the
The publicised killing of several contractors;
United
States and India believe the world is safer without
Eugene Armstrong, Jack Hensley, Kenneth Bigley,
Saddam
Hussein.* [369]
Ivaylo Kepov and Georgi Lazov (Bulgarian truck
drivers.)* [360] Other non-military personnel
murdered include: translator Kim Sun-il, Shosei
Koda, Fabrizio Quattrocchi (Italian), charity 29.9.2
worker Margaret Hassan, reconstruction engineer
Nick Berg, photographer Salvatore Santoro (Italian)* [361] and supply worker Seif Adnan Kanaan
(Iraqi.) Four private armed contractors, Scott
Helvenston, Jerko Zovko, Wesley Batalona and
Michael Teague, were killed with grenades and
small arms re, their bodies dragged from their vehicles, beaten and set ablaze. Their burned corpses
were then dragged through the streets before being
hung over a bridge crossing the Euphrates.* [362]
Iraqi opinion
Torture or killing of members of the New Iraqi

Army,* [363] and assassination of civilians associated with the Coalition Provisional Authority,
such as Fern Holland, or the Iraqi Governing
Council, such as Aqila al-Hashimi and Ezzedine A woman pleads with an Iraqi army soldier from 2nd Company,
Salim, or other foreign civilians, such as those from 5th Brigade, 2nd Iraqi Army Division to let a suspected insurgent
free during a raid near Tafaria, Iraq
Kenya.* [364]
29.9 Public opinion on the war

Main article: Public opinion on the Iraq War
29.9.1
International opinion
According to a January 2007 BBC World Service poll

of more than 26,000 people in 25 countries, 73% of
the global population disapproved of U.S. handling of
the Iraq War.* [365] A September 2007 poll conducted
Directly after the invasion, polling suggested that a slight

majority supported the US invasion.* [370] Polls conducted between 2005 and 2007 showed 3137% of
Iraqi's wanted US and other Coalition forces to withdraw once security was restored and that 2635% wanted
immediate withdrawal instead.* [371]* [372]* [373] Despite a majority having previously been opposed to the
US presence, 60% of Iraqis opposed American troops
leaving directly prior to withdrawal, with 51% saying
withdrawal would have a negative eect.* [374]* [375] In
2006, a poll conducted on the Iraqi public revealed that
64% of the ones polled said Iraq was going in the right
direction and 77% claimed it was worth ousting Saddam
Hussein.* [371]
214
29.10 Relation to the Global War

on Terrorism
are foreigners, especially Saudis.* [383]* [384]* [385]
29.11.2 Iranian involvement
Main article: Iraq War and U.S. Global War on Terror

Further information: Criticism of the War on Terrorism, Although some military intelligence analysts have conSaddam Hussein and al-Qaeda and Saddam Hussein and cluded there is no concrete evidence, U.S. Major General
al-Qaeda timeline
Rick Lynch has claimed that Iran has provided training,
weapons, money, and intelligence to Shiite insurgents in
Former President George W. Bush consistently referred Iraq and that up to 150 Iranian intelligence agents, plus
to the Iraq war as the central front in the War on Ter- members of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard are believed
*
*
ror", and argued that if the United States pulled out of to be active in Iraq at any given time. [386] [387] Lynch
Iraq,terrorists will follow us here.* [376]* [377]* [378] thinks that members of the Iranian Quds Force and the
While other proponents of the war have regularly echoed Iranian Revolutionary Guard have trained members of
this assertion, as the conict has dragged on, members the Qazali terror network in explosives technology and
of the US Congress, the US public, and even US troops also provided the network with arms, munitions, and milhave questioned the connection between Iraq and the ght itary advisors. Many explosive devices, including improagainst anti-US terrorism. In particular, a consensus has vised explosives (IEDs) and explosively-formed projecdeveloped among intelligence experts that the Iraq war tiles (EFPs), used by insurgents are claimed by Lynch to
has increased terrorism. Counterterrorism expert Rohan be Iranian-made or designed.
Gunaratna frequently refers to the invasion of Iraq as a According to two unnamed US ocials, the Pentagon
fatal mistake.* [379]
is examining the possibility that the Karbala provincial
London's conservative International Institute for Strate- headquarters raid, in which insurgents managed to ingic Studies concluded in 2004 that the occupation of Iraq ltrate an American base, kill ve US soldiers, wound
had become a potent global recruitment pretextfor three, and destroy three humvees before eeing, was supMujahideen and that the invasiongalvanisedal-Qaeda ported by Iranians. In a speech on 31 January 2007, Iraqi
andperversely inspired insurgent violencethere.* [380] Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki stated that Iran was sup*
The US National Intelligence Council concluded in a Jan- porting attacks against Coalition forces in Iraq [388] and
uary 2005 report that the war in Iraq had become a breed- some Iraqis suspect that the raid may have been perpeing ground for a new generation of terrorists; David Low, trated by the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps's Qods
the national intelligence ocer for transnational threats, Force in retaliation for the detention of ve Iranian oindicated that the report concluded that the war in Iraq cials by U.S. forces in the northern Iraqi city of Irbil on
*
*
provided terrorists witha training ground, a recruitment 11 January. [389] [390]
ground, the opportunity for enhancing technical skills ... Michael Weiss and Dexter Filkins have described the exThere is even, under the best scenario, over time, the like- tensive involvement of Iranian Quds Force commander
lihood that some of the jihadists who are not killed there Qasem Suleimani in arming and training both Sunni and
will, in a sense, go home, wherever home is, and will Shi'ite militias in Iraq. According to Weiss, Iranian strattherefore disperse to various other countries.The Coun- egy was designed to prevent the Iraqi government from
cil's chairman Robert Hutchings said, At the moment, functioning so that Iran could exert greater control over
Iraq is a magnet for international terrorist activity.* [381] the country under the guise of providing stability. Weiss
And the 2006 National Intelligence Estimate, which out- also traced the origins of al Qaeda in Iraq, which enlined the considered judgment of all 16 US intelligence tered Iraqi Kurdistan through Iran, to covert Iranian opagencies, held that The Iraq conict has become the erations to destabilize the Iraqi government of Saddam
'cause celebre' for jihadists, breeding a deep resentment Hussein.* [391] According to a Western diplomat quoted
of U.S. involvement in the Muslim world and cultivating by Filkins: Suleimani wanted to bleed the Americans,
supporters for the global jihadist movement.* [382]
so he invited in the jihadis, and things got out of control.
*
[392] In 2011, US ambassador James Jerey stated that
Iranian proxies were responsible for roughly one-fourth
of US casualties in Iraq.* [393]
29.11 Foreign involvement

29.11.1
Role of Saudi Arabia and non- 29.12

Iraqis
See also
See also: Saudi Arabia and terrorism
12 July 2007 Baghdad airstrike (associated with

WikiLeaks in 2010)
According to studies, most of the suicide bombers in Iraq
Overseas interventions of the United States
29.14. REFERENCES
United Nations Security Council and the Iraq War
United States military casualties of war
War in Afghanistan (200114)
215
[14] 260 killed in 2003, 15,196 killed from 2004 through 2009
(with the exceptions of May 2004 and March 2009), 67
killed in March 2009, 1,100 killed in 2010, and 1,067
killed in 2011, thus giving a total of 17,690 dead
[15] Iraq War (PDF). Retrieved 18 November 2012.
29.13 Footnotes
[1] The conict is also known as the War in Iraq, the Occupation of Iraq, the Second Gulf War, Gulf War II,
and Gulf War 2. The period of the war lasting from 2003
to 2010 was referred to as Operation Iraqi Freedom by
the United States military.
29.14 References
[16] Operation Iraqi Freedom. iCasualties. Retrieved 24

August 2010.
[17] Home and Away: Iraq and Afghanistan War Casualties
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Retrieved 17 October 2009.
[20] POW and MIA in Iraq and Afghanistan Fast Facts.

CNN. Retrieved 5 June 2014.; As of July 2012, seven
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Naama, Neenus Khoshaba, Bob Hamze, Dean Sadek and
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[22] 33 Ukrainians , 31+ Italians , 30 Bulgarians , 20 Salvadorans , 19 Georgians , 18 Estonians , 16+ Poles , 15
Spaniards , 10 Romanians , 6 Australians , 5 Albanians,
4 Kazakhs , 3 Filipinos and 2 Thais for a total of 212+
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[24] Casualties in Iraq.

[7] Deputy Assistant Secretary for International Programs
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assassination of Abu Risha, 25 on 12 November 2007, 528
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100+ from April to June 2010, 52 on 18 July 2010, total
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[385] See also: Hafez, Mohammed M. Suicide Bomber in

Iraq. United States Institute of Peace Press. ISBN
1601270046.
[386] Linzer, Dafna (26 January 2007). Troops Authorized
to Kill Iranian Operatives in Iraq. The Washington Post.
p. A.1.
[387] Greenwell, Megan (20 August 2007). Iran Trains Militiamen Inside Iraq, U.S. Says. The Washington Post.
[388] Al-Maliki: Iraq won't be battleground for U.S., Iran.
CNN. 31 January 2007. Archived from the original on 2
February 2007. Retrieved 31 January 2007.
[389] Iran involvement suspected in Karbala compound attack. CNN.com. 31 January 2007. Retrieved 31 January
2007.

Electronic Iraq Daily news and analysis from Iraq
with a special focus on the Iraqi experience of war
News from Iraq: Aggregated news on the war, including politics and economics.
Dollar cost of war: total U.S. cost of the Iraq War
Bleak Pentagon study admits 'civil war' in Iraq,
by Rupert Cornwell, The Independent, March 2007
High resolution maps of Iraq, GulfWarrior.org
[390] Baer, Robert (30 January 2007). Are the Iranians Out
for Revenge?". Time. Retrieved 31 January 2007.
Presidential address by George W. Bush on the

evening of 19 March 2003, announcing war against
Iraq.
[391] Weiss, Michael (2014-06-23). Trust Iran Only as Far

as You Can Throw It. Foreign Policy. Retrieved 201408-12.
Bibliography: The Second U.S. Iraq War (2003

)
[392] Filkins, Dexter (2013-09-30). The Shadow Commander. The New Yorker. Retrieved 2014-08-12.
"1st Major Survey of Iraq". Zogby International, 10

September 2003.
[393] Chulov, Martin (2011-07-28). Qassem Suleimani: the

Iranian general 'secretly running' Iraq. The Guardian.
Iraq at Polling Report.com. Chronological polls of

Americans 18 and older

Bellavia, David (2007). House to House: An Epic
Memoir of War. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781416574712.
Dexter Filkins,General Principles, New Yorker,
17 December 2012, pp. 7681.
Gates, Robert M. (2014). Duty: Memoirs of a Secretary at War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN
9780307959478. 318 pages
Gordon, Michael R. (2006). Cobra II: The Inside
Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq. Pantheon. ISBN 978-1557782328.
Larson, Luke S. (2008). Senator's Son: An Iraq
War Novel. Phoenix, Arizona: Key Edition Incorporated. ISBN 978-1449969868.
North, Richard (2009). Ministry of Defeat: The
British War in Iraq 20032009. Continuum Publishing Corporation. ISBN 978-1441169976.
Just War in Iraq 2003 pdf Legal dissertation by

Thomas Dyhr from University of Copenhagen.
Iraq war stories, a Guardian and Observer archive
in words and pictures documenting the human and
political cost, The Guardian, April 2009.
Iraq: The War Card. Center for Public Integrity.
Jargin SV. Health care in Iraq:
2013
vs.
2003.
CMAJ September 17, 2013
http://www.cmaj.ca/content/181/9/576.
figures-only/reply#cmaj_el_716427
Chapter 30
Joint Special Operations Command

mand (USSOCOM) and is charged to study special operations requirements and techniques to ensure interoperability and equipment standardization, plan and conduct
special operations exercises and training, develop joint
special operations tactics and execute special operations
missions worldwide. It was established in 1980 on recommendation of Col. Charlie Beckwith, in the aftermath of
the failure of Operation Eagle Claw.* [3] It is located at
Pope Field (Fort Bragg) in North Carolina, USA.
30.1 Overview
The JSOC is the joint headquarters designed to study
special operations requirements and techniques; ensure
interoperability and equipment standardization; plan and
conduct joint special operations exercises and training;
and develop joint special operations tactics.* [4] For
this task, the Joint Communications Unit (JCU) is tasked
to ensure compatibility of communications systems and
standard operating procedures of the dierent special operations units.
30.1.1 Special Mission Units

Further information: Special Mission Unit
The Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) also
commands and controls the Special Mission Units
(SMU) of U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). These units perform highly classied activities.* [5]* [6]* [7] So far, only three SMUs have been publicly disclosed: The Army's 1st Special Forces Operational DetachmentDelta Force, the Navy's Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVGRU) SEAL
Team Six, and the Air Force's 24th Special Tactics
Squadron.* [8] Units from the Army's 75th Ranger Regiment and 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment
U.S. Joint Special Operations Command
are controlled by JSOC when deployed as part of JSOC
such as Task Force 121 and Task Force
The primary mission of the Joint Special Operations Task* Forces
*
*
145.
[9]
[10]
[11]
Command (JSOC) is ostensibly to identify and elim*
inate terror cells worldwide. [2] JSOC is a component The Intelligence Support Activity (ISA) is also under
command of the United States Special Operations Com- JSOC.* [12] The ISA collects specic target intelligence
226
30.2. SECURITY SUPPORT
227
working closely with the NSA, and prior to SMU missions

provides signals support, etc. during missions. The army
once maintained the ISA, but after the September 11 attacks, the Pentagon shifted direct control to Joint Special
Operations Command at Fort Bragg, NC.* [13]
Tier 2 units take leave together within their respective

JSOC package. This term is called block leave. Given
the wartime tasking of JSOC, an additional deployment
package is currently being created. This will allow less
operational strain on these units.
JSOC has an operational relationship with the CIA's

Special Activities Division(SAD).* [14] SAD's Special
Operations Group often recruits from JSOC.* [15]
30.2 Security support
30.1.2
Advanced Force Operations
Advanced Force Operations (AFO) is a term used by

the U.S. Department of Defense to describe a task force
that encompasses personnel from 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta (1st SFOD-D), DEVGRU
and U.S. Army Intelligence Support Activity (USAISA).
According to Gen. Michael Repass, who conducted it
in the Iraq War and was very familiar with its use in
Afghanistan, AFO consists of U.S. Secretary of Defense-approved military operations such as clandestine
operations, source operations, and deployment of enabling forces and capabilities to conduct target-specic
preparations prior to the conduct of an actual operation.
It is logically part of Operational Preparation of the Battlespace (OPB), which follows the Intelligence Preparation of the Battlespace, a concept well-known in U.S. and
NATO doctrine, OPB is seldom used outside of Special
Operations Forces channels. OPB is dened by the U.S.
Special Operations Command as Non-intelligence activities conducted prior to D-Day, H-Hour, in likely or
potential areas of employment, to train and prepare for
follow-on military operations.* [16]
An AFO unit reported to JSOC in the Afghanistan
War. In the Iraq War, Respass, who rst commanded
the 10th Special Forces Group, took control of a Joint
Unconventional Warfare Task Force, which used the
5th and 10th Groups to conduct AFO. AFO units were
heavily involved in Operation Anaconda and Operation
Viking Hammer.
30.1.3
JSO Package / Rotational Group
The Joint Special Operations Package / Rotational Group

of the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) consist of Tier 1 and Tier 2 U.S. Joint Special Operations Command units that train and deploy together. All Tier 1 and Tier 2 units maintain three separate operational groups within their respective units (The
1st, 2nd, and 3rd Battalions of the 75th Ranger Regiment (United States) as an example).* [17] These groups
are essentially identical and deploy within their respective
JSOC package. The rotational cycle is generally three
months. This allows one group to be deployed overseas,
another to be on an 18-hour worldwide emergency deployment notice, and the last group to be training, attending military schools, or on block leave.Tier 1 and
JSOC has provided support to domestic law enforcement

agencies during high prole or high risk events such as
the Olympics, the World Cup, political party conventions
and Presidential inaugurations. Although use of the military for law enforcement purposes in the U.S. is generally
prohibited by the Posse Comitatus Act, Title 10 of the
U.S. Code expressly allows the Secretary of Defense to
make military personnel available to train Federal, State,
and local civilian law enforcement ocials in the operation and maintenance of equipment; and to provide such
law enforcement ocials with expert advice.* [18] Additionally, civilian and uniformed military lawyers said
provisions in several federal statutes, including the Fiscal Year 2000 Defense Department Authorization Act,
Public Law 106-65, permits the secretary of defense to
authorize military forces to support civilian agencies, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, in the event
of a national emergency, especially any involving nuclear,
chemical, or biological weapons.* [19]
In January 2005, a small group of commandos were
deployed to support security at the Presidential inauguration. They were allegedly deployed under a secret
counter-terrorism program named Power Geyser. The
New York Times quoted a senior military ocial as saying, They bring unique military and technical capabilities that often are centered around potential WMD
events,A civil liberties advocate who was told about the
program by a reporter said that he had no objections to
the program as described to him because its scope appeared to be limited to supporting the counterterrorism
eorts of civilian authorities.* [19]
30.3 Operational history

30.3.1 Operations in Pakistan
According to The Washington Post, JSOC's commander
Lieutenant General Stanley McChrystal operated in 2006
on the understanding with Pakistan that US units will
not enter Pakistan except under extreme circumstances,
and that Pakistan will deny giving them permission if exposed.* [20]
That scenario happened according to the Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA), in January 2006, JSOC troops
clandestinely entered the village of Saidgai, Pakistan, to
hunt for Osama Bin Laden. Pakistan refused entry.* [21]
228
CHAPTER 30. JOINT SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND
According to a November 2009 report in The Nation,

JSOC, in tandem with Blackwater/Xe, has an ongoing
drone program, along with snatch/grab/assassination operations, based in Karachi and conducted both in and outside of Pakistan.* [22]* [23]
Sometime in 2007, JSOC started conducting crossborder operations into Iran from southern Iraq with the
CIA. These operations included seizing members of AlQuds, the commando arm of the Iranian Revolutionary
Guard, and taking them to Iraq for interrogation, as well
as the pursuit, capture or killing of high-value targets
in the war on terror. The Bush administration allegedly
combined the CIA's intelligence operations and covert action with JSOC clandestine military operations so that
Congress would only partially see how the money was
spent.* [32]
In an October 2009 leak published on the WikiLeaks

website, U.S. embassy communication cables from the
U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan Anne W. Patterson states
the Pakistani Army approved the embedding of U.S. Special Operations Forces, including elements from the Joint
Special Operations Command, with the Pakistani military to provide support for operations in the country. This
goes beyond the original claims of the U.S. that the only
role of the Special Forces was in training the Pakistani 30.3.4 Operations in Somalia
miliary. The leak further revealed that JSOC elements involved in intelligence gathering and surveillance and use On 28 October 2013 a drone strike by JSOC on a vehicle near the town of Jilib in Lower Shabelle killed two
of drone UAV technology.* [24]
senior Somali members of Al-Shabaab. Preliminary evJSOC is credited with coordination of Operation Neptune idence suggested that one of them was Ibrahim Ali (also
Spear that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden on 1 known as Anta), an explosives specialist known for his
May 2011* [25]* [26]
skill in building and using homemade bombs and suicide
vests.* [33]* [34] The US administration has been reluctant to use drone strikes in Somalia. The reluctance partly
30.3.2 Operations in Afghanistan
centered on questions of whether Al-Shabaabwhich has
not tried to carry out an attack on American soilcould
According to the movie Dirty Wars by Jeremy Sc- legally be the target of lethal operations by the military or
ahill, JSOC was responsible for a number of raids in the CIA. In May 2013, the White House announced that
Afghanistan. One among them took place in Gardez, ini- it would carry out targeted killing operations only against
tially reported by Jerome Starkey but later in other media those who posed a continuing and imminent threat to
as well. The then current commander William Mcraven the American people.The strike on 28 Oct. was the
visited the aected family, oered them a sheep in resti- rst known American operation resulting in a death since
tution and apologized for the incident.* [26] In the inci- that policy was announced and is considered evidence by
dent,* [27] one US trained Police commander and another some observers that views have changed in Washington
man were killed, as were 3 women, 2 of whom were preg- and that the Obama administration has decided to escanant, while going to the men's aid.
late operations against Al-Shabaab in the aftermath of the
How many other raids there were during this time, and group's Westgate shopping mall attack in Nairobi, Kenya,
before and since, is dicult to count as JSOC only an- that took place from 2124 September 2013 and which
swers to the White House and not the rest of the military. left some 70 people dead.
The secrecy around the number of raids could reasonably
be counted in the hundreds since they started but only a
mere few have been documented as well as the Gardez 30.3.5 Operations in Yemen
incident according to Scahill.* [28]* [29]
Anwar al-Awlaki, a Yemeni-American U.S. citizen, was
killed on September 30, 2011, by an air attack carried out
by the Joint Special Operations Command. After several
30.3.3 Operations in Iraq
days of surveillance of Awlaki by the Central Intelligence
On 11 January 2007, President Bush pledged in a ma- Agency, armed drones took o from a new, secret Amerjor speech to seek out and destroy the networks pro- ican base in the Arabian Peninsula, crossed into northviding advanced weaponry and training to our enemies ern Yemen and unleashed a barrage of Hellre missiles at
in Iraq.* [30] The next day, in a meeting of the U.S. al-Awlaki's vehicle. Samir Khan, a Pakistani-American
Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Chairman Sen- al-Qaeda member and editor of the jihadist Inspire magator Joseph Biden (Delaware), informed U.S. Secretary azine, also reportedly died in the attack. The combined
of State Condoleezza Rice that the Bush Administration CIA/JSOC drone strike was the rst in Yemen since 2002
did not have the authority to send U.S. troops on cross- there have been others by the military's Special Operaborder raids. Biden said, I believe the present autho- tions forces and was part of an eort by the spy agency
which has been runrization granted the president to use force in Iraq does not to duplicate in Yemen the covert war
*
*
[35]
[36]
ning
in
Afghanistan
and
Pakistan.
cover that, and he does need congressional authority to do
that. I just want to set that marker.* [31]
According to the New York Times the Yemen government
30.6. REFERENCES
229
banned military drone operations after a series of botched [10] Naylor, Sean D. (1 March 2011). McRaven Tapped to
lead SOCOM. Army Times. Retrieved 15 May 2011.
drone strikes by JSOC, the last of which was a December 2013 drone strike that killed numerous civilians at a
[11] Priest, Dana, and William M. Arkin,
" Top Secret Amerwedding ceremony. Despite a ban on military drone opica: A look at the militarys Joint Special Operations
erations the Yemen government allowed CIA drone opCommand", Washington Post, 4 September 2011.
erations to continue.* [37]
[12] John Pike.Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC)".
30.4 List of JSOC commanders

30.5 See also
1st Special Forces Operational Detachment Delta
(Delta Force or ACE)
Central Intelligence Agency's Special Activities Division Special Operations Group (SAD/SOG)
Intelligence Support Activity (The Activity)
Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVGRU or SEAL Team Six)
Targeted killing
U.S. Air Force 24th Special Tactics Squadron (24th
STS)
30.6 References
[1] Jim Frederick (2013).Time: Special Ops. Time (Time
Inc. Specials). Re-issue of Time's Special Edition: 55.
[2] Feickert, Andrew (17 April 2006). U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress
[3] Emerson, Steven (1988). Secret Warriors: Inside the
Covert Military Operations of the Reagan Era. New York:
G. P. Putnam's Sons. p. 26. ISBN 0-399-13360-7.
[13] Rowan Scarborough (15 March 2004).Agencies unite to

nd bin Laden. Washington Times. Retrieved 15 March
2009.
[14] Woodward, Bob (18 November 2001).Secret CIA Units
Playing A Central Combat Role. The Washington Post.
[15] Waller, Douglas (3 February 2003). The CIA's Secret
Army. TIME. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
[16] Repass, Michael S. (7 April 2003), Combating Terrorism with Preparation of the Battlespace (PDF), U.S. Army
War College
[17] 75th Ranger Regiment. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
[18] U.S. Code Title 10, 373. Training and advising civilian law enforcement ocials. Cornell University Law
School. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
[19] Schmitt, Eric (23 January 2005).Commandos Get Duty
on U.S. Soil. New York Times. Retrieved 16 March
2009.
[20] Priest, Dana and Tyson, Ann Scott (10 September 2006).
Bin Laden Trail 'Stone Cold'". The Washington Post.
[21] Special U.S. unit can enter Pakistan at will to hunt
Osama. GlobalSecurity.org. 11 September 2006. Retrieved 15 March 2009.
[22] Jeremy Scahill (23 November 2009). Blackwater's Secret War in Pakistan. The Nation. Retrieved 27 November 2009d.
[4] Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC)". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
[23] James Risen, Mark Mazzeti (August 20, 2009). C.I.A.

Said to Use Outsiders to Put Bombs on Drones. The
New York Times.
[5] Emerson, Steven (13 November 1988). Stymied Warriors. The New York Times. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
[24] Jeremy Scahill (1 December 2010).The (Not So) Secret

(Anymore) US War in Pakistan. The Nation.
[6] Mazzetti, Mark (13 January 2007).Pentagon Sees Move

in Somalia as Blueprint. The New York Times. Retrieved
13 March 2008.
[25] Ross, Brian; Tapper, Jake; Esposito, Richard; Schifrin,

Nick (2 May 2011). Osama Bin Laden Killed By Navy
Seals in Fireght. ABC News. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
[7] Risen, James (20 September 1998).The World: Passing

the Laugh Test; Pentagon Planners Give New Meaning to
'Over the Top'". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 April
2008.
[26] Jeremy Scahill (2 May 2011). JSOC: The Black Ops

Force That Took Down Bin Laden. The Nation.
[8] North, Oliver (2010). American Heroes in Special Operations. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-47125.
[9] Naylor, Sean D. (3 Sep 2010). JSOC task force battles Haqqani militants. Army Times. Retrieved 16 May
2011.
[27] ISAF Public Aairs Oce (4 April 2010). Gardez Investigation Concludes. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
[28] Scahill, Jeremy (22 November 2010). America's Failed
War of Attrition in Afghanistan. Retrieved October 20,
2013.
[29] Scahill, Jeremy (18 January 2013). Dirty Wars. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
230
CHAPTER 30. JOINT SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND
[30] Full Transcript Of Bush's Iraq Speech. CBS News.

10 January 2007. Retrieved 15 March 2009.
30.7 External links
[31] Senators fear Iraq war may spill to Iran, Syria. Reuters.
11 January 2007. Retrieved 15 March 2009.
Special Ops say lives were on line in Lynch's rescue,

by The Washington Times
[32] Reid, Marsha (7 July 2008).Covert ops in Iran. Geopolitical Monitor. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
US special operations come of age, by Global Defence Review
[33] Pentagon Says Shabab Bomb Specialist Is Killed in Missile Strike in Somalia. New York Times. 28 October
2013.
[34] Drone kills two in Somalia: witnesses: Eyewitnesses say
missile came from a drone amid reports dead men are senior members of the al-Shabab armed group. Al Jazeera.
28 October 2013.
[35] Same US military unit that got Osama bin laden killed
Anwar al-Awlaki. Telegraph.co.uk. 30 September 2011.
[36] Mark Mazzetti, Eric Schmitt and Robert F. Worth,TwoYear Manhunt Led to Killing of Awlaki in Yemen, New
York Times (September 30 2011)
[37] http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/06/world/
delays-in-effort-to-refocus-cia-from-drone-war.
html?_r=0
[38] , Flight Sciences Corporation
[39] Vice Admiral Named JSOC Head. military.com /
McClatchy-Tribune Information Services. 14 June 2008.
[40] Former JSOC Commander McRaven nominated to lead
US Special Ops Command. Jan 6, 2010.
[41] Votel nominated to head up Joint Special Operations
Command. Stars and Stripes. February 17, 2011.
[42] New commander takes over Joint Special Operations
Command at Fort Bragg. The Fayetteville Observer. July
29, 2014.
30.6.1
Further reading
Berntsen, Gary; Pezzullo, Ralph (27 December

2005). Jawbreaker: The Attack on Bin Laden and
Al-Qaeda: A Personal Account by the CIA's Key
Field Commander. Crown. ISBN 0-307-35106-8.
Daugherty, William J. (2 June 2006). Executive Secrets: Covert Action and the Presidency. University
Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-9161-0.
Emerson, Steven (1988). Secret Warriors: Inside the
Covert Military Operations of the Reagan Era. New
York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-13360-7.
Smith, Michael (2006). Killer Elite: The Inside Story
of America's Most Secret Special Operations Team.
London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-36727-3.
Steven, Graeme C. S. and Gunaratna, Rohan (14
September 2004). Counterterrorism: A Reference
Handbook. Contemporary World Issues. ISBN
978-1-85109-666-4.
Chapter 31
Light machine gun
The FN Minimi, one of the most widespread modern 5.56 mm

light machine guns amongst NATO countries.
Bren light machine gun.
.30-06 BAR Model 1918

Heckler & Koch MG4 of the German Army.
A light machine gun (LMG) is a machine gun designed

to be employed by an individual soldier, with or without
an assistant, as an infantry support weapon. Light ma- A light machine gun is also dened by its usage as well as
its specications: some machine guns - notably generalchine guns are often used as squad automatic weapons.
purpose machine guns - may be deployed either as a light
machine gun or a medium machine gun. Deployed on a
tripod and used for sustained-re it is a medium machine
gun; if deployed with a bipod with the operator in prone
position and ring short bursts it is a light machine gun.
Modern light machine guns often re smaller-caliber
cartridges than medium machine guns, and are usually Light machine guns are also designed to be red from the
lighter and more compact. Some LMGs, such as the Rus- hip or on the move as a form of suppressive re intended
sian RPK, are modications of existing assault rie de- to pin down the enemy. Marching re is a specic tactic
signs and designed to share the same ammunition. Adap- that relies on this capability.
tations to the original rie generally include a larger mag- Lighter modern LMGs have enabled them to be issued
azine, a heavier barrel to resist overheating, a more robust down at the reteam level, with two or three at the section/squad level.
mechanism to support sustained re and a bipod.
231
232
31.1.1
CHAPTER 31. LIGHT MACHINE GUN
Ammunition feed
Many light machine guns (such as the Bren gun or the

M1918 Browning Automatic Rie) were magazine-fed.
Others, such as the MG 34, could be fed either from a
belt or from a magazine. Modern light machine guns are
designed to re more rounds of a smaller caliber and, as
such, tend to be belt-fed from a detachable box magazine,
some such as the FN Minimi will also accept rie magazine feeding as an auxiliary measure when belted ammunition has been exhausted.
31.2 History
A Romanian soldier instructing a U.S. Marine in clearing a RPK

during Exercise Rescue Eagle 2000 at Babadag Range, Romania,
on July 15, 2000.
Light machine guns were rst introduced in World War I

to boost the repower of advancing infantry. By the end
of World War II, light machine guns were usually being
issued on a scale of one per re team or squad, and the
modern infantry squad had emerged with tactics that were
built around the use of the LMG to provide suppressive
re.
31.3 Selected examples
A Chinese soldier with a ZB vz.26 light machine gun.

A 7.62x51 mm NATO, Mk 48 machine gun on a foot patrol in
the mountains of Afghanistan, 2009.
The following were either exclusively light machine guns,

had a light machine gun variant or were employed in the
light machine gun role with certain adaptations.
31.3.1 1900s1940s
Madsen machine gun (Multi-caliber)
Bergmann MG15 nA Gun (7.92 x 57 mm)
The early INSAS LMG, a weapon of Indian origin.
M1909 Benet-Mercie (8 mm Lebel, .303 British,

.30-06 Springeld)
31.4. SEE ALSO

Bren (.303 British)
Fusil-Mitrailleur Mle 1915 'CSRG', 'Chauchat' light
machine gun (8 mm Lebel)
Lahti-Saloranta M/26 (7.62x53mm R]
Degtyaryov light machine gun (7.62x54mm R)
Furrer M25 (7.5x55mm Swiss)
Lewis automatic rie (8 mm Lebel / 6.5x55 mm
Mauser)
Mendoza RM2 (7.92x57 mm, .30-06 Springeld)
Breda 30 (6.5mm)
ZB vz. 26
31.4 See also

Medium machine gun
Heavy machine gun
Assault rie
233
Chapter 32
Machine gun
For other uses, see Machine gun (disambiguation).
A machine gun is a fully automatic mounted or
A .50 caliber M2 machine gun: John Browning's design has been

one of the longest serving and most successful machine gun designs
Czechoslovak 7.62 mm Universal Machine gun Model 1959.
Top: IMI Negev (light machine gun). Bottom: FN MAG (general

purpose machine gun).
portable rearm, usually designed to re bullets in quick

succession from an ammunition belt or magazine, typically at a rate of three to eighteen hundred rounds per
minute.
Fully automatic weapons are generally categorized as
submachine guns, assault ries, machine guns, or
autocannons. Submachine guns are hand-held automatic
weapons for personal defense or short-range combat ring pistol-caliber rounds. A machine gun is often portable
to a certain degree, but is generally used when attached
to a mount or red from the ground on a bipod or tripod,
and generally res rie cartridges and is capable of sustained re. Light machine guns are small enough to be
red hand-held, but are more eective when red from

a prone position. The dierence between machine guns
and autocannons is based on caliber, with autocannons
using calibers larger than 16 mm.,* [1] and whether the
gun res conventional bullets or explosive rounds. Guns
ring large-caliber explosive rounds are generally considered either autocannons or automatic grenade launchers
(grenade machine guns). In contrast to submachine
guns and autocannons, machine guns (like ries) tend to
have a very high ratio of barrel length to caliber (a long
barrel for a small caliber); indeed, a true machine gun is
essentially a fully automatic rie, and often the primary
criterion for a machine gun as opposed to an automatic
rie is the presence of a quick-change barrel or other
cooling system. Automatic ries and (more commonly)
assault ries may be capable of fully automatic re, but
are not designed for sustained re.
In United States gun law, machine gun is a technical term
for any fully automatic rearm, and also for any component or part that will modify an existing rearm such that
it functions as a fully automatic rearm.* [2]
234
32.1. OVERVIEW OF MODERN AUTOMATIC MACHINE GUNS
235
is dierent. The M249 automatic rie is operated by an

automatic rieman, but its ammunition may be carried
by other Soldiers within the squad or unit. The M249
machine gun is a crew-served weapon.* [3]
The majority of machine guns are belt-fed, although some
light machine guns are fed from drum or box magazines,
and some vehicle-mounted machine guns are hopper-fed.
A Mitsubishi Type 73 Light Truck Shn with a Sumitomo M2

heavy machine gun mounted at the rear with foliage used to camouage the vehicle from sight. This was on public display at
Camp Narashino.
32.1 Overview of modern automatic machine guns

Unlike semi-automatic rearms, which require one trigger pull per round red, a machine gun is designed to re
for as long as the trigger is held down. Nowadays the
term is restricted to relatively heavy weapons red from
some sort of support rather than hand-held, able to provide continuous or frequent bursts of automatic re for
as long as ammunition lasts. Machine guns are normally
used against unprotected or lightly protected personnel,
or to provide suppressive re.
Some machine guns have in practice sustained re almost
continuously for hours; other automatic weapons overheat after less than a minute of use. Because they become very hot, practically all machine guns re from an
open bolt, to permit air cooling from the breech between
bursts. They also have either a barrel cooling system, or
removable barrels which allow a hot barrel to be replaced.
Other automatic weapons are subdivided into several categories based on the size of the bullet used, and whether
the cartridge is red from a positively locked closed
bolt, or a non-positively locked open bolt. Full automatic rearms using pistol-caliber ammunition are called
machine pistols or submachine guns largely on the basis of size. Selective re ries ring a full-power rie
cartridge from a closed bolt are called automatic ries
or battle ries, while ries that re an intermediate cartridge are called assault ries. The dierence in construction was driven by the dierence in intended deployment.
Automatic ries (such as the Browning Automatic Rie)
were designed to be a high duty cycle arm for support
of other troops, and were often made and deployed with
quick change barrel assemblies to allow quick replacement of over heated barrels to allow for continued re,
and may have been operated by both the person actually ring the weapon as well as an additional crewman
to assist in providing and caring for ammunition and the
barrels, similar to a reduced version of a squad weapon.
The assault rie generally was made for a more intermittent duty cycle, and was designed to be easily carried and
used by a single person.
Assault ries are a compromise between the size and
weight of a pistol-caliber submachinegun and a full
size traditional automatic rie by ring intermediate
cartridges and allowing semi-automatic, burst, or fullautomatic re options (selective re), often with two or
more of these available on the rie at once.
In certain states, like California, certain weapons that resemble true assault ries, but are only semi-automatic
(autoloading), are categorized as assault weapons and
possession by civilians is generally illegal. Supporters
of gun rights generally consider this application of the
phraseassault weaponto be a misnomer and this term is
in fact seldom used outside of the United States for these
civilian rearms.
Although subdivided into "light", "medium", "heavy" or

"general-purpose", even the lightest machine guns tend to
be substantially larger and heavier than other automatic
weapons. Squad automatic weapons (SAW) are a variation of light machine gun and require only one operator (sometimes with an assistant to carry ammunition).
Medium and heavy machine guns are either mounted on
a tripod or on a vehicle; when carried on foot, the machine The machine gun's primary role in modern ground comgun and associated equipment (tripod, ammunition, spare bat is to provide suppressive re on an opposing force's
position, forcing the enemy to take cover and reducing
barrels) require additional crew members.
the eectiveness of his re. This either halts an enemy
According to U.S. Army doctrine, a machine gun is disattack or allows friendly forces to attack enemy positions
tinguished from an automatic rie by how it is used: a mawith less risk.
chine gun is a crew-served weapon, while an automatic rie is used by a single person. While most weapons are de- Light machine guns usually have simple iron sights. A
signed to be used exclusively in one manner or the other, common aiming system is to alternate solid (ball)
FM 3-22.68 Crew-Served Machine Guns, describes rounds and tracer ammunition rounds (usually one tracer
how the M249 can be used either as a machine gun or as round for every four ball rounds), so shooters can see the
an automatic rie: Both the M249 automatic rie and trajectory and walkthe re into the target, and direct
the M249 machine gun are identical, but its employment the re of other soldiers.
236
CHAPTER 32. MACHINE GUN
Many heavy machine guns, such as the Browning M2 .50

caliber machine gun, are accurate enough to engage targets at great distances. During the Vietnam War, Carlos
Hathcock set the record for a long-distance shot at 7382
ft (2250 m) with a .50 caliber heavy machine gun he had
equipped with a telescopic sight.* [4] This led to the introduction of .50 caliber anti-materiel sniper ries, such
as the Barrett M82.
32.2 Operation
direct impingement
All machine guns follow a cycle:

Pulling (manually or electrically) the bolt assembly/bolt carrier rearward by way of the cocking lever
to the point bolt carrier engages a sear and stays at
rear position until trigger is activated making bolt
carrier move forward
Loading fresh round into chamber and locking bolt
Firing round by way of a ring pin or striker (except
for aircraft medium caliber using electric ignition
primers) hitting the primer that ignites the powder
when bolt reaches locked position.
Unlocking and removing the spent case from the
chamber and ejecting it out of the weapon as bolt
is moving rearward
Loading the next round into the ring chamber.
Usually the recoil spring (also known as main spring)
tension pushes bolt back into battery and a cam
strips the new round from a feeding device, belt or
box.
Cycle is repeated as long as the trigger is activated by
operator. Releasing the trigger resets the trigger mechanism by engaging a sear so the weapon stops ring with
bolt carrier fully at the rear.
The operation is basically the same for all semi automatic
or automatic weapons, regardless of the means of activating these mechanisms. Some examples:
Machine pistols and submachine guns (like the
World War II "grease gun", MAC-10 or the Uzi)
are usually blowback operated.
Most assault ries and squad automatic weapons

are gas operated. Some weapons, such as the AR15/M16, do not have a piston, instead using a system
of direct impingement in which the gases operate the
bolt carrier by acting directly on it. Others, like the
original SA80 patterns, have a bolt carrier that is unlocked and operated by a piston actuated by gases.
gas piston
A recoil actuated machine gun uses the recoil to rst

unlock and then operate the action. Heavy machine
guns, such as the M2 Browning .50, are of this type.
A cam, lever or actuator demultiplicates the energy
of the recoil to operate the bolt.
An externally actuated machine gun uses an external power source, such as an electric motor or even
a hand crank to move its mechanism through the ring sequence. Most modern weapons of this type
are called Gatling guns in reference to their driving mechanism. Gatling guns have several barrels
on a rotating carousel and a system of cams that
load, cock, and re each mechanism progressively
as it rotates through the sequence. The continuous
nature of the rotary action allows for an incredibly
high cyclic rate of re, often several thousand rounds
per minute. Rotary guns are less prone to jamming
than a gun operated by gas or recoil, as the external power source will eject misred rounds with no
further trouble, but this is not possible if the force
needed to eject the round comes from the round
itself. Rotary guns are generally used with large
shells, 20 mm in diameter or more, oering benets of reliability and repower, though the weight
and size of the power source and driving mechanism
makes them impractical for use outside of a vehicle
or aircraft mount.
Revolver cannons, such as the Mauser MK 213,
were developed in World War II by the Germans to
provide high-caliber cannons with a reasonable rate
of re and reliability. A recoil-operated carriage
holds a revolving chamber with typically ve cham-
32.3. HISTORY
237
bers. As each round is red, electrically, the car- cases and can vary depending which language and exact
riage moves back rotating the chamber which also denition is used.
ejects the spent case, indexes the next live round to
be red with the barrel and loads the next round into
the chamber. The action is very similar to that of the 32.3.1 Early rapid-ring weapons
revolver pistols common in the 19th and 20th centuries, giving this type of weapon its name.
Firing a machine gun produces great amounts of heat.
In a worst-case scenario this may cause a cartridge to
re even when the trigger is not pulled, potentially leading to damage or causing the gun to cycle its action and
keep ring until it has exhausted its ammunition supply or
jammed. To prevent this, some kind of cooling system is
required. Early heavy machine guns were often watercooled; while very eective, the water also added considerable weight to an already bulky design. Air-cooled
machine guns feature quick-change barrels, often carried
by a crew member. The higher the rate of re, the more
often barrels must be changed and allowed to cool. To
minimize this, most air-cooled guns are red only in short
bursts or at a reduced rate of re. Some designs - such as
the many variants of the MG42 - are capable of rates of
re in excess of 1500 rounds per minute.
Detail of an 8-chambered matchlock revolver (Germany ca.

1580)
The rst known ancestors of multi-shot weapons were

early revolvers made in Europe in the late 1500s. One is
a shoulder-gun-length weapon made in Nuremberg, Germany, circa 1580. Another is a revolving arquebus, proIn weapons where the round seats and res at the same duced by Hans Stopler of Nuremberg in 1597.* [5]
time, mechanical timing is essential for operator safety, to
prevent the round from ring before it is seated properly.
Machine guns are controlled by one or more mechanical
sears. When a sear is in place, it eectively stops the bolt
at some point in its range of motion. Some sears stop the
bolt when it is locked to the rear. Other sears stop the ring pin from going forward after the round is locked into
the chamber. Almost all machine guns have a safety
sear, which simply keeps the trigger from engaging.
32.3 History
It would not be until the mid-19th century that successful
machine-gun designs came into existence. The key characteristic of modern machine guns, their relatively high
rate of re and more importantly machine (automatic)
loading, came with the Model 1862 Gatling gun, which
was adopted by the United States Navy. These weapons
were still powered by hand; however, this changed with
Hiram Maxim's idea of harnessing recoil energy to power
reloading in his Maxim machine gun. Dr. Gatling also
experimented with electric-motor-powered models; this
externally powered machine reloading has seen use in
modern weapons as well. The Vandenburg and Miltrailleuse volley (organ) gun concepts have been revived
partially in the early 21st century in the form of electronically controlled, multibarreled volley guns. It is important
to note that what exactly constitutes a machine gun, and
whether volley guns are a type of machine gun, and to
what extent some earlier types of devices are considered
to be like machine guns, is a matter of debate in many
Replica Puckle Gun from Bucklers Hard
Another large, early repeating was created by James

Puckle, a London lawyer, who patented what he called
The Puckle Gun" on May 15, 1718. It was a design for a 1 in. (25.4 mm) caliber, intlock revolver
cannon able to re 9 rounds before reloading, intended
for use on ships.* [6] According to Puckle, it was able
to re round bullets at Christians and square bullets at
Turks.* [6] While ahead of its time, foreshadowing the
designs of revolvers, it was not adopted or produced.
In 1777, Philadelphia gunsmith Joseph Belton oered the
Continental Congress anew improved gun, which was
capable of ring up to twenty shots in ve seconds, automatically, and was capable of being loaded by a cartridge.
Congress requested that Belton modify 100 intlock muskets to re eight shots in this manner, but rescinded the
order when Belton's price proved too high.* [7]* [8]
238
In the early and mid-19th century, a number of rapidring weapons appeared which oered multi-shot re,
and a number of semi-automatic weapons as well as
volley guns. Volley guns (such as the Mitrailleuse) and
double barreled pistols relied on duplicating all parts of
the gun. Pepperbox pistols did away with needing multiple hammers but used multiple barrels. Revolvers further reduced this to only needing a pre-prepared magazine using the same barrel and ignitions. However, like
the Puckle gun, they were still only semiautomatic.

their crews.* [9] Sustained ring of gunpowder cartridges
generated a cloud of smoke making concealment impossible until smokeless powder became available in the late
19th century.* [10] Gatling guns were targeted by artillery
they could not reach and their crews were targeted by
snipers they could not see.* [9] The Gatling gun was used
most successfully to expand European colonial empires
by killing warriors of non-industrialized societies.* [9]
British Vickers machine gun in action near Ovillers during the

Battle of the Somme in 1916. The crew are wearing gas masks.
A detachment of French infantry with 2 Saint-Etienne Model

1907 machine guns (c.1914)
The Agar Gun, otherwise known as a coee-mill gun

because of its resemblance to a coee mill, was invented
by Wilson Agar at the beginning of the US Civil War.
The weapon featured automatic loading through ammunition being loaded in a hopper above the weapon. The
weapon featured a single barrel and red through the turning of a hand crank. The weapon was demonstrated to
President Lincoln in 1861. He was so impressed with
the weapon that he purchased 10 on the spot for $1,500
apiece. The Union Army eventually purchased a total of
54 of the weapons. However, due to antiquated views of
the Ordnance Department the weapons, like its more famous counterpart the Gatling Gun, saw only limited use.
The Gatling gun, patented in 1861 by Richard Jordan
Gatling, was the rst to oer controlled, sequential re
with automatic loading. The design's key features were
machine loading of prepared cartridges and a handoperated crank for sequential high-speed ring. It rst
saw very limited action in the American Civil War; it was
subsequently improved and used in the Franco-Prussian
war and North-West Rebellion. Many were sold to other
armies in the late 19th century and continued to be used
into the early 20th century, until they were gradually supplanted by Maxim guns. Early multi-barrel guns were approximately the size and weight of contemporary artillery
pieces, and were often perceived as a replacement for
cannon ring grapeshot or canister shot.* [9] The large
wheels required to move these guns around required a
high ring position which increased the vulnerability of
A model of a typical entrenched German machine gunner in

World War I. He is operating an MG 08, wearing a Stahlhelm
and cuirass to protect him from shell fragments, and protected
by rows of barbed wire and sandbags.
Gatlings were the rst widely used rapid-re guns and,

due to their multiple barrels, could oer more sustained
re than the rst generation of air-cooled, recoil-operated
machine guns. The weight, complexity, and resulting cost
of the multibarrel design meant recoil-operated weapons,
which could be made lighter and cheaper, would supplant
them. Recoil-operated machine guns were light enough
to be moved by one man, were easier to move through
rough terrain, and could be red from a lower, protected
position. It would be another 50 years before the concept
was again used to allow extremely high rates of re, such
as in miniguns, and automatic aircraft cannon.
The rst self-powered machine gun was invented in 1884
by Sir Hiram Maxim. The Maxim gun used the recoil power of the previously red bullet to reload rather
32.3. HISTORY
239
in World War II. The trend toward automatic ries, light
machine guns, and more powerful sub-machine guns resulted in a wide variety of rearms that combined characteristics of ordinary ries and machine guns. The
Cei-Rigotti (20th century), Fedorov Avtomat (1910s),
AVS-36 Simonov (1930s), MP44, M2 Carbine, AK47, and M16 have come to be known as assault ries
(after the German term sturmgewehr). Many aircraft
were equipped with machine cannon, and similar cannon
(nicknamed "Pom-pom guns") were used as antiaircraft
weapons. The designs of Bofors of Sweden and Oerlikon
of Switzerland were widely used by both sides and have
greatly inuenced similar weapons developed since then.
Collection of old machine guns in the Meimurje County Museum

(akovec, Croatia).
Germany developed during the interwar years the rst

widely used and successful general-purpose machine gun,
the Maschinengewehr 34. The Maschinengewehr 42 was
developed from it and was much cheaper to produce. The
current GPMG of the German Army, the MG3, is a direct evolution of the MG42. Many other modern machine
guns, including the US M60 and the FN MAG borrow elements of the design of the MG42.
than being hand-powered, enabling a much higher rate

of re than was possible using earlier designs such as the
Nordenfelt and Gatling weapons. Maxim also introduced
the use of water cooling, via a water jacket around the
barrel, to reduce overheating. Maxim's gun was widely
adopted and derivative designs were used on all sides dur32.3.3
ing the First World War. The design required fewer crew
and was lighter and more usable than the Nordenfelt and
Gatling guns. First World War combat experience greatly
increased the importance of the machine gun. The United
States Army issued four machine guns per regiment in
1912, but that allowance increased to 336 machine guns
per regiment by 1919.* [11]
Heavy guns based on the Maxim such as the Vickers machine gun were joined by many other machine weapons,
which mostly had their start in the early 20th century such
as the Hotchkiss machine gun. Submachine guns (e.g.,
the German MP18) as well as lighter machine guns (the
Chauchat, for example) saw their rst major use in World
War I, along with heavy use of large-caliber machine
guns. The biggest single cause of casualties in World War
I was actually artillery, but combined with wire entanglements, machine guns earned a fearsome reputation. The
automatic mechanisms of machine guns were applied to
handguns, giving rise to automatic pistols (and eventually
machine pistols) such as the Borchardt (1890s) and later
submachine guns (such as the Beretta 1918). Machine
guns were mounted in aircraft for the rst time in World
War I. Firing through a moving propeller was solved in
a variety of ways, including the interrupter gear, metal
reinforcement of the propeller, or simply avoiding the
problem with wing-mounted guns or having a pusher propeller.
Future
A U.S. Navy 7.62 mm GAU-17/A Minigun. It is externally powered by an electric motor (seen on top) that powers the loading,
priming, and ring mechanism. Also, note the spade grips, pintle
mount and rapid cartridge case ejection.
Conventional machine-gun development has been slowed

by the fact that existing machine-gun designs are adequate for most purposes, although signicant developments are taking place with regard to caseless ammunition, antiarmor and antimissile weapons.
Electronically controlled machine guns with ultrahigh

rates of re may see use in some applications, although
current small-caliber weapons of this type have found little use: they are too light for anti-vehicle use, but too
heavy (especially with the need to carry a tactically use32.3.2 Interwar era and World War II
ful amount of ammunition) for individual soldiers. The
trend towards higher reliability and lower mass for a given
During the interwar years, many new designs were de- power will probably continue. Another example is the
veloped, such as the Browning M2 and the Thompson six barreled, 4000 round per minute, XM214six pack
sub-machine gun, which, along with others, were used developed by General Electric. It has a complex power
240
train and weighs 85 pounds, factors which may, in some type is one that is disconnected from humans, as part of
circumstances, militate against its deployment.
an armament system, such as a tank coaxial or part of
Metal Storm has developed a new type of machine gun, aircraft's armament. These are usually electrically red
with rates of re up to 1.62 million rounds per minute. and have complex sighting systems, for example the US
The distinguishing features of this technology are the ab- Helicopter Armament Subsystems.
sence of ammunition feed and casing ejection systems Further information: Ground mount
(the only moving parts are the projectiles), and the electronic ignition of the propellant charges.
32.4 Human interface

The most common interface on machine guns is a pistol
grip and trigger. On earlier manual machine guns, the
most common type was a hand crank. On externally powered machine guns, such as miniguns, an electronic button or trigger on a joystick is commonly used. Light machine guns often have a butt stock attached, while vehicle and tripod mounted machine guns usually have spade
grips. In the late 20th century, scopes and other complex
optics became more common as opposed to the more basic iron sights.
Loading systems in early manual machine guns were
often from a hopper of loose (un-linked) cartridges.
Manual-operated volley guns usually had to be reloaded
manually all at once (each barrel reloaded by hand).
With hoppers, the rounds could often be added while the
weapon was ring. This gradually changed to belt-fed
types. Belts were either held in the open by the person,
or in a bag or box. Some modern vehicle machine guns
used linkless feed systems however.
32.5 See also

32.6 References
[1] Marchant-Smith, C.J., & Haslam, P.R., Small Arms &
Cannons, Brassey's Battleeld Weapons Systems & Technology, Volume V, Brassey's Publishers, London, 1982,
p.169
[2] In United States law, a Machine Gun is dened (in part) by
The National Firearms Act of 1934, 26 U.S.C. 5845(b)
as "... any weapon which shoots ... automatically more
than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger."
[3] U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command Field Manual 3-22.68 Crew-Served Machine Guns, para.
4-207 https://rdl.train.army.mil/soldierPortal/atia/adlsc/
view/public/6713-1/fm/3-22.68/chap4.htm#sec5
[4] Henderson, Charles. Marine Sniper Berkley Caliber.
(2005) ISBN 0-425-10355-2.
[5] Roger Pauly (2004). Firearms: The Life Story of a Technology. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-31332796-3.
[6] original patent claim reproduced in: Francis Bannerman
Sons Bannerman Military Goods Catalogue #28 (1954)
p.103
[7] Harold L. Peterson (2000). Arms and Armor in Colonial
America, 1526-1783. Courier Dover Publications. pp.
217218. ISBN 0-486-41244-X.
[8] United States Continental Congress (1907). Journals of
the Continental Congress. USGPO., pages 324, 361
Closeup of M2 This machine gun is part of a complex armament subsystem; it is aimed and red from the aircraft rather
than directly
[9] Emmott, N.W.The Devil's Watering PotUnited States

Naval Institute Proceedings September 1972 p.70
[10] Emmott, N.W.The Devil's Watering PotUnited States
Naval Institute Proceedings September 1972 pp.72

Modern machine guns are commonly mounted in one of
four ways. The rst is a bipod often these are inte[11] Ayres, Leonard P. (1919). The War with Germany (Secgrated with the weapon. This is common on light maond ed.). Washington, DC: United States Government
chine guns and some medium machine guns. Another is
Printing Oce. p. 65.
a tripod, where the person holding it does not form a 'leg'
of support. Medium and heavy machine guns usually use
tripods. On ships and aircraft machine guns are usually
mounted on a pintle mount basically a steel post that 32.7 External links
is connected to the frame. Tripod and pintle mounts are
Discover Military Machine Guns
usually used with spade grips. The last major mounting

From Gatling to Browning September 1945 article
Popular Science
GunTrustLawyer.com US site with information on
the legality of owning a machine gun in each state
under the National Firearms Act and individual state
regulations.
How Stu Works Article on the operation of Machine Guns, animated diagrams are included.
The REME Museum of Technology machine guns
U.S. Patent 15,315 A patent for an early automatic
cannon
Vickers machine gun site
241
Chapter 33
Magazine (rearms)
Not to be confused with Magazine (artillery).
33.1 Nomenclature
For other uses, see Magazine (disambiguation).
A magazine is an ammunition storage and feeding de- With the increased use of semi-automatic and automatic
rearms, the detachable box magazine became increasingly common. Soon after the adoption of the M1911
pistol, the termmagazinewas settled on by the military
and rearms experts, though the termclipis often used
in its place (though only for detachable magazines, never
xed).* [4]* [5]* [6] The dening dierence between clips
and magazines is the presence of a feed mechanism in a
magazine, typically a spring-loaded follower, which a clip
lacks. Use of the term "clip" to refer to detachable magazines is a point of strong disagreement.* [2]* [7]* [8]* [9]
The Merriam-Webster dictionary denes a clip asa device to hold cartridges for charging the magazines of some
ries; also: a magazine from which ammunition is fed
into the chamber of a rearm.* [10]
33.2 History
The earliest rearms were loaded with loose powder and
a lead ball, and to re more than a single shot without reloading required multiple barrels, such as pepperbox guns and double-barreled shotguns, or multiple
chambers, such as in revolvers. Both of these add bulk
and weight over a single barrel and a single chamber, howA staggered-column 9x19mm Browning Hi-Power pistol box ever, and many attempts were made to get multiple shots
magazine; the top image shows the magazine loaded and ready from a single loading of a single barrel through the use
for use while the lower image shows it unloaded and disassem- of superposed loads.* [11] Breech loading designs such as
bled
the needle gun, and paper cartridges sped the loading process, but successful repeating mechanisms did not appear
vice within or attached to a repeating rearm. Magazines
until self-contained cartridges were developed.
can be removable (detachable) or integral to the rearm.
The magazine functions by moving the cartridges stored
in the magazine into a position where they may be loaded 33.2.1 Gravity magazines
into the chamber by the action of the rearm. The detachable magazine is often referred to as a clip, although The earliest magazines appeared not on rearms, but
this is technically inaccurate.* [1]* [2]* [3]
rather on air guns. Without the need for powder, the magMagazines come in many shapes and sizes, from those
of bolt action express ries that hold only a few rounds
to those for machine guns that can hold as many as one
hundred rounds. Various jurisdictions ban high-capacity
magazines.
azine contained only the balls; the power was provided by

high pressure air supplied by an air reservoir in the butt
of the gun. The Girandoni Air Rie was fairly typical of
the repeating air ries of 1780. The Girandoni held 22
balls in a gravity fed tubular magazine, located beside and
242
33.2. HISTORY
Fusil Gras mle 1874 with 10 cartridge gravity magazine, made

in 1883
parallel to the barrel. Due to the use of a large air reservoir, the rie could re all the shots in its magazine before
the reservoir was depleted enough to require recharging.
Firing was accomplished by raising the muzzle of the gun
to allow the balls to fall to the rear of the magazine, sliding a ball from the magazine into the barrel with a sliding
breech-block, then cocking the hammer (which was connected to a valve) and ring.* [12]
33.2.2
243
The rst magazine-fed rearm to achieve widespread success was the Spencer repeating rie, which saw service
in the American Civil War. The Spencer used a tubular
magazine located in the butt of the gun instead of under the barrel and it used new rimre metallic cartridges.
The Spencer was successful but the rimre ammunition
did occasionally ignite in the magazine tube and destroy
the magazine. It could also injure the user. The lever
action Henry and Winchester ries evolved from the earlier Volcanic and saw service with a number of militaries
including Turkey. Switzerland and Italy adopted similar
designs.* [13]
The new bolt action rie began to gain favor with militaries in the 1880s and were often equipped with tubular magazines. The Mauser Model 1871 was originally
a single-shot action that added a tubular magazine in
its 1884 update. The Norwegian Jarmann M1884 was
adopted in 1884 and also used a tubular magazine. The
French Lebel Model 1886 rie also used 8 round tube-fed
magazine.* [14]
Tubular magazines
Diagram of the Spencer rie showing the tubular magazine in the

butt
1905 Military Ries magazines.

Number 1 & 2: Mosin-Nagant
Number 3 & 4 : Lebel
Number 5 & 6 : Gewehr 1888
Number 7 & 8 : Steyr-Mannlicher M1888
Number 9 & 10 : Lee-Metford
Number 11 & 12 : Dutch-Mannlicher M1895
Number 13 & 14 : Mauser M1893
Number 15 : Krag-Jrgensen
Number 16 : Schmidt-Rubin M1889
Diagram of the Henry rie showing the tubular magazine under
the barrel
The rst successful repeater was the Volcanic Rie which

used a hollow bullet with the base lled with powder and
primer (an early form of caseless ammunition) fed into
the chamber from a spring-loaded tube called a magazine. It was named after a building or room used to store
ammunition. The anemic power of the Rocket Ball ammunition used in the Volcanic doomed it to limited popularity; however, the basic design of the tubular magazine
and lever action survive to this day.* [13]
The military cartridge was evolving as the magazine rie

evolved. Cartridges evolved from large-bore cartridges
(.40 caliber/10 mm and larger) to smaller bores that
red lighter, higher-velocity bullets and incorporated new
smokeless propellants. The Lebel Model 1886 rie was
the rst rie and cartridge to be designed for use with
smokeless powder and used an 8 mm wadcutter-shaped
bullet that was drawn from a tubular magazine. This
would later become a problem when the Lebel's ammunition was updated to use a more aerodynamic pointed
bullet. Modications had to be made to the centerre
case to prevent the spitzer point from igniting the primer
244
CHAPTER 33. MAGAZINE (FIREARMS)
of the next cartridge inline in the magazine.* [15]
a unit, ready for insertion into the magazine or cylinder

of a rearm. This speeds up the process of loading and
reloading the rearm as several rounds can be loaded at
33.2.3 Internal box magazines
once, rather than one round being loaded at a time. Several dierent types of clips exist, most of which are made
James Paris Lee patented a box magazine which held of inexpensive metal stampings that are designed to be
rounds stacked vertically in 1879 and 1882 and it was rst disposable, though they are often re-used.
adopted by Austria in the form of an 11mm straight-pull
bolt-action rie of Mannlicher design in 1886. It also In 1888 the Germans developed the Model 1888 Comused a cartridge clip which held 5 rounds ready to load mission Rie *with a 5-round en-bloc clip-fed internal
box magazine. [18] Mauser would continue to make iminto the magazine.* [15]* [16]
proved models from 1889 through 1893 in various calibers were adopted by various militaries at this time.* [15]
In 1890 the French adopted the 8mm Lebel Berthier ries with 3-round internal magazines, fed from en-bloc
clips; the empty clips were pushed from the bottom of
the action by the insertion of a loaded clip from the
top.* [19]* [20]
En-bloc clip and 8mm ammo for Mauser 88
In the late 1800s there were many short-lived designs,

such as the M1895 Lee Navy and Gewehr 1888, eventually replaced by the M1903 Springeld rie and Gewehr
98 respectively. The Russian Mosin-Nagant, adopted in
1891, was an exception. It was not revolutionary; it was a
bolt-action rie, used a small-bore smokeless powder cartridge, and a xed box magazine loaded from the top with
stripper clips, all of which were features that were used
in earlier military ries. What made the Nagant stand out
was that it combined all the earlier features in a form that
was to last virtually unchanged from its issue by Russia
in 1894 through World War II and with its sniper rie
variants still in use today.
An interesting feature of many late 19th- and early 20thcentury bolt-action ries was the magazine cut-o, sometimes called a feed interrupter. This was a mechanical
device that prevented the rie from loading a round from
the magazine, requiring the shooter to manually load each
individual round as he red, saving the rounds in the magazine for short periods of rapid re when ordered to use
them. Most military authorities that specied them assumed that their riemen would waste ammunition indiscriminately if allowed to load from the magazine all the
Swedish Mauser stripper clip loaded with Swedish 6.555mm
time.* [21] By the middle of World War I, most manufacturers deleted this feature to save costs and manufacturing
The bolt-action Krag-Jrgensen rie, designed in Norway time; it is also likely that battleeld experience had proven
in 1886, used a unique rotary magazine that was built into the futility of this philosophy.
the receiver. Like Lee's box magazine, the rotary magazine held the rounds side-by-side, rather than end-to-end. One of the last new clip-fed, xed-magazine ries widely
Like most rotary magazines, it was loaded through a load- adopted that wasn't a modication of an earlier rie was
ing gate one round at a time, this one located on the side of the M1 Garand rie. The rst semi-automatic rie that
the receiver. While reliable, the Krag-Jrgensen's maga- was issued in large numbers to the infantry, the Garand
zine was expensive to produce and slow to reload. It was was fed by a special eight-round en-bloc clip. The clip
adopted by only three countries, Denmark in 1889, the itself was inserted into the rie's magazine during loading, where it was locked in place. The rounds were fed
United States in 1892,* [17] and Norway in 1894.
directly from the clip, with a spring-loaded follower in the
rie pushing the rounds up into feeding position. When
Clip-fed revolution
empty, the bolt would lock open, and a spring would automatically eject the empty clip, leaving the rie ready
A clip (called chargers by the British) is a device that is to be reloaded. The M14 rie, which was based on inused to store multiple rounds of ammunition together as
33.2. HISTORY
245
99.* [26] Other guns did not adopt all of its features until
his patent expired in 1942: It has shoulders to retain cartridges when it is removed from the rie. It operates reliably with cartridges of dierent lengths. It is insertable
and removable at any time with any number of cartridges.
These features allow the operator to reload the gun infrequently, carry magazines rather than loose cartridges, and
to easily change the types of cartridges in the eld. The
magazine is assembled from inexpensive stamped sheet
metal. It also includes a crucial safety feature for hunting
dangerous game: when empty the follower* [27] stops the
bolt from engaging the chamber, informing the operator
that the gun is empty before any attempt to re.
Comparison of M1 Garand en-bloc clip (left), and SKS stripper

clip (right)
The rst successful semi-automatic pistol was the

Borchardt C-93 (1893) and incorporated detachable box
magazines. Nearly all subsequent semiautomatic pistol
designs adopted detachable box magazines.
cremental changes to the Garand action, switched to a The Swiss Army evaluated the Luger pistol using a dedetachable box magazine.* [22] However, the M14 could tachable box magazine in 7.6521mm Parabellum and
also be loaded via 5-round stripper-clips.* [23]
adopted it in 1900 as its standard side arm. The Luger pisThe Soviet SKS carbine, which entered service in 1945, tol was accepted by the Imperial German Navy in 1904.
was something of a stopgap between the semi-automatic This version is known as Pistole 04. In 1908 the German
service ries being developed in the period leading up to Army adopted the Luger to replace the Reichsrevolver in
World War II, and the new assault rie developed by the front-line service. The Pistole 08 (or P.08) was chamGermans. The SKS used a xed magazine, holding ten bered in 919 mm Parabellum. The P.08 was the usual
rounds and fed by a conventional stripper clip. It was a side arm for German Army personnel in both world wars.
modication of the earlier AVS-36 rie, shortened and The M1911 semi-automatic pistol set the standard for
chambered for the new reduced power 7.62x39mm car- most modern handguns and likewise the mechanics of the
tridge. It was rendered obsolete for military use almost handgun magazine. In most handguns the magazine folimmediately by the 1947 introduction of the magazine- lower engages a slide-stop to hold the slide back and keep
fed AK-47 assault rie, though it remained in service for the rearm out of battery when the magazine is empty and
many years in Soviet Bloc nations alongside the AK-47. all rounds red. Upon inserting a loaded magazine, the
The detachable magazine quickly came to dominate post- user depresses the slide stop, throwing the slide forward,
war military rie designs.* [24]
stripping a round from the top of the magazine stack and
chambering it. In single-action pistols this action keeps
the hammer cocked back as the new round is chambered,
33.2.4 Detachable box magazines
keeping the gun ready to begin ring again.
During World War One, detachable box magazines
found favor, being used in all manner of rearms; such
as pistols, light-machine guns, submachine-guns, semiautomatic and automatic ries. However, after the War
to End All Wars, military planners failed to recognize the
importance of automatic ries and detachable box magazine concept, and instead maintained their traditional
views and preference for clip-fed bolt-action ries. As
a result, many promising new automatic rie designs that
used detachable box magazines were abandoned.
As World War II loomed, most of the world's major powers began to develop submachine guns fed by 20- to 40round detachable box magazines. However, of the major powers, only the United States would adopt a generalissue semi-automatic rie that used detachable box magazines; the M1 Carbine with its 15-round magazines.
The Lee-Metford rie, developed in 1888, was one of the
As the war progressed the Germans would develop the
*
rst ries to use detachable box magazine. [25] However,
Sturmgewehr 44 assault rie concept with its 30-round
the rst completely modern removable box magazine was
detachable magazine. After WWII, automatic weapons
patented in 1908 by Arthur Savage for the Savage Model
(left to right)
M1 Garand 8-round en-bloc clip,
M14 20-round magazine,
M16 STANAG 20- and 30-round magazines
246
using detachable box magazines would be developed and

used by all of the world's armies. Today, detachable box
magazines are the norm and they are so widely used that
they are simply referred to as magazines or mags for
short.
33.3 Function and types
Detachable box magazine for a SIG SG 550 with studs for stacking multiple magazines together.
SKS internal box magazine.
All cartridge-based single-barrel rearms designed to re

more than a single shot without reloading require some
form of magazine designed to store and feed cartridges
to the rearm's action. Magazines come in many shapes
and sizes, with the most common type in modern rearms
being the detachable box type. Most magazines designed
for use with a reciprocating bolt rearm (tube fed rearms
being the exception) make use of a set of feed lips which
stop the vertical motion of the cartridges out of the magazine but allow one cartridge at a time to be pushed forward (stripped) out of the feed lips by the rearm's bolt
into the chamber. Some form of spring and follower combination is almost always used to feed cartridges to the
lips which can be located either in the magazine (most
removable box magazines) or built into the rearm (xed
box magazines). There are also two distinct styles to feed
lips. In a single-feed design the top cartridge touches both
lips and is commonly used in single-column box magazines. A dual- or alternating-feed magazine consists of a
wider set of lips so that the second cartridge in line forces
the top cartridge against one lip. This design has proven
more resistant to jamming in use with dual-column magazines.* [28] Some magazine types are strongly associated
with certain rearm types, such as the xed tubular
magazine found on most lever-action ries and pumpaction shotguns. A rearm using detachable magazines
may accept a variety of types of magazine, such as the
Thompson submachine gun, which would accept box or

drum magazines. Some types of rearm, such as the
M249 and other squad automatic weapons, can feed from
both magazines and belts.
33.3.1 Tubular
Many of the rst repeating ries, particularly lever-action

ries, used magazines that store cartridges end-to-end inside of a spring-loaded tube typically running parallel to
the barrel, or in the buttstock. Tubular magazines are also
commonly used in pump-action shotguns and .22 caliber
rimre ries.
33.3. FUNCTION AND TYPES
33.3.2
Box
247
zines use en-bloc clips that are loaded into the magazine with the ammunition and that are ejected from
the rearm when empty.
A detachable box magazine is a self-contained
mechanism capable of being loaded or unloaded
while detached from the host rearm. They are attached via a slot in the rearm receiver, usually below the action but occasionally to the side (Sten,
FG42, Johnson LMG) or on top (Madsen machine
gun, Bren gun, FN P90). When the magazine is
empty, it can be detached from the rearm and replaced by another full magazine. This signicantly
speeds the process of reloading, allowing the operator quick access to ammunition. This type of magazine may be straight or curved, the curve being necessary if the rie uses rimmed ammunition or ammunition with a tapered case. Detachable box magazines may be metal or plastic. The plastic magazines are sometimes partially transparent so the operator can easily check the remaining ammunition.
Box magazines are often axed to each other with
clips, tape, straps, or built-in studs to facilitate faster
reloading: aka jungle style.
single column and staggered (aka double-stack) column

detachable box magazines.
There are, however, exceptions to these rules. The LeeEneld rie had a detachable box magazine only to facilitate cleaning. The Lee-Eneld magazine did open, permitting rapid unloading of the magazine without having
to operate the bolt-action repeatedly to unload the magazine. Others, like the Breda Modello 30, had a xed
protruding magazine that resembled a conventional detachable box but was non-detachable.
Horizontal
The most popular type of magazine in modern ries and
handguns, a box magazine stores cartridges in a column,
either one above the other or staggered zigzag fashion.
This zigzag stack is often identied as a double-column
or double-stack since a single staggered column is actually two side-by-side vertical columns oset by half of
the diameter of a round. As the rearm cycles, cartridges
are moved to the top of the magazine by a follower driven
by spring compression to either a single feed position or
side-by-side feed positions. Box magazines may be integral to the rearm or removable.
An internal box or xed magazine (also known as
a blind box magazine when lacking a oorplate) is
built into the rearm and is not easily removable.
This type of magazine is found most often on boltaction ries. An internal box magazine is usually
charged through the action, one round at a time.
Military ries often use stripper clips or chargers
permitting multiple rounds, commonly 5 or 10 at a
time, to be loaded at once. Some internal box maga- The P90's magazine has a capacity of 50 rounds, and it
248
ts ush with the weapon's frame.* [29]

STANAG 4179 magazines.* [32] Izhmash has also developed a casket magazine for the AK-12.* [31]
The FN P90 personal defense weapon uses the horizontally mounted feeding system; the magazine sits parallel
33.3.3
to the barrel, tting ush with the top of the receiver, and
the ammunition is rotated 90 degrees before being chambered. The AR-57, also known as the AR Five-seven, is
an upper receiver for the AR-15/M16 rie lower receiver,
ring FN 5.728mm rounds from standard FN P90 magazines.
Rotary
Casket
Ruger 10/22 rotary magazine
The rotary or spool magazine consists of a star-shaped

rotor, or sprocket, actuated by a torsion spring. The magazine may be xed or detachable. Cartridges t between
the teeth of the sprocket, which is mounted on a spindle parallel to the bore axis, with a torsion spring providing the pressure necessary to rotate the rounds into
the feeding position. Rotary magazines are usually of
low capacity of ten rounds or less, depending on the cartridge used. The rotary magazine was rst used by Savage
Model 1892.* [33] The M1941 Johnson rie also uses a
rotary magazine. The design is still used in some modern
rearms, most notably the Ruger American, the Ruger
10/22 and the Steyr SSG 69.
33.3.4 Pan
Often referred to as a drum magazine, the pan magazine diers from other drum magazines in that the cartridges are stored perpendicular to the axis of rotation,
rather than parallel, and are usually mounted on top of
the rearm. This type is used on the Lewis Gun, Bren
Diagram of the Spectre M4 casket magazine.
Gun,* [34] Degtyarev light machine gun and American180 submachine gun. A highly unusual example was
Another form of box magazine, sometimes referred to found on the Type 89 machine gun fed from two 45as a quad-column, can hold a great amount of ammuni- round quadrant-shaped pan magazines (each magazine
tion. It is wider than a standard magazine, but retains had a place for nine 5-round stripper clips).
the same length. Casket magazines can be found on the Media related to Pan magazines at Wikimedia Commons
Suomi KP/31, Hafdasa C-4, Spectre M4, QCW-05 and
on 5.4539mm AK rie derivatives. Magpul has been
granted a patent* [30] for a STANAG compatible cas- 33.3.5 Drum
ket magazine,* [31] and such a magazine was also debuted by SureFire in December 2010, and is now sold Main article: Drum magazine
as the High Capacity Magazine (HCM) in 60 and 100 Today, drum magazines are used primarily for light maround capacities in 5.56mm for AR-15 compatible with chine guns. In one type, a moving partition within a cylinM4/M16/AR-15 variants and other rearms that accept drical chamber forces loose rounds into an exit slot, with
33.3. FUNCTION AND TYPES
249
Saddle-drum
Beta C-Mag saddle-drum magazine.
Pan magazine as used on a 7.92mm Lewis Gun.
Before WWII the Germans developed 75-round saddledrum magazines for use in their MG13 and MG15 machine guns. The MG34 machine guns could also use
saddle-drum magazine when tted with a special feed
cover. The 75 rounds of ammunition were evenly distributed in each side of the magazine with a central feed
towerwhere the ammunition is fed to the bolt. The
ammunition was fed by a spring force, with rounds alternating from each side of the double drum so that the gun
would not become unbalanced. The saddle-drum design
was reintroduced in the late 1980s with the 100-round
Beta C-Mag for use in multiple calibres, ries, pistols and
PDWs.
33.3.6 Helical
50- and 100-round drum magazines plus 20- and 30-round box
magazines for Thompson SMG
the cartridges being stored parallel to the axis of rotation.

After loading of the magazine, a wound spring or other
mechanism forces the partition against the rounds. In all
models a single staggered column is pushed by a follower
through a curved path. From there the rounds enter the
vertical riser either from a single or dual drums. Cylindrical designs such as rotary and drum magazines allow for
larger capacity than box magazines, without growing to
excessive length. The downside of a drum magazine's extra capacity is its added weight. Many drum-fed rearms
can also load from conventional box magazines, such as
the Soviet PPSh-41 submachine gun, RPK light machine
gun and the American Thompson submachine gun.
Calico pioneered the helical magazine design. Pictured is the

company's M960 carbine.
Helical magazines extend the drum magazine design so

that rounds follow a spiral path, allowing for large ammunition capacity in a magazine that can be adapted to increase ammo capacity with only a minor increase to the
dimensions of an unloaded gun (compared to a regular
box magazine of similar capacity). This type of magazine is used by the Calico M960 and Bizon SMG and
Long Wind CS/LS06 and KBP PP90M1.
33.3.7 Hopper
The hopper magazine, used in the Japanese Type 11

LMG, and a few prototype designs of the interwar period, had a xed 'hopper' in which standard infantry rie
clips were stacked. In theory, this allowed the ammuniMedia related to Drum magazines at Wikimedia Com- tion of riemen and machinegunners to be interchangemons
able; however, problems with the reliability of the system,
250
and the compatibility of more powerful rie loadings with 33.5 High-capacity magazines
the operation of the machine gun, made this an impractical solution.* [35]
In the United States a number of federal or state laws have
banned high-capacity magazines.* [46] High-capacity or
large-capacity magazines are generally considered to be
those capable of holding more than 10 rounds, although
33.4 STANAG magazine
the denitions vary.* [46]* [47]* [48]
Other nations impose restrictions on magazine capacity
as well. In Canada, magazines are limited to ve or ten
rounds, depending on the rearm.* [49]
33.6 See also

List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts
Belt (rearm)
Jungle style
33.7 References
[1] NRA Firearms Glossary. National Rie Association.
Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved
2008-06-26.
Two STANAG-compliant magazines: A 20-round Coltmanufactured magazine, and a 30-round Heckler & Koch
High Reliabilitymagazine.
Main article: STANAG magazine

A STANAG magazine* [36]* [37] or NATO magazine
is a type of detachable magazine proposed by NATO
in October 1980.* [38] Shortly after NATO's acceptance of the 5.5645mm NATO rie cartridge, Draft
Standardization Agreement (STANAG) 4179 was proposed in order to allow NATO members to easily share
rie ammunition and magazines down to the individual
soldier level. The U.S. M16 rie magazine was proposed
for standardization. Many NATO members, but not all,
subsequently developed or purchased ries with the ability to accept this type of magazine. However the standard
was never ratied and remains a 'Draft STANAG'.* [39]
The STANAG magazine concept is only an interface,
dimensional and control (magazine latch, bolt stop,
etc.) requirement.* [40]* [41] Therefore, it not only allows one type of magazine to interface with various
weapon systems,* [40]* [41] but also allows STANAG
magazines to be made in various congurations and capacities.* [40]* [41] STANAG magazines come in 20, 30
and 40-round box magazines,* [41] as well as 60 and
100 round casket magazines,* [42]* [43] 90-round snaildrum magazines,* [44] and 100-round saddle-drum magazines.* [45]
[2] Gun Zone clips vs. magazines. The Gun Zone. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
[3] Handgunner's Glossary. Handguns Annual Magazine,
1994. Retrieved 2013-03-21.
[4] United States Army, American Expeditionary Force
(1917). Provisional Instruction on the Automatic Rie,
Model 1915 (Chauchat)., translated from the French edition, 1916
[5] United States Ordanace Dept. (1917). Description of the
Automatic Pistol, Caliber .45, Model of 1911.
[6] United States War Dept (1907). Annual Reports of the
Secretary of War.
[7] Magazine. SAAMI. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
[8] Cartridge Clip. SAAMI. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
[9] Firearms Glossary. National Rie Association.
[10] Dictionary.
[http://www.merriam-webster.com/
dictionary/clip{[}2] Clip"].
Merriam Webster.
[11] Charles Winthrop Sawyer (1920). Firearms in American
History, volume III. Cornhill Company, Boston.
[12] Robert D. Beeman, Ph.D. Girandoni style air ries and
pistols - preliminary research presentation..
[13] A Naval Encyclopdia. L. R. Hamersly & Co. 1880.
2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.179-180
33.7. REFERENCES
[15] Hugh Chisholm (1911). The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A

Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information. Encyclopaedia Britannica., entry for Rie
[16] Chamber's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal
Knowledge. W. & R. Chambers. 1891. pp. 720721.
[17] United States Army Ordnance Department (1898). Description and Rules for the Management of the U.S. Magazine Rie and Carbine. p. 36.
[20] Chuck Hawks. The 8x50R Lebel (8mm Lebel)".
[21] Firearms Technical Trivia: Magazine cut-os. Crufer.com. February 2000.
[22] Modern Firearms - M14 Rie. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
[23] https://books.google.com/books?id=-ZqtAAAAQBAJ&
printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Book+of+Gun+Trivia:
+Essential+Firepower+Facts&hl=en&sa=X&ei=H_
UlVbxCltigBIPdgKAB&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=
onepage&q=The%20Book%20of%20Gun%20Trivia%
3A%20Essential%20Firepower%20Facts&f=true The
Book of Gun Trivia: Essential Firepower Facts, Gordon
L Rottman, Osprey Publishing, Oct 20, 2013
[24] Simonov SKS carbine (USSR - Russia)".
[26] U.S. Patent 885,868, April 28, 1908, Improved Magazine,
Inventor: Arthur W. Savage
[27] The followeris the sheet metal part between the last
cartridge and the spring.
[28] Weeks, John, World War II Small Arms, London: Orbis
Publishing Ltd. (1979), p. 33.
[29] Kevin, Dockery (2007). Future Weapons. New York:
Berkley Trade. ISBN 978-0-425-21750-4.
[30] http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=
PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%
2Fsearch-adv.htm&r=1&p=1&f=G&l=50&d=PTXT&
S1=505419.AP.&OS=APN/505419&RS=APN/505419
[31] http://bulletin.accurateshooter.com/2010/06/
magpul-invents-new-quad-stack-magazine-for-ars/
[32] Crane, David (December 3, 2010).
DR Exclusive!: SureFire MAG5-60 and MAG5-100 High
Capacity Magazine (HCM) Quad-StackAR Rie Magazines: 60-Round/Shot and 100-Round/Shot
AR (AR-15/M16) 5.56mm NATO Box Magazines for
Signicantly-Increased Firepower during Infantry Combat and Tactical Engagements of All Sorts. DefenseReview.com. Archived from the original on January 4, 2011.
[33] U.S. Patent 502,018, Magazine Gun, Application date:
April 10, 1889, Issue date: July 25, 1893, Inventor:
Arthur W. Savage
251
[34] http://www.cairdpublications.com/scrap/armbitguns/
images/Bren%20Guns.jpg
[35] James H. Willbanks. Machine Guns: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. p. 104.
[36] The M16, Gordon L. Rottman, Osprey Publishing,
2011, Page 35-36
[37] Future Weapons, Kevin Dockery, Penguin, 2007, Page
125-126
[38] Watters, Daniel: "The 5.56 X 45mm Timeline: A
Chronology of Development", The Gun Zone, 20002007.
[39] "NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization", NDIA Conference 2008
[40] https://books.google.com/books?id=8RxJxY7wQn0C&
pg=PA125&dq=stanag+magazine&hl=en&sa=
X&ei=GoNKVbGeIseLoQSdoYGQAw&ved=
0CCgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=stanag%20magazine&
f=true Future Weapons, Kevin Dockery, Penguin, 2007,
page 125
[41] https://books.google.com/books?id=-ZqtAAAAQBAJ&
pg=PT147&dq=STANAG+magazine&hl=en&sa=
X&ei=fX84VfHmGMHMsAWg1oDoAw&ved=
0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=STANAG%
20magazine&f=true The Book of Gun Trivia: Essential Firepower Facts. Gordon L Rottman. Osprey
Publishing, Oct 20, 2013
[42] Magpul Invents New Quad-Stack Magazine for ARs
Daily Bulletin. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
[43] David Crane (3 December 2010). DR Exclusive!:
SureFire MAG5-60 and MAG5-100 High Capacity
Magazine (HCM) Quad-StackAR Rie Magazines:
60-Round/Shot and 100-Round/Shot AR (AR-15/M16)
5.56mm NATO Box Magazines for SignicantlyIncreased Firepower during Infantry Combat and
Tactical Engagements of All Sorts. DefenseReview.com
(DR): An online tactical technology and military defense
technology magazine with particular focus on the latest
and greatest tactical rearms news (tactical gun news),
tactical gear news and tactical shooting news. Retrieved
15 November 2014.
[44] http://www.defensereview.com/
mwg-90-rounder-snail-drum-mag-90-rounds-of-immediate-556mm-firepow
Defense Review. MWG 90-Rounder Snail Drum Magazine: 90 Rounds of Immediate 5.56mm Firepower for
Your M4/M4A1 Carbine (or AR-15 Carbine) Posted by:
David Crane June 21, 2009
[45] The Gun Digest Book of the AR-15. Patrick Sweeney.
Gun Digest Books, Sep 9, 2005. page 106
[46] Large Capacity Ammunition Magazines Policy Summary. smartgunlaws.org. Law Center to Prevent Gun
Violence. May 31, 2013. Retrieved May 25, 2014.
[47] Rose, Veronica (January 24, 2013). Laws on High Capacity Magazines. cga.ct.gov. Connecticut General Assembly. Retrieved April 9, 2014.
252
[48] http://www.outdoornews.com/January-2014/
SAFEAct-court-ruling-dumps-7-bullet-limit/
Dumps Magazine Rule
Court
[49] Maximum Permitted Magazine Capacity. Special Bulletin for Businesses No. 72. Royal Canadian Mounted Police. 2014-12-08. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
33.8 External links

Dierence Between a Magazine and a Clip video
Dierence Between a Magazine and a Clip - Picture
Chapter 34
Main battle tank

Battle Tankredirects here. For the video game, see the rear of the enemy's lines, these limitations led natuBattle Tank (video game).
rally to two classes of tanks.
A main battle tank (MBT), also known as a battle
The rst, known variously as light tanks, cruiser tanks or
even tankettes for the very smallest versions, were designed for outright speed. The concept was to exploit
holes in the enemy lines and run far into the rear areas
in self-supporting armoured groups. This would disrupt
enemy logistics and command-and-control, as well as delay the movement of reserves to the front. It was believed
operations of this sort would undermine or completely destroy the ability for the front-line troops to continue battle.
To create those holes in the line, a second class known as
heavy tanks or infantry tanks, were designed to work in
concert with front-line infantry. As these were expected
to move forward at the same speed as the men, higher
speeds were not required and the engine power could inGerman Army Leopard 2A5 main battle tanks in August 2010
stead be used to carry a much greater load. Infantry tanks
featured much larger amounts of armour, heavier guns,
tank or universal tank, is a tank that lls the heavy and more track area to allow them to cross a shell-riddled
direct re role of many modern armies. They were orig- battleeld.
inally conceived to replace the light, medium, heavy and A nal class evolved during the war, the dedicated tank
super-heavy tanks. Development was spurred in the Cold destroyer. These were generally conversions of existing
War with the development of lightweight composite ar- tank designs, lightened in order to allow them to carry
mor. They are still supplemented in some armies with much larger guns.
light tanks.
Today, main battle tanks are considered a key component of modern armies.* [1] Modern MBTs seldom operate alone, as they are organized into armored units which
involve the support of infantry, who may accompany the
MBTs in infantry ghting vehicles. They are also often
supported by surveillance or ground-attack aircraft.* [2]
34.1 History
34.1.1
Previous concepts
Prior to and during World War II tank design suered

from a number of limitations due largely to engine power
and transmission capability. A designer could produce a
tank with high maneuverability, armour, or a large gun,
but generally not all three at the same time. Combined
with tank theory which stressed high-speed dashes into
34.1.2 Trial by re
In spite of a great amount of theory and pre-war testing, the plans for armoured combat quickly proved themselves outdated. The battleeld did not bog down like
it did in World War I and tended to be much more mobile. This was especially evident in the great sweeping
battles in North Africa and the Soviet Union, where armoured forces executed drives of hundreds of miles. In
these cases the problems with having two designs became
especially evident; the tanks able to go toe-to-toe with
the enemy were generally found miles to the rear, trying to catch up. Those able to maintain the drive were
lightly armoured, and proved easy prey for enemy antitank guns and ries. Tank destroyers were particularly
derided, invariably nding themselves in the wrong place
at the wrong time, attacked by infantry when on their own
and rarely nding their intended prey.
253
254
CHAPTER 34. MAIN BATTLE TANK
This led to the emergence of designs with slightly greater

armour, able to defeat anti-tank ries and most smaller
guns. As these appeared, the tank's own weapons had to
grow larger in order to deal with enemy tanks with the
same level of armour. This evolution led to the medium
tank, which dominated combat in the second half of the
war. Generally these designs massed about 25-30 tonnes,
were armed with cannons around 75 mm, and powered
by engines in the 400 to 500 hp range. Notable examples
include the Soviet T-34, the most-produced tank to that
time, the German Panzer IV, and the US M4 Sherman.
The widespread production of these designs led to most
others being pushed out of service or into niche roles.
34.1.3
Emergence of the MBT
tions of similar designs on their part. By the early 1950s

these designs were clearly no longer competitive, especially in a world of shaped charge weapons, and new designs rapidly emerged from most armed forces.
The concept of the medium tank gradually evolved into
the MBT in the 1960s,* [3] as it was realized that medium
tanks could carry guns (such as the US 90 mm, Soviet
100 mm, and especially the British L7 105 mm) that
could penetrate any practical level of armor at long range.
Also, the heaviest tanks were unable to use most existing
bridges. The World War II concept of heavy tanks, armed
with the most powerful guns and heaviest armor, became
obsolete because the large tanks were too expensive and
just as vulnerable to damage by mines, bombs, rockets
and artillery. Likewise, World War II had shown that
lightly armed and armored tanks were of limited value
in most roles. Even reconnaissance vehicles had shown a
trend towards heavier weight and greater repower during World War II; speed was not a substitute for armor
and repower.
Soviet T-64 undergoing decontamination
Centurion Mk 3
Meanwhile the rapid increase in engine power in the aviation world had trickle-down eects in the tank world.
An especially notable example was the deal arranged between Rolls-Royce and Rover, which led to Rolls gaining access to early jet engines while Rover took over
development of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine for tank
use. The latter, the 600 bhp Rolls-Royce Meteor, offered such a great improvement in power that the resulting Cromwell and related designs were considered cruisers (light or medium tanks) while oering repower and
armour similar to the infantry tanks. Continued development of the basic Cromwell design led eventually to the
Centurion. This design's armour was able to defeat all
small and medium anti-tank guns, mounted a gun able to
defeat even the largest enemy tanks, and oered manoeuvrability even better than earlier light tank designs. It was
so exible that they referred to it as the universal tank
, and it formed the backbone of post-war British Army
tank units.
An increasing variety of anti-tank weapons and the perceived threat of a nuclear war prioritized the need for
additional armor. The additional armor prompted the
design of even more powerful guns.* [4] The main battle tank thus took on the role the British had once called
the 'Universal tank', exemplied by the Centurion, lling almost all battleeld roles. Typical main battle tanks
were as well armed as any other vehicle on the battleeld,
highly mobile, and well armored. Yet they were cheap
enough to be built in large numbers. The rst Soviet main
battle tank was the T-64* [5] (T-54/55 and T-62 then considered mediumtanks) and the rst American MBT
was the M60 Patton.* [6]
The adoption of ceramic armor as well as greater armor
coverage necessitated by attacks from above by combat
aircraft such as helicopters also resulted in an eective
counter to nuclear explosion radiation.* [7]
By the late 1970s, MBTs were manufactured by China,
France, West Germany, Britain, India, Japan, the Soviet
Union, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States.* [8]
The Soviet Union war doctrine depended heavily on the

main battle tank. Any weapon advancement making the
MBT obsolete could have devastated the Soviet Union's
34.1.4 Cold War
ghting capability.* [9] The Soviet Union made novel advancements to the weapon systems including mechanical
A surplus of eective WWII-era designs in other forces, autoloaders and anti-tank guided missiles. Autoloaders
notably the US and Soviet Union, led to slower introduc- were introduced to replace the human loader, permitting
34.2. DESIGN
255
vices.* [13] A relatively new type of remotely detonated
mine, the explosively formed penetrator was used with
some success against American armored vehicles. However, with upgrades to their rear armor, M1s proved to
be valuable in urban combat; at the Battle of Fallujah the
United States Marines brought in two extra companies of
M1s.* [14] Britain deployed its Challenger 2 tanks to support its operations in southern Iraq.
Nations such as Israel are reducing the size of their tank
eet and procuring more advanced models.* [15]
Advanced armor has not improved vehicle survivability,

but has reduced crew fatalities.* [16] Small unmanned
A very early model M60 Pattonwith M48 turret and 105mm turrets on top of the cupolas called remote weapon stacannon
tions armed with machineguns or mortars provide improved defence and enhance crew survivability. Experthe turret to be reduced in size, making the target smaller imental tanks with unmanned turrets locate crew memand less visible,* [4] while missile systems were added to bers in the heavily armored hull, improving survivability
*
extend the range at which a vehicle could engage a target and reducing the vehicle's prole. [17]
and thereby enhance the rst-round hit probability.* [4]
Technology is reducing the weight and size of the mod*
The United States's experience in the Vietnam War con- ern MBT. [18] A British military document from 2001
tributed to the idea among army leadership that the role indicated that the British Army would not procure a reof the main battle tank could be replaced with attack he- placement for the Challenger 2 because of a lack of conlicopters. During the Vietnam War, helicopters and mis- ventional warfare threats in the foreseeable future. The
obsolescence of the tank has been asserted, but the hissiles competed with MBTs for research money.* [10]
tory of the late 20th and early 21st century suggested that
MBTs were still necessary.* [19]
34.1.5
Persian Gulf War
Though the Persian Gulf War rearmed the role of main 34.2 Design
battle tanks, MBTs were outperformed by the attack helicopter.* [11] Other strategists considered that the MBT
A main battle tank has been ocially described as
was entirely obsolete in the light of the ecacy and speed
a self-propelled armoured ghting vehicle, capable of
*
with which coalition forces neutralized Iraqi armor. [12]
heavy repower, primarily of a high muzzle velocity direct re main gun necessary to engage armoured and
other targets, with high cross-country mobility, with a
34.1.6 Asymmetrical warfare
high level of self-protection, and which is not designed
and equipped primarily to transport combat troops.* [20]
34.2.1 Overview
34.2.2 Countermeasures
A German Leopard 2 in the PSO-version, prepared for

asymmetrical warfare
Originally, most MBTs relied on steel armor to defend

against various threats. As newer threats emerged, however, the defensive systems used by MBTs had to evolve
to counter them. One of the rst new developments was
the use of explosive reactive armor (ERA), developed by
Israel in the early 1980s to defend against the shapedcharge warheads of modern anti-tank guided missiles and
other such high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) projectiles.
This technology was subsequently adopted and expanded
upon by the United States and the Soviet Union.
where
The United States Army used 1,100 M1 Abrams in the MBT armor is concentrated at the front of the tank,
*
[21]
it
is
layered
up
to
33
centimetres
(13
in)
thick.
course of the Iraq War. They proved to have an unexpectedly high vulnerability to improvised explosive de- Missiles are cheap and cost-eective anti-tank
256

Missile Countermeasure Device and as part of the Tank
Urban Survival Kit used on M1 Abrams tanks serving in
Iraq.
The Challenger II is equipped with Dorchester armour, an advanced composite armour.
Other defensive developments focused on improving the

strength of the armor itself; one of the notable advancement coming from the British with the development of Chobham armour in the 1970s. It was rst employed on the American M1 Abrams and later the British
Challenger 1. Chobham armor uses a lattice of composite and ceramic materials along with metal alloys to defeat incoming threats, and proved highly eective in the
conicts in Iraq in the early 1990s and 2000s; surviving
numerous impacts from 195060sera rocket-propelled
grenades with negligible damage. It is much less ecient
against later models of RPGs. For example the RPG-29
from the 1980s is able to penetrate the frontal hull armour
of the Challenger II* [23]* [24]
34.2.3 Weaponry
The (Russian designed) Indian T-90 Bhishma has a two-tier protection system.
Merkava Mk 3d BAZ of the Israel Defense Forces ring its main

gun.
Main battle tanks are equipped with a main tank gun, and
at least one machine gun.
The Russian T-80U has a two-tier protection system.
weapons.* [22] ERA can be quickly added to vehicles to

increase their survivability. However, the detonation of
ERA blocks creates a hazard to any supporting infantry
near the tank. Despite this drawback, it is still employed
on many Russian MBTs, the latest generation Kontakt-5
being capable of defeating both HEAT and kinetic
energy penetrator threats. The Soviets also developed
systems designed to more actively neutralize hostile
projectiles before they could even strike the tank, namely
the Shtora and Arena systems. Recently, the United
States has adopted similar technologies in the form of the
MBT main guns are generally between 90 and 130 mm

caliber, and can re both anti-armor and, more recently,
anti-personnel rounds. The cannon serves a dual role,
able to engage other armored targets such as tanks and
fortications, and soft targets such as light vehicles and
infantry. It is xed to the turret, along with the loading
and re mechanism. Modern tanks utilize a sophisticated
re-control system, including rangenders, computerized
re control, and stabilizers, which are designed to keep
the cannon stable and aimed even if the hull is turning
or shaking, making it easier for the operators to re on
the move and/or against moving targets. Gun-missile systems are complicated and have been particularly unsatisfactory to the United States who abandoned gun-missile
projects such as the M60A2 and MBT-70,* [25] but have
been diligently developed by the Soviet Union, who even
retrotted them to T-55 tanks, in an eort to double the
eective range of the vehicle's re. The MBT's role could
34.2. DESIGN
be compromised because of the increasing distances involved and the increased reliance on indirect re.* [17]
The tank gun is still useful in urban combat for precisely
delivering powerful re while minimizing collateral damage.* [12]
257
M2 Browning or DShK), which can be used against helicopters and low ying aircraft. However, their eectiveness is limited in comparison to dedicated anti-aircraft
artillery. The tank's machine guns are usually equipped
with between 500 and 3000 rounds each.
34.2.4 Mobility
French Leclerc
High explosive anti-tank (HEAT), and some form of

high velocity kinetic energy penetrator, such as APFSDS
(Armor-piercing n stabilized discarding sabot) rounds
are carried for anti-armor purposes. Anti-personnel
rounds such as high explosive or high explosive fragmentation have dual purpose. Less common rounds
are Beehive anti-personnel rounds, and high explosive
squash head (HESH) rounds used for both anti-armor and
bunker busting. Usually, an MBT carries 30-50 rounds
of ammunition for its main gun, usually split between
HE, HEAT and kinetic energy penetrator rounds. Some
MBTs may also carry smoke or white phosphorus rounds.
Some MBTs are equipped with an autoloader, such as the
French Leclerc, or the Russian/Ukrainian T-64, T-72, T80, T-84 and T-90 and, for this reason, the crew can be
reduced to 3 members. MBTs with an autoloader require
one less crew member and the autoloader requires less T-64BM Bulat on parade, a Ukrainian Ground Forces upgrade
of the T-64, produced by the KMDB
space than its human counterpart, allowing for a reduction in turret size. Further, an autoloader can be designed
to handle rounds which would be too dicult for a human to load.* [26] This reduces the silhouette which improves the MBT's target prole, however, with a manual
loader, the rounds can be isolated within a blowout chamber, rather than a magazine within the turret, which could
improve crew survivability. However, the force of a modern depleted uranium armor piercing n discarding sabot
round at the muzzle can exceed 6000KN.(a rough estimate, considering a uranium 60 cm/2 cm rod, 19g/cm3 ,
@ 1,750 m/s) Composite+reactive armor could withstand
this kind of force through its deection and deformation,
but with a second hit in the same area, an armor breach is
inevitable. As such, the speed of follow up shots is crucial
A former British Army Challenger 1
within tank to tank combat.* [27]
As secondary weapons, an MBT usually uses between two
and four machine guns to engage infantry and light vehicles. Many MBTs mount one heavy caliber anti-aircraft
machine gun (AAMG), usually of .50 caliber (like the
MBTs, like previous models of tanks, move on treads,

which allow a decent level of mobility over most terrain
including sand and mud. They also allow tanks to climb
over most obstacles. MBTs can be made water-tight, so
258
they can even dive into shallow water (5 m (16 ft) with
snorkel). However, treads are not as fast as wheels; the
maximum speed of a tank is about 65 km/h (40 mph)
(72 km/h (45 mph) for the Leopard 2). The extreme
weight of vehicles of this type (45-70 tons) also limits
their speed. They are usually equipped with a 1,200
1,500 hp (8901,120 kW) engine (more than 25,000 cc
(1,526 cu in)), with an operational range near 500 km
(310 mi).

re control system. Also, propulsion systems are not
produced in high enough quantities to take advantage of
economies of scale.* [28]
Crew fatigue limits the operational range of MBTs in

combat. Reducing the crew to three and relocating all
crewmembers from the turret to the hull could provide
time to sleep for one o-shift crewmember located in the
rear of the hull. In this scenario, crewmembers would rotate shifts regularly and all would require cross-training
The German Army has prioritized mobility in its Leopard on all vehicle job functions.* [29] Cargo aircraft are in2 which is considered the fastest MBT in existence.* [22] strumental to the timely deployment of MBTs. The absence of sucient numbers of strategic airlift assets can
limit the rate of MBT deployments to the number of aircraft available.* [30] The only aircraft capable of transporting full-featured MBTs with ease are the C-5 Galaxy,
Antonov An-22, and Antonov An-124 which are declining in number.
Military planners anticipate that the airlift capability for
MBTs will not improve in the future.* [31] To date, no
helicopter has the capability to lift MBTs.* [12] Rail and
road are heavily used to move MBTs nearer to the battle,
ready to ght in prime condition.* [31] Where well maintained roads allow it, wheeled tank transporters can be
used.* [32]
The dicult task of resupply is usually accomplished with
*
The Italian Ariete. Its relatively low weight (54 tonnes) facilitates large trucks. [33]
mobility, especially while crossing bridges.
The MBT is often cumbersome in trac, much to the

disdain of drivers who must share the road with it. The
tracks can damage some roads after repeated use. Many
structures like bridges do not have the load capacity to
support an MBT. In the fast pace of combat it is often
impossible to test the sturdiness of these structures. In
the 2003 invasion of Iraq, an M1 Abrams attempting to
cross a bridge to evade enemy re plummeted into the
Euphrates river when the bridge collapsed.* [12] Though
appreciated for its excellent o-road characteristics, the
MBT can become immobilized in muddy conditions.
34.2.5 Storage
Main battle tanks have internal and external storage
space. Internal space is reserved for ammunition. External space enhances independence of logistics and can
accommodate extra fuel and some personal equipment of
the crew.* [34]
The Israeli Merkava can even accommodate crewmembers displaced from a destroyed vehicle in its ammunition
compartment.* [29]
34.3 Crew
Emphasis is placed on selecting and training main battle
tank crew-members. The crew must perform their tasks
faultlessly and harmoniously so commanders select teams
taking into consideration personalities and talents.* [12]
34.4 Role
The main battle tank fullls the role the British had once
called the 'universal tank', lling almost all battleeld
roles. They were originally designed in the Cold War
Israeli Merkava Mark IV on a tank transporter
to combat other MBTs.* [17] The modern light tank supThe high cost of MBTs can be attributed in part to the plements the MBT in expeditionary roles and situations
high performance engine-transmission system and to the where all major threats have been neutralized and excess
34.6. SEE ALSO
259
U.S. Marines during the Iraq War ride on an M1A1 Abrams tank
in April 2003.
weight in armor and armament would only hinder mobility and cost more money to operate.
Reconnaissance by MBTs is performed in high-intensity Mechanics at Anniston Army Depot line up an M1 Abrams turret
conicts where reconnaissance by light vehicles would with its hull.
be insucient due to the necessity to 'ght' for information.* [31]
34.5.3 Marketing
In asymmetric warfare, main battle tanks are deployed in
small highly concentrated units. MBTs re only at targets Several MBT models, such as the AMX-40 and OF-40,
at close range and instead rely on external support such as were marketed almost solely as export vehicles.* [31]
unmanned aircraft for long range combat.* [35]
Several tank producers, such as Japan and Israel, choose
Main battle tanks have signicantly varied characteris- not to market their creations for export.* [31] Others have
tics. Procuring too many varieties can place a burden on export control laws in place.
tactics, training, support and maintenance.* [36]
The MBT has a positive morale eect on the infantry
it accompanies.* [37] It also instills fear in the opposing
force who can often hear and even feel their arrival.* [12]
34.6 See also

Light tank
34.5 Procurement
Cruiser tank
Infantry tank
34.5.1
Research and development
List of main battle tanks by country
34.5.2
Manufacture
List of main battle tanks by generation
MBT production is increasingly being outsourced to

wealthy nations. Countries that are just beginning to produce tanks are having diculties remaining protable in
an industry that is increasingly becoming more expensive
through sophistication of technology. Even some largescale producers are seeing declines in production. Even
China is divesting many of its MBTs.* [31]
The production of main battle tanks is limited to manufacturers that specialize in combat vehicles. Commercial
manufacturers of civilian vehicles cannot easily be repurposed as MBT production facilities.* [38]
Prices for MBTs have more than tripled from 1943 to
2011, although this pales in comparison with the price
increase in ghter aircraft from 1943 to 1975.* [17]
History of the tank

Tanks in World War I
Comparison of World War I tanks
Tanks of the interwar period
Tanks in World War II
Comparison of early World War II tanks
Cold War Tanks
Post-Cold War Tanks
Armoured ghting vehicle
260
34.7 References
Notes
[1] House (1984), Toward Combined Arms Warfare:A Survey
of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization
[2] Tranquiler, Roger, Modern Warfare. A French View of
Counterinsurgency, trans. Daniel Lee, Pitting a traditional
combined armed force trained and equipped to defeat similar military organisations against insurgents reminds one
of a pile driver attempting to crush a y, indefatigably persisting in repeating its eorts.
[3] . .
.. - .: , 197680 ., 8- ,
(Soviet Military Encyclopedia)
[4] Thomas W. Zarzecki (2002). Arms Diusion: The
Spread of Military Innovations in the International System.
Psychology Press. p. 212. ISBN 0-415-93514-8. Retrieved 5 April 2011.
[5] T-64 manual (" 64.
. 1984) state T-64
as main battletank, while previous T-62 and T-55
(in corresponding military manuals, like " 62.
.
1968) stated as mediumtanks
[6] MIL-T-45308 state Tank, Main Battle, 105MM Gun,
M60, while MIL-T-45148 state TANK, COMBAT,
FULL-TRACKED, 90MM GUN, M48A2
[16] Anthony H. Cordesman, Aram Nerguizian, Ionut C.

Popescu (2008). Israel and Syria: The Military Balance
and Prospects of War. ABC-CLIO. p. 99. ISBN 978-0313-35520-2. Retrieved 1 April 2011.
[17] Neville Brown (2009). The Geography of Human Conict:
Approaches to Survival. Sussex Academic Press. p. 254.
ISBN 978-1-84519-169-6. Retrieved 5 April 2011.
[18] Stan Krasno (2008). A Claytons Defense. Strategic Book
Publishing. p. 35. Retrieved 5 April 2011.
[19] Asia-Pacic defence reporter, Volume 30. Asia-Pacic
Defence Publications. 2004. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
[20] Treaty on conventional armed forces in Europe. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 1989. p.
[21] Stan Windass, Paul Walker (1985). Avoiding Nuclear
War: Common Security as a Strategy for the Defence of
the West. Brassey's Defence Publishers. p. 38. Retrieved
4 April 2011.
[22] Richard Holmes, Hew Strachan, Chris Bellamy (2001).
The Oxford Companion to Military History. Oxford University Press. pp. 493, 902. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
[23] Defence chiefs knew 'invincible' tank armour could be
breached. Daily Mail. 24 April 2007.
[24] Sean Rayment (May 12, 2007 *). MoD kept failure of
best tank quiet. Sunday Telegraph. Check date values
in: |date= (help)
[7] AcademicJohn Harris and Andre Gsponer (1986).

Armour defuses the neutron bomb. Reed Business
Information. p. 47. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
[25] African armed forces journal. Military Publications Ltd.

1994. p. 10.
[8] Academic American encyclopedia, Volume 2. Aret Pub.

Co., 1980. 1980. p. 177. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
[26] Je Groman (1985). Weapons of War. Gallery Books. p.

126. Retrieved 18 February 2011.
[9] David C. Isby (1988). Weapons and tactics of the Soviet

Army. Jane's. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
[27] Thomas W. Zarzecki (2002). Arms Diusion: The

Spread of Military Innovations in the International System.
Psychology Press. Retrieved 18 February 2011.
[10] Daniel H. Else (III.) (2008).Chapter 3. Bias in weapon

development. ProQuest. p. 62. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
[11] Canadian Institute of Strategic Studies (1993). The Canadian strategic forecast. Canadian Institute of Strategic
Studies. p. 73. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
[12] Chris McNab, Hunter Keeter (2008). Tools of violence:
guns, tanks and dirty bombs. Osprey Publishing. Retrieved 6 April 2011.
[13] Komarow, Steven (2005-03-29). Tanks take a beating
in Iraq. USA Today. Retrieved 2010-04-09.
[14] Komarow, Steven (2005-03-29). Tanks adapted for urban ghts they once avoided. USA Today. Retrieved
2010-04-09.
[15] Anthony H. Cordesman (2006). Arab-Israeli Military
Forces in an Era of Asymmetric Wars. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-99186-5. Retrieved 14
February 2011.
[28] National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Adiabatic Diesel Technology (1987). A review of the state of
the art and projected technology of low heat rejection engines: a report. National Academies. p. 108. Retrieved 2
April 2011.
[29] Robin Fletcher (May 1995). The Crewing and Conguration of the Future Main Battle Tank (PDF). ARMOR:
6-8, 42, & 43. Retrieved 4 May 2011. (HTML version)
[30] Michael Chichester, John Wilkinson (1987). British defence: a blueprint for reform. Brasseys Defence. p. 126.
[31] Mary Kaldor, Basker Vashee, World Institute for Development Economics Research (1998). [Restructuring the
Global Military Sector: The end of military Fordism Restructuring the Global Military Sector: The End of Military
Fordism]. Continuum International Publishing Group. p.
108. ISBN 1-85567-428-9. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
34.7. REFERENCES
[32] Brian MacDonald (1997). Military Spending in Developing Countries: How Much Is Too Much?. McGill-Queen's
Press - MQUP. p. 136. ISBN 0-88629-314-6. Retrieved
2 April 2011.
[33] Michael Green (2008). War Stories of the Tankers: American Armored Combat, 1918 to Today. Zenith Imprint. p.
281. ISBN 978-0-7603-3297-9. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
[34] David Miller (2000). The illustrated directory of tanks of
the world. Zenith Imprint. p. 384. ISBN 0-7603-0892-6.
[35] David Eshel, Bill Sweetman (25 April 2011). New Designs Suit Tanks For Asymmetric War. The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
[36] Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-rst Century: The Military and International Security Dimensions. Greenwood
Publishing Group. 2003. p. 140. Retrieved 1 April 2011.
[37] Stanley Sandler (2002). Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 59. ISBN
1-57607-344-0. Retrieved 5 April 2011.
[38] United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations (1990). Department of Defense Appropriations
for 1991, Part 6. U. S. Govt. Print. O. Retrieved 4
April 2011.
261
Chapter 35
Military helicopter
A military helicopter is a helicopter that is either specifically built or converted for use by military forces. A
military helicopter's mission is a function of its design
or conversion. The most common use of military helicopters is transport of troops, but transport helicopters
can be modied or converted to perform other missions
such as combat search and rescue (CSAR), medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), airborne command post, or even
armed with weapons for attacking ground targets. Specialized military helicopters are intended to conduct specic missions. Examples of specialized military helicopters are attack helicopters, observation helicopters
and anti-submarine warfare helicopters.
35.1.1 Equipment
ent roles, for example the EH-101 in Royal Navy service

can be rapidly congured for ASW or transport missions
in hours. To at the same time retain exibility and limit
costs, it is possible to t an airframe for but not with a
system, for example in the US Army's AH-64D variants
are all tted to be able to take the Longbow radar system, but not enough sets have been brought to equip the
whole force. The systems can be tted to only those airframes that need it, or when nances allow the purchase
of enough units.
Armour, re suppression, dynamic and electronics systems enhancements are invisible to casual inspection, as
a cost-cutting measure some nations and services have
been tempted to use what are essentially commercial helicopters for military purposes. For example it has been
reported that the PRC is carrying out a rapid enlargement
of its assault helicopter regiments with the civilian version
of the Mil Mi-17.* [1] These helicopters without armour
and electronic counter measures will function well enough
for training exercises and photo opportunities but would
Most military helicopters are armoured to some extent

however all equipment is limited to the installed power
and lift capability and the limits installed equipment
places on useful payload. The most extensive armour is
placed around the pilots, engines, transmission and fuel
tanks. Fuel lines, control cables and power to the tail rotor
may also be shrouded by Kevlar armour. The most heavily armoured helicopters are attack, assault and special
forces helicopters. In transport helicopters the crew compartment may or may not be fully armoured, a compromise being to give the passengers Kevlar lined seats but
to leave the compartment for the most part unarmoured.
Survivability is enhanced by redundancy and the placement of components to protect each other. For example
the Blackhawk family of helicopters uses two engines and
can continue to y on only one (under certain conditions),
35.1 Types and roles
the engines are separated by the transmission and placed
so that if attacked from any one ank, the engine on that
Military helicopters play an integral part in the sea, ank acts to protect the transmission and the engine on
land and air operations of modern militaries. Gener- the other side from damage.
ally manufacturers will develop airframes in dierent Aviation electronics, or avionics, such as communication
weight/size classes which can be adapted to dierent roles radios and navigation aids are common on most milithrough the installation of mission specic equipment. tary helicopters. Specialized avionics, such as electronic
To minimise development costs the basic airframes can countermeasures and identication friend or foe systems,
be stretched and shortened, be updated with new engines are military specic systems that can also be installed on
and electronics and have the entire mechanical and ight military helicopters. Other payload or mission systems
systems mated to new fuselages to create new aircraft. are installed either permanently or temporarily, based
For example, the UH-1 has given rise to a number of on specic mission requirements; optical and IR camderivatives through stretching and re-engining, including eras for scout helicopters, dunking sonar and search radar
the AH-1.
for anti-submarine helicopters, extra radio transceivers
Modern helicopters have introduced modular systems and computers for helicopters used as airborne command
which allow the same airframe to be congured for dier- posts.
262
35.1. TYPES AND ROLES

be suicidal to deploy in the assault role in actual combat situations. The intention of China appears to be to
retrot these helicopters with locally produced electronics and armour when possible, freeing available funds to
allow rapid creation of enough regiments to equip each
of its Group Armies. Allowing a widespread build up of
experience in helicopter operations.
35.1.2
Attack helicopters
Main article: Attack helicopter
263
zone (LZ). The idea is to use the helicopters to transport
and land a large number of troops and equipment in a
relatively short amount of time, in order to assault and
overwhelm an objective near the LZ. The advantage of
air assault over an airborne assault is the ability of the
helicopters to continually resupply the force during the
operation, as well as to transport the personnel and equipment to their previous location, or a follow-on location if
the mission dictates.
Transport helicopters
Mil Mi-17 transport of the Kazakhstan government.* [note 1]

Attack helicopters are helicopters used in the anti-tank
and close air support roles. The rst of the modern attack
A Wiesel deploys from a CH-53
helicopters was the Vietnam era AH-1 Cobra, which pioneered the now classic format of pilot and weapons o CH-21C with 105mm howitzer as a slung load
cer seated in tandem in a narrow fuselage, chin mounted
UH-1D helicopters airlift members of a U.S. inguns, and rockets and missiles mounted on stub wings.
fantry regiment, 1966
To enable them to nd and identify their targets, some
modern attack helicopters are equipped with very capable sensors* [2] such as a millimeter wave radar system.
Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this
page, but the references will not show without a {{re Attack helicopters
ist|group=note}} template (see the help page).
A Russian Mi-24P Hind-F large helicopter gunship
and low-capacity troop transport.
35.1.4 Observation helicopters
Westland WAH-64 Apache Longbow attack heliThe rst reconnaissance and observation aircraft were
copter operated by the British Army.
balloons, followed by light airplanes, such as the
Cobra attack helicopters being refueled at a FARP Taylorcraft L-2 and Fieseler Fi 156. As the rst milduring Operation Iraqi Freedom
itary helicopters became available, their ability to both
maneuver and to remain in one location made them ideal
for reconnaissance. Initially observation helicopters were
35.1.3 Transport helicopters
limited to visual observation by the aircrew, and most helicopters featured rounded, well-glazed cockpits for maxMain article: Transport helicopter
imum visibility. Over time, the human eye became supplemented by optical sensor systems. Today, these inTransport helicopters are used for transporting person- clude low light level television and forward looking innel (troops) and cargo in support of military operations. frared cameras. Often, these are mounted in a stabilised
In larger militaries, these helicopters are often purpose- mount along with multi-function lasers capable of acting
built for military operations, but commercially available as laser rangender and targeting designators for weapons
aircraft are also used. The benet of using helicopters for systems.* [3]
these operations is that personnel and cargo can be moved By nature of the mission, the observation helicopter's prito and from locations without requiring a runway for take- mary weapons are its sensor suite and communications
os and landings. Cargo is carried either internally, or ex- equipment. Early observation helicopters were eective
ternally by slung load where the load is suspended from an at calling for artillery re and airstrikes. With modern
attachment point underneath the aircraft. Personnel are sensor suites, they are also able to provide terminal guidprimarily loaded and unloaded while the helicopter is on ance to ATGWs, laser-guided bombs and other missiles
the ground. However, when the terrain restricts even he- and munitions red by other armed aircraft.* [4]* [5] Oblicopters from landing, personnel may also be picked up servation helicopters may also be armed with combinaand dropped o using specialized devices, such as res- tions of gun and rocket pods and sometimes anti-tank
cue hoists or special rope lines, while the aircraft hovers guided missiles or air-to-air missiles, but in smaller quanoverhead.
tities than larger attack helicopters.* [6] Primarily, these
Air assault is a military strategy that relies heavily on the
use of transport helicopters. An air assault involves a
customized assault force that is assembled on the pickup zone and staged for sequential transport to a landing
weapons were intended for the counter-reconnaissance

ghtto eliminate an enemy's reconnaissance assets
but they can also be used to provide limited direct re
support or close air support.
264
CHAPTER 35. MILITARY HELICOPTER
Observation helicopters
A Gazelle helicopter of the French ALAT.
durance and payload providing advantages over smaller

helicopters.
Soviet maritime helicopters, operating from its cruisers,

had the additional role of guidance of the cruisers' long
An OH-58 Kiowa showing its mast mounted sight
range anti-shipping missiles.
and a rocket pod.
Maritime helicopters are navalised for operation from
The Kawasaki OH-1.
ships, this includes enhanced protection against salt water corrosion, protection against ingestion of water and
provision for forced ditching at sea.
35.1.5
Maritime helicopters
See also: Maritime patrol aircraft

Among the rst practical uses of helicopters when the
R-4 and R-5 became available to US and UK forces
was deployment from navy cruisers and battleships, at
rst supplementing and later replacing catapult-launched
observation aircraft. Another niche within the capability
of the early helicopters was as plane guard - tasked with
the recovery of pilots who had ditched near an aircraft
carrier.
As helicopter technology matured with increased payload and endurance, anti-submarine warfare (ASW) was
added to the helicopter's repertoire. Initially, helicopters
operated as weapons delivery systems, attacking with airlaunched torpedoes and depth charges based on information provided by its parent and other warships. In
the 1960s, the development of the turboshaft engine and
transistor technology changed the face of maritime helicopter aviation. The turboshaft engine allowed smaller
helicopters, such as the Westland Wasp, to operate from
smaller vessels than their reciprocating engine predecessors. The introduction of transistors allowed helicopters,
such as the SH-3 Sea King, to be equipped with integral dunking sonar, radar and magnetic anomaly detection equipment. The result was an aircraft able to more
quickly respond to submarine threats to the eet without
waiting for directions from eet vessels.
Maritime helicopters
A Royal Navy Merlin HM1 anti-submarine warfare
helicopter in 2007
A SH-60B Seahawk 2 helicopter
A Kamov Ka-27 shipborne helicopter, showing
its contra-rotating rotor system, and bulbous radar
radome
A Harbin Z-9
35.1.6 Multi-mission and rescue

As helicopters came into military service, they were
quickly pressed into service for search and rescue* [note
1] and medical evacuation. During World War II, Flettner
Fl 282s were used in Germany for reconnaissance, and
Sikorsky R-4s were used by the United States to rescue
downed aircrews and injured personnel in remote areas of
the China Burma India Theater, from April 1944 until the
war's end. The use of helicopters for rescue during combat increased during the Korean War and the Algerian
War. In the Vietnam War the USAF acquired Sikorsky
S-61R (Jolly Green Giant) and CH-53 Sea Stallion (Super
Jolly Green Giant) helicopters for the CSAR mission.* [7]
Multimission and Rescue helicopters
Today, maritime helicopters such as the SH-60 Seahawk

Bell 47 with patient transfer panniers.
and the Westland Lynx are designed to be operated from
Fast-roping at a Combat Search and Rescue action,
frigates, destroyers and similar size vessels. The desire
featuring a HH-60G Pave Hawk.
to carry and operate two helicopters from frigate- and
destroyer-sized vessels has had an impact on the maxi Patient transfer unit for the German Army Aviation
mum size of the helicopters and the minimum size of
Corps CH-53Gs.
the ships. Increasing miniaturisation of electronics, better
engines and modern weapons now allow even the modern,
destroyer-based, multi-role helicopter to operate nearly
35.1.7 Training helicopters
autonomously in the ASW, anti-shipping, transport, SAR
and reconnaissance roles.
Some services use a version of their operational heliMedium- and large-sized helicopters are operated from copters, usually in the light class, for pilot training. For
carriers and land bases. In the British, Spanish, and example, the British have used the Arospatiale Gazelle
Italian navies, the larger helicopters form the main anti- both in operations and as a trainer. Some services also
submarine strength of carrier air wings. When operat- have an Ab initio phase in training that uses very basic
ing from shore bases, the helicopters are used as anti- helicopters. The Mexican Navy has acquired a number
submarine pickets to protect against hostile submarines of the commercially available Robinson R22* [8] and R44
loitering outside military ports and harbours; their en- helicopters for this purpose.
35.2. TACTICS AND OPERATIONS
35.2 Tactics and operations
265
ight environment. Anti-tank missiles, such as the Nord
SS.11 and the Arospatiale SS.12/AS.12 were developed
and mounted on French military helicopters. In turn, the
United States adapted its BGM-71 TOW for ring from
helicopters and eventually developed the AGM-114 Hellre. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union adapted the 3M11
Falanga missile for ring from the Mil Mi-24.
In the air, attack helicopters armed with anti-tank missiles, and one or more unarmed, or lightly armed scout
helicopters operate in concert. The scout helicopter,
ying at low level in a nap-of-the-earth approach, attempts to both locate the enemy armoured columns and
to map out approaches and ambush positions for the attack helicopters. Late-model scout helicopters include
laser designators to guide missiles red from the attack
helicopters. After nding a target, the scout helicopter
can locate it and then direct the attack helicopter's missile where to re. The attack helicopters have only to rise
from cover briey to re their missiles before returning
to a concealed location.* [7] Late-development of attack
helicopters, such as the Mil Mi-28N, the Kamov Ka-52,
and the AH-64D Longbow, incorporate sensors and command and control systems to relieve the requirement for
scout helicopters.
To enhance the combat endurance of these missile-armed

helicopters, transport helicopters were used to carry technicians, reloads and fuel to forward locations. EstablishFirst generation Alouette anti-tank helicopter of the German
ing these forward arming and refuel points (FARP) at preArmy armed with SS.10 missiles
arranged locations and times allowed armed or attack helicopters to re-arm and refuel, often with their engines
running and the rotors still turning, and to quickly return
to the front lines.* [7]
35.2.2 Low intensity warfare
An OH-58 and an AH-1 of the Hawaii ARNG, such a combination would have formed hunter-killer team during the Cold
War.* [7]
While not essential to combat operations, helicopters give

a substantial advantage to their operators by being a force
multiplier. To maximise their impact, helicopters are
utilised in a combined arms approach.* [9]
35.2.1
High intensity warfare

An Iraqi unit prepares to board a US Blackhawk for a COIN
High-intensity warfare is characterized by large arrays of operation

conventional armed forces, including mass formations of
tanks, with signicant air defenses. Helicopter armament Main article: Counter-insurgency
and tactics were changed to account for a less-permissive
266
CHAPTER 35. MILITARY HELICOPTER
In counter-insurgency (COIN) warfare, the government

force establishes its presence in permanent or temporary
military bases from which to mount patrols and convoys.
The government forces seek to deter the insurgent forces
from operating, and to capture or kill those that do. The
operation of forces from xed bases linked by a xed
network of roads becomes a weakness. Emplaced insurgents and local sympathisers may observe such facilities covertly and gather intelligence on the schedules and
routes of patrols and convoys. With this intelligence the
insurgents can time their operations to avoid the COIN
forces or plan ambushes to engage them, depending on
their own tactical situation.
and Sikorsky Aircraft.
Due to the cost and complexity of training and support

requirements, insurgent forces rarely have access to helicopters.
35.5 Notes
In Japan the three main manufacturers of helicopters

are the aviation arms of the Japanese conglomerates
Mitsubishi, Kawasaki and Fuji Heavy Industries. These
companies initially followed a business model based
on forming strategic partnerships with foreign, usually
American, companies with the licensed production of
those companies products, whilst building up their own
ability to design and manufacture helicopters through a
process of workshare and technology transfer.
In the Soviet-planned economic system, the Mil and

Kamov OKBs were responsible only for the design of helicopters. A 2006 re-organisation of the helicopter indusHelicopters return a measure of surprise and tactical ex- try in Russia created Oboronprom, a holding company to
ibility to the COIN commander. Patrols need not start bring together Mil and manufacturing plants.
and end in the same place (the main entrance of the local
compound), nor do supply convoys need follow the same
roads and highways. During the Troubles, the Provisional
Irish Republican Army (IRA) became adept at avoiding 35.4 See also
conventional, xed roadblocks and patrols. To prevent
Air assault
predictable patterns, the patrols were deployed by helicopter, known as Eagle Patrols, and were then able to
Armed helicopter
disrupt the IRA's ability to move personnel and arms.* [7]
Army aviation
In the aftermath of the American invasion of Iraq helicopters have been used as aerial supply trucks and troop
Helicopter bombing
transports to prevent exposure to ambushes set by the
Iraqi insurgency.* [10]
35.3 Manufacturers
[1] Search and rescue is sometimes referred to as SAR. Search

and rescue during combat is referred to by NATO countries as CSAR and is a specialized personnel recovery mission.
35.6 References
[1] Kanwa Defense Review No26,Is China's 20-year buildup Army Aviation Corps eective, February 2007.
[2] Give us an enemy to ght, says chief of Britain's Apache
helicopter eet
[3] Rotary Aircraft:Doctrinal Development
[4] OH-58D Kiowa Warrior Reconnaissance / Attack Helicopter, USA
[5] Comanche's Child: The ARH-70 Armed Reconnaissance
Helicopter
[6] Filling Comanche's Shoes
Helibras HM-1 Pantera under construction in Brazil.
Main article: Helicopter manufacturers

The major Western European helicopter manufacturers
are now AgustaWestland and Eurocopter Group. In
America, the three large remaining companies are Boeing
(Boeing Vertol and McDonnell Douglas), Bell Helicopter
[7] Cacutt, Len (1989). Combat. Aerospace Publishing Ltd.

p. 185. ISBN 1-55521-240-9.
[8] Air Forces Monthly, February 2001, Mexico Navy acquires Robinson R22s
[9] Rotary Aircraft-Army Plans
[10]Iraq re downed US helicopters. BBC Online. 4 February 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-04.
35.6.1
267
Further reading
Boyne, Walter J. (2011).

Changed Modern Warfare.
ISBN 1-58980-700-6.
How the Helicopter

Pelican Publishing.
FM 1-100 Army Aviation Operations from 21

February 1997 by Headquarters Department of the
Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1-108 Doctrine For Army Special Operations
Aviation Forces from 3 November 1993 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1111 Aviation Brigades from 27 October 1997
by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1-112 Attack Helicopter Operations from 2
April 1997 by Headquarters Department of the
Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1-113 Utility and Cargo Helicopter Operations
from 25 June 1997 by Headquarters Department of
the Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1-114 Air Cavalry Squadron and Troop Operations from 1 February 2000 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 1-120 Army Air Trac Service Contingency
and Combat Zone Operations from 22 May 1995
FM 1-140 Helicopter Gunnery from 29 March 1996
FM 3-04.500 Army Aviation Maintenance from 26
September 2000 by Headquarters Department of
the Army at GlobalSecurity.org
FM 90-4 Air Assault Operations from 16 March
1987 by Headquarters Department of the Army at
GlobalSecurity.org
35.7 External links

Army Aviation Association of America
Homepage of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm
Homepage of the UK's Army Air Corps
Helicopter page from RAF homepage
French Ministry of Defence ALAT page
CombatAircraft.com - Helicopters
Chapter 36
Pistol
Pistoletredirects here. For the Belgian bread roll, see
Pistolet (bread).
For other uses, see Pistol (disambiguation).
A pistol is a type of handgun. Some handgun experts
the Oxford English Dictionary (a descriptive dictionary)

describes 'pistol' as a small rearm to be used in one
hand* [6] and the usage of revolveras being a type
of handgun* [7] and gives its original form as revolving
pistol* [8]* [9]
SIG Pro semi-automatic pistol
A model M1911A1 pistol
and dictionaries make a technical distinction that views

pistols as a subset of handguns; others use the terms interchangeably. Sometimes in usage, the term pistol
refers to a handgun having one chamber integral with
the barrel,* [1]* [2] making pistols distinct from the other
main type of handgun, the revolver, which has a revolving cylinder containing multiple chambers.* [3]* [4] But
UK/Commonwealth usage does not always make this distinction, particularly when the terms are used by the military. For example, the ocial designation of the Webley
Mk VI revolver was Pistol, Revolver, Webley, No. 1
Mk VI.* [5] In contrast to Merriam-Webster* [3]* [4]
European hand cannon (Germany, about 1475)
Further information: Firearm and Handgun

The pistol originates in the 16th century, when early
handguns were produced in Europe. The English word
was introduced in ca. 1570 from the Middle French pistolet (ca. 1550).
The etymology of the French word pistolet is disputed.
It may be from a Czech word for early hand cannons,
pala ute, or alternatively from Italian pistolese,
268
36.2. ACTION
269
after Pistoia, a city renowned for Renaissance-era gun- Multi-barreled pistols were common during the same
smithing, where hand-held guns (designed to be red time as single shot pistols. As designers looked for ways
from horseback) were rst produced in the 1540s.* [10] to increase re rates, multiple barrels were added to all
The rst suggestion derives the word from Czech pala, guns including pistols. One example of a multi-barreled
a type of hand-cannon used in the Hussite Wars during pistol is the Duck's foot *pistol, which generally had eithe 1420s. The Czech word was adopted in German as ther four or eight barrels, [13]* although some 20th century models had three barrels. [14]
pitschale, pitschole, petsole, and variants.* [11]
The second suggestion is less likely; the use of the word as
a designation of a gun is not documented before 1605 in
Italy, long after it was used in French and German. The 36.2.3 Harmonica pistol
Czech word is well documented since the Hussite wars in
1420s.* [12]
Around 1850, pistols such as the Jarre harmonica gun
Other suggestions include from Middle High German pis- were produced that had a sliding magazine. The slidchulle or from Middle French pistole. Also it is suggested ing magazine contained pinre cartridges or speedloadthat early pistols were carried by cavalry in holsters hung ers. The magazine needed to be moved manually in many
from the pommel (or pistallo in medieval French) of a designs, hence distinguishing them from semi-automatic
horse's saddle.
pistols.* [15]
36.2 Action
36.2.4 Revolver
The most common types of pistol are the single shot, and
semi-automatic.
36.2.1
Single shot
Colt Model 1873 Single-ActionNew Model Army Metallic Cartridge Revolving Pistol
Main article: Revolver

French Navy pistol model 1837
Single shot handguns were mainly seen during the era

of intlock and musket weaponry where the pistol was
loaded with a lead ball and red by a int striker, and then
later a percussion cap. However, as technology improved,
so did the single shot pistol. New operating mechanisms
were created, and due to this, they are still made today. It
is the oldest type of pistol, and is often used to hunt wild
game.
36.2.2
Multi-barreled (non-rotating)
Further information: Multiple barrel rearm
With the development of the revolver in the 19th century, gunsmiths had nally achieved the goal of a practical
capability for delivering multiple loads to one handgun
barrel in quick succession. Revolvers feed ammunition
via the rotation of a cartridge-lled cylinder, in which
each cartridge is contained in its own ignition chamber, and is sequentially brought into alignment with the
weapon's barrel by an indexing mechanism linked to the
weapon's trigger (double-action) or its hammer (singleaction). These nominally cylindrical chambers, usually
numbering between ve and eight depending on the size
of the revolver and the size of the cartridge being red,
are bored through the cylinder so that their axes are parallel to the cylinder's axis of rotation; thus, as the cylinder
rotates, the chambers revolve about the cylinder's axis.
270
CHAPTER 36. PISTOL
[4] Revolver Dene Revolver. Dictionary.com. Retrieved January 19, 2015.

[5] Skennerton, Ian D., Small Arms Identication Series No.
9: .455 Pistol, Revolver No. 1 Mk VI, p. 10, Arms &
Militaria Press, 1997.
[6]pistol, n.. OED Online. December 2014. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/144645?
rskey=BtMENp&result=1 (accessed January 21, 2015).
[7]revolver, n.. OED Online. December 2014. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/
164985 (accessed January 21, 2015)
Semi-automatic pistol Grand Power K100 Target produced in

Slovakia
36.2.5
[8]revolver, n.. OED Online. December 2014. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/
164985 (accessed January 21, 2015).
[9] revolver: denition of revolver. Oxford Dictionaries.
Retrieved January 19, 2015.
Semi-automatic
[10] The War Oce (UK): Textbook of Small Arms (1929),

page 86. H.M. Stationery Oce (UK), 1929.
Main article: Semi-automatic pistol

The semi-automatic pistol was the next step in the development of the pistol. By avoiding multiple chambers
which need to be individually reloadedsemi-automatic
pistols delivered faster rates of re and required only
a few seconds to reload (depending on the skill of the
shooter). In blowback-type semi-automatics, the recoil
force is used to push the slide back and eject the shell (if
any) so that the magazine spring can push another round
up; then as the slide returns, it chambers the round. An
example of a modern blowback action semi-automatic
pistol is the HK VP70.
[11] Karel Titz (1922). Ohlasy husitskho vlenictv v Evrop .

eskoslovensk vdeck stav vojensk.
[12] http://nase-rec.ujc.cas.cz/archiv.php?art=1876
[13] Newton, Mike (April 15, 2012). Writing Westerns: How
to Craft Novels that Evoke the Spirit of the West. F+W
Media, Inc.
[14] Shideler, Dan (September 24, 2009). Jeepers Creepers,
Whered You Get That Pieper?". GunDigest. Retrieved
January 19, 2015.
[15] Jarre harmonica pistol
[16] US government orders removal of Defcad 3D-gun designs. BBC News. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
36.3 3D printed pistol
[17] Biggs, John. What You Need To Know About The Liberator 3D-Printed Pistol. TechCrunch. Retrieved 13
May 2013.
Main article: Liberator (gun)
The Liberator is a physible, 3D-printable single shot [18] Hutchinson, Lee. The rst entirely 3D-printed handgun
is here. Ars Technica. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
handgun, the rst such printable rearm design made
widely available online.* [16]* [17]* [18] The open source
[19] Greenberg, Andy. 3D-Printed Gun's Blueprints Downrm Defense Distributed designed the gun and released
loaded 100,000 Times In Two Days (With Some Help
the plans on the Internet on May 6, 2013. The plans
From Kim Dotcom)". Forbes. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
were downloaded over 100,000 times in the two days before the US Department of State demanded Defense Distributed retract the plans.* [19]
36.4 References
[1] Pistol Denition. Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
[2] British Dictionary denitions for pistol.
nary.com. Retrieved January 19, 2015.
Dictio-
[3] Revolver Denition. Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved January 19, 2015.
Chapter 37
Reconnaissance vehicle
37.2 History
During World War II, the British generally used armoured
cars for reconnaissance, from the machinegun armed
Humber Light Reconnaissance Car and Daimler Dingo
to the 6-pdr (57 mm) gun equipped AEC Armoured Car.
Post war the British Army used the Ferret and later, Fox
scout cars.
United States Army M1127 Reconnaissance Vehicle
The U.S. and UK experimented with the Future Scout

and Cavalry System (FSCS) and Tactical Reconnaissance
Armoured Combat Equipment Requirement (TRACER)
programs in the 2000s aimed at creating a stealth reconnaissance vehicle capable of C-130 airlift.* [2]
Prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Iraqi Army placed
an emphasis on the use of light wheeled vehicles for reconnaissance, particularly Soviet-manufactured BRDM2 and French-designed Panhard AML armoured cars.
Each corps had an attached BRDM or AML battalion.
These were allocated by division; every brigade headquarters and regular infantry battalion received a platoon of six. The Iraqis did not make competent use
of these assets during the Gulf War, opting to depend
on signals intelligence against the comparatively sophisticated Coalition.* [3]
A reconnaissance vehicle, also known as a scout vehicle, is a military vehicle used for forward reconnaissance.
Both tracked and wheeled reconnaissance vehicles are in
service. In some nations, light tanks such as the M551
Sheridan and AMX-13 are also used by scout platoons.
Reconnaissance vehicles are usually designed with a low
prole or small size and are lightly armoured, relying on
speed and cover to escape detection. Their armament
ranges from a medium machine gun to a large cannon.
Modern examples are often tted with ATGMs and a South African expeditionary forces in Angola also emwide range of sensors.
ployed wheeled reconnaissance vehicles for their strategic
Some armoured personnel carriers and infantry mobility and tactical mobility, sometimes engaging Angolan units
vehicle, such as the M113, TPz Fuchs, and Cadillac Gage up to brigade strength. Scout cars such as the Eland Mk7
were used to lure hostile T-34s or T-54/55s into prepared
Commando double in the reconnaissance role.
ambushes, where they were destroyed by heavier vehicles,
ATGMs, and artillery.* [4]
37.3 Role
37.1 Design
Reconnaissance of enemy positions can involve ring

upon the enemy in hopes of receiving return re that gives
away the enemy's position. This can make the reconnaissance vehicle vulnerable to return re that may destroy the vehicle before the enemy's position can be relayed.* [5]
Smaller caliber weapons help reduce the vehicle's prole and noise signatures.* [1] In contrast, French doctrine
was to t reconnaissance vehicles, such as the EBR and
the AMX 10 RC, with the heaviest weaponry possible on
their light chassis, so as to allow them a further role for Dismounted operations by armed scouts include
observation post manning, reconnaissance of areas
defence of the anks.
271
272
CHAPTER 37. RECONNAISSANCE VEHICLE
not traversable by vehicle, and marking enemy mine

elds.* [6]
CBRN reconnaissance vehicles can also detect weapons
of mass destruction. They accompany regular reconnaissance vehicles and are fully protected against airborne
threats.* [7]
37.4 List of contemporary reconnaissance vehicles

Argentine ERC-90 on parade.
Variants of the Soviet BRDM series remain in service with many

countries.
EE-3 Jararaca
EE-9 Cascavel
Eland
ERC 90 Sagaie
Ferret
Fox
FV101 Scorpion
FV102 Striker
FV107 Scimitar
Gagamba
Komatsu
Lynx
M1127
Zimbabwean Eland.
Fennek
Mowag Spy
Otokar Cobra
Panhard AML
Alvis Saladin
RBY MK 1
AMX-10 RC
RG-35 4x4 RPU* [8]
ASLAV
Rooikat
BRDM-1
Schtzenpanzer SPz 11-2 Kurz
BRDM-2
Sphpanzer Luchs
Coyote
Namco Tiger
D-442 FG
VEC-M1
Dozor-B
VBC-90
37.5. REFERENCES
Vhicule Blind Lger
Wiesel
XAV
37.5 References
[1]return re
[2] Bill Yenne (2006). Secret Gadgets and Strange Gizmos:
High-Tech (and Low-Tech) Innovations of the U.S. Military. Zenith Imprint. p. 97. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
[3] Bourque, Stephen. Jayhawk!: The VII Corps in the Persian
Gulf War (2003 ed.). Diane Publishing Company. pp.
136137. ISBN 978-0756728632.
[4] Mobile repower for contingency operations: Emerging
concepts for US light armour forces
[5] Groman, Je (1985). Weapons of war. Multimedia Publications (UK). p. 128. ISBN 978-1-85106-031-3. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
[6] Michael Green, Greg Stewart (2004). Weapons of the
Modern Marines. Zenith Imprint. ISBN 0-7603-1697-X.
Retrieved 22 May 2011.
[7] U.S. Army (December 2010). Stryker Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Reconnaissance Vehicle (NBCRV)".
p. 93. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
[8] http://defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=
com_content&view=article&id=15327:
baes-reveals-rg35-rpu-variant&catid=50:Land&
Itemid=105
273
Chapter 38
Rie
This article is about the long gun. For other uses, see lets (as opposed to the spherical balls used in muskets)
Rie (disambiguation).
and thus improves range and accuracy. The wordrie
originally referred to the grooving, and a rie was called
a ried gun.Ries are used in warfare, hunting and
shooting sports.
Typically, a bullet is propelled by the contained
deagration of an explosive compound (originally black
powder, later cordite, and now nitrocellulose), although
other means such as compressed air are used in air
ries, which are popular for vermin control, hunting
small game, formal target shooting and casual shooting
("plinking").
In most armed forces the term gunis incorrect when
referring to small arms; in military parlance, the word
gunrefers to an artillery piece or crew-served machine
gun. Furthermore, in many works of ction a rie refers
to any weapon that has a stock and is shouldered before
ring, even if the weapon is not ried or does not re solid
projectiles (e.g. a laser rie).
Top: Baker rie, a 19th-century intlock rie

Second: M1903 Springeld, an early 20th-century
bolt-action rie
Third: 47, a mid-20th-century gas-operated,
magazine-fed automatic rie
Fourth: AR-15, a mid 20th-century magazine-fed,
semi-automatic rie
A rie is a rearm designed to be red from the shoulder, with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of
grooves ("riing") cut into the barrel walls. The raised areas of the riing are calledlands,which make contact
with the projectile (for small arms usage, called a bullet),
imparting spin around an axis corresponding to the orientation of the weapon. When the projectile leaves the barrel, this spin lends gyroscopic stability to the projectile
and prevents tumbling, in the same way that a properly
thrown American football or rugby ball behaves. This
allows the use of aerodynamically-ecient pointed bul-
Formerly, ries only red a single projectile with each

squeeze of the trigger. Modern ries are capable of ring more than one round per trigger squeeze; some re
in a fully automatic mode and others are limited to xed
bursts of two, three, or more rounds per squeeze. Thus,
modern automatic ries overlap to some extent in design
and function with machine guns. In fact, many light machine guns (such as the Russian RPK) are adaptations of
existing automatic rie designs. A military's light machine guns are typically chambered for the same caliber
ammunition as its service ries. Generally, the dierence between an automatic rie and a machine gun comes
down to weight, cooling system, and ammunition feed
system. Ries, with their relatively lighter components
(which overheat quickly) and smaller capacity magazines,
are incapable of sustained automatic re in the way that
machine guns are; they trade this capability in favor of
increased mobility. Modern military ries are fed by
box magazines, while machine guns are generally beltfed. Many machine guns allow the operator to quickly
exchange barrels in order to prevent overheating, whereas
ries generally do not. Most machine guns re from an
open bolt in order to reduce the danger of cook-o,
while almost all ries re from a closed bolt for superior
accuracy. Machine guns are often crewed by more than
274
38.1. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
275
one soldier; the rie is an individual weapon.

The term rieis sometimes used to describe larger
crew-served ried weapons ring explosive shells, for example, recoilless ries.
38.1 Historical overview
Riing in a .35 Remington microgroove ried barrel
The origins of riing are dicult to trace, but some of

the earliest practical experiments seem to have occurred
in Europe during the 15th century. Archers had long realized that a twist added to the tail feathers of their arrows gave them greater accuracy. Early muskets produced large quantities of smoke and soot, which had to
be cleaned from the action and bore of the musket frequently, either through the action of repeated bore scrubbing, or a deliberate attempt to createsoot groovesthat
would allow for more shots to be red from the rearm.
This might also have led to a perceived increase in accuracy, although no one knows for sure. True riing dates
from the mid-15th century, although military commanders preferred smooth bore weapons for infantry use because ries were much more prone to problems due to
powder fouling the barrel.
Girdled bullet and twin rie groove of the Brunswick rie, mid19th century
Ries were created as an improvement in the accuracy

of smooth bore muskets. In the early 18th century,
Benjamin Robins, an English mathematician, realized
that an elongated bullet would retain the momentum and
kinetic energy of a musket ball, but would slice through
the air with greater ease.* [1] The black powder used
in early muzzle-loading ries quickly fouled the barrel,
making loading slower and more dicult. Their greater
range was also considered to be of little practical use,
since the smoke from black powder quickly obscured the
battleeld and made it almost impossible to target the enemy from a distance. Since musketeers could not aord
to take the time to stop and clean their barrels in the mid-
The performance of early muskets was eective for the

styles of warfare at the time, whereby soldiers tended to
stand in long, stationary lines and re at the opposing
forces. Precise aiming and accuracy were not necessary
to hit an opponent. Muskets were used for comparatively
rapid, imprecisely aimed volley re, and the average soldier could be easily trained to use them. The (muzzleloaded) rie was originally a sharpshooter's weapon used
for targets of opportunity and deliberately aimed re, rst
gaining notoriety in warfare during the Seven Years' War
and American War for Independence through their use
by American frontiersmen. Later during the Napoleonic
Wars, the British 95th Regiment (Green Jackets) and
dle of a battle, ries were limited to use by sharpshooters

and non-military uses like hunting.
Muskets were smoothbore, large caliber weapons using
ball-shaped ammunition red at relatively low velocity.
Due to the high cost and great diculty of precision manufacturing, and the need to load readily from the muzzle,
the musket ball was a loose t in the barrel. Consequently
on ring the ball bounced o the sides of the barrel when
red and the nal direction on leaving the muzzle was unpredictable. Muskets had to be long so the muzzles of the
rear ranks muskets projected well forward of the faces
of the front rank.
276
60th Regiment, (Royal American), as well as American
sharpshooters and riemen during the War of 1812, used
the rie to great eect during skirmishing. Because of a
slower loading time than a musket, they were not adopted
by the whole army. Since ries were used by sharpshooters who didn't routinely re over other mens shoulders,
long length was not required to avoid the forward line.
A shorter length made a handier weapon in which tighttting balls did not have to be rammed so far down the
barrel.
The invention of the minie balls in the 1840s solved the
slow loading problem, and in the 1850s and 1860s ries quickly replaced muskets on the battleeld. Many
ries, often referred to as ried muskets, were very similar to the muskets they replaced, but the military also experimented with other designs. Breech-loading weapons
proved to have a much faster rate of re than muzzleloaders, causing military forces to abandon muzzle loaders
in favor of breech-loading designs in the late 1860s. In
the later part of the 19th century, ries were generally
single-shot, breech-loading designed for aimed, discretionary re by individual soldiers. Then, as now, ries
had a stock, either xed or folding, to be braced against
the shoulder when ring. The adoption of cartridges and
breech-loading in the 19th century was concurrent with
the general adoption of ries. In the early part of the
20th century, soldiers were trained to shoot accurately
over long ranges with high-powered cartridges. World
War I Lee-Eneld ries (among others) were equipped
with long-range 'volley sights' for massed ring at ranges
of up to 1.6 km (1 mi). Individual shots were unlikely to
hit, but a platoon ring repeatedly could produce a 'beaten
ground' eect similar to light artillery or machine guns;
but experience in World War I showed that long-range
re was best left to the machine gun.
CHAPTER 38. RIFLE

Jean Lepage and named for the First Consul Napolon
Bonaparte, circa 1800; (right) riing of the Lepage
carbine.
During the Napoleonic Wars the British army created
several experimental units known asRies, armed with
the Baker rie. These Rie Regiments were deployed as
skirmishers during the Peninsular war in Spain and Portugal, and were more eective than skirmishers armed with
muskets due to their accuracy and long range.
38.2.1 Muzzle-loading
Main article: Muzzle-loading rie
Gradually, ries appeared with cylindrical barrels cut
with helical grooves, the surfaces between the grooves being lands. The innovation shortly preceded the mass
adoption of breech-loading weapons, as it was not practical to push an overbore bullet down through a ried barrel,
only to then (try to) re it back out. The dirt and grime
from prior shots was pushed down ahead of a tight bullet
or ball (which may have been a loose t in the clean barrel before the rst shot), and, of course, loading was far
more dicult, as the lead had to be deformed to go down
in the rst place, reducing the accuracy due to deformation. Several systems were tried to deal with the problem,
usually by resorting to an under-bore bullet that expanded
upon ring.
Currently, ries are the most common rearm in general

use for hunting purposes (with the exception of bird hunting where shotguns are favored). Ries derived from mil- The method developed by Delvigne for his ries, with the lead
itary designs have long been popular with civilian shoot- bullet being supported by a wooden sabot at its base.
ers.
The original muzzle-loading rie, with a closely tting
ball to take the riing grooves, was loaded with diculty,
particularly when foul, and for this reason was not gener38.2 19th century
ally used for military purposes. Even with the advent of
riing the bullet itself didn't change, but was wrapped in
a greased, cloth patch to grip the riing grooves.
The rst half of the 19th century saw a distinct change in
the shape and function of the bullet. In 1826 Delvigne,
a French infantry ocer, invented a breech with abrupt
shoulders on which a spherical bullet was rammed down
until it caught the riing grooves. Delvigne's method,
however, deformed the bullet and was inaccurate.
Soon after, the Carabine tige was invented by LouisEtienne de Thouvenin, which provided for a stem at the
bottom at the barrel that would deform and expand the
base of the bullet when rammed, therefore enabling ac(left)Premier Consulmodel intlock carbine made by curate contact with the riing. However, the area around
38.2. 19TH CENTURY

the stem would clog and get dirty easily.
277
38.2.2 Breech loading

Main article: Breech-loading weapon
From 1836, breech-loading ries were introduced with
Mini system - The Ried Musket

Main articles: Mini ball and Mini rie
One of the most famous was the Mini system, invented
Loading mechanism of the Chassepot
French-made Mini rie used in Japan during the Boshin war

(18681869).
by French Army Captain Claude-tienne Mini, which

relied on a conical bullet (known as a Mini ball) with
a hollow skirt at the base of the bullet. When red, the
skirt would expand from the pressure of the exploding
charge and grip the riing as the round was red. The
better seal gave more power, as less gas escaped past the
bullet, which combined with the fact that for the same
bore (caliber) diameter a long bullet was heavier than a
round ball. The extra grip also spun the bullet more consistently, which increased the range from about 50 yards
for a smooth bore musket to about 300 yards for a rie using the Mini system. The expanding skirt of the
Mini ball also solved the problem that earlier tight tting bullets were dicult to load as black powder residue
fouled the inside of the barrel. The Mini system allowed
conical bullets to be loaded into ries just as quickly as
round balls in smooth bores, which allowed rie muskets
to replace muskets on the battleeld. Mini system ries,
notably the U.S. Springeld and the British Eneld of the
early 1860s, featured prominently in the U.S. Civil War,
due to their enhanced power and accuracy.
Over the 19th century, bullet design also evolved, the bullets becoming gradually smaller and lighter. By 1910
the standard blunt-nosed bullet had been replaced with
the pointed, 'spitzer' bullet, an innovation that increased
range and penetration. Cartridge design evolved from
simple paper tubes containing black powder and shot, to
sealed brass cases with integral primers for ignition, while
black powder itself was replaced with cordite, and then
other nitro-cellulose-based smokeless powder mixtures,
propelling bullets to higher velocities than before.* [2]
The increased velocity meant that new problems arrived,
and so bullets went from being soft lead to harder lead,
then to copper-jacketed, in order to better engage the spiraled grooves withoutstrippingthem in the same way
that a screw or bolt thread would be stripped if subjected
to extreme forces.
the German Dreyse Needle gun, and followed by the

French Tabatire in 1857 the British Calisher and Terry
carbine made in Birmingham and later in 1864 and
the more well known British Snider-Eneld. Primitive chamber-locking mechanisms were soon replaced by
bolt-action mechanisms, exemplied by the Chassepot in
1866. Breech loading was to have a major impact on warfare, as breech-loading ries can be red at a rate many
times higher than muzzle loaded ries and signicantly
can be loaded from a prone rather than standing position.
Firing prone (i.e., lying down) is more accurate than ring
from a standing position, while a prone rieman presents
a much smaller target than a standing soldier. The higher
accuracy and range, combined with reduced vulnerability
generally beneted the defense while making the traditional battle between lines of standing and volleying infantry men obsolete.
38.2.3 Revolving Rie

Main article: Revolver History
Revolving ries were an attempt to increase the rate of
re of ries by combining them with the revolving ring
mechanism that had been developed earlier for revolving
pistols. Colt began experimenting with revolving ries
in the early 19th century, and other manufacturers like
Remington later experimented with them as well. The
Colt Revolving Rie Model 1855 was an early repeating
rie and the rst one to be used by the U.S. Government,
and saw some limited action during the American Civil
War. Revolvers, both ries and pistols, tend to spray fragments of metal from the front of the cylinder. This is not
a problem for pistols, since both of the shooter's hands are
behind the cylinder. A rieman needs to have one hand in
front of the cylinder to balance the weapon, and as a result, would end up with shards of metal sprayed at high
velocity into his forearm. Cap and ball type revolvers
were also prone to chain re, which again was more of a
problem for ries since the rieman's arm was in front of
the cylinder. These undesirable characteristics severely
limited the revolving rie's popularity.
278
38.2.4
CHAPTER 38. RIFLE
Cartridge storage
An important area of development was the way that cartridges were stored and used in the weapon. The Spencer
repeating rie was a breech-loading manually operated
lever action rie that was adopted by the United States.
Over 20,000 were used during the American Civil War.
It marked the rst adoption of a removable magazine-fed
infantry rie by any country. The design was completed
by Christopher Spencer in 1860. It used copper rimre
cartridges stored in a removable seven round tube magazine, enabling the rounds to be red one after another.
When the magazine was empty, it could be exchanged for
another.
During and after World War II it became accepted that

most infantry engagements occur at ranges of less than
300 m; the range and power of the large battle ries was
overkill"; and the weapons were heavier than the ideal.
This led to Germany's development of the 7.92 x 33 mm
Kurz (short) round, the MKb-42, and ultimately, the assault rie. Today, an infantryman's rie is optimized for
ranges of 300 m or less, and soldiers are trained to deliver
individual rounds or bursts of re within these distances.
Typically, the application of accurate, long-range re is
the domain of the marksman and the sniper in warfare,
and of enthusiastic target shooters in peacetime. The
modern marksman rie and sniper rie are usually capable of accuracy better than 0.3 mrad at 100 yards (1
arcminute).
38.3 20th Century
Blaser R8 Professional
Czechoslovak rie vz. 24
By contrast, civilian rie design has not signicantly advanced since the early part of the 20th century. Modern hunting ries have berglass and carbon ber stocks
and more advanced recoil pads, but are fundamentally the
same as infantry ries from 1910. Many modern sniper
ries can trace their ancestry back for well over a century,
and the Russian 7.62x54mm rimmed cartridge, as used in
the front-line Dragunov Sniper Rie (SVD), dates from
1891.
The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 was the rst

modern war of the 20th century. Military observers from
Great Britain, Germany, France, and the United States
witnessed rst hand the rst major conict fought with
high velocity bolt action ries ring smokeless powder
on a massive scale.* [3]* :179,229,230* [4]* :104,105 The
Battle of Mukden fought in 1905 consisted of nearly
343,000 Russian troops against over 281,000 Japanese
troops. The Russian Mosin-Nagant Model 1891 in 38.4 3D printed rie
7.62mm was pitted against the Japanese Arisaka Type
30 bolt action rie in 6.5mm,* [4]* :104,105,155 each
had velocities well over the 19th century black pow- Main article: Grizzly (.22-caliber rie)
der velocities of under 2,000 feet per second (610
m/s).* [4]* :187* [5]* :28,29
The Grizzly is a 3D printed .22-caliber rie created
*
Until the early 20th century ries tended to be very long; around August 2013. [6] It* was created using a Stratasys
an 1890 Martini-Henry was almost 2 m (6 ft) in length Dimension 1200es printer. [7] It was created by a Canawith a xed bayonet. The demand for more compact dian only known by the pseudo name Matthewwho
main
weapons for cavalrymen led to the carbine, or shortened told the The Verge that he is in his late 20s, and his
*
*
[7]
[8]
job
is
making
tools
for
the
construction
industry.
rie.
The advent of massed, rapid repower of the machine
gun, submachine gun and the ried artillery piece was so
quick as to outstrip the development of any way to attack
a trench defended by riemen and machine gunners. The
carnage of World War I was perhaps the greatest vindication and vilication of the rie as a military weapon.
The original Grizzly red 1 shot then broke.* [7] Grizzly

2.0 red 14 bullets before getting damaged due to the
strain.* [8] According to the Daily Mail, the Grizzly 2.0
performed so well that the inventorMatthewwas able
to put it to his shoulder and shot o three rounds with the
rie pressed against his cheek without hurting him.* [6]
38.5 Youth rie
Modern hunting rie
A youth rie is a rie designed or modied for tting children, or small-framed shooters. A youth rie is often a
single shot .22 caliber rie, or a bolt action rie, although
38.6. TECHNICAL ASPECTS

some youth ries are semi-automatic. They are usually
very light, with a greatly shortened length of pull, which
is necessary to accommodate children. Youth stocks are
available for many popular ries, such as the Ruger 10/22,
a semi-automatic .22 LR rie, allowing a youth rie to
be made from a standard rie by simply changing the
stock. The typical ages of shooters for such ries vary
from about age 5 to 11 years old.
38.6 Technical aspects

38.6.1
Riing
Main article: Riing

The usual form of riing was helical grooves in a round
bore.
Some early ried guns had barrels with a twisted polygonal bore. The Whitworth rie was the rst such type
designed to spin the round for accuracy. Bullets for these
guns were made to match the shape of the bore so the
bullet would grip the rie bore and take a spin that way.
These were generally large caliber weapons and the ammunition still did not t tightly in the barrel. Many different shapes and degrees of spiraling were used in experimental designs. One widely produced example was
the Metford riing in the Pattern 1888 Lee-Metford service rie. Although uncommon, polygonal riing is still
used in some weapons today, with one example being the
Glock line of pistols (which re standard bullets). Unfortunately, many of these early designs were prone to dangerous backring, which could lead to destruction of the
weapon and serious injury to the person ring it.
38.6.2
Barrel wear
279
some machine-guns are equipped with quick-change barrels that can be swapped every few thousand rounds, or in
earlier designs, were water-cooled. Unlike older carbon
steel barrels, which were limited to around 1,000 shots
before the extreme heat caused accuracy to fade, modern
stainless steel barrels for target ries are much more resistant to wear, allowing many thousands of rounds to be
red before accuracy drops. (Many shotguns and small
arms have chrome-lined barrels to reduce wear and enhance corrosion resistance. This is rare on ries designed
for extreme accuracy, as the plating process is dicult
and liable to reduce the eect of the riing.) Modern
ammunition has a hardened lead core with a softer outer
cladding or jacket, typically of an alloy of copper and
nickel - cupro-nickel. Some ammunition is even coated
with molybdenum disulde to further reduce internal friction - the so-called 'moly-coated' bullet.
38.6.3 Rate of re
Main article: Rate of re
Ries were initially single-shot, muzzle-loading weapons.
During the 18th century, breech-loading weapons were
designed, which allowed the rieman to reload while under cover, but defects in manufacturing and the diculty
in forming a reliable gas-tight seal prevented widespread
adoption. During the 19th century, multi-shot repeating
ries using lever, pump or linear bolt actions became
standard, further increasing the rate of re and minimizing the fuss involved in loading a rearm. The problem of
proper seal creation had been solved with the use of brass
cartridge cases, which expanded in an elastic fashion at
the point of ring and eectively sealed the breech while
the pressure remained high, then relaxed back enough to
allow for easy removal. By the end of the 19th century,
the leading bolt-action design was that of Paul Mauser,
whose actionwedded to a reliable design possessing a
ve-shot magazine became a world standard through
two world wars and beyond. The Mauser rie was paralleled by Britain's ten-shot Lee-Eneld and America's
1903 Springeld Rie models (the latter pictured above).
The American M1903 closely copied Mauser's original
design.
38.6.4 Range
Benchrest shooting with a Mauser rie
Barrel riing dramatically increased the range and accuracy of the musket. Indeed, throughout its development,
the rie's history has been marked by increases in range
and accuracy. From the Mini rie and beyond, the rie
has become ever more potent at long range strikes.
In recent decades, large-caliber anti-materiel ries, typAs the bullet enters the barrel, it inserts itself into the ri- ically ring between 12.7 mm and 20 mm caliber caring, a process that gradually wears down the barrel, and tridges, have been developed. The US Barrett M82A1 is
also causes the barrel to heat up more rapidly. Therefore, probably the best-known such rie. These weapons are
280
CHAPTER 38. RIFLE
typically used to strike critical, vulnerable targets such

as computerized command and control vehicles, radio
trucks, radar antennae, vehicle engine blocks and the jet
engines of enemy aircraft. Anti-materiel ries can be
used against human targets, but the much higher weight of
rie and ammunition, and the massive recoil and muzzle
blast, usually make them less than practical for such use.
The Barrett M82 is credited with a maximum eective
range of 1,800 m (1.1 mi); and it was with a .50BMG caliber McMillan TAC-50 rie that Canadian Master Corporal Rob Furlong made the longest recorded (until 2010)
conrmed sniper kill in history, when he shot a Taliban
ghter at a range of 2,430 m (1.51 mi) in Afghanistan
during Operation Anaconda in 2002.* [9]
red through a rie's barrel. Armies have consistently attempted to nd and procure the most lethal and accurate
caliber for their rearms.
Since then a British Army sniper beat the Canadian's

record by 150 ft (46 m), by killing two Taliban insurgents
at a range of 8,120 ft (2,470 m). He was using a standard
issue British Army sniper rie, the L115A3.* [10]
An exception was the Italian Modello 91 rie, that used

the 6.552mm Mannlicher-Carcano cartridge.
The standard calibers used by the world's militaries tend

to follow worldwide trends. These trends have signicantly changed during the centuries of rearm design and
re-design. Muskets were normally chambered for large
calibers, such as .50 or .59, with the theory that these
large bullets caused the most damage.
During World War I and II, most ries were chambered
in .30 caliber, a combination of power and speed. Examples would be the .303 British Lee-Eneld, the American
M1903 .30-06, and the German 8mm Mauser K98.
MV / twist rate = rotational speed
Detailed study of infantry combat during and after WWII

revealed that most small-arms engagements occurred
within 100 meters, meaning that the power and range
of the traditional .30-caliber weapons (designed for engagements at 500 meters and beyond) was essentially
wasted. The single greatest predictor of an individual
soldier's combat eectiveness was the number of rounds
he red. Weapons designers and strategists realized that
service ries ring smaller-caliber projectiles would allow troops to carry far more ammunition for the same
weight. The lower recoil and more generous magazine
capacities of small-caliber weapons also allows troops
a much greater volume of re, compared to historical
battle ries. Smaller, faster traveling, less stable projectiles have also demonstrated greater terminal ballistics and therein, a greater lethality than traditional .30caliber rounds. Most modern service ries re a projectile of approximately 5.56mm. Examples of rearms in
this range are the American 5.56 mm M16 and the Russian 5.4539mm AK-74.
MV (in fps) x (12 in. /twist rate) x 60 s/min. =

Bullet RPM
38.6.7 Types of rie
38.6.5
Bullet Rotational Speed (RPM)
Bullets leaving a ried barrel can spin at a rotational speed

of over 100,000 revolutions per minute (rpm, or 1.67
kilohertz) depending on the muzzle velocity of the bullet and the pitch of the riing. The rotational speed of
the bullet can be calculated by using the formula below.
The formula divides the number of inches in a foot (12)
by the rate of twist that the barrel has. This number is
multiplied by the muzzle velocity (MV) and the number
of seconds in a minute (60). For example, a bullet with a
muzzle velocity of 3,000 feet per second (910 m/s) leaving a barrel that twists once per foot (1/12) would rotate
at 180,000rpm.* [11]
Example using a barrel that has a twist rate of 1 turn in

8with a muzzle velocity of 3000 ft/s:
3000 fps x (12"/(8"/rotation)) x 60 s/min. = 270,000
RPM
Excessive rotational speed can exceed the bullet's designed limits and the inadequate centripetal force will fail
to keep the bullet from disintegrating in a radial fashion.* [12]
38.6.6
Caliber
Ries may be chambered in a variety of calibers, from

as low as .17 (4.4mm) varmint calibers to as high as .80
caliber in the case of the largest anti tank ries. The
term caliber essentially refers to the width of the bullet
38.7 See also

38.8 References
[1] The How and Why of Long Shots and Straight Shots.
Cornhill Magazine. April 1860. Archived from the original on November 4, 2010.
[2] Ried Breech Loader. globalsecurity.org.
[3] Keegan, John (1999). The First World War. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40052-4.
[4] Menning, Bruce W. (1992). Bayonets Before Bullets; The
Imperial Russian Army, 1861-1914. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University. ISBN 0-253-33745-3.
[5] Honeycutt, Fred L.; Anthony, F. Patt (2006). Military Ries of Japan (Fifth ed.). Monticello, Iowa: Julin. ISBN
0-9623208-7-0.
[6] 3D printed plastic rie successfully res 14 rounds - as gun
advocates predict it will force changes in the law, DailyMail, 9 August 2013. (archive)
[7] First 3-D printed rie res bullet, then breaks, NBC News,
26 July 2013. (archive)
[8] World's rst 3D-printed rie gets update, res 14 shots,
The Verge, 4 August 2013.(archive)
[9] Friscolanti, Michael (2006-05-15). We were abandoned. Maclean's (Rogers Publishing): p1825.
[10] Drury, Ian (2 May 2010). The super sniper: Hero picks
o two Taliban from a mile and a half away. Mail Online
(London). Retrieved 26 August 2010.
[11] Calculating Bullet RPM Spin Rates and Stability.
AccurateShooter.com. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
[12] Topic of the Month: July 2001 - Twist Rate. Load
From A Disk. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
38.9 External links

Friedrich Engels,On Ried Cannon, articles from
the New York Tribune, April, May and June, 1860,
reprinted in Military Aairs 21, no. 4 (Winter 1957)
ed. Morton Borden, 193-198.
281
Chapter 39
Shotgun
This article is about the type of gun. For other uses, see American forces used 12-gauge pump action shotguns in
Shotgun (disambiguation).
close-quarters trench ghting to great eect. Since then,
it has been used in a variety of roles in civilian, law enforcement, and military applications.
The shot pellets from a shotgun spread upon leaving the
barrel, and the power of the burning charge is divided
among the pellets, which means that the energy of any
one ball of shot is fairly low. In a hunting context, this
makes shotguns useful primarily for hunting birds and
other small game. However, in a military or law enforcement context, the large number of projectiles makes
the shotgun useful as a close quarters combat weapon or
a defensive weapon. Shotguns are also used for target
shooting sports such as skeet, trap, and sporting clays.
These involve shooting clay disks, known as clay pigeons,
thrown in various ways.
A pump-action Remington 870, two semi-automatic Remington
1100 shotguns, 20 boxes of shotgun shells, a clay trap, and three
boxes of clay pigeons
A shotgun (also known as a scattergun and peppergun,* [1] or historically as a fowling piece) is a rearm
that is usually designed to be red from the shoulder,
which uses the energy of a xed shell to re a number
of small spherical pellets called shot, or a solid projectile called a slug. Shotguns come in a wide variety of
sizes, ranging from 5.5 mm (.22 inch) bore up to 5 cm
(2.0 in) bore, and in a range of rearm operating mechanisms, including breech loading, single-barreled, double
or combination gun, pump-action, bolt-, and lever-action,
semi-automatic, and even fully automatic variants.
Shotguns come in a wide variety of forms, from very
small up to massive punt guns, and in nearly every type
of rearm operating mechanism. The common characteristics that make a shotgun unique center around the requirements of ring shot. These features are the features
typical of a shotgun shell, namely a relatively short, wide
cartridge, with straight walls, and operating at a relatively
low pressure.
Ammunition for shotguns is referred to in the USA as

shotgun shells, shotshells, or just shells (when it is not
likely to be confused with artillery shells). The term
A shotgun is generally a smoothbore rearm, which cartridges is standard usage in the United Kingdom.
means that the inside of the barrel is not ried. PreThe shot is usually red from a smoothbore barrel; anceding smoothbore rearms, such as the musket, were
other conguration is the ried slug barrel, which res
widely used by armies in the 18th century. The direct
more accurate solitary projectiles.
ancestor to the shotgun, the blunderbuss, was also used
in a similar variety of roles from self defence to riot
control. It was often used by cavalry troops due to its
generally shorter length and ease of use, as well as by 39.2 Uses
coachmen for its substantial power. However, in the 19th
century, these weapons were largely replaced on the bat- The typical use of a shotgun is against small and fast movtleeld with breechloading ried rearms, which were ing targets, often while in the air. The spreading of the
more accurate over longer ranges. The military value of shot allows the user to point the shotgun close to the tarshotguns was rediscovered in the First World War, when get, rather than having to aim precisely as in the case of
282
39.2. USES
283
Series of individual 1/1,000,000 second exposures showing shotgun ring shot and wadding separation
a single projectile. The disadvantages of shot are limited

range and limited penetration of the shot, which is why
shotguns are used at short ranges, and typically against
Vincent Hancock in the men's skeet nals at the 2008 Summer
smaller targets. Larger shot sizes, up to the extreme case Olympics
of the single projectile slug load, result in increased penetration, but at the expense of fewer projectiles and lower
improves accuracy to 100 m (110 yd) or more. This is
probability of hitting the target.
well within the range of the majority of kill shots by exAside from the most common use against small, fast movperienced hunters using shotguns.
ing targets, the shotgun has several advantages when used
against still targets. First, it has enormous stopping power However, given the relatively low muzzle velocity of slug
at short range, more than nearly all handguns and many ri- ammunition, typically around 500 m/s (about 1600 feet
es. Though many believe the shotgun is a great rearm per second), and the blunt, poorly streamlined shape of
for inexperienced shooters, the truth is, at close range, typical slugs (which cause them to lose velocity very
the spread of shot is not very large at all, and compe- rapidly, compared to rie bullets), a hunter must pay close
tency in aiming is still required. A typical self-defense attention to the ballistics of the particular ammunition
load of buckshot contains 8-27 large lead pellets, result- used to ensure an eective and humane kill shot.
ing in many wound tracks in the target. Also, unlike a At any reasonable range, shotgun slugs make eective
fully jacketed rie bullet, each pellet of shot is less likely lethal wounds due to their tremendous mass, reducing the
to penetrate walls and hit bystanders.* [2] It is favored by length of time that an animal might suer. For example, a
law enforcement for its low penetration and high stopping typical 12 gauge shotgun slug is a blunt piece of metal that
power.
could be described as an 18 mm (.729 inch) caliber that
On the other hand, the hit potential of a defensive shotgun
is often overstated. The typical defensive shot is taken at
very close ranges, at which the shot charge expands no
more than a few centimeters.* [2] This means the shotgun
must still be aimed at the target with some care. Balancing this is the fact that shot spreads further upon entering
the target, and the multiple wound channels of a defensive load are far more likely to produce a disabling wound
than a rie or handgun.* [3]
39.2.1
Sporting
Some of the most common uses of shotguns are the

sports of skeet shooting, trap shooting, and sporting clays.
These involve shooting clay discs, also known as clay pigeons, thrown in by hand and by machine. Both skeet and
trap competitions are featured at the Olympic Games.
weighs 28 grams (432 grains). For comparison, a common deer-hunting rie round is a 7.62 mm (.308 inch)
slug weighing 9.7 grams (150 grains), but the dynamics
of the rie cartridge allow for a dierent type of wound,
and a much further reach.
Shotguns are often used with ried barrels in locations
where it is not lawful to hunt with a rie. Typically, a
sabot slug is used in these barrels for maximum accuracy
and performance. Shotguns are often used to hunt whitetail deer in the thick brush and briers of the Southeastern
and upper Midwestern United States, where, due to the
dense cover, ranges tend to be close - 25m or less.
Sabot slugs are essentially very large hollowpoint bullets, and are streamlined for maximum spin and accuracy when shot through a ried barrel. They have greater
ranges than older Foster and Brenneke-type slugs.
39.2.3 Law enforcement

39.2.2
Hunting
The shotgun is popular for bird hunting, it is also used

for more general forms of hunting especially in semipopulated areas where the range of rie bullets may pose
a hazard. Use of a smooth bore shotgun with a ried slug
or, alternatively, a ried barrel shotgun with a sabot slug,
In the US and Canada, shotguns are widely used as a support weapon by police forces. One of the rationales for
issuing shotguns is that, even without much training, an
ocer will probably be able to hit targets at close to intermediate range, due to thespreadingeect of buckshot. This is largely a myth, as the spread of buckshot at
284
CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN

combat environments. Some U.S. units in Iraq use shotguns with special frangible breaching rounds to blow the
locks o doors when they are making a surprise entry into
a dwelling.
39.2.5 Home and personal defense

Shotguns are a popular means of home defense for many
of the same reasons they are preferred for close-quarters
tasks in law enforcement and the military.
39.3 Design features for various

uses
Compared to handguns, shotguns are heavier, larger, and
not as maneuverable in close quarters (which also presents
a greater retention problem), but do have these advantages:
They are generally much more powerful.
A Gurkha Contingent trooper in Singapore armed with a folding
stock pump shotgun
The average shooter can engage multiple targets

faster than with a handgun.
They are generally perceived as more intimidating.
25 feet averages 8 inches, which is still very capable of

missing a target. Some police forces are replacing shotguns in this role with carbine ries such as AR-15s. Shotguns are also used in roadblock situations, where police
are blocking a highway to search cars for suspects. In
the US, law enforcement agencies often use riot shotguns,
especially for crowd and riot control where they may be
loaded with less-lethal rounds such as rubber bullets or
bean bags. Shotguns are also often used as breaching devices to defeat locks.
39.2.4
Military
See also: Combat shotgun

Shotguns are common weapons in military use, particularly for special purposes. Shotguns are found aboard
naval vessels for shipboard security, because the weapon
is very eective at close range as a way of repelling enemy
boarding parties. In a naval setting, stainless steel shotguns are often used, because regular steel is more prone to
corrosion in the marine environment. Shotguns are also
used by military police units. U.S. Marines have used
shotguns since their inception at the squad level, often in
the hands of NCOs, while the U.S. Army often issued
them to a squad's point man. Shotguns were modied
for and used in the trench warfare of WWI, in the jungle
combat of WWII and Vietnam and are being used today
in Iraq, being popular with soldiers and marines in urban
On average, a quality pump-action shotgun is generally less expensive than a quality handgun (selfloading shotguns are generally more expensive than
their pump-action counterparts).
When loaded with smaller shot, a shotgun will not
penetrate walls as readily as rie and pistol rounds,
making it safer for non-combatants when red in
or around populated structures. This comes at a
price, however, as smaller shot may not penetrate
deeply enough to cause an immediately incapacitating wound; those who recommend birdshot for minimizing wall penetration also suggest backing it up
with a larger buckshot if the rst shot fails to stop
the threat.* [4]
39.4 Types
The wide range of forms the shotgun can take leads to
some signicant dierences between what is technically a
shotgun and what is legally considered a shotgun. A fairly
broad attempt to dene a shotgun is made in the United
States Code (18 USC 921), which denes the shotgun as
a weapon designed or redesigned, made or remade, and
intended to be red from the shoulder, and designed or
redesigned and made or remade to use the energy of the
explosive in a xed shotgun shell to re through a smooth
bore either a number of ball shot or a single projectile for
each single pull of the trigger.
39.5. HISTORY
285
for civilian ownership in some jurisdictions. Coach guns
are also more commonly associated with the American
Old West or Australian Colonial period, and often used
for hunting in bush, scrub, or marshland where a longer
barrel would be unwieldy or impractical.
A U.S. Marine res a Benelli M4 shotgun during training in Arta,

Djibouti, December 23, 2006.
A ried slug, with nned riing designed to enable the

projectile to be safely red through a choked barrel, is an
example of a single projectile. Some shotguns have ried
barrels and are designed to be used with a "saboted" bullet, one which is typically encased in a two-piece plastic
ring (sabot) designed to peel away after it exits the barrel,
leaving the bullet, now spinning after passing through the
ried barrel, to continue toward the target. These shotguns, although they have ried barrels, still use a shotgunstyle shell instead of a rie cartridge and may in fact still
re regular multipellet shotgun shells, but the riing in
the barrel will aect the shot pattern. The use of a ried
barrel blurs the distinction between rie and shotgun, and
in fact the early ried shotgun barrels went by the name
Paradox for just that reason. Hunting laws may dierentiate between smooth barreled and ried barreled guns.
Riot gun has long been a synonym for a shotgun, especially a short-barrelled shotgun. During the 19th and
early 20th century, these were used to disperse rioters
and revolutionaries. The wide spray of the shot ensured
a large group would be hit, but the light shot would ensure more wounds than fatalities. When the ground was
paved, police ocers would often ricochet the shot o
the ground, slowing down the shot and spreading pattern
even further. To this day specialized police and defensive shotguns are called riot shotguns. The introduction
of rubber bullets and bean bag rounds ended the practice
of using shot for the most part, but riot shotguns are still
used to re a variety of less lethal rounds for riot control.
A backpacker shotgun has a short barrel and either a

full-size stock or pistol grip, depending on legislation in
intended markets. The overall length of these weapons is
frequently less than 90 cm (35 in), with some measuring
up at less than 63 cm (25 in). These weapons are typically
break-action .410gauge(caliber), single-barrel designs
with no magazine and no automatic ejection capability.
They typically employ a cylinder bore and sometimes are
available in modied choke as well.
Backpacker shotguns are popular for home defense
purposes and as survivalweapons. Other examples
include a variety of .410 / riesurvivalguns manufactured in over/under designs. In the drilling arrangement,
a rimre or centrere rie barrel is located beneath the
barrel of a .410 gauge shotgun. Generally, there is one
manually cocked external hammer and an external selection lever to select which caliber of cartridge to re. A
notable example is the Springeld Armory M6 Scout, a
.410 / .22 issued to United States Air Force personnel as
a survivalgun in the event of a forced landing or accident in a wilderness area. Variants have been used by
Israeli, Canadian, and American armed forces. Shotgunrie combination guns with two, three, and occasionally
even four barrels are available from a number of makers,
primarily European. These provided exibility, enabling
the hunter to eectively shoot at ushing birds or more
distant small mammals while only carrying one gun.
39.5 History
Most early rearms, such as the blunderbuss, arquebus,
and musket had large diameter, smoothbore barrels, and
could re shot as well as solid balls. A rearm intended
for use in wing shooting of birds was known as a fowling
piece. The 1728 Cyclopaedia denes a fowling piece as:
Fowling Piece, a portable Fire Arm for the
shooting of Birds. See Fire Arm.
Of Fowling Pieces, those are reputed the best,

A sawed-o shotgun (orsawn-o) refers to a shotgun
which have the longest Barrel, vis. from 51 2
whose barrel has been shortened, leaving it more maneufoot to 6; with an indierent Bore, under
verable, easier to use at short range and more readily conHarquebus: Tho' for dierent Occasions they
cealed. Many countries establish a legal minimum barrel
shou'd be of dierent Sorts, and Sizes. But in
length that precludes easy concealment (this length is 18
all, 'tis essential the Barrel be well polish'd and
inches (460 mm) in the U.S.). The sawed-o shotgun is
smooth within; and the Bore all of a Bigness,
sometimes known as a "Lupara" (in Italian a generic reffrom one End to another...* [5]
erence to the word "lupo" (wolf)) in Southern Italy
and Sicily.
For example, the Brown Bess musket, in service with
Coach guns are similar to sawn-o shotguns, except they the British army from 1722 to 1838, had a 19 mm (.75
are manufactured with an 46 cm (18) barrel and are legal inch) smoothbore barrel, roughly the same as a 10 gauge
286
CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN

shotgun has fallen in and out of favor with military forces
several times in its long history. Shotguns and similar
weapons are simpler than long-range ries, and were developed earlier. The development of more accurate and
deadlier long-range ries minimized the usefulness of the
shotgun on the open battleelds of European wars. But
armies haverediscoveredthe shotgun for specialty uses
many times.
39.5.1 19th century

During the 19th century, shotguns were mainly employed
by cavalry units. Both sides of the American Civil War
employed shotguns. U.S. cavalry used the shotgun extensively during the Indian Wars in the latter half of the
19th century. Mounted units favored the shotgun for its
moving target eectiveness, and devastating close-range
repower. The shotgun was also favored by citizen militias and similar groups.
Confederate cavalryman
shotgun, and was 157 cm (62 in) long, just short of the
above recommended 168 cm (51 2 feet). On the other
hand, records from the Plymouth colony show a maximum length of 137 cm (41 2 feet) for fowling pieces,* [6]
shorter than the typical musket.
Shot was also used in warfare; the buck and ball loading,
combining a musket ball with three or six buckshot, was
used throughout the history of the smoothbore musket.
The rst recorded use of the term shotgun was in 1776 in
Kentucky. It was noted as part of thefrontier language
of the Westby James Fenimore Cooper.
With the adoption of smaller bores and ried barrels,
the shotgun began to emerge as a separate entity. Shotguns have long been the preferred method for sport hunting of birds, and the largest shotguns, the punt guns,
were used for commercial hunting. The double-barreled
shotgun has changed little since the development of the
boxlock action in 1875. Modern innovations such as
interchangeable chokes and subgauge inserts make the
double-barreled shotgun the shotgun of choice in skeet,
trap shooting, and sporting clays, as well as with many
hunters.
As wing shooting has been a prestige sport, specialty gunsmiths such as Kriegho or Perazzi have produced fancy
double-barrel guns for wealthy European and American
hunters. These weapons can cost US$5,000 or more;
some elaborately decorated presentation guns have sold
for up to US$100,000.* [7]
During its long history, the shotgun has been favored by
bird hunters, guards, and law enforcement ocials. The
With the exception of cavalry units, the shotgun saw less

and less use throughout the 19th century on the battleeld.
As a defense weapon it remained popular with guards
and lawmen, however, and the shotgun became one of
many symbols of the American Old West. Lawman Cody
Lyons killed two men with a shotgun; his friend Doc
Holliday's only conrmed kill was with a shotgun. The
weapon both these men used was the short-barreled version favored by private strongbox guards on stages and
trains. These guards, called express messengers, became
known as shotgun messengers, since they rode with the
weapon (loaded with buckshot) for defense against bandits. Passenger carriages carrying a strongbox usually had
at least one private guard armed with a shotgun riding in
front of the coach, next to the driver. This practice has
survived in American slang; the term riding shotgun
is used for the passenger who sits in the front passenger
seat. The shotgun was a popular weapon for personal protection in the American Old West, requiring less skill on
the part of the user than a revolver.
39.5.2 Hammerless shotguns

The origins of the hammerless shotgun are European but
otherwise obscure. The earliest breechloading shotguns
originated in France and Belgium in the early 19th century (see also the history of the Pinre) and a number of
them such as those by Robert and Chateauvillard from
the 1830s and 1840s did not use hammers. In fact during these decades a wide variety of ingenious weapons,
including ries, adopted what is now often known as a
'needle-re' method of igniting the charge, where a ring
pin or a longer sharper needle provided the necessary impact. The most widely used British hammerless needlere shotgun was the unusual hinged-chamber xed-barrel
breech-loader by Joseph Needham, produced from the
1850s. By the 1860s hammerless guns were increasingly
39.5. HISTORY
used in Europe both in war and sport although hammer
guns were still very much in the majority. The rst signicant encroachment on hammer guns was a hammerless patent which could be used with a conventional sidelock. This was British gunmaker T Murcott's 1871 action
nicknamed the 'mousetrap' on account of its loud snap action. However, the most successful hammerless innovation of the 1870s was Anson and Deeley's boxlock patent
of 1875. This simple but ingenious design only used four
moving parts allowing the production of cheaper and reliable shotguns.
287
Due to the cramped conditions of trench warfare, the
American shotguns were extremely eective. Germany
even led an ocial diplomatic protest against their use,
alleging they violated the laws of warfare. The judge advocate general reviewed the protest, and it was rejected
because the Germans protested use of lead shot (which
would have been illegal) but military shot was plated.
This is the only occasion the legality of the shotgun's use
in warfare has been questioned.* [8]
Daniel Myron LeFever is credited with the invention of

the American hammerless shotgun. Working for Barber
& LeFever in Syracuse, N.Y. he introduced his rst hammerless shotgun in 1878. This gun was cocked with external cocking levers on the side of the breech. He went
on to patent the rst truly automatic hammerless shotgun in 1883. This gun automatically cocked itself when
the breech was closed. He later developed the mechanism to automatically eject the shells when the breech was
opened.
39.5.3
John Moses Browning
One of the men most responsible for the modern development of the shotgun was prolic gun designer John
Browning. While working for Winchester Firearms,
Browning revolutionized shotgun design. In 1887,
Browning introduced the Model 1887 Lever Action Repeating Shotgun, which loaded a fresh cartridge from its
internal magazine by the operation of the action lever.
Before this time most shotguns were the 'break open'
type.
This development was greatly overshadowed by two further innovations he introduced at the end of the 19th century. In 1893, Browning produced the Model 1893 Pump
Action Shotgun, introducing the now familiar pump action to the market. And in 1900, he patented the
Browning Auto-5, the world's rst semi-automatic shotgun. The Browning Auto-5 remained in production until
1998.
39.5.4
World wars
The decline in military use of shotguns reversed in World

War I. American forces under General Pershing employed 12-gauge pump action shotguns when they were
deployed to the Western front in 1917. These shotguns
were tted with bayonets and a heat shield so the barrel
could be gripped while the bayonet was deployed. Shotguns tted in this fashion became known as trench guns
by the United States Army. Those without such modications were known as riot guns. After World War I, the
United States military began referring to all shotguns as
riot guns.
A United States Marine carrying a Winchester M97 shotgun during World War II
During World War II, the shotgun was not heavily used in
the war in Europe by ocial military forces. However,
the shotgun was a favorite weapon of Allied-supported
partisans, such as the French Resistance. By contrast,
in the Pacic theater, thick jungles and heavily fortied positions made the shotgun a favorite weapon of
the United States Marines. Marines tended to use pump
shotguns, since the pump action was less likely to jam
in the humid and dirty conditions of the Pacic campaign. Similarly, the United States Navy used pump
shotguns to guard ships when in port in Chinese harbors
(e.g., Shanghai). The United States Army Air Forces
also used pump shotguns to guard bombers and other aircraft against saboteurs when parked on airbases across
the Pacic and on the West Coast of the United States.
Pump and semi-automatic shotguns were used in marksmanship training, particularly for bomber gunners. The
288
CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN
most common pump shotguns used for these duties were

the 12 gauge Winchester Model 97 and Model 12. The
break-open action, single barrel shotgun was used by the
British Home Guard and U.S. home security forces. Notably, industrial centers (such as the Gopher State Steel
Works) were guarded by National Guard soldiers with
Winchester Model 37 12 gauge shotguns.
39.5.5
Late 20th century to present
Since the end of World War II, the shotgun has remained
a specialty weapon for modern armies. It has been deployed for specialized tasks where its strengths were put
to particularly good use. It was used to defend machine
gun emplacements during the Korean War, American and
French jungle patrols used shotguns during the Vietnam
War, and shotguns saw extensive use as door breaching
and close quarter weapons in the early stages of the Iraq
War, and saw limited use in tank crews.* [9] Many modern navies make extensive use of shotguns by personnel
engaged in boarding hostile ships, as any shots red will
almost certainly be over a short range. Nonetheless, shotguns are far less common in military use than ries, carbines, submachineguns, or pistols.
On the other hand, the shotgun has become a standard
in law enforcement use. A variety of specialty less-lethal
or non-lethal ammunitions, such as tear gas shells, bean
bags, ares, explosive sonic stun rounds, and rubber projectiles, all packaged into 12 gauge shotgun shells, are
produced specically for the law enforcement market.
Recently, Taser International introduced a self-contained
electronic weapon which is red from a standard 12 gauge
shotgun.* [10]
The shotgun remains a standard rearm for hunting
throughout the world for all sorts of game from birds and
small game to large game such as deer. The versatility of
the shotgun as a hunting weapon has steadily increased as
slug rounds and more advanced ried barrels have given
shotguns longer range and higher killing power. The shotgun has become a ubiquitous rearm in the hunting community.
A view of the break-action of a typical double-barrelled shotgun,

shown with the action open
ically divided into two subtypes: the traditional side

by sideshotgun features two barrels mounted one beside the other (as the name suggests), whereas the over
and undershotgun has the two barrels mounted one on
top of the other. Side by side shotguns were traditionally used for hunting and other sporting pursuits (early
long barreled side-by side shotguns were known asfowling piecesfor their use hunting ducks and other birds),
whereas over and under shotguns are more commonly associated with sporting use (such as clay pigeon and skeet
shooting). Both types of double-barrel shotgun are used
for hunting and sporting use, with the individual conguration largely being a matter of personal preference.
Another, less commonly encountered type of breakaction shotgun is the combination gun, which is an over
and under design with one shotgun barrel and one rie
barrel (more often rie on top, but rie on bottom was
39.6.1 Action
not uncommon). There is also a class of break action
Action is the term for the operating mechanism of a gun. guns called drillings, which contain three barrels, usually
There are many types of shotguns, typically categorized two shotgun barrels of the same gauge and a rie barrel,
by the number of barrels or the way the gun is reloaded. though the only common theme is that at least one barrel be a shotgun barrel. The most common arrangement
was essentially a side by side shotgun with the rie barrel
Break-action
below and centered. Usually a drilling containing more
than one rie barrel would have both rie barrels in the
For most of the history of the shotgun, the break-action same caliber, but examples do exist with dierent caliber
breech loading double was the most common type, typ- barrels, usually a .22 long rie and a centerre cartridge.
39.6 Design factors
39.6. DESIGN FACTORS
289
Although very rare, drillings with three and even four (a outdoors for a tighter spread pattern or increased accuvierling) shotgun barrels were made.
racy of slug projectiles. Home-defense and law enforcement shotguns are usually chambered for 12-gauge shells,
providing maximum shot power and the use of a variety
Pump-action
of projectiles such as buckshot, rubber, sandbag and slug
shells, but 20-gauge (common in bird-hunting shotguns)
or .410 (common in youth-size shotguns) are also available in defense-type shotgun models allowing easier use
by novice shooters.
A Winchester M1897, one of the rst successful pump-action
shotgun designs
In pump-action shotguns, a sliding forearm handle (the

pump) works the action, extracting the spent shell and inserting a new one while cocking the hammer or striker as
the pump is worked. A pump gun is typically fed from a
tubular magazine underneath the barrel, which also serves
as a guide for the pump. The rounds are fed in one by
one through a port in the receiver, where they are lifted
by a lever called the elevator and pushed forward into the
chamber by the bolt. A pair of latches at the rear of the
magazine hold the rounds in place and facilitate feeding
of one shell at a time. If it is desired to load the gun fully,
a round may be loaded through the ejection port directly
into the chamber, or cycled from the magazine, which is
then topped o with another round. Well-known examples include the Winchester Model 1897, Remington 870
and Mossberg 500/590.
Pump-action shotguns are common hunting, fowling and
sporting shotguns. Hunting models generally have a barrel between 600 and 700 mm (24"28). Tube-fed models designed for hunting often come with a dowel rod or
other stop that is inserted into the magazine and reduces
the capacity of the gun to three shells (two in the magazine and one chambered) as is mandated by U.S. federal
law when hunting migratory birds. They can also easily
be used with an empty magazine as a single-shot weapon,
by simply dropping the next round to be red into the
open ejection port after the spent round is ejected. For
this reason, pump-actions are commonly used to teach
novice shooters under supervision, as the trainer can load
each round more quickly than with a break-action, while
unlike a break-action the student can maintain his grip on
the gun and concentrate on proper handling and ring of
the weapon.
Pump action shotguns with shorter barrels and little or
no barrel choke are highly popular for use in home defense, military and law enforcement, and are commonly
known as riot guns. The minimum barrel length for shotguns in most of the U.S. is 18 inches (460 mm), and this
barrel length (sometimes 18.520 in (470510 mm) to
increase magazine capacity and/or ensure the gun is legal
regardless of measuring dierences* [11]) is the primary
choice for riot shotguns. The shorter barrel makes the
weapon easier to maneuver around corners and in tight
spaces, though slightly longer barrels are sometimes used
A riot shotgun has many advantages over a handgun or

rie. Compared to defense-caliberhandguns (chambered for 9mm Parabellum, .38 Special, .357 Magnum,
.40 S&W, .45 ACP and similar), a shotgun has far more
power and damage potential (up to 10 times the muzzle energy of a .45 ACP cartridge), allowing a "one-shot
stop" that is more dicult to achieve with typical handgun loads. Compared to a rie, riot shotguns are easier
to maneuver due to the shorter barrel, still provide better damage potential at indoor distances (generally 35
meters/yards), and reduce the risk ofoverpenetration";
that is, the bullet or shot passing completely through the
target and continuing beyond, which poses a risk to those
behind the target through walls. The wide spread of the
shot reduces the importance of shot placement compared
to a single projectile, which increases the eectiveness of
point shooting- rapidly aiming simply by pointing the
weapon in the direction of the target. This allows easy,
fast use by novices.
Lever-action
A modern reproduction of the Winchester M1887 lever-action

shotgun
Early attempts at repeating shotguns invariably centred

around either bolt-or lever-action designs, drawing inspiration from contemporary repeating ries, with the earliest successful repeating shotgun being the lever-action
Winchester M1887, designed by John Browning at the
behest of the Winchester Repeating Arms Company.
Lever shotguns, while less common, were popular in the
late 19th century with the Winchester Model 1887 and
Model 1901 being prime examples. Initially very popular, demand waned after the introduction of pump-action
shotguns around the start of the 20th century, and production was eventually discontinued in 1920.
One major issue with lever-actions (and to a lesser extent
pump-actions) was that early shotgun shells were often
made of paper or similar fragile materials (modern hulls
are plastic or metal). As a result the loading of shells, or
290
CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN
working of the action of the shotgun, could often result manufactured a single-shot .410 bore shotgun based on
in cartridges getting crushed and becoming unusable, or the SMLE Mk III* rie. The Russian Berdana shotgun
even damaging the gun.
was eectively a single-shot bolt-action rie that became
Lever shotguns have seen a return to the gun market in obsolete, and was subsequently modied to chamber 16
recent years, however, with Winchester producing the gauge shotgun shells for civilian sale. The U.S. military
Model 9410 (chambering the .410 gauge shotgun shell M26 is also a bolt-action weapon. Bolt-action shotguns
and using the action of the Winchester Model 94 series have also been used in the goose gunapplication, inlever-action rie, hence the name), and a handful of other tended to kill birds such as geese at greater range. Typically, goose guns have long barrels (up to 36 inches), and
rearm manufacturers (primarily Norinco of China and
ADI Ltd. of Australia) producing versions of the Winch- small bolt-fed magazines. Bolt-action shotguns are also
used in conjunction with slug shells for the maximum
ester Model 1887/1901 designed for modern 12-gauge
*
smokeless shotshells with more durable plastic casings. possible accuracy from a shotgun. [12]
There has been a notable uptick in lever-action shotgun
sales in Australia since 1997, when pump-actions were
Other
eectively outlawed.
Semi-automatic
A Browning A-5 semi-automatic shotgun
Gas, inertia, or recoil operated actions are other popular methods of increasing the rate of re of a shotgun;
these are generally referred to as autoloaders or semiautomatics. Instead of having the action manually operated by a pump or lever, the action automatically cycles each time the shotgun is red, ejecting the spent
shell and reloading a fresh one into the chamber. The
rst successful semi-automatic shotgun was John Browning's Auto-5, rst produced by Fabrique Nationale beginning in 1902. Other well-known examples include the
Remington 1100, Benelli M1, and Saiga-12.
In addition to the commonly encountered shotgun actions already listed, there are also shotguns based on the
Martini-Henry rie design, originally designed by British
arms maker W.W. Greener.
Some of the more interesting advances in shotgun technology include the versatile NeoStead 2000 and fully automatics such as the Pancor Jackhammer or Auto-Assault
12.
In 1925, Rodolfo Cosmi produced the rst working hybrid prototype semi-automatic shotgun, which had an 8round magazine located in the stock. While it reloaded
automatically after each shot like a semi-automatic, it had
a break-action to load the rst shell. This design has only
been repeated once, by Beretta with their UGB25 automatic shotgun. The user loads the rst shell by breaking
the gun in the manner of a break-action shotgun, then
closes it and inserts the second shell into a clip on the
gun's right side. The spent hulls are ejected downwards.
The guns combine the advantages of the break action
(they can be proven to be safe by breaking open, there
are no ying hulls) with those of the semi-automatic (low
recoil, low barrel axis position hence low muzzle ip).
Some, such as the Franchi SPAS-12 and Benelli M3,

are capable of switching between semi-automatic and
pump action. These are popular for two reasons; rst,
some jurisdictions forbid the use of semi-automatic ac- 39.6.2 Gauge
tions for hunting, and second, lower-powered rounds, like
reduced-recoilbuckshot shells and many less lethal carMain article: Gauge (bore diameter)
tridges, have insucient power to reliably cycle a semiautomatic shotgun.
The caliber of shotguns is measured in terms of gauge
(U.S.) or bore (U.K.). The gauge number is determined
Bolt-action
by the weight, in fractions of a pound, of a solid sphere
of lead with a diameter equal to the inside diameter of
Bolt-action shotguns, while uncommon, do exist. One the barrel. So, a 10 gauge shotgun nominally should have
of the best-known examples is a 12 gauge manufactured an inside diameter equal to that of a sphere made from
by Mossberg featuring a 3-round magazine, marketed in one-tenth of a pound of lead. By far the most comAustralia just after changes to the gun laws in 1997 heav- mon gauges are 12 (0.729 in, 18.5 mm diameter) and
ily restricted the ownership and use of pump-action and 20 (0.614 in, 15.6 mm), although .410 (= 67), 32, 28,
semi-automatic shotguns. They were not a huge success, 24, 16, and 10 (19.7 mm) gauge also exist. Ammunias they were somewhat slow and awkward to operate, and tion manufacturer CCI produces 9 mm (.355 in.) and
the rate of re was noticeably slower (on average) than a several other popular pistol calibers up to .45 ACP as
double-barrelled gun. The Ishapore Arsenal in India also well as .22 (5.5 mm) for ring from handguns. These
39.6. DESIGN FACTORS
291
which the barrels are bored out slightly larger than their
actual gauge. This reduces the compression forces on the
shot when it transitions from the chamber to the barrel.
This leads to a slight reduction in perceived recoil, and an
improvement in shot pattern due to reduced deformation
of the shot.
39.6.3 Shot
A US Army soldier armed with a Mossberg 500 shotgun
are commonly called snake shot cartridges. rimre caliber.* [13] Larger gauges, too powerful to shoulder, have
been built but were generally axed to small boats and
referred to as punt guns. These were used for commercial
water fowl hunting, to kill large numbers of birds resting
on the water. Although relatively rare, single and double
derringers have also been produced that are capable of
ring either .45 (Long) Colt or .410 shotgun shells from
the same chamber; they are commonly known as 'snake
guns', and are popular among some outdoorsmen in the
South and Southwest regions of the United States. There
are also some revolvers, such as the Taurus Judge, that are
capable of shooting the .45LC/.410 rounds; but as with
derringers, these are handguns that shoot .410 shotgun
shells, and are not necessarily considered shotguns.
The .410 bore (10.4 mm) is unusual, being measured in
inches, and would be approximately 67 realgauge,
though its short hull versions are nominally called 36
gauge in Europe. It uses a relatively small charge of shot.
It is used for hunting and for skeet. Because of its very
light recoil (approx 10 N), it is often used as a beginners
gun. However, the small charge and typically tight choke
make it more dicult to hit targets. It is also frequently
used by expert shooters because of the diculty, especially in expensive side by side and over/under models for
hunting small bird game such as quail and doves.* [14] Inexpensive bolt-action .410 shotguns are a very common
rst hunting shotgun among young pre-teen hunters, as
they are used mostly for hunting squirrels, while additionally teaching bolt-action manipulation skills that will
transfer easily later to adult-sized hunting ries. Most of
these young hunters move up to a 20-gauge within a few
years, and to 12 gauge shotguns and full-size hunting ries by their late teens. Still, many who are particularly
recoil-averse choose to stay with 20-gauge shotguns all
their adult life, as it is a suitable gauge for many popular
hunting uses.
U.S. Marines re their shotguns
Most shotguns are used to rea number of ball shot, in

addition to slugs and sabots. The ball shot or pellets is for
the most part made of lead but this has been partially replaced by bismuth, steel, tungsten-iron, tungsten-nickeliron and even tungsten polymer loads. Non-toxic loads
are required by Federal law for waterfowl hunting in the
US, as the shot may be ingested by the waterfowl, which
some authorities believe can lead to health problems due
to the lead exposure. Shot is termed either birdshot or
buckshot depending on the shot size. Informally, birdshot pellets have a diameter smaller than 5 mm (0.20 in)
and buckshot are larger than that. Pellet size is indicated
by a number; for bird shot this ranges from the smallest
12 (1.2 mm, 0.05 in) to 2 (3.8 mm, 0.15 in) and then BB
(4.6 mm, 0.18 in).* [15]
For buckshot, the numbers usually start at 4 (6.1 mm,

0.24 in) and go down to 1, 0, 00 (double aught), 000,
and nally 0000 (9.7 mm, .38 in). A dierent informal
distinction is that bird shotpellets are small enough
that they can be measured into the cartridge by weight,
and simply poured in, whereasbuckshotpellets are so
large they must be stacked inside the cartridge in a xed
geometric arrangement in order to t. The diameter in
hundredths of an inch of bird shot sizes from #9 to #1 can
be obtained by subtracting the shot size from 17. Thus,
#4 bird shot is 17 - 4 = 13 = 0.13 inches (3.3 mm) in diameter. Dierent terminology is used outside the United
States. In England and Australia, for example, 00 buckshot cartridges are commonly referred to as "S.G." (small
A recent innovation is the back-boring of barrels, in game) cartridges.
292
39.6.4
CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN
Pattern and choke
Shot, small and round and delivered without spin, is ballistically inecient. As the shot leaves the barrel it begins to disperse in the air. The resulting cloud of pellets is known as the shot pattern, or shotgun shot spread.
The ideal pattern would be a circle with an even distribution of shot throughout, with a density sucient to ensure
enough pellets will intersect the target to achieve the desired result, such as a kill when hunting or a break when
shooting clay targets. In reality the pattern is closer to a
Gaussian, or normal distribution, with a higher density in
the center that tapers o at the edges. Patterns are usually
measured by ring at a 30 inches (76 cm) diameter circle on a large sheet of paper placed at varying distances.
The hits inside the circle are counted, and compared to
the total number of pellets, and the density of the pattern
inside the circle is examined. An idealpattern would
put nearly 100% of the pellets in the circle and would
have no voidsany region where a target silhouette will
t and not cover 3 or more holes is considered a potential
problem.
coil, orstraight riingthat is designed to stop any spin

that the shot column might acquire when traveling down
the barrel. These tubes are often extended tubes, meaning they project beyond the end of the bore, giving more
room for things like a longer conical section. Shot spreaders or diusion chokes work opposite of normal chokes
they are designed to spread the shot more than a cylinder
bore, generating wider patterns for very short range use.
A number of recent spreader chokes, such as the Briley
Diusionline, actually use riing in the choke to spin
the shot slightly, creating a wider spread. The Briley Diffusion uses a 1 in 36 cm twist, as does the FABARM Lion
Paradox shotgun.
Oval chokes, which are designed to provide a shot pattern

wider than it is tall, are sometimes found on combat shotguns, primarily those of the Vietnam War era. They were
available for aftermarket addition in the 1970s from companies like A & W Engineering.* [16] Military versions
of the Ithaca 37 with duckbill choke were used in limited
numbers during the Vietnam War by US Navy Seals. It
arguably increased eectiveness in close range engagements against multiple targets. Two major disadvantages
A constriction in the end of the barrel known as the choke plagued the system. One was erratic patterning. The secis used to tailor the pattern for dierent purposes. Chokes ond was that the shot would spread too quickly providing
may either be formed as part of the barrel at the time a limited eective zone.
of manufacture, by squeezing the end of the bore down Oset chokes, where the pattern is intentionally slightly
over a mandrel, or by threading the barrel and screwing in o of center, are used to change the point of impact. For
an interchangeable choke tube. The choke typically con- instance, an oset choke can be used to make a double
sists of a conical section that smoothly tapers from the barrelled shotgun with poorly aligned barrels hit the same
bore diameter down to the choke diameter, followed by spot with both barrels.
a cylindrical section of the choke diameter. Briley Manufacturing, a maker of interchangeable shotgun chokes,
uses a conical portion about 3 times the bore diameter 39.6.5 Barrel length
in length, so the shot is gradually squeezed down with
minimal deformation. The cylindrical section is shorter, Shotguns generally have longer barrels than modern riusually 0.6 to 0.75 inches (15 to 19 millimetres). The es. Unlike ries, however, the long shotgun barrel is
use of interchangeable chokes has made it easy to tune not for ballistic purposes; shotgun shells use small powder
the performance of a given combination of shotgun and charges in large diameter bores, and this leads to very low
shotshell to achieve the desired performance.
muzzle pressures (see internal ballistics) and very little
The choke should be tailored to the range and size of the velocity change with increasing barrel length. According
to Remington, modern powder in a shotgun burns comtargets. A skeet shooter shooting at close targets might
use 127 micrometres (0.005 inches) of constriction to pletely in 25 (9.8425 in) to 36 (14.173 in) cm barrels.
produce a 76 cm (30 in) diameter pattern at a distance of
19 m (21 yd). A trap shooter shooting at distant targets
might use 762 micrometres (0.030 inches) of constriction
to produce a 76 cm (30 in) diameter pattern at 37 m (40
yd). Special chokes for turkey hunting, which requires
long range shots at the small head and neck of the bird,
can go as high as 1500 micrometres (0.060 inches). The
use of too much choke and a small pattern increases the
diculty of hitting the target, whereas the use of too little choke produces large patterns with insucient pellet
density to reliably break targets or kill game. Cylinder
barrelshave no constriction. See also: Slug barrel
Since shotguns are generally used for shooting at small,

fast moving targets, it is important to lead the target by
ring slightly ahead of the target, so that when the shot
reaches the range of the target, the target will have moved
into the pattern. On uphill shooting, this means to shoot
above the target. Conversely, on downhill shooting, this
means to shoot below the target, which is somewhat counterintuitive for many beginning hunters. Of course, depending on the barrel length, the amount of lead employed will vary for dierent barrel lengths, and must be
learned by experience.
Shotguns made for close ranges, where the angular speed

Other specialized choke tubes exist as well. Some turkey of the targets is great (such as skeet or upland bird hunthunting tubes have constrictions greater than Super ing), tend to have shorter barrels, around 24 to 28 inches
Full, or additional features like porting to reduce re- (610 to 710 millimetres). Shotguns for longer range
39.7. AMMUNITION
shooting, where angular speeds are small (trap shooting; quail, pheasant, and waterfowl hunting), tend to have
longer barrels, 28 to 34 inches (860 mm). The longer
barrels have more angular momentum, and will therefore
swing more slowly but more steadily. The short, low angular momentum barrels swing faster, but are less steady.
These lengths are for pump or semi-auto shotguns; break
open guns have shorter overall lengths for the same barrel length, and so will use longer barrels. The break open
design saves between 9 and 15 cm (3.5 and 5.9 in) in overall length, but in most cases pays for this by having two
barrels, which adds weight at the muzzle, and so usually
only adds a couple of centimetres. Barrels for shotguns
have been getting longer as modern steels and production
methods make the barrels stronger and lighter; a longer,
lighter barrel gives the same inertia for less overall weight.
Shotguns for use against larger, slower targets generally
have even shorter barrels. Small game shotguns, for hunting game like rabbits and squirrels, or shotguns for use
with buckshot for deer, are often 56 to 61 cm (22 to 24
in).
293
Of this general class, the most common subset is birdshot, which uses a large number (from dozens to hundreds) of small pellets, meant to create a wide kill
spreadto hunt birds in ight. Shot shells are described by
the size and number of the pellets within, and numbered
in reverse order (the smaller the number, the bigger the
pellet size, similar to bore gauge). Size nine (#9) shot is
the smallest size normally used for hunting and is used on
small upland game birds such as dove and quail. Larger
sizes are used for hunting larger upland game birds and
waterfowl.
Buckshot is similar to but larger than birdshot, and was
originally designed for hunting larger game, such as deer
(hence the name). While the advent of new, more accurate slug technologies is making buckshot less attractive
for hunting, it is still the most common choice for police,
military, and home defense uses. Like birdshot, buckshot
is described by pellet size, with larger numbers indicating
smaller shot. From the smallest to the largest, buckshot
sizes are: #4, (callednumber four), #1, 0
( one-aught
), 00 ("double-aught"), 000 (triple-aught) and 0000 (
four-aught). A typical round for defensive use would
be a 12 gauge 2 3 4 inches (7.0 cm) length 00 buck shell,
which contains 9 pellets roughly 8.4 mm (.33 inch) in diameter, each comparable to a .38 Special bullet in damage potential. Newtacticalbuckshot rounds, designed
specically for defensive use, use slightly fewer shot at
lower velocity to reduce recoil and increase controllability
of the shotgun. There are some shotgun rounds designed
specically for police use that shoot eectively from 50
yards (46 m) with a 20diameter grouping of the balls.
Shotguns intended for all-round hunting are a compromise, of course, but a 72 to 74 cm (28 to 29 in)ch) barrel pump-action 12-gauge shotgun with a modied choke
can serve admirably for use as one gun intended for general all-round hunting of small-game such as quails, rabbits, pheasants, doves, and squirrels in semi-open wooded
or farmland areas in many parts of the eastern US (Kentucky, Indiana, Tennessee) where dense brush is less of a
hindrance and the ability to have more reach is important.
For hunting in dense brush, shorter barrel lengths are often preferred when hunting the same types of game.
Slug rounds are rounds that re a single solid slug. They
are used for hunting large game, and in certain military and law enforcement applications. Modern slugs are
moderately accurate, especially when red from special
39.7 Ammunition
ried slug barrels. They are often used inshotgun-only
hunting zones near inhabited areas, where ries are proMain article: Shotgun shell
hibited due to their greater range.
The extremely large caliber of shotgun shells has led to a
Sabots are a common type of slug round. While some
slugs are exactly thata 12-gauge metal projectile in a
cartridgea sabot is a smaller but more aerodynamic projectile surrounded by a shoeof some other material.
This sabotjacket seals the barrel, increasing pressure
and acceleration, while also inducing spin on the projectile in a ried barrel. Once the projectile clears the barrel,
the sabot material falls away, leaving an unmarked, aerodynamic bullet to continue toward the target. The advantages over a traditional slug are increased shot power, increased bullet velocity due to the lighter-mass bullet, and
increased accuracy due to the velocity and the reduction
in deformation of the slug itself. Disadvantages versus a
traditional slug include lower muzzle momentum due to
Loading 12-gauge shells
reduced mass, reduced damage due to smaller bullet diameter, and signicantly higher per-unit cost.
wide variety of dierent ammunition.
Shotshells are the most commonly used round, lled
with lead or lead substitute pellets.
294
39.7.1
CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN
Specialty ammunition
The unique properties of the shotgun, such as large case

capacity, large bore, and the lack of riing, has led to the
development of a large variety of specialty shells, ranging
from novelties to high tech military rounds.
Hunting, defensive, and military
Brenneke and Foster type slugs have the same basic conguration as normal slugs, but have increased accuracy.
The hollowed rear of the Foster slug improves accuracy
by placing more mass in the front of the projectile, therefore inhibiting the tumblethat normal slugs may generate. The Brenneke slug takes this concept a bit further,
with the addition of a wad that stays connected to the projectile after discharge, increasing accuracy. Both slugs
are commonly found with ns or rib, which are meant to
allow the projectile to safely squeeze down during passage through chokes, but they do not increase stability in
ight.
Two rounds of Fiocchi 12 gauge rubber buckshot
and cut the person or animal being red at. For this reason, these types of rounds are referred to as less lethal, as
opposed to less-than-lethal.* [19]
Gas shells spray a cone of gas for several meters. These
are primarily used by riot police. They normally contain
pepper gas or tear gas. Other variations launch a gasgrenade-like projectile.
Rock salt shells are hand loaded with coarse rock salt
crystals, replacing the standard lead or steel shot. Rock
salt shells could be seen as the forerunners of modern lesslethal rounds. In the United States, rock salt shells were
and are sometimes still used by rural civilians to defend
their property. The brittle salt was unlikely to cause serious injury at long ranges, but would cause painful stinging injuries and served as a warning. British gamekeepers
have used rock salt shells to deter poachers. Rather than
get into a physical confrontation, they stalk the poachers,
Frag-12 shotgun rounds are a series of special purpose making themselves known by a loud shout of Run!"
shotgun grenades, including high explosive blast, frag- just before ring, to avoid hitting the now-eeing subject
mentation, and HEAP grenades intended to be red from in the eyes.
any 12-ga shotgun. They are distinguished from regular Rubber slugs or rubber buckshot are similar in prinshotgun rounds by a green hull. It has been proposed as an ciple to the bean bag rounds. Composed of exible rubarmament for modern UAVs and is currently being tested ber or plastic and red at low velocities, these rounds are
for military deployment.* [17]
probably the most common choice for riot control.
Grenade rounds use exploding projectiles to increase Taser International announced in 2007 a new 12 gauge
long range lethality. These are currently experimental, eXtended Range Electronic Projectile or XREP,
but the British FRAG-12, which comes in both armor which contains a small electroshock weapon unit in a carpenetrating and fragmentary forms, is under considera- rier that can be red from a standard 12 gauge shotgun.
tion by military forces.* [18]
The XREP projectile is n stabilized, and travels at an
initial velocity of 100 m/s (300 ft/s). Barbs on the front
attach the electroshock unit to the target, with a tassel
Less lethal rounds, for riot and animal control
deploying from the rear to widen the circuit. A twentyFlexible baton rounds, commonly called bean bags, re second burst of electrical energy is delivered to the tara fabric bag lled with birdshot or a similar loose, dense get. This* product is expected to be released to market
substance. The puncheect of the bag is useful for in 2008. [20] They were used despite still being subknocking down targets; the rounds are used by police to ject to testing, in breach of the supplier's license by
subdue violent suspects. The bean bag round is by far the Northumbria police in their stando with Raoul Moat in
most common less lethal round used. Due to the large 2010.
Flechette rounds contain aerodynamic darts, typically
from 8 to 20 in number. The echette provide greatly
extended range due to their aerodynamic shape, and improved penetration of light armor. American troops during the Vietnam War packed their own echette shotgun
rounds, called beehive rounds, after the similar artillery
rounds. However, terminal performance was poor due to
the very light weight of the echettes, and their use was
quickly dropped.
surface area of these rounds, they lose velocity rapidly,

and must be used at fairly short ranges to be eective,
though use at extremely short ranges, under 3 m (9.8 ft),
can result in broken bones or other serious or lethal injuries. The rounds can also y in a frisbee-like fashion
Breaching rounds, often called Frangible, Disintegrator, or Hatton rounds, are designed to destroy door locking mechanisms without risking lives. They are constructed of a very brittle substance that transfers most of
the energy to the primary target but then fragment into
39.8. LEGAL ISSUES
295
much smaller pieces or dust so as not to injure unseen

targets such as hostages or non-combatants that may be
standing behind a breached door.
Bird bombs are low-powered rounds that re a
recracker that is fused to explode a short time after ring.* [21] They are designed to scare animals, such as
birds that congregate on airport runways.
Screechers re a pyrotechnic whistle that emits a loud A homemade Lupara
whistling sound for the duration of its ight.* [21] These
are also used to scare animals.
thus, they are perceived as a lesser threat by legislative
Blank shells contain only a small amount of powder and authorities. The one exception is a sawed-o shotgun,
no actual load. When red, the blanks provide the sound especially a Lupara, as it is more easily concealed than a
and ash of a real load, but with no projectile.* [21] These normal shotgun.
may be used for simulation of gunre, scaring wildlife,
or as power for a launching device such as the Mossberg
#50298 marine line launcher.<ref{{cite web|url=>http: 39.8.1 Australia
//www.mossberg.com/manuals/LineLauncher.pdf |format=PDF |title=Safety Equipment : Owner's Manual Within Australia, all shotguns manufactured after Jan: Mossberg |publisher=Mossberg.com |accessdate=19 uary 1, 1901 are considered rearms and are subject
to registration and licensing. Most shotguns (including
February 2015}}</ref>
break-action, bolt-action and lever-action shotguns) are
Stinger is a type of shotgun shell which contains 16-00 classed asCategory Aweapons and, as such, are combuck balls made of zytel, and is designed as a non-lethal paratively easy to obtain a licence for, given a legally
ammunition ideally used in small spaces.
recognised 'legitimate reason' (compare to the British requirement for 'good reason' for a FAC), such as target
shooting or hunting. However, pump-action and semiNovelty and other
automatic shotguns are classed asCategory Cweapons;
Bolo rounds are made of two or more slugs molded onto a licence for this type of rearm is, generally speaking,
steel wire. When red, the slugs separate, pulling the not available to the average citizen. For more informawire taut creating a ying blade, which could theoretically tion, see Gun politics in Australia.
decapitate people and animals or amputate limbs. However, many active shotgun users consider this to be overstated, and view bolo shells as being less eective than
conventional ammunition. Bolo shell rounds are banned
in many locations (including the US states of Florida* [22]
and Illinois* [23]) due to concerns about their potential
lethality. The round is named in reference to bolas, which
use two or more weighted balls on a rope to trap cattle or
game.
Dragon's Breath usually refers to a zirconium-based pyrotechnic shotgun round. When red, a gout of ame
erupts from the barrel of the gun (up to 20 ft). The visual
eect it produces is impressive, similar to that of a short
ranged amethrower. However, it has few tactical uses,
mainly distraction/disorientation.
Flare rounds are sometimes carried by hunters for safety
and rescue purposes. They are available in low and high
altitude versions. Some brands claim they can reach a
height of up to 200 m (660 ft).
39.8 Legal issues
39.8.2 Canada
Canada has three classications of rearms: nonrestricted, restricted, and prohibited. Shotguns are found
in all three classes.
All non-restricted shotguns must have an overall length of
660 mm (26 in). Semi-automatic shotguns must also have
a barrel length of more than 470 mm (19 in) and have a
capacity of 5 shells or less in the magazine to remain nonrestricted. All other shotgun action types (pump/slide,
break open, lever, bolt) do not have a magazine limit restriction or a minimum barrel length provided the overall
length of the rearm remains more than 660 mm (26 in)
and the barrel was produced by an approved manufacturer. Shotgun barrels may only be reduced in length to
a minimum of 457 mm (18.0 in). Non-restricted shotguns may be possessed with any Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) or Possession-Only License (POL)
and may be transported throughout the country without
special authorization and may be used for hunting certain
species at certain times of the year.
Semi-automatic shotguns with a barrel length of less

Globally, shotguns are generally not as heavily regulated than 470 mm (19 in) are considered restricted and
as ries or handguns, likely because they lack the range any shotgun that has been altered so its barrel length
of ries and are not easily concealable as handguns are; is less than 457 mm (18.0 in) or if its overall length
296
CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN

store a shotgun (gun clamps, wire locks and locking gun
cabinets are considered secure). The round number restrictions apply only to the magazine, not the chamber,
so it is legal to have a single-barreled semi-auto or pumpaction shotgun that holds three rounds in total, or a shotgun with separate chambers (which would need to also be
multi-barrelled). For a shotgun to qualify as a section 2
shotgun, it must meet the following criteria:
(a) has a barrel not less than 24 inches (610 mm) in length
and does not have any barrel with a bore more than 2
inches (51 mm) in diameter;
(b) either has no magazine or has a non-detachable magazine not capable of holding more than two cartridges;
(c) is not a revolver gun.
Prior to a SGC being issued an interview is conducted
with the local Firearms Ocer, in the past this was a duty
undertaken by the local police although more recently this
function has beencontracted outto civilian sta. The
ocer will check the location and suitability of the gun
safe that is to be used for storage and conduct a general
interview to establish the reasons behind the applicant requiring a SGC.
A RCMP ocer in 2010 armed with a shotgun outtted to re

beanbag rounds
is less than 660 mm (26 in) is considered prohibited.* [24] Restricted and prohibited shotguns may be
possessed with a PAL or POL than has been endorsed
for restricted or prohibited grandfathered rearms.
These shotguns require special Authorization to Transport (ATT).<ref name=""canUS95trans">Transporting
Firearms. Canada Firearms Centre. Retrieved 200806-21.</ref>
The Canadian Firearms Registry was a government-run
registry of all legally owned rearms in Canada. The government provided amnesty from prosecution to shotgun
and rie owners if they fail to register non-restricted shotguns and ries.* [25] The long gun portion of the registry
was scrapped in 2011.
An SGC holder can own any number of shotguns meeting these requirements so long as he/she can store them
securely. No certicate is required to own shotgun ammunition, but one is required to buy it. There is no restriction on the amount of shotgun ammunition that can
be bought or owned. There are also no rules regarding
the storage of ammunition.
However, shotgun ammunition which contains fewer than
6 projectiles requires a section 1 Firearms Certicate
(FAC). Shotguns with a magazine capacity greater than 2
rounds are also considered to be section 1 rearms and,
as such, require an FAC to own. An FAC costs 50 but is
much more restrictive than an SGC. The applicant must
nominate two referees who are known to the applicant to
vouch for his or her character; a new 'variation' is required
for each new caliber of gun to be owned; limits are set on
how much ammunition a person can own at any one time;
and an FAC can be denied if the applicant does not have
sucient 'good reason'. 'Good reason' generally means
hunting, collecting, or target shooting - though other reasons may be acceptable, personal defence is not an acceptable reason.
See online* [26] for an ocial Canadian list of nonrestricted and restricted and prohibited rearms.
Any pump-action or semi-automatic smooth-bore gun
(such as a shotgun) with a barrel length of less than 24
inches or total length of less than 40 inches is considered
39.8.3 UK
to be a section 5 rearm, that is, one that is subject to
general prohibition, unless it is chambered for .22 caliber
In the United Kingdom, a Shotgun Certicate (SGC) is rimre ammunition.* [27]
required to possess a Section 2shotgun. These cost
50 and can only be denied if the chief of police in the
area believes and can prove that the applicant poses a real
danger to the public, or if the applicant has been convicted of a crime punishable by imprisonment for a term
of three years or more or if the applicant cannot securely
39.9. SEE ALSO
297
39.9 See also

Antique guns
Gun safety
List of shotguns
Double-barreled shotgun
Riding shotgun
Shotgun wedding
President Barack Obama skeet shooting with a Browning Citori
525 on the range at Camp David.
39.10 References
Notes
39.8.4
US
In the US, federal law prohibits shotguns from being capable of holding more than three shells including the
round in the chamber when used for hunting migratory
gamebirds such as doves, ducks, and geese. For other
uses, a capacity of any number of shells is generally permitted. Most magazine-fed shotguns come with a removable magazine plug to limit capacity to 2, plus one in
the chamber, for hunting migratory gamebirds. Certain
states have restrictions on magazine capacity or design
features under hunting or assault weapon laws.
[1] Scattergun. Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2007-05-12.

[2] The Box O' Truth #3 - The Shotgun Meets the Box O'
Truth The Box O' Truth. The Box O' Truth. Retrieved
3 October 2014.
[3] Shotgun Home Defense Ammunition, .357 SIG - A Solution in Search of a Problem?". Firearmstactical.com.
[4] Shotgun Home Defense Ammunition. Firearms Tactical Institute. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
[5] Problem while searching in History of Science. Digicoll.library.wisc.edu. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
Shotguns intended for defensive use have barrels as short [6] Firearms in Plymouth Colony.
Plyas 18 inches (46 cm) for private use (the minimum shotmoutharch.tripod.com. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
gun barrel length allowed by law in the United States without federal registration. Barrel lengths of less than 18 [7] Fjestad, S. P. Blue Book of Gun Values, 13th Ed.
inches (46 cm) as measured from the breechface to the [8] Bruce N. Caneld (May 2004). Give Us More Shotmuzzle when the weapon is in battery, or have an overguns!". American Rieman.
all length of less than 26 inches (66 cm) are classied as
short barreled shotguns (SBS) under the 1934 National [9]
Firearms Act and are regulated. A similar short barreled [10] Taser Xrep. Taser.com. Retrieved 2008-09-05.
weapon having a pistol grip may be classied as an AOW
or Any Other Weapon. A shotgun is dened as a [11] Mossberg & Sons | Products. Mossberg.com. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
weapon (with a buttstock) designed to be red from the
shoulder. The classication varies depending on how the [12] April, 97 Browning. Gun-tests.com. Retrieved 2008weapon was originally manufactured.
09-05.
Shotguns used by military, police, and other government
agencies are regulated under the National Firearms Act
of 1934; however, they are exempt from transfer taxes.
These weapons commonly have barrels as short as 12 to
14 inches (30 to 36 centimetres) so that they are easier
to handle in conned spaces. Non-prohibited private citizens may own short-barreled shotguns by passing extensive background checks (state and local laws may be more
restrictive) as well as paying a $200 federal tax and being issued a stamp. Defensive shotguns sometimes have
no buttstock or will have a folding stock to reduce overall
length even more when required. AOWs transfer with a
$5 tax stamp from the BATFE.
[13] Popular
Mechanics
Google
Books.google.com. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
Books.
[14] 410 Gauge. Chuckhawks.com. Retrieved 2015-02-19.

[15] Popular
Mechanics
Google
Books.google.com. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
Books.
[16] Roger H. Robinson (1973). The Police Shotgun Manual.

Thomas. pp. 9194. ISBN 0-398-02630-0.
[17] Frag-12 Shotgun Ammunition Fact Sheet(PDF). Defensereview.com. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
[18]
298
[19] NIJ : Research for Practice : Impact Munitions Use:

Types, Targets, Eects(PDF). Ncjrs.gov. Retrieved 19
February 2015.
[20]
[21]
[22] The 2007 Florida Statutes. Flsenate.gov. Retrieved 3
October 2014.
[23] Public Act 92-0423 of the 92nd General Assembly.
Ilga.gov. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
[24] Prohibited Firearms. Cfc-cafc.gc.ca. Retrieved 19
February 2015.
[25] Tim Naumetz (2008-05-14). Government extends gunregistration amnesty. Canada.com. Retrieved 2008-0526.
[26] Royal Canadian Mounted Police - Canadian Firearms
Program | Gendarmerie royale du Canada - Programme
canadien des armes feu. Cfc-cafc.gc.ca. 2008-12-31.
[27] Firearms Act 1968. Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 3
October 2014.
Bibliography
Bob Brister (1976). Shotgunning, The Art and the
Science. New Jersey: New Win Publishing. ISBN
0-8329-1840-7.
Elmer Keith (1950). Shotguns. Pennsylvania: The
Stackpole Company. ISBN 0-935632-58-1.
Michael McIntosh (1999). Best Guns. Alabama:
Countrysport Press. ISBN 0-924357-79-7.
Jack O'Connor (1965) [1949]. The Shotgun Book.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-501381.

Shotgun FAQ
Shotgun sabot separation photography
Shotgun Chokes and Gauges.Popular Mechanics,
October 1947, p. 196-200. Excellent diagrams and
drawings.
CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN
Chapter 40
Shoulder-launched Multipurpose Assault

Weapon
The Shoulder-Launched Multipurpose Assault
Weapon (SMAW) is a shoulder-launched rocket weapon
with the primary function of being a portable assault
weapon (e.g. bunker buster) and a secondary anti-armor
rocket launcher. It was introduced to the United States
armed forces in 1984.* [1] It has a maximum range of
500 metres (550 yd) against a tank-sized target.
It can be used to destroy bunkers and other fortications
during assault operations as well as other designated targets with the dual mode rocket and to destroy main battle
tanks with the HEAA rocket. Operations in Afghanistan
and Iraq saw a thermobaric rocket added (described as
NE"Novel Explosive), capable of collapsing a building.* [2]
Martin and IMI* [4] and thus resulted in the enhanced

FGM-172 SRAW. In combat operations it was ultimately
used to augment rather than to replace existing SMAW
inventories.
40.1.2 SMAW II program
In 2008 a replacement program was again initiated and

titled the SMAW II.* [5] Developed in tandem with a
round capable of being red from an enclosed area without ill eects on environment and personnel. It weighs
a combined 29.7 pounds (13.5 kg) (11.7 pounds for the
launcher, 18 pounds for the rocket) and the contract is
40.1 Service history
worth US$51.7 million providing the U.S. Marine Corps
is satised with testing and follows through with plans to
The SMAW system (launcher, ammunition and logistics buy 1,717 new launchers.
support) was elded in 1984 as a United States Marine
Corpsunique system. The Mod-0 demonstrated several
shortcomings, resulting in a series of modications in the
mid-2000s. These modications include a re-sleeving
process for bubbled launch tubes, rewriting/drafting op- 40.1.3 SMAW II Serpent
erator and technical manuals, and a kit to reduce environmental intrusion into the trigger mechanism. This
also includes an optical sight modication to allow the Raytheon are working in coordination on the SMAW II
new HEAA rocket to be used eectively against mov- project to develop the newest launcher. Nammo-Talley
ing armor targets. The U.S. military recently elded new Defense Systems is developing the new rounds. The
boresight bracket kits which, when installed, correct the SMAW II launcher is called Serpentby the developloss of accurate boresight issues between the launch tube ing companies, and is similar in many respects to the rst
and spotting rie. During Operation Desert Storm 150 SMAW launcher, except it replaces the standard SMAW
launchers and 5,000 rockets were deployed by the United launcher's spotting gun with a sophisticated re control
States Army. Since then the Army has shown increased electronics built by Raytheon. The sighting unit is enclosed on the launcher in a unique roll-cage to protect
interest in the system.
it. From videos the roll-cage also serves as a carry handle. Development aims to reduce the over-all weight
by four and one half pounds from the older SMAW
40.1.1 Follow-On To SMAW
launcher. TheSerpentres the same rounds as the stanIn 2002, the Corps began a program to develop a succes- dard SMAW and supports new and improved/enhanced
sor to the SMAW system, tentatively titled Follow-On rounds. Raytheon at AUSA 2010 convention stated it
To SMAW.* [3] The contract was awarded to Lockheed would be ready for deployment by 2012.* [6]* [7]
299
300
CHAPTER 40. SHOULDER-LAUNCHED MULTIPURPOSE ASSAULT WEAPON

(98 ft), and still extremely dangerous to 90 metres (300
ft). The resultant shock wave can even cause sympathetic
detonation of unsecured ammunition. Rounds are under
development, that would enable a user to re the rocket
from an enclosed building without risk of injury.* [9]
Infantrymen from the 15th MEU at Camp Rhino on 25 November

2001.
40.2 Design
The Shoulder-launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon
has an 83.5mm tube and res 83-millimetre (3.3 in) rockets. It is a man-portable weapon system consisting of the
MK153 launcher, the MK 3 encased HEDP rocket, the
MK 6 encased HEAA rocket, and the MK217 spotting rie cartridge. The launcher consists of a berglass launch
tube, a 9mm spotting rie, an electro-mechanical ring
mechanism, open battle sights and a mount for the MK42
Day Sight and AN/PVS-17B night sights.
A newer MK153 Mod 2 variant is currently in development. It features a modular ballistic sight (MBS) in
place of the 9 mm spotting system. The MBS has a laser
range nder and thermal weapon sight to provide a ring solution using a displaced reticle, where crosshairs
are adjusted for distance and environmental factors. The
MBS is lighter, more reliable, and can be detached from
the launcher. While the Mod 0 weighs 16.5 lb, the
Mod 2 weighs 13 lb with the MBS attached, and 8.5 lb
with the MBS detached. Other improvements include increased pad size on the forward grip and foldable backup
sights.* [10] Mod 2 improvements are to be ready for
elding by early 2017.* [9]
40.2.1 Rockets
The High Explosive, Dual Purpose (HEDP) rocket is effective against bunkers, masonry and concrete walls and
light armor. Initiated by a crush switch in its nose the
HEDP rocket is able to distinguish between hard and soft
targets resulting in greater penetration into soft targets for
increased damage potential. The HEDP round is capable
The SMAW MK153 Mod 0 launcher is an improved of penetrating 20 centimetres (7.9 in) of concrete, 30 cenand enhanced development of the Israel Military Indus- timetres (12 in) of brick or up to 210 centimetres (6.9 ft)
tries' B-300 weapon. The weapon consists of the launch of wood-reinforced sandbags.
tube, the spotting rie, the ring mechanism and mountThe High Explosive Anti-Armor (HEAA) rocket is efing brackets. The launch tube is made of berglass-epoxy
fective against current tanks without additional armor and
composite material with a gelcoat on the bore. The spotutilizes a stando rod on the detonator, allowing the exting rie is mounted on the right side of the launch tube.
plosive force to be focused on a small point and for maxiThe ring mechanism mechanically res the spotting rimum damage against armored targets. The HEAA round
e and uses a magneto to re the rocket. The mounting
is capable of penetrating up to the equivalent of 60 cenbrackets connect the components and provide the means
timetres (24 in) of rolled homogeneous steel.
for boresighting the weapon while the encased rockets are
loaded at the rear of the launcher. The spotting cartridges The Novel Explosive (SMAW-NE) rocket is eective
are stored in a magazine in the cap of the encased rocket. against caves and bunkers. The SMAW-NE uses a
thermobaric warhead which produces an overpressure
The 9 mm spotting round is ballistically matched to the
wave capable of collapsing a lightly constructed buildrocket and serves to increase the gunner's rst-round hit
ing. The Naval Surface Warfare Center teamed with the
probability. Each round consists of a special 9mm tracer
Marine Corps Systems Command, NSWC Indian Head
bullet, crimped into a 7.62x51mm NATO casing with a
and Talley Defense Systems responded to an urgent U.S.
.22 Hornet blank cartridge for propellant.* [8] The system
Marine Corps need for a shoulder-launched enhancedcan be used in conjunction with the AN/PEQ-4 aiming
blast warhead in 2003. It was used in combat during both
light in place of the spotting rie.
the First and Second oensives in Fallujah 2004.
Training is accomplished with the MK7 Mod 0 encased
common practice rocket and the MK213 Mod 0 noise
cartridge. At 152.3 decibels, the weapon is one of the 40.3 Users
loudest on the battleeld, second only to a mine-clearing
line charge.
Pakistan army
As with all of these types of rocket weapons, the backblast
that is created when it is res is a primary safety concern.
Lebanese Armed Forces

The backblast extends in a 90-meter, 60 cone to the rear
Republic of China Marine Corps

of the weapon. The backblast is lethal out to 30 metres
40.5. REFERENCES
United States Marine Corps
40.4 See also

IMI Shipon
STRIM
Carl Gustav
Folgore
40.5 References
[1] Sta. United States Marine Corps Weapons & Equipment Shoulder-Launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon
(SMAW)". About.com. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
[2] GlobalSecurity.org
[3] Follow-On To SMAW (FOTS) Global Security.
[4] LOCKHEED MARTIN TO DEVELOP FOLLOW-ON
TO SHOULDER-LAUNCHED MULTI-PURPOSE ASSAULT WEAPON FOR U.S. MARINE CORPS.
[5] Lamothe, Dan (November 8, 2010). Redesigned
SMAW II set for review. Marine Corps Times. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
[6] DefenseNews video at Association of the US Army 2010
Convention
[7] Accurate and Safe Alternative Targeting Solution for Man
Portable Rocket Weapon (PDF le)
[8] 9 x 51mm SMAW International Ammunition Association
[9] SMAW upgrade will put rounds on targets faster MarineCorpstimes.com, 3 November 2014
[10] New Modular Ballistic Sight Added to Marine SMAW
. Military.com. DVIDS. 7 August 2013. Retrieved 10
August 2013.

Marine Corps.
SMAW Global Security

SMAW at FAS
SMAW early article
301
Chapter 41
Sniper rie
nology, specically that of telescopic sights and more accurate manufacturing, allowed armies to equip specially
trained soldiers with ries that enable them to deliver
precise shots over greater distances than regular infantry
weapons. The sniper rie itself could be based on a standard rie (It's hard to dene a sniper rie by the re modes
as some latest designed sniper ries are semi-automatic
re, for example the M110); however, when tted with a
telescopic sight, it becomes a sniper rie.
The 7.6251mm M40, United States Marine Corps standardissue sniper rie.
41.1 History
The Accuracy International Arctic Warfare series of sniper ries

is standard issue in the armies of many countries, including those
of Britain and Germany (picture shows a rie of the German
Army).
In military and law enforcement terminology, a sniper

rie is a crew served, man-portable, high precision-rie
used to ensure more accurate placement of bullets at
longer ranges than other small arms. It is a common misconception that any scoped rie is a sniper rie, and while
certain long guns are more suited for the application than
others, it is the act of using a weapon strategically as a
sniper qualied specialist that designates it as such.
A typical sniper rie is built for optimal levels of
accuracy, tted with a telescopic sight and chambered for
a military centerre cartridge. The term is often used in
the media to describe any type of accurized rearm tted
with a telescopic sight that is employed against human targets, although sniping rieor sniper's rieis the
technically correct term for such a rie.
The military role of a sniper (a term derived from the
snipe, a bird which was dicult to hunt and shoot) dates
back to the turn of the 18th century, but the true sniper rie is a much more recent development. Advances in tech-
The British Whitworth rie, used greatly during the American

Civil War. Some of these ries were tted with a scope on top of
the barrel, thus creating the rst actual sniper rie.
The Whitworth rie was arguably the rst long-range

sniper rie in the world.* [1] Designed by Sir Joseph
Whitworth, a prominent British engineer, it used twisted
hexagonal barrels instead of traditional round ried barrels, which meant that the projectile did not have to bite
into grooves as was done with conventional riing. His
rie was far more accurate than the Pattern 1853 Eneld, which had shown some weaknesses during the recent Crimean War. At trials in 1857 which tested the
accuracy and range of both weapons, Whitworth's design
outperformed the Eneld at a rate of about three to one.
The Whitworth rie was able to hit the target at a range
of 2,000 yards, whereas the Eneld could only manage it
at a distance of 1,400 yards.* [2]
During the Crimean War, the rst optical sights were
designed for tting onto the ries. Much of this pioneering work was the brainchild of Colonel D. Davidson, using optical sights produced by Chance Brothers
of Birmingham. This allowed a marksman to more accurately observe and target objects at a greater distance
than ever before.* [3] The telescopic sight, or scope, was
originally xed and could not be adjusted, which there-
302
41.2. CLASSIFICATION
fore limited its range. By the 1870s, the perfection of
breech loading magazine ries led to sniper ries having
eective accurateranges of up to a mile away from its
target.* [4]
During the Boer War, the latest breech-loading ried guns
with magazines and smokeless powder were used by both
sides. The British were equipped with the Lee-Metford
rie, while the Boers had received the latest Mauser ries from Germany. In the open terrain of South Africa
the marksman was a crucial component in battle. The
Lovat Scouts was a British Army unit formed in 1899
who were renowned for their expert marksmanship and
their stalking skills. They wore ghillie suits for camouage and were expertly skilled in observation. Hesketh
Hesketh-Prichard said of them that keener men never
lived.* [5] After the Boer War the Scouts became the
rst ocial sniper unit in the British Army.
303
to conduct that even until as recently as 1970, the reasoning for having trained snipers as a part of an army was
deemed questionable.* [14] In Britain, sniper ries were
not seen as being an integral part of an army until after
the Germans boasted so much success with sniper teams
during the early months of World War I. The British army
advisors supposed that the telescopic sights attached to
sniper ries were too easily damaged and thus not well
suited for military use.* [9] However, they soon realized
that these telescopic sights could be improved and made
sturdy enough to withstand a sniper rie shot.* [9]
It was not until World War I, that sniper ries began to

be used more regularly in battle and certain soldiers given
specialized training to use such a rie. In Germany these
trained snipers were given ries with telescopic sights,
which illuminated at night in order to improve their ac- Vietnam War era sniper ries, US Army XM21 (top) and USMC
curacy.* [6] German gunsmiths tted the scope above the M40 (bottom).
barrel for optimal accuracy.* [7]
Sniper ries have continued to be used consistently
throughout the later part of the 20th century in Korea,
Vietnam and the Middle East as an integral part of the
modern style of guerilla warfare. The durability, accuracy and power of modern sniper ries are beyond anyDuring World War II, the (7.6254mmR) Mosin-Nagant rie thing in use even 10 years ago and would seem amazing in
mounted with a telescopic sight was commonly used as a sniper comparison to any World War II sniper ries.* [16] Now
rie by Russian snipers.
sniper ries are extremely reliable and are able to re repeatedly without losing accuracy, whereas earlier sniper
During the War, the accuracy of the sniper rie was ries would lose accuracy the more consistently they were
greatly improved.* [8] By the end of World War II snipers used due to wear and tear.* [17] Sniper ries continue to
were reported to providereasonable accuracyover 600 be adapted and improved upon with the eective range
m (656 yd) with anything over this range being unpre- of modern sniper ries exceeding 1,000 m (1,094 yd),
dictable.* [9] It was during World War I and II that the which make it one of the most accurate, deadly and ewordsniperbegan to be used commonly, whereas pre- cient weapons in use now.* [17]
viously those who were armed with sniper ries were referred to as sharpshooters, or marksmen.* [10]
These marksmen, wielding sniper ries, had a drastic
and demoralizing eect on the battleeld.* [11] Soldiers
would often remain hidden in foxholes, or trenches so
as not to expose themselves to the deadly accuracy of
a sniper. Some soldiers even began to disregard orders
from commanding ocers to protect against potential
harm, which thus broke down the chain of command on
the battleeld.* [12] The sniper rie soon acquired the
reputation of being one of the most eective and ruthless weapons of war.* [13]
Though sniper ries had proved to be extremely eective
in combat, there was still a great reluctance for many militaries to adopt a trained sniper regiment.* [14] To eectively use a sniper rie a soldier had to go through particularly rigorous training, and most people did not make it
past the rst week.* [15] Sniper training was so expensive
41.2 Classication
Modern sniper ries can be divided into two basic classes:
military and law enforcement.
41.2.1 Military
Sniper ries manufactured for military service are often
designed for very high durability, range, reliability, sturdiness, serviceability and repairability under adverse environmental and combat conditions, at the sacrice of a
small degree of accuracy. Military snipers and sharpshooters may also be required to carry their ries and
other equipment for long distances, making it important
to minimize weight. Military organizations often operate
304
CHAPTER 41. SNIPER RIFLE
41.3 Distinguishing characteristics
U.S. Marine Corps SRT sniper team with an M24 sniper rie,
during sniper training.
Looking through a telescopic sight.
Macedonian special policeman holding a Zastava M76.
under strict budget constraints, which inuences the type

and quality of sniper ries they purchase.
41.2.2
Law enforcement
Sniper ries built or modied for use in law enforcement PSO-1 Sniper Scope Reticle
are generally required to have the greatest possible accu- 1 - Lead/deection scale
2 - Main targeting chevron
racy, but do not need to have as long a range.
Law enforcement-specic ries are usually used in noncombat (often urban) environments, so they do not have
the requirement to be as hardy or portable as military versions; therefore, they may be smaller, because they do not
need very long range.
3 - Bullet drop chevrons

4 - Rangender
The features of a sniper rie can vary widely depending

on the specic tasks it is intended to perform. Features
that may distinguish a sniper rie from other weapons are
the presence of a telescopic sight, unusually long overall
Some of the rst sniper ries designed specically to
length,* [18] a stock designed for ring from a prone pomeet police and other law-enforcement requirements
sition, and the presence of a bipod and other accessories.
were developed for West German police after the Munich
massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics. Many police
services and law enforcement organizations (such as the 41.3.1 Telescopic sight
U.S. Secret Service) now use ries designed for law enforcement purposes.
The single most important characteristic that sets a sniper
The Heckler & Koch PSG1 is one rie specically designed to meet these criteria and is often referred to as an
ideal example of this type of sniper rie. The FN Special Police Rie was built for, and is marketed to, law
enforcement rather than military agencies.
rie apart from other military or police small arms is the

mounting of a telescopic sight, which is relatively easy to
distinguish from smaller optical aiming devices found on
some modern assault ries and submachine guns. This
also allows the user to see farther.
41.3. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS

The telescopic sights used on sniper ries dier from
other optical sights in that they oer much greater magnication (more than 4 and up to 40), and have a much
larger objective lens (40 to 50 mm in diameter) for a
brighter image.
Most telescopic lenses employed in military or police
roles have special reticles to aid with judgment of distance, which is an important factor in accurate shot placement due to the bullet's trajectory.
41.3.2
Action
The choice between bolt-action and semi-automatic

(more commonly known as recoil or gas operation) is usually determined by specic requirements of the sniper's
role as envisioned in a particular organization, with each
design having advantages and disadvantages. For a given
cartridge, a bolt-action rie is cheaper to build and maintain, more reliable, and lighter, due to fewer moving parts
in the mechanism. In addition, the absence of uncontrolled automatic cartridge case ejection helped to avoid
revealing the rer's position. Semi-automatic weapons
can serve both as battle rie and sniper rie, and allow
for a greater rate (and hence volume) of re. As such ries may be modied service ries, an additional benet
can be commonality of operation with the issued infantry
rie. A bolt action is most commonly used in both military and police roles due to its higher accuracy and ease
of maintenance. Anti-materiel applications such as mine
clearing and special forces operations tend to use semiautomatics.
305
higher volume of re, but sacrice some long range accuracy. They are frequently built from existing selective
re battle ries or assault ries, often simply by adding a
telescopic sight and adjustable stock.
A police semi-automatic sniper rie may be used in situations that require a single sniper to engage multiple targets
in quick succession, and military semi-automatics such as
the M110 SASS are used in similar target-richenvironments.
41.3.3 Cartridge
In a military setting, logistical concerns are the primary
determinant of the cartridge used, so sniper ries are usually limited to rie cartridges commonly used by the military force employing the rie and match grade ammunition. Since large national militaries generally change
slowly, military rie ammunition is frequently battletested and well-studied by ammunition and rearms experts. Consequently, police forces tend to follow military
practices in choosing a sniper rie cartridge instead of trying to break new ground with less-perfected (but possibly
better) ammunition.
Before the introduction of the standard 7.6251mm
NATO (.308 Winchester) cartridge in the 1950s, standard military cartridges were the .30-06 Springeld or
7.6263mm (United States), .303 British (7.756mmR)
(United Kingdom) and 7.9257mm (8mm Mauser) (Germany). The .30-06 Springeld continued in service with
U.S. Marine Corps snipers during the Vietnam War in the
1970s, well after general adoption of the 7.6251mm. At
the present time, in both the Western world and within
NATO, 7.6251mm is currently the primary cartridge of
choice for military and police sniper ries.
Worldwide, the trend is similar. The preferred sniper cartridge in Russia is another .30 caliber military cartridge,
the 7.6254 mm R, which has similar performance to the
7.6251mm. This cartridge was introduced in 1891, and
both Russian sniper ries of the modern era, the MosinNagant and the Dragunov sniper rie, are chambered for
it.
A Marine manually extracts an empty cartridge and chambers

a new 7.6251mm round in his bolt-action M40A3 sniper rie.
The bolt handle is held in the shooter's hand and is not visible in
this photo.
Certain commercial cartridges designed with only performance in mind, without the logistical constraints of most
armies, have also gained popularity in the 1990s. These
include the 7 mm Remington Magnum (7.264mm),
.300 Winchester Magnum (7.8/7.6267mm), and the
.338 Lapua Magnum (8.670mm). These cartridges
oer better ballistic performance and greater eective
range than the 7.6251mm. Though they are not as powerful as .50 caliber cartridges, ries chambered for these
cartridges are not as heavy as ries chambered for .50
caliber ammunition, and are signicantly more powerful
than ries chambered for 7.6251mm.
A designated marksman rie (DMR) is less specialized

than a typical military sniper rie, often only intended to
extend the range of a group of soldiers. Therefore, when
a semi-automatic action is used it is due to its ability to
cross over into roles similar to the roles of standard issue
weapons. There may also be additional logistical advantages if the DMR uses the same ammunition as the more Snipers may also employ anti-materiel ries in sniping
common standard issue weapons. These ries enable a roles against targets such as vehicles, equipment and
306

attachment mount) to allow the tting of a sound suppressor. These suppressors often have a means of adjusting
the point of impact while tted.
Military sniper ries tend to have barrel lengths of 609.6
mm (24 inches) or longer, to allow the cartridge propellant to fully burn, reducing the amount of revealing muzzle ash and increasing muzzle velocity. Police sniper
ries may use shorter barrels to improve handling characteristics. The shorter barrels' muzzle velocity loss is
unimportant at closer ranges; the impact velocity of the
bullet is more than sucient.
M82A1 SASR (Special Applications Scoped Rie or SemiAutomatic Sniper Rie), a .50 caliber sniper rie used as an antimateriel rie.
41.3.5 Stock
structures, or for the long-range destruction of explosive

devices; these ries may also be used against personnel.
Anti-materiel ries tend to be semi-automatic and of a
larger caliber than anti-personnel ries, using cartridges
such as the .50 BMG, 12.7108mm Russian or even
14.5114mm Russian and 20mm. These large cartridges
are required to be able to re projectiles containing payloads such as explosives, armor piercing cores, incendiaries or combinations of these, such as the Raufoss
Mk211 projectile. Due to the considerable size and
weight of anti-materiel ries, 2- or 3-man sniper teams
become necessary.
41.3.4
Barrel
Barrels are normally of precise manufacture and of a

heavier cross section than more traditional barrels in order to reduce the change in impact points between a rst
shot from a cold barrel and a follow-up shot from a warm
barrel. Unlike many battle and assault ries, the bores are
usually not chromed to avoid inaccuracy due to an uneven
treatment.
When installed, barrels are often free-oated: i.e., installed so that the barrel only contacts the rest of the rie
at the receiver, to minimise the eects on impact point of
pressure on the fore-end by slings, bipods, or the sniper's
hands. The end of the barrel is usually crowned or machined to form a rebated area around the muzzle proper
to avoid asymmetry or damage, and consequent inaccuracy. Alternatively, some ries such as the Dragunov or
Walther WA2000 provide structures at the fore-end to
provide tension on the barrel in order to counteract barrel
drop and other alterations in barrel shape.
H-S Precision Pro Series 2000 HTR sniper rie with adjustable
stock and accessories rails.
The most common special feature of a sniper rie stock

is the adjustable cheek piece, where the shooter's cheek
meets the rear of the stock. For most ries equipped with
a telescopic sight, this area is raised slightly, because the
telescope is positioned higher than iron sights. A cheek
piece is simply a section of the stock that can be adjusted
up or down to suit the individual shooter. To further aid
this individual tting, the stock can sometimes also be adjusted for length, often by varying the number of inserts
at the rear of the stock where it meets the shooter's shoulder. Sniper stocks are typically designed to avoid making
contact with the barrel of the weapon.
41.3.6 Accessories
An adjustable sling is often tted on the rie, used by the
sniper to achieve better stability when standing, kneeling, or sitting. The sniper uses the sling to lock-in
by wrapping his non-ring arm into the sling forcing his
arm to be still. Non-static weapon mounts such as bipods,
monopods and shooting sticks are also regularly used to
aid and improve stability and reduce operator fatigue.
External longitudinal uting that contributes to heat dis- 41.4

sipation by increasing surface area, while simultaneously
decreasing the weight of the barrel, is sometimes used on
41.4.1
sniper-rie barrels.
Capabilities
Accuracy
Sniper-rie barrels may also utilise a threaded muzzle or A military-issue battle rie or assault rie is usually cacombination device (muzzle brake or ash suppressor and pable of between 3-6 minute of angle (MOA) (1-2 mrad)
41.4. CAPABILITIES
Comparison of 0.5, 1, and 3 MOA extreme spread levels against

a human torso at 800 m (left) and a human head at 100 m (right)
accuracy.* [19] A standard-issue military sniper rie is

typically capable of 1-3 MOA (0.3-1 mrad) accuracy,
with a police sniper rie capable of 0.25-1.5 MOA (0.10.5 mrad) accuracy. For comparison, a competition target or benchrest rie may be capable of accuracy up to
0.15-0.3 MOA (0.05-0.1 mrad).
A 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) average extreme spread for a 5-shot
group (meaning the center-to-center distance between the
two most distant bullet holes in a shot-group) translates
into a 69% probability that the bullet's point of impact
will be in a target circle with a diameter of 23.3 cm (9.2
in) at 800 m (875 yd).* [20] This average extreme spread
for a 5-shot group and the accompanying hit probability
are considered sucient for eectively hitting a human
shape at 800 m distance.
307
Precision Weapon Engagement Ranges & Dispersion according

to the US Army.
1.5 MOA (0.5 mrad) extreme vertical spread. All accuracy will be taken at the 1,500 meter point.* [29]* [30] In
2008 the US military adopted the M110 Semi-Automatic
Sniper System which has corresponding maximum allowed extreme spread of 1.8 MOA (0.5 mrad) for a 5-shot
group on 300 feet, using M118LR ammunition or equivalent.* [22]* [23]* [31] In 2010 the maximum bullet dispersion requirement for the M24 .300 Winchester Magnum
corresponds* [22]* [23] to 1.4 MOA extreme spread for 5
shot group on 100 meters.* [32]
Although accuracy standards for police ries do not
widely exist, ries are frequently seen with accuracy levels from 0.5-1.5 MOA (0.2-0.5 mrad).* [33] For typical
policing situations, an extreme spread accuracy level no
better than 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) is usually all that is required. This is because police typically employ their ries at short ranges.* [34] At 100 m or less, a rie with a
relatively low accuracy of only 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) should
be able to repeatedly hit a 3 cm (1.2 inch) target. A 3 cm
diameter target is smaller than the brain stem which is targeted by police snipers for its quick killing eect.* [35]
In 1982 a U.S. Army draft requirement for a Sniper

Weapon System was: The System will: (6) Have an accuracy of no more than 0.75 MOA (0.2 mrad) for a 5-shot
group at 1,500 meters when red from a supported, nonbenchrest position.* [21] Actual Sniper Weapon System
(M24) adopted in 1988 has stated maximum eective
range of 800 meters and a maximum allowed average
mean radius (AMR) of 1.9 inches at 300 yards from a
machine rest, what corresponds to a 0.6 MOA (0.5 mrad)
41.4.2 Maximum eective range
extreme spread for a 5-shot group when using 7.62 51
mm M118 Special Ball cartridges.* [22]* [23]* [24]
Unlike police sniper ries, military sniper ries tend to be
A 2008 United States military market survey for a employed at the greatest possible distances so that range
Precision Sniper Rie (PSR) calls for 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) advantages like the increased diculty to spot and engage
extreme vertical spread for all shots in a 5-round group the sniper can be exploited.
red at targets at 300, 600, 900, 1,200 and 1,500 meters.* [25]* [26] In 2009 a United States Special Oper- The most popular military sniper ries (in terms of
ations Command market survey calls for 1 MOA (0.3 numbers in service) are chambered for 7.62 mm (0.30
mrad) extreme vertical spread for all shots in a 10-round inch) caliber ammunition, such as 7.6251mm and
group red at targets at 300, 600, 900, 1,200 and 1,500 7.6254mm R. Since sniper ries of this class must
meters.* [27]* [28] The 2009 Precession Sniper Rie re- compete with several other types of military weapons
quirements state that the PSR when red without sup- with similar range, snipers invariably must employ skilled
pressor shall provide a condence factor of 80% that eldcraft to conceal their position.
the weapon and ammunition combination is capable of The recent trend in specialized military sniper ries is
holding 1 MOA extreme vertical spread. This shall be towards larger calibers that oer relatively favorable hit
calculated from 150 ten (10) round groups that were probabilities at greater range, such as the anti-personnel
red unsuppressed. No individual group shall exceed .338 Lapua Magnum cartridge and anti-materiel car-
308
tridges like the .50 BMG and the 14.5114mm. This

allows snipers to take fewer risks, and spend less time
nding concealment when facing enemies that are not
equipped with similar weapons.
[4] Raudzens, George. War-Winning Weapons: The Measurement of Technological Determinism in Military History. The Journal of Military History. vol. 54, no. 4,
1990, p. 415.
Maximum range claims made by military organizations

and materiel manufacturers regarding sniper weapon systems are not based on consistent or strictly scientic criteria. The problem is only the bullet interacts after a relatively long ight path with the target (can also be a materiel target for a sniper bullet). This implies that variables such as the minimal required hit probability, local atmospheric conditions, properties and velocity of the
employed bullet (parts), properties of the target and the
desired terminal eect are major relevant factors that determine the maximum eective range of the employed
system.
[5] Lovat Scouts, Sharpshooters - United Kingdom.

[6] Pegler, Martin. Sniper Ries: From the 19th to the 21st
Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010, p. 31.
Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010, p. 36
[8] Pegler, Martin. Out Of Nowhere: A History Of The Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004, p. 222.
[9]Telescopic Sights For Ries.The British Medical Journal. vol. 1, no. 2891, 1916, p. 765.
41.5 See also

Longest recorded sniper kills
Long range shooting
Related military roles
Designated marksman
Scout Sniper
Sniper
Related military weapons
Anti-materiel rie
Anti-tank rie
Assault rie
Battle rie
Carbine rie
Designated marksman rie
List of sniper ries
[12] Pegler, Martin. Out Of Nowhere: A History Of The Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004, p. 19-20.
[13] Raudzens, George. War-Winning Weapons: The Measurement of Technological Determinism in Military History. The Journal of Military History. vol. 54, no. 4,
1990, p. 420.
[15] Lebleu, Jon. Long Rie: One Man's Deadly Sniper Missions in Iraq and Afghanistan. Guilford: The Lyons Press,
2008, p. 11.
[17] Popenker, Max. Modern sniper ries. World Guns,
2001.
[18] The Ultimate Sniper: an Advanced Training Manual
for Military and Police Snipers, Maj. John L. Plaster, 1993. The information about counter-sniper operations describes techniques for identifying snipers amongst
groups of other soldiers. The most easily recognizable feature of a sniper from a great distance is the fact that the
sniper's rie is longer than all the others.
[19] T.W. Lee. Military Technologies of the World. p. 237.
41.6 Notes
[1] Whitworth Rie.
[2]Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 19By Institution of Civil Engineers
(Great Britain)
[3] Pegler, Martin (2011). Out of Nowhere: A history of the
military sniper, from the Sharpshooter to Afghanistan. Osprey Publishing. Retrieved 2013-11-18.
[20] Statistical notes on rie group patterns by Robert E.

Wheeler
[21] AMSAA Technical report No. 461(PDF). Retrieved
2013-08-17.
[22] http://www.bobwheeler.com/guns/GroupStat.pdf Statistical notes on rie group patterns
[23] http://enotus.blog.tut.by/2009/04/09/
rasseivanie-vyistrelov-kuchnost-pokazateli-i-zavisimost/
(in Russian)
[24] MIL-R-71126(AR) at everyspec.com. Retrieved 26

October 2014.
[25] US Special Operations Considers A ".338Sniper Rie
[26] Precession Sniper Rie - Solicitation Number: H9222209-PSR. Fbo.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-17.
[27] Precision Sniper Rie (PSR) - Solicitation Number:
H92222-09-PSR2. Fbo.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-17.
[28] Tom Beckstrand (2009-07-01). SOCOM PSR Contenders. Tactical-life.com. Retrieved 2013-08-17.
[29] Precision Sniper Ries Systems (PSR) Draft Go/No-Go
Requirements (PDF). Retrieved 2013-08-17.
[30] Precision Sniper Rie (PSR) Vendor Questionnaire
(PDF). Retrieved 2013-08-17.
[31]
[32] M24 Sniper Weapon System Reconguration.
Fbo.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-17.
[33] The FBI, a national-level policing organization, has recently specied an accuracy level of 0.5 MOA for 5 shots
at 100 yd for sniper ries issued to their SWAT teams:
Johnson, D: Precision Pair, Guns & Ammo, February
2005.
[34] Minimum documented range is 5 yards, maximum documented range is 187 yards: Police Sniper Utilization Survey, American Sniper Association, 2006, full report available to military and law enforcement agencies only. Some
information publicly available from The Ultimate Sniper:
an Advanced Training Manual for Military and Police
Snipers, Major John Plaster, 1993.
[35] Police Sniper Training, Major John Plaster, 1990.
[36] Approximate maximum eective ranges of common cartridges when used in an adequately accurate rie system with special long-range high accuracy ammunition at International Standard Atmosphere sea level conditions Common Calibers Used by Snipers</ref> |- !
7.6239mm | 600 m |- ! 5.5645mm | 600 m <ref
name="SC">Philippine MSSR - Marine Scout Sniper
Rie - Sniper Central.com. Retrieved 2009-05-22.Marine Scout Sniper Rie. Retrieved 2011-09-19.]
41.7 References
Tobias, Ronald (1981). They Shoot to Kill: A
Psycho-History of Criminal Sniping. Boulder, Colorado: Paladin Press. ISBN 0-87364-207-4.
De Haas, Frank (1995). Bolt Action Ries. Krause
Publications. ISBN 0-87349-168-8.
Lebleu, Jon (2008). Long Rie: One Man's Deadly
Sniper Missions in Iraq and Afghanistan. Guilford:
The Lyons Press. ISBN 978-1599214405.
309
Pegler, Martin (2004). Out of Nowhere: A History
of the Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
ISBN 978-1846031403.
Pegler, Martin (2010). Sniper Ries: From the 19th
to the 21st Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
ISBN 978-1849083980.
""Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers"". vol. 19. Institution of Civil Engineers
(Great Britain). 1860.
Raudzens, George (1990).
""War-Winning
Weapons: The Measurement of Technological
Determinism in Military History"". vol.54 (no.4).
The Journal of Military History. p. 403434.
""Telescopic Sights for Ries"". vol.1 (no.2891).
The British Medical Journal. 1916. p. 765.
Popenker, Max (2001). Modern Sniper Ries.
http://world.guns.ru/sniper-e.html.
41.8 External links

Modern Firearms list of sniper ries
SniperCentral list of sniper ries
Tack Driving Tactical Rie from Tac Ops Detailed overview of the accurization process for a .25
MOA rie
Detailed accuracy articles, by barrel maker Dan Lilja
Detail of Russian snipers and sniper ries of World
War Two by Chris Eger, military historian
demigodllc.com: Practical long-range rie shooting
Chapter 42
Submachine gun
cause they re pistol-caliber ammunition, for example,
the MP-40 and MP5, where MPstands for Maschinenpistole (machine pistolin German).* [5] However,
the term "machine pistol" is also used to describe a
handgun-style* [6] rearm capable of fully automatic or
burst re, such as the Stechkin and the H&K VP70.
Personal Defence Weapons (PDW) such as the FN P90
and H&K MP7 are also commonly referred to as submachine guns.* [3] In addition, some compact assault ries,
such as the Colt XM177, HK53 and AKS-74U, are also
referred to as SMGs, because they are used in the submachine gun role.* [7]
42.1 History
42.1.1 1900s to 1920s
General John T. Thompson holding a Thompson M1921
A submachine gun (SMG) is an air-cooled, magazinefed, automatic carbine designed to re pistol cartridges.
The term submachine gunwas coined by John T.
Thompson, the inventor of the Thompson submachine
gun.* [1]
The submachine gun was developed during World War
I (19141918). At its zenith in World War II (1939
1945), millions of SMGs were made. Today, submachine guns have been largely replaced by assault ries, Artillery Luger P08 pistol with snail-drum magazine and removwhich have a greater eective range and are capable of able stock.
penetrating the ballistic helmets and body armor used by
modern infantrymen.* [2] However, submachine guns are
still widely used by police and military special forces,
who value the SMG's reduced recoil and noise signature, especially when suppressed. Its reduced risk of
overpenetration is also a particularly valuable trait to police forces.
There are some inconsistencies in the classication of
submachine guns.* [3] British Commonwealth sources often refer to SMGs as machine carbines.* [4]* [3] The Bergmann MP18 was the world's rst practical submachine
Other sources refer to SMGs as machine pistolsbe- gun
310
42.1. HISTORY
In the early 20th century, experimental machine pistols
were made by converting pistols such as the Luger P-08
and Mauser C96 from semiautomatic to full-automatic
operation and adding detachable stocks. Carbine-type automatic weapons ring pistol rounds were developed during the latter stages of World War I by Italy, Germany and
the United States. Their improved repower oered an
advantage in trench warfare.* [8]
311
and other U.S. police forces themselves showed no reluctance to use and prominently display these weapons.
Eventually, the submachine gun was gradually accepted
by many military organizations, especially as World War
II loomed, with many countries developing their own designs.
In 1915, the Italians introduced the Villar-Perosa aircraft 42.1.2

machine gun. It red pistol-caliber 9mm Glisenti ammunition, but was not a true submachine gun, as it was originally designed as a mounted weapon. This odd design
was then modied into the Beretta OVP carbine-type submachine gun, which then evolved into the Beretta Model
1918 after the end of World War I. Both the Beretta OVP
and the Model 1918 had a traditional wooden stock, a 25round top-fed box magazine, and had a cyclic rate of re
of 900 rounds per minute.
1930s to 1940s
The Germans initially used heavier versions of the P08

pistol equipped with a larger-capacity snail-drum magazine and a longer barrel. By 1918, Bergmann Waenfabrik had developed the MP 18, the rst practical submachine gun. This weapon red the 919mm Parabellum
round and used the same 32-round snail-drum magazine
as the Luger P-08. The MP18 was used in signicant Beretta Model 38
numbers by German stormtroopers employing inltration
tactics, achieving some notable successes in the nal year
of the war. However, these were not enough to prevent
Germany's collapse in November 1918. After WWI, the
MP18 would evolve into the MP28/II SMG, which incorporated a simple 32-round box magazine, a semi & full
auto selector, and other minor improvements.* [9]
The iconic MP40 9mm Parabellum submachine gun with stock

extended.
Thompson M1921 SMG with 100 round drum magazine
The Thompson submachine gun had been in development

at approximately the same time as the Bergmann and the
Beretta. However, the war ended before prototypes could
be shipped to Europe.* [10] Although it had missed its
chance to be the rst purpose-designed submachine gun
to enter service, it became the basis for later weapons and
had the longest active service life of the three.
Suomi M31 submachine with 70 round drum magazine attached,

20 and 50 round box magazines.
In the interwar period the Tommy Gunor Chicago

Typewriterbecame notorious in the U.S. as a gangster's
weapon; the image of pinstripe-suited James Cagney
types wielding drum-magazine Thompsons caused some PPSh-41 with 71 round drum magazine
military planners to shun the weapon. However, the FBI
312
CHAPTER 42. SUBMACHINE GUN

1938 was not available in large numbers until 1943. The
38 was made in a successive series of improved and simplied models all sharing the same basic layout. The
Beretta has two triggers, the front for semi-auto and rear
for full-auto. Most Models use standard wooden stocks,
although, some models were tted with an MP 40-style
under-folding stock and are commonly mistaken for the
German SMG. The 38 series was extremely robust and
proved very popular with both Axis forces and Allied
troops (who used captured Berettas).* [11] It is considered the most successful and eective Italian small arm
of World War II. The 38 series is the longest serving of
the worlds SMGs, and later models can still be seen in the
hands of Italian military and police forces.
STEN MK II
M3 Grease Guntop & M1A1 Tommy Gunbottom
Czechoslovak Sa vz. 25
In 1939, the Germans introduced the 9 mm Parabellum MP38 during the invasion of Poland. However, the
MP38 production was still just starting and only a few
thousand were in service at the time. It proved to be
far more practical and eective in close quarters combat than the standard-issue German Kar 98K bolt-action
rie. From it, the nearly identical, MP40 was developed
and made in large numbers; about a million were made
during World War II. The MP40 was lighter than the
MP38. It also used more stamped parts, making it faster
and cheaper to produce.* [12] The MP38 and MP40 were
the rst SMGs to use plastic furniture and a practical folding stock.* [12] They would set the fashion for all future
SMG designs.* [12]
During the Winter War, the badly outnumbered Finnish
used the Suomi KP/31 in large numbers against the
Russians with devastating eect.* [13] Finnish ski troops
became known for appearing out of the woods on one side
of a road, raking Soviet columns with SMG re and disappearing back into the woods on the other side. During
the Continuation War, the Finnish Sissi patrols would often equip every soldier with KP/31s. The Suomi red 9
mm Parabellum ammo from a 71-round drum magazine
(although often loaded with 74 rounds). This SMG
showed to the world the importance of the submachine
gun to the modern warfare.* [13] Prompting the development, adoption and mass production of submachine
guns by most of the World's armies. The Suomi was used
in combat until the end of Lapland war, was widely exported* [13] and remained in service to the late 1970s.
In 1940, the Russians introduced the 7.6225mm PPD40 and later PPSh-41 in response to their experience during the Winter War against Finland. The PPSh's 71 round
drum magazine is a copy of the Suomi magazine. The
USSR would go on to make over 6 million PPSh-41 by
the end of World War II. The Soviet Union had elded
large numbers of submachine guns, with whole infantry
battalions being armed with little else. Even in the hands
MAT-49 on display
of conscripted soldiers with minimal training, the volume
of re produced by massed submachine guns could be
The Italians were among the rst to develop submachine overwhelming.
guns during World War I. However, they were slow to In 1941, Britain adopted the 9 mm Parabellum
produce them during World War II. The Beretta Model
42.1. HISTORY
Lanchester submachine gun. Following the Dunkirk
evacuation, and with no time for the usual research and
development for a new weapon, it was decided to make a
direct copy of the German MP 28. However, the Lanchester proved to be dicult and expensive to manufacture.
Shortly thereafter, the much simpler, cheaper and faster
to make STEN submachine gun was developed. Over 4
million STEN Guns were made during World War II. The
STEN gun was so cheap and easy to make that Germany
started manufacturing their own copy (the MP 3008) towards the end of World War II. After the war, the British
replaced the STEN with the Sterling submachine gun.
Britain also used many M1928 Thompson submachine
guns during World War II.
313
in Africa and the Middle East with variants made by several countries. The vz. 23 inspired the development of
the Uzi submachine gun.* [15]
In 1949, France introduced the MAT-49 to replace the
hodgepodge of French, American, British, German and
Italian SMGs in French service after WWII. The 9mm
Parabellum MAT-49 is an inexpensive stamped steel
SMG with a telescoping wire stock, a pronounced folding
magazine housing and a grip safety. Thiswildebeast like
designproved to be an extremely reliable and eective
SMG, and was used by the French well into the 1980s. It
was also widely exported to Africa, Asia and the Middle
East.
The United States and its allies used the Thompson submachine gun, especially the simplied M1. However, 42.1.3
the Thompson was still expensive and slow to produce.
Therefore, U.S. developed the M3 submachine gun or
Grease Gunin 1942, followed by the improved M3A1
in 1944. The M3 was not more eective than the Tommy
Gun. However, it was made primarily of stamped parts
and welded together. So, it could be produced much
faster and at fraction of the cost of a Thompson. It could
be congured to re either .45 ACP or 9mm Luger ammunition. The M3A1 was among the longest serving submachine guns designs, being produced into the 1960s and
serving in US forces into the 1980s.
1950s to 1990s
After World War II, "...new submachine gun designs appeared almost every week to replace the admittedly rough
The UZI
and ready designs which had appeared during the war.
Some (the better ones) survived, most rarely got past the
glossy brochure stage.* [14] Most of these survivors were
cheaper, easier and faster to make than their predecessors.
As such, they were widely distributed.
In 1945, Sweden introduced the 9mm Parabellum Carl
Gustav M/45 with a design borrowing from and improving on many design elements of earlier submachine-gun
designs. It has a tubular stamped steel receiver with a
side folding stock. The M/45 was widely exported, and
especially popular with CIA operatives and U.S. Special
Forces during the Vietnam War. In U.S. service it was
known as the Swedish-K.
In 1946, Denmark introduced the Madsen M-46, and
in 1950, an improved model the Madsen M-50. These
9mm Parabellum stamped steel SMGs featured a unique
clamshell type design, a side folding stock and a gripsafety on the magazine housing. The Madsen was widely
exported and especially popular in Latin America, with
variants made by several countries.
Beretta M12S
In 1948, Czechoslovakia introduced the Sa vz. 23 series.

This 9mm Parabellum SMG introduced several innovations: a progressive trigger for selecting between semiautomatic and full auto re, a telescoping bolt that extends
forward wrapping around the barrel and a vertical handThe Heckler & Koch MP5
grip housing the magazine and trigger mechanism. The
vz. 23 series was widely exported and especially popular
In 1954, Israel introduced a 9mm Parabellum open-bolt,
314
CHAPTER 42. SUBMACHINE GUN
blowback-operated submachine gun called the Uzi (af- larly when loaded with subsonic ammunition. Variants of
ter its designer Uziel Gal). The Uzi was one of the rst the Sterling and Heckler & Koch MP5 have been manuweapons to use a telescoping bolt design with the maga- factured with integral suppressors.
zine housed in the pistol grip for a shorter weapon. The
Uzi has become one of the most popular submachine guns
in the world, with over 10 million units sold,* [16] more 42.2 Personal defense weapons
than any other submachine gun.* [17]
In 1959, Beretta introduced the Model 12. This 9mm
Parabellum submachine gun was a complete break with
previous Beretta designs.* [18] It is a small, compact, very
well made SMG and among the rst to use telescoping
bolt design.* [18] The M12 was designed for mass production and was made largely of stamped steel and welded together.* [18] It is identied by its tubular shape receiver,
double pistol grips, a side folding stock and the magazine
housed in front of the trigger guard. The M12 uses the
same magazines as the Model 38 series.
In the 1960s, Heckler & Koch developed the 9mm Parabellum MP5 submachine gun. The MP5 is based on FN P90
the G3 rie and uses the same closed-bolt roller-delayed
blowback operation system. This makes the MP5 more
accurate than open-bolt SMGs, such as the UZI. The
MP5 is also one of the most widely used submachine guns
in the world,* [19] having been adopted by 40 nations and
numerous military, law enforcement, intelligence, and security organizations.* [20]
In the 1970s, extremely compact submachine guns, such
as the .45ACP Mac-10 and .380 ACP Mac-11, were developed to be used with silencers or suppressors.* [21]
While these SMGs received enormous publicity, and
were prominently seen in lms and television, they were
not widely adopted by military or police forces.* [21]
These smaller weapons led other manufacturers to develop their own compact SMGs, such as the Micro-UZI
and the H&K MP5K.
In the 1980s, Colt developed the Colt SMG and in the
1990s Izhmash developed the Vityaz-SN. Both are 9mm An MP7A1 with a 20-round magazine, and a reex sight
Parabellum, closed-bolt blowback-operated SMGs based
Developed during the late 1980s, the personal defense
on the M16 and AK-47 ries respectively, and are widely
weapon (PDW) is touted as a further evolution of the
used by their country's police and security forces.
submachine gun. The PDW was created in response to
a NATO request for a replacement for 919mm Parabellum submachine guns. The PDW is a compact au42.1.4 Today
tomatic weapon that can defeat enemy body armor and
which can be used conveniently by non-combatant and
Today, submachine guns are facing sti competition from support troops, and as a close quarters battle weapon for
compact assault ries. Factors such as the increasing use special forces and counter-terrorist groups.* [22]* [23]
of body armor and logistical concerns have combined to Introduced in 1991, the FN P90 features a bullpup delimit the appeal of submachine guns. As a result, com- sign with a futuristic appearance. It has a 50-round magpact assault ries have been replacing submachine guns azine housed horizontally above the barrel, an integrated
in many roles.
reex sight and fully ambidextrous controls.* [24] A simHowever, SMGs are still used by police and military
special forces units for close quarters combat. They are
also used as defense weapons for vehicle and air crews.
SMGs still have a strong hold on niche users, due to their
reduced size, recoil and muzzle blast. Submachine guns
also lend themselves to the use of suppressors, particu-
ple blowback automatic weapon, it was designed to re

the FN 5.728mm cartridge which can penetrate soft
body armor.* [22]* [23] The P90 was designed to have a
length no greater than a man's shoulder width, to allow it
to be easily carried and maneuvered in tight spaces, such
as the inside of an armored vehicle.* [24]
315
Introduced in 2001, the Heckler & Koch MP7 is a direct [9] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition.
by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications.
rival to the FN P90. It is a more conventional-looking
2000. pages 116
design. The MP7 uses a short-stroke piston gas system as
used on H&K's G36 and HK416 assault ries, in place [10] Frank Iannamico, American Thunder: The Military
of a blowback system traditionally seen on submachine
Thompson Submachine Gun 1928, 1928A1, M1, M1A1,
guns.* [25] The MP7 uses 20-, 30- and 40-round magaMoose Lake Publishing, 2000.
zines and res 4.6x30mm ammunition which can penetrate soft body armor. Due to the heavy use of polymers [11] Dunlap, Roy F., Ordnance Went Up Front, Samworth
Press, (1948), p. 58
in its construction, the MP7 is much lighter than older
SMG designs, being only 1.2 kg (2.65 lb) with 20-round [12] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition.
empty magazine.
2000. pages 118-120
42.3 See also

Firearm action
List of submachine guns
Semi-automatic pistol
Sputter Gun
Submachine gun competition
42.4 References
[1] http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+Thompson+
submachine+gun%3A+shooting+a+20th+century+icon.
-a0172907495
[13] armies.http://world.guns.ru/smg/fi/suomi-m31-e.html
[14] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition.
2000. pages 93-94
[15] Hogg, Ian V. (1979). Guns and How They Work. New
York: Everest House. p. 157. ISBN 0-89696-023-4.
[16] McManners, Hugh (2003). Ultimate Special Forces. New
York: DK Publishing. p. 157. ISBN 0-7894-9973-8.
OCLC 53221575. Retrieved 6 January 2011.
[17] Hackathorn, Ken (1995). Using the Uzi. Fighting
Firearms (Soldier of Fortune) 3 (1): 1823.
2000. pages 138-139
[19] Hogg, Ian (2002). Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Jane's
Information Group. ISBN 0-00-712760-X.
[20] Tilstra, Russell C. (2012). Small Arms for Urban Combat.
US: McFarland. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-7864-6523-1.
[2] http://www.defensereview.com/
submachine-guns-smgs-outpaced-by-today%E2%80%
99s-modern-short-barreled-rifles-sbrssub-carbines-or-still-a-viable-tool-for-close-quarters-battleclose-quarters-combat-cqbcqc/
2000. page 166
2000. pages 93-94.
[22] Miller, David (2001). The Illustrated Directory of 20th

Century Guns. London: Salamander Books Ltd. ISBN
9781840652451.
[4] Sten Machine Carbine, by Peter Laidler & R Blake

Stevens, Collector Grade Publications,Canada; 1ST edition (December 2000)
[23] Oliver, David (2007). In the Line of Fire. Global

Defence Review. Archived from the original on October
16, 2006. Retrieved October 19, 2009.

2000. pages 93-94 & 116-125.
[24] Kevin, Dockery (2007). Future Weapons. New York:

Berkley Trade. ISBN 9780425217504.
[6] James Smyth Wallace. Chemical Analysis of Firearms,

Ammunition, and Gunshot Residue. CRC Press. 2008. p.
xxiii
2000. pages 125 & 166-167.
[8] Curley, Robert, ed. (2009). The Britannica Guide to Inventions That Changed the Modern World (First ed.). The
Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 291292. ISBN 1-61530064-3. Retrieved 2011-05-19.
[25] Cutshaw, Charles Q. (2003).Heckler & Koch's cuttingedge compacts G36C and MP7 PDW: when less really is
more. Guns Magazine.
42.5 External links

Submachine Gun at Encyclopdia Britannica
Chapter 43
Surveillance aircraft
Northrop representative quoted by Flight International

(2010)
In order to be surveillance, it is critical for the collection
system, the target, and the decision maker to be in contact
with each other in such a way that the actions of the enemy
are relayed in real-time to those who can make decisions
to counter the enemy actions.* [2]
from USAF research report, 2001
A Raytheon Sentinel of the RAF showing its radar pod.
A surveillance aircraft is an aircraft used for

surveillancecollecting information over time. They are
operated by military forces and other government agencies in roles such as intelligence gathering, battleeld
surveillance, airspace surveillance, observation (e.g.
artillery spotting), border patrol and shery protection.
This article concentrates on aircraft used in those roles,
rather than for trac monitoring, law enforcement and
similar activities.
The terms surveillanceand reconnaissancehave

sometimes been used interchangeably, but, in the military context, a distinction can be drawn between surveillance, which monitors a changing situation in real time,
and reconnaissance, which captures a static picture for
analysis.
Surveillance is sometimes grouped with Intelligence,
Target acquisition and Reconnaissance under the title
ISTAR.
Surveillance aircraft usually carry no armament, or only Observation was the term used for surveillance when the
limited defensive armament. A surveillance aircraft does main sensor was the human eye.
not necessarily require high-performance capability or
stealth characteristics. It may be a modied civilian aircraft. Surveillance aircraft have also included moored
balloons (e.g. TARS) and Unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs).
43.2 History
43.1 Denitions
43.2.1 Pre World War I
The Global Hawk family's US DoD designation - RQ4 - may belie the Block 40's true calling. Ris the
Pentagon's designator for reconnaissance, .... But the
true calling ... is surveillance, not reconnaissance.
Reconnaissance missions are typically more oriented for
long-term intelligence-gathering purposes. The surveillance mission is much more integral to the kill chain, with
more tactically oriented operations servicing the shortterm decision-making process.* [1]
Main article: History of military ballooning

In 1794, during the Battle of Fleurus, the French Aerostatic Corps balloon L'Entreprenant remained aoat for
nine hours. French ocers used the balloon to observe
the movements of the Austrian Army, dropping notes to
the ground for collection by the French Army,* [3] and
also signalled messages using semaphore.* [4]
316
43.3. ROLES
317
duction of airborne radar.
43.3 Roles
43.3.1 Maritime patrol
US Navy P-3B Orion near Hawaii
Main article: Maritime patrol aircraft

The rst surveillance balloon, l'Entreprenant, 1794. Illustration from the late 19th Century.
Maritime patrol aircraft are typically large, slow machines capable of ying continuously for many hours,
with a wide range of sensors. Such aircraft include
the Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod, the Breguet Atlantique,
43.2.2 World War I
the Tupolev Tu-95, the Lockheed P-2 Neptune and the
One of the rst aircraft used for surveillance was the Lockheed P-3 Orion/CP-140 Aurora.
Rumpler Taube during World War I, when aviators like
Fred Zinn evolved entirely new methods of reconnaissance and photography. The translucent wings of the 43.3.2 Law enforcement
plane made it very dicult for ground based observers
to detect a Taube at an altitude above 400 m. The French Main article: Surveillance Aerial surveillance
also called this plane the Invisible Aircraft, and it
is sometimes also referred to as the world's very rst Predator UAVs have been used by the U.S. for border
stealth plane. German Taube aircraft were able to de- patrol.* [6]
tect the advancing Russian army during the Battle of Tannenberg (1914).
43.3.3 Battleeld and airspace surveillance

43.2.3
World War II and later
During World War II, light aircraft such as the Auster

were used as air observation posts. Ocers from the
British Royal Artillery were trained as pilots to y AOP
aircraft for artillery spotting.* [5] The air observation role
was generally taken over by light observation helicopters,
such as the Hughes OH-6 Cayuse, from the mid-1960s.
Pre war, the British identied a need for an aircraft that
could follow and observe the enemy eet at a distance.
To this end the slow-ying Airspeed Fleet Shadower and
General Aircraft Fleet Shadower designs were built and
own in 1940 but they were made obsolete by the intro-
Main articles: Airborne early warning and control and

Airborne ground surveillance
43.4 Current use

Unmanned (UAV) surveillance aircraft have been deployed or are under development in many countries, including Israel, the UK, the United States, Canada, China,
India, South Africa and Pakistan
Unmanned surveillance UAVs include both airships
318
such as Sky Sentinel* [7] and HiSentinel 80* [8]and airplanes.
Most air forces around the world lack dedicated surveillance planes.
Several countries adapt aircraft for electronic intelligence
(ELINT) gathering. The Beech RC-12 Super King Air
and Boeing RC-135 Rivet Joint are examples of this activity.
43.5 See also

MikroKopter
Reconnaissance aircraft
Treaty on Open Skies
43.6 References
[1] Next generation of Global Hawks ready to roll, Flight International, August 16, 2010
[2] The Rise of Surveillance, Lt Col James O. Norman,
USAF (page 18)
[3] F. Stansbury Haydon, Military Ballooning During the
Early Civil War, pp.5-15
[4] Charles Coulston Gillispie, Science and Polity in France:
The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Years, pp. 372-373
[5] Canadian Warplane Heritage: Auster Beagle AOP
[6] LA Now Southern California, Secember 7, 2009,.
Latimesblogs.latimes.com. December 7, 2009. Retrieved
May 20, 2010.
[7] Govers, Francis X., III (2013-06-11).Nevada company
launches silent Sky Sentinel UAV airship. gizmag.com.
[8] Perry, William D. (FallWinter 2010). Sentinel in the
Sky (PDF). Technology Today. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
43.7 External links

U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission: Military Use of Balloons During the Napoleonic Era
. Accessed April 1, 2007.
CHAPTER 43. SURVEILLANCE AIRCRAFT
Chapter 44
United States Army

The United States Army (USA) is the largest branch
the United States
of the Armed Forces of the United States that performs
Supporting the national policies
land-based military operations; and is one of the seven
Uniformed services of the United States. As the largest
Implementing the national objectives
and senior branch of the U.S. military, the modern U.S.
Army has its roots in the Continental Army, which was
Overcoming any nations responsible for aggressive
formed (14 June 1775) to ght the American Revolutionacts that imperil the peace and security of the United
ary War (177583)before the U.S. was established as a
States
country.* [5] After the Revolutionary War, the Congress
of the Confederation created the United States Army
on 3 June 1784, to replace the disbanded Continental 44.2 History
Army.* [6]* [7] The United States Army considers itself
descended from the Continental Army, and dates its inMain article: History of the United States Army
stitutional inception from the origin of that armed force
in 1775.* [5]
As a uniformed military service, the Army is part of the
Department of the Army, which is one of the three mil- 44.2.1 Origins
itary departments of the Department of Defense. The
U.S. Army is headed by a civilian ocer, the Secretary
of the Army, and by a chief military ocer, the Chief
of Sta of the Army. The ranking ocer of the U.S.
Army is the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Sta. In
the scal year 2011, the Regular Army (USA) reported
a strength of 546,057 soldiers; the Army National Guard
(ARNG) reported 358,078 soldiers, and the United States
Army Reserve (USAR) reported 201,166 soldiers; the
combined-component strength of the U.S. Army was
1,105,301 soldiers.* [3] As a branch of the armed forces,
the mission of the U.S. Army is to ght and win our
Nation's wars, by providing prompt, sustained, land dominance, across the full range of military operations and the
spectrum of conict, in support of combatant commanders.* [8]
Storming of Redoubt#10 in the Siege of Yorktown during the
44.1 Mission
American Revolutionary War prompted the British government

to begin negotiations, resulting in the Treaty of Paris and British
recognition of the United States of America.
The Continental Army was created on 14 June 1775

The United States Army serves as the land-based branch by the Continental Congress as a unied army for the
of the U.S. Armed Forces. 3062 of Title 10 US Code colonies to ght Great Britain, with George Washington
denes the purpose of the army as:* [9]* [10]
appointed as its commander.* [5] The army was initially
led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial
Preserving the peace and security and providing militias and who brought much of British military herfor the defense of the United States, the Common- itage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed,
wealths and possessions and any areas occupied by French aid, resources, and military thinking inuenced
319
320
CHAPTER 44. UNITED STATES ARMY
the new army. A number of European soldiers came on

their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben,
who taught the army Prussian tactics and organizational
skills.
caused his Indian Confederacy to collapse. Following

ending victories in the province of Upper Canada, which
dubbed the U.S. Army Regulars, by God!", British
troops were able to capture and burn Washington. The
regular army, however, proved they were professional and
capable of defeating the British army during the invasions
of Plattsburgh and Baltimore, prompting British agreement on the previously rejected terms of a status quo ante
bellum. Two weeks after a treaty was signed (but not ratied), Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of
New Orleans and became a national hero. Per the treaty
both sides returned to the status quo with no victor.
The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the

South 178081 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and
hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the enemy was weakest, to wear down the British forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but
lost a series of battles around New York City in 1776
and Philadelphia in 1777. With a decisive victory at
Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental
The army's major campaign against the Indians was
Army prevailed against the British.
After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars
given land certicates and disbanded in a reection of the (181858) to nally defeat the Seminoles and move them
republican distrust of standing armies. State militias be- to Oklahoma. The usual strategy in Indian wars was to
came the new nation's sole ground army, with the excep- seize control of the Indians winter food supply, but that
tion of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one was no use in Florida where there was no winter. The
battery of artillery guarding West Point's arsenal. How- second strategy was to form alliances with other Indian
ever, because of continuing conict with Native Amer- tribes, but that too was useless because the Seminoles had
icans, it was soon realized that it was necessary to eld destroyed all the other Indians*when they entered Florida
a trained standing army. The Regular Army was at rst in the late eighteenth century. [11]
very small, and after General St. Clair's defeat at the Battle of the Wabash, the Regular Army was reorganized as
the Legion of the United States, which was established in
1791 and renamed the United States Armyin 1796.
44.2.2
The U.S. Army fought and won the MexicanAmerican

War (18461848), which was a dening event for both
countries.* [12] The U.S. victory resulted in acquisition of
territory that eventually became all or parts of the states of
California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, Wyoming
and New Mexico.
19th century
Further information: Army on the Frontier

The War of 1812, the second and last American war
The Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil

War
General Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift

defenses as his troops repulse attacking Highlanders during the
defense of New Orleans, the nal major battle of the War of
1812
against the United Kingdom, was less successful for the

U.S. than the Revolution and Northwest Indian War
against natives had been, though it ended on a high note
for Americans also. After the taking control of Lake Erie
in 1813, the Americans were able to seize parts of western
Upper Canada, Burn York and Defeat Tecumseh, which
The American Civil War was the most costly war for the
U.S. in terms of casualties. After most slave states, located in the southern U.S., formed the Confederate States
of America, C.S. troops led by former U.S. Army ocers, mobilized a very large fraction of Southern white
manpower. Forces of the United States (theUnionor
the North) formed a large new volunteer army.
For the rst two years Confederate forces did well in set
battles but lost control of the border states.* [13] The Confederates had the advantage of defending a very large
country in an area where disease caused twice as many
deaths as combat. The Union pursued a strategy of seiz-
44.2. HISTORY
ing the coastline, blockading the ports, and taking control of the river systems. By 1863 the Confederacy was
being strangled. Its eastern armies fought well, but the
western armies were defeated one after another until the
Union forces captured New Orleans in 1862 along with
the Tennessee River. In the famous Vicksburg Campaign of 186265, Ulysses Grant seized the Mississippi
River and cut o the Southwest. Grant took command
of Union forces in 1864 and after a series of battles
with very heavy casualties, he had Lee under siege in
Richmond as William T. Sherman captured Atlanta and
marched through Georgia and the Carolinas. Lee lost his
Confederate capital in April 1865 and was captured at
Appomattox Court House; the other Confederate armies
quickly surrendered.
321
sure safety to lives and property. In 1916, Pancho Villa,
a major rebel leader, attacked Columbus, New Mexico,
prompting a U.S. intervention in Mexico until 7 February 1917. They fought the rebels and the Mexican federal
troops until 1918. The United States joined World War I
in 1917 on the side of Britain, France, Russia, Italy and
other allies. U.S. troops were sent to the front and were
involved in the last oences that ended the war. With the
armistice in November 1918, the army once again decreased its forces.
The war remains the deadliest conict in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 soldiers. Based
on 1860 census gures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to
43 died in the war, including 6.4% in the North and 18%
in the South.* [14]
Following the Civil War, the U.S. Army had the mission
of containing western tribes of Native Americans on their
reservations. There were many forts set up, and several
campaigns.
The key battles of the SpanishAmerican War of 1898
were fought by the Navy. Using mostly new volunteers,
the US Army defeated Spain in land campaigns in Cuba
and played the central role in suppressing a rebellion in 3rd battalion, 504th PIR advance in a snowstorm behind a tank,
January 1945
the Philippines.
44.2.3
20th century
American soldiers hunt Japanese inltrators during the

Bougainville Campaign
For a list of campaigns see List of United States Army

campaigns during World War II
Assault on a German bunker, France, circa 1918
Starting in 1910, the army began acquiring xed-wing

aircraft.* [15] In 1910, Mexico was having a civil war,
peasant rebels ghting government soldiers. The army
was deployed to American towns near the border to en-
The U.S. joined World War II after the Japanese attack on

Pearl Harbor. On the European front, U.S. Army troops
formed a signicant portion of the forces that captured
North Africa and Sicily. On D-Day and in the subsequent
liberation of Europe and defeat of Nazi Germany, millions of U.S. Army troops played a central role. In the
322
Pacic, U.S. Army soldiers participated alongside U.S.

Marines in capturing the Pacic Islands from Japanese
control. Following the Axis surrenders in May (Germany) and August (Japan) of 1945, army troops were
deployed to Japan and Germany to occupy the two defeated nations. Two years after World War II, the Army
Air Forces separated from the army to become the United
States Air Force in September 1947 after decades of
attempting to separate. Also, in 1948, the army was
desegregated by order of President Harry S. Truman.
army due to the use of drafted personnel, the unpopularity of the war with the American public, and frustrating
restrictions placed on the military by American political
leaders. While American forces had been stationed in the
Republic of Vietnam since 1959, in intelligence & advising/training roles, they did not deploy in large numbers
until 1965, after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. American
forces eectively established and maintained control of
the traditionalbattleeld, however they struggled to
counter the guerrilla hit and run tactics of the communist
Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army. On a tacThe end of World War II set the stage for the EastWest
confrontation known as the Cold War. With the outbreak tical level, American soldiers (and *the U.S. military as a
whole) did not lose a sizable battle. [16]
of the Korean War, concerns over the defense of Western
Europe rose. Two corps, V and VII, were reactivated under Seventh United States Army in 1950 and American
strength in Europe rose from one division to four. Hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops remained stationed in
West Germany, with others in Belgium, the Netherlands
and the United Kingdom, until the 1990s in anticipation
of a possible Soviet attack.
A U.S. Army infantry patrol moves up to assault the last North

Vietnamese Army position at Dak To, South Vietnam during Operation Hawthorne
U.S. Army soldiers look upon an Atomic bomb test of Operation

Buster-Jangle at the Nevada Test Site during the Korean War
During the Cold War, American troops and their allies

fought Communist forces in Korea and Vietnam. The Korean War began in 1950, when the Soviets walked out of a
U.N. Security meeting, removing their possible veto. Under a United Nations umbrella, hundreds of thousands of
U.S. troops fought to prevent the takeover of South Korea
by North Korea, and later, to invade the northern nation.
After repeated advances and retreats by both sides, and
the PRC People's Volunteer Army's entry into the war,
the Korean Armistice Agreement returned the peninsula
to the status quo in 1953.
During the 1960s the Department of Defense continued

to scrutinize the reserve forces and to question the number of divisions and brigades as well as the redundancy of
maintaining two reserve components, the Army National
Guard and the Army Reserve.* [17] In 1967 Secretary of
Defense Robert McNamara decided that 15 combat divisions in the Army National Guard were unnecessary and
cut the number to 8 divisions (1 mechanized infantry, 2
armored, and 5 infantry), but increased the number of
brigades from 7 to 18 (1 airborne, 1 armored, 2 mechanized infantry, and 14 infantry). The loss of the divisions
did not set well with the states. Their objections included
the inadequate maneuver element mix for those that remained and the end to the practice of rotating divisional
commands among the states that supported them. Under
the proposal, the remaining division commanders were
to reside in the state of the division base. No reduction,
however, in total Army National Guard strength was to
take place, which convinced the governors to accept the
plan. The states reorganized their forces accordingly between 1 December 1967 and 1 May 1968.
The Total Force Policy was adopted by Chief of Sta of

the Army General Creighton Abrams in the aftermath of
the Vietnam War and involves treating the three components of the army the Regular Army, the Army National
Guard and the Army Reserve as a single force.* [18] Believing that no U.S. president should be able to take the
The Vietnam War is often regarded as a low point for the United States (and more specically the U.S. Army) to
44.2. HISTORY
323
which deployed over 500,000 troops, the bulk of them
from U.S. Army formations, to drive out Iraqi forces.
The campaign ended in total victory, as Western coalition forces routed the Iraqi Army, organized along Soviet
lines, in just one hundred hours.
After Operation Desert Storm, the army did not see major combat operations for the remainder of the 1990s
but did participate in a number of peacekeeping activities. In 1990 the Department of Defense issued guidance forrebalancingafter a review of the Total Force
Policy,* [21] but in 2004, Air War College scholars concluded the guidance would reverse the Total Force Policy
M1 Abrams move out before the Battle of Al Busayyah during which is an essential ingredient to the successful application of military force.* [22]
the Gulf War
war without the support of the American people, Gen- 44.2.4
eral Abrams intertwined the structure of the three components of the army in such a way as to make extended
operations impossible, without the involvement of both
the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve.* [19]
21st century
The 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The

army converted to an all-volunteer force with greater
emphasis on training and technology. The GoldwaterNichols Act of 1986 created unied combatant commands bringing the army together with the other four
military services under unied, geographically organized
command structures. The army also played a role in the
invasions of Grenada in 1983 (Operation Urgent Fury)
and Panama in 1989 (Operation Just Cause).
Army Rangers from the 1st Ranger Battalion conduct a MOUT

exercise at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.
U.S. Army soldiers prepare to take La Comandancia in the El

Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City during the United States
invasion of Panama
Army Rangers take part in a raid during operation in Nahr-e

Saraj, Afghanistan
By 1989 Germany was nearing reunication and the

Cold War was coming to a close. Army leadership reacted by starting to plan for a reduction in strength. By
November 1989 Pentagon briefers were laying out plans
to reduce army end strength by 23%, from 750,000 to
580,000.* [20] A number of incentives such as early retirement were used. In 1990 Iraq invaded its smaller
neighbor, Kuwait, and U.S. land forces, quickly deployed
to assure the protection of Saudi Arabia. In January 1991
Operation Desert Storm commenced, a U.S.-led coalition
On September 11, 2001, 53 Army civilians (47 employees and six contractors) and 22 soldiers were among
the 125 victims killed in the Pentagon in a terrorist attack when American Airlines Flight 77 commandeered
by ve Al-Qaeda hijackers slammed into the western
side of the building, as part of the September 11 attacks.* [23] Lieutenant General Timothy Maude was the
highest-ranking military ocial killed at the Pentagon,
and the most senior U.S. Army ocer killed by foreign
action since the death of Lieutenant General Simon B.
324
Buckner, Jr. on June 18, 1945, in the Battle of Okinawa

during World War II.* [24]
In response to the September 11 attacks, and as part of
the Global War on Terror, U.S. and NATO forces invaded
Afghanistan in October 2001, displacing the Taliban government. The U.S. Army also led the combined U.S.
and allied invasion of Iraq in 2003. In the following
years the mission changed from conict between regular militaries to counterinsurgency, resulting in the deaths
of more than 4,000 U.S service members (as of March
2008) and injuries to thousands more.* [25]* [26] 23,813
insurgents* [27] were killed in Iraq between 20032011.
The army's chief modernization plan was the FCS program. Many systems were canceled and the remaining were swept into the BCT modernization program. U.S. general ocers, World War II, Europe
In response to Budget sequestration in 2013 the army
is planned to shrink to a size not seen since the WWII
buildup.* [28] The 2015 expenditure for Army research,
development and acquisition changed from $32 billion
the U.S. Volunteers on four separate occasions during
projected in 2012 for FY15, to $21 billion for FY15 exeach of the major wars of the nineteenth century. Dur*
pected in 2014. [29]
ing World War I, the "National Army" was organized to
ght the conict, replacing the concept of U.S. Volunteers.* [32] It was demobilized at the end of World War
44.3 Organization
I, and was replaced by the Regular Army, the Organized
Reserve Corps, and the State Militias. In the 1920s and
1930s, thecareersoldiers were known as the "Regular
Main article: Structure of the United States Army
Army" with the Enlisted Reserve Corpsand Ofcer Reserve Corpsaugmented to ll vacancies when
needed.* [33]
In 1941, the "Army of the United States" was founded
to ght World War II. The Regular Army, Army of the
United States, the National Guard, and Ocer/Enlisted
Reserve Corps (ORC and ERC) existed simultaneously.
After World War II, the ORC and ERC were combined
into the United States Army Reserve. The Army of the
United States was re-established for the Korean War and
Vietnam War and was demobilized upon the suspension
of the draft.* [33]
organization chart* [30]
44.3.1
Army components
The task of organizing the U.S. Army commenced in

1775.* [31] In the rst one hundred years of its existence,
the United States Army was maintained as a small peacetime force to man permanent forts and perform other
non-wartime duties such as engineering and construction works. During times of war, the U.S. Army was
augmented by the much larger United States Volunteers
which were raised independently by various state governments. States also maintained full-time militias which
could also be called into the service of the army.
Currently, the army is divided into the Regular Army, the

Army Reserve, and the Army National Guard.* [32] The
army is also divided into major branches such as Air Defense Artillery, Infantry, Aviation, Signal Corps, Corps of
Engineers, and Armor. Before 1903 members of the National Guard were considered state soldiers unless federalized (i.e., activated) by the President. Since the Militia
Act of 1903 all National Guard soldiers have held dual
status: as National Guardsmen under the authority of the
governor of their state or territory and, when activated,
as a reserve of the U.S. Army under the authority of the
President.
Since the adoption of the total force policy, in the aftermath of the Vietnam War, reserve component soldiers
have taken a more active role in U.S. military operations.
For example, Reserve and Guard units took part in the
Gulf War, peacekeeping in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and the
By the twentieth century, the U.S. Army had mobilized 2003 invasion of Iraq.
44.3. ORGANIZATION
44.3.2
325
Army commands and army service four military services belonging to the Department of Defense who advise the President of the United States, the
component commands
Secretary of Defense, and the National Security Council on operational military matters, under the guidance
of the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs
Headquarters, United States Department of the
of Sta.* [50]* [51] In 1986, the GoldwaterNichols Act
Army (HQDA):
mandated that operational control of the services follows
Source: U.S. Army organization* [47]
a chain of command from the President to the Secretary
of Defense directly to the unied combatant commanders, who have control of all armed forces units in their
44.3.3 Structure
geographic or function area of responsibility. Thus, the
secretaries of the military departments (and their respecMain article: Transformation of the United States Army tive service chiefs underneath them) only have the responThe United States Army is made up of three components: sibility to organize, train and equip their service components. The army provides trained forces to the combatant
commanders for use as directed by the Secretary of Defense.* [52]
U.S. Army Soldiers of 1st Battalion, 175th Infantry Regiment,

Maryland Army National Guard conduct an urban cordon and
search exercise as part of the army readiness and training evaluation program in the mock city of Balad at Fort Dix, NJ
The 1st Cavalry Division's combat aviation brigade performs a

mock charge with the horse detachment
the active component, the Regular Army; and two reserve

components, the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve. Both reserve components are primarily composed
of part-time soldiers who train once a month, known as
battle assemblies or unit training assemblies (UTAs), and
conduct two to three weeks of annual training each year.
Both the Regular Army and the Army Reserve are organized under Title 10 of the United States Code, while the
National Guard is organized under Title 32. While the
Army National Guard is organized, trained and equipped
as a component of the U.S. Army, when it is not in federal service it is under the command of individual state
and territorial governors; the District of Columbia National Guard, however, reports to the U.S. President, not
the district's mayor, even when not federalized. Any or all Soldiers from the 6th Infantry Regiment taking up positions on a
of the National Guard can be federalized by presidential street corner during a foot patrol in Ramadi, Iraq
order and against the governor's wishes.* [48]
The army is led by a civilian Secretary of the Army, who Through 2013, the army is shifting to six geographical
has the statutory authority to conduct all the aairs of commands that will line up with the six geographical unithe army under the authority, direction and control of ed combatant commands (COCOM):
the Secretary of Defense.* [49] The Chief of Sta of the
Army, who is the highest-ranked military ocer in the
United States Army Central headquartered at Shaw
army, serves as the principal military adviser and execAir Force Base, South Carolina
utive agent for the Secretary of the Army, i.e., its ser United States Army North headquartered at Fort
vice chief; and as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Sta,
a body composed of the service chiefs from each of the
Sam Houston, Texas
326
United States Army South headquartered at Fort 44.3.4

Sam Houston, Texas
Regular combat maneuver organizations
United States Army Europe headquartered at Clay The U.S. Army currently consists of 10 active divisions
Kaserne, Wiesbaden, Germany
as well as several independent units. The force is in the
process of contracting after several years of growth. In
United States Army Pacic headquartered at Fort June 2013, the Army announced plans to downsize to 32
Shafter, Hawaii
active combat brigade teams by 2015 to match a reduction
in active duty strength to 490,000 soldiers. Army Chief
United States Army Africa headquartered at of Sta Raymond Odierno has projected that by 2018 the
Vicenza, Italy
Army will eventually shrink to 450,000 in the active
component, 335,000 in the National Guard and 195,000
in U.S. Army Reserve.* [53]
Within the Army National Guard and United States Army
Reserve there are a further eight divisions, over fteen
maneuver brigades, additional combat support and combat service support brigades, and independent cavalry,
infantry, artillery, aviation, engineer, and support battalions. The Army Reserve in particular provides virtually
all psychological operations and civil aairs units.
United
(FORSCOM):
U.S. Army Special Forces soldiers from the 3rd Special Forces
Group patrol a eld in the Gulistan district of Farah, Afghanistan
States
Army
Forces
Command
For a description of US Army tactical organizational

structure, see: a US context, and also a global context.
The army is also changing its base unit from divisions to

brigades. Division lineage will be retained, but the divi44.3.5 Special operations forces
sional headquarters will be able to command any brigade,
not just brigades that carry their divisional lineage. The
central part of this plan is that each brigade will be modular, i.e., all brigades of the same type will be exactly
United States Army Special Operations Command
the same, and thus any brigade can be commanded by (Airborne) (USASOC):
any division. As specied before the 2013 end-strength
re-denitions, the three major types of ground combat
brigades are:
44.4 Personnel
Armor brigade, with strength of 4,743 troops, and

be equivalent to a mechanized infantry or tank Main articles: Ranks and Insignia of NATO, United
States Army ocer rank insignia and United States
brigade as of 2014.
Army enlisted rank insignia
Stryker brigades, with strength of 4,500 troops, and
be based on the Stryker family of vehicles as of These are the U.S. Army ranks authorized for use to2014.
day and their equivalent NATO designations. Although
no living ocer currently holds the rank of General of
Infantry brigades, with strength of 4,413 troops, and the Army, it is still authorized by Congress for use in
be equivalent to a light infantry or airborne brigade wartime.
as of 2014.
In addition, there are combat support and service support modular brigades. Combat support brigades include
aviation (CAB) brigades, which will come in heavy and
light varieties, res (artillery) brigades (now transforms
to division artillery), and battleeld surveillance brigades.
Combat service support brigades include sustainment
brigades and come in several varieties and serve the standard support role in an army.
44.4.1 Commissioned ocers

Main article: Commissioned Ocers
There are several paths to becoming a commissioned ofcer* [57] including the United States Military Academy,
Reserve Ocers' Training Corps, and Ocer Candidate
School. Regardless of which road an ocer takes, the in-
44.4. PERSONNEL
327
signia are the same. Certain professions, including physicians, pharmacists, nurses, lawyers, and chaplains are
commissioned directly into the army and are designated
by insignia unique to their sta community.
Most army commissioned ocers are promoted based on
an up or outsystem. The Defense Ocer Personnel Management Act of 1980 establishes rules for timing
of promotions and limits the number of ocers that can
serve at any given time.
Army regulations call for addressing all personnel with
the rank of general as 'General (last name)' regardless of the number of stars. Likewise, both colonels
and lieutenant colonels are addressed as 'Colonel (last
name)' and rst and second lieutenants as 'Lieutenant (last
name).'* [58]
44.4.2
Warrant ocers
Main article: Warrant ocers

Warrant ocers* [57] are single track, specialty ocers
with subject matter expertise in a particular area. They
are initially appointed as warrant ocers (in the rank of
WO1) by the Secretary of the Army, but receive their
commission upon promotion to chief warrant ocer two Rangers practice fast roping techniques from an MH-47 during
(CW2).
an exercise at Fort Bragg
By regulation, warrant ocers are addressed as 'Mr. (last
name)' or 'Ms. (last name).'* [58] However, many person44.4.4 Training
nel address warrant ocers as 'Chief (last name)'. Enlisted soldiers say siror ma'amwhen addressing
Training in the U.S. Army is generally divided into two
them.
categories individual and collective. Basic training consists of 10 weeks for most recruits followed by Advanced
Individualized Training (AIT) where they receive training
for their military occupational specialties (MOS). Some
individuals MOSs range anywhere from 1420 weeks of
44.4.3 Enlisted personnel
One Station Unit Training (OSUT), which combines Basic Training and AIT. The length of AIT school varies
Main article: Enlisted personnel
by the MOS The length of time spent in AIT depends on
the MOS of the soldier, and some highly technical MOS
Sergeants and corporals are referred to as NCOs, short for training may require many months (e.g., foreign language
non-commissioned ocers.* [57]* [60] This distinguishes translators). Depending on the needs of the army, Basic
corporals from the more numerous specialists, who have Combat Training for combat arms soldiers is conducted
the same pay grade but do not exercise leadership respon- at a number of locations, but two of the longest-running
sibilities.
are the Armor School and the Infantry School, both at
Privates (E1 and E2) and privates rst class (E3) are ad- Fort Benning, Georgia.
dressed as 'Private (last name)', specialists as 'Specialist (last name)', corporals as 'Corporal (last name)', and
sergeants, sta sergeants, sergeants rst class, and master sergeants all as 'Sergeant (last name).' First sergeants
are addressed as 'First Sergeant (last name)', sergeants
major are addressed as 'Sergeant Major (last name)' and
command sergeants major are addressed as 'Command
Sergeant Major (last name)'.* [58]
Following their basic and advanced training at the

individual-level, soldiers may choose to continue their
training and apply for an additional skill identier
(ASI). The ASI allows the army to take a wide ranging
MOS and focus it into a more specic MOS. For example, a combat medic, whose duties are to provide prehospital emergency treatment, may receive ASI training
to become a cardiovascular specialist, a dialysis specialist,
328
or even a licensed practical nurse. For commissioned ofcers, ASI training includes pre-commissioning training
either at USMA, or via ROTC, or by completing OCS.
After commissioning, ocers undergo branch specic
training at the Basic Ocer Leaders Course, (formerly
called Ocer Basic Course), which varies in time and location according their future assignments. Further career
development is available through the Army Correspondence Course Program.
Lockheed Martin Terminal High Altitude Area Defense

(THAAD) system used by the army for ballistic missile protection
but M11 pistol is also used and M9 pistol is to be replaced

by M11 pistol through the Modular Handgun System program.* [63]
Marksmanship training
Collective training at the unit level takes place at the unit's

assigned station, but the most intensive training at higher
echelons is conducted at the three combat training centers (CTC); the National Training Center (NTC) at Fort
Irwin, California, the Joint Readiness Training Center
(JRTC) at Fort Polk, Louisiana, and the Joint Multinational Training Center (JMRC) at the Hohenfels Training
Area in Hohenfels, Germany. ARFORGEN is the Army
Force Generation process approved in 2006 to meet the
need to continuously replenish forces for deployment, at
unit level, and for other echelons as required by the mission. Individual-level replenishment still requires training
at a unit level, which is conducted at the continental US
(CONUS) replacement center at Fort Bliss, in New Mexico and Texas, before their individual deployment.
Many units are supplemented with a variety of specialized weapons, including the M249 SAW (Squad Automatic Weapon), to provide suppressive re at the reteam level.* [64] Indirect re is provided by the M203
grenade launcher. The M1014 Joint Service Combat
Shotgun or the Mossberg 590 Shotgun are used for door
breaching and close-quarters combat. The M14EBR is
used by designated marksmen, and the M107 Long Range
Sniper Rie, the M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rie, and the
M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper Rie are used by snipers.
Hand grenades, such as the M67 fragmentation grenade
and M18 smoke grenade, are also used.
44.5 Equipment
Main article: Equipment of the United States Army
3rd Infantry Division soldiers manning an M1A1 Abrams in Iraq
44.5.1
Weapons
Individual weapons
Crew served weapons
The army employs various individual weapons to provide light repower at short ranges. The most common
weapons used by the army are the compact variant of the
M16 rie, the M4 carbine,* [62] as well as the 7.62x51
mm variant of the FN SCAR for Army Rangers. The
primary sidearm in the U.S. Army is the 9 mm M9 pistol
The army employs various crew-served weapons to provide heavy repower at ranges exceeding that of individual weapons.
The M240 is the US Army's standard Medium Machine
Gun.* [65] The M2 heavy machine gun is generally used
as a vehicle-mounted machine gun. In the same way, the
44.5. EQUIPMENT
329
40 mm MK 19 grenade machine gun is mainly used by will be used for training, and the remainder will be spread
motorized units.* [66]
across the active force. The Oshkosh M-ATV will be kept
The US Army uses three types of mortar for indirect re the most at 5,681 vehicles, as it is smaller and lighter than
support when heavier artillery may not be appropriate or other MRAPs for o-road mobility. The other most reavailable. The smallest of these is the 60 mm M224, tained vehicle will be the Navistar MaxxPro Dash with
normally assigned at the infantry company level.* [67] 2,633 vehicles, plus 301 Maxxpro ambulances. ThouAt the next higher echelon, infantry battalions are typ- sands of other MRAPs like the Cougar,* BAE Caiman,
ically supported by a section of 81 mm M252 mor- and larger MaxxPros will be disposed of. [77]
tars.* [68] The largest mortar in the army's inventory is The U.S. Army's principal artillery weapons are the
the 120 mm M120/M121, usually employed by mecha- M109A6 Paladin self-propelled howitzer* [78] and the
nized units.* [69]
M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS),* [79]
Fire support for light infantry units is provided by towed both mounted on tracked platforms and assigned to heavy
howitzers, including the 105 mm M119A1* [70] and the mechanized units.
155 mm M777 (which will replace the M198).* [71]
The US Army utilizes a variety of direct-re rockets and
missiles to provide infantry with an Anti-Armor Capability. The AT4 is an unguided projectile that can destroy armor and bunkers at ranges up to 500 meters.
The FIM-92 Stinger is a shoulder-launched, heat seeking
anti-aircraft missile. The FGM-148 Javelin and BGM-71
TOW are anti-tank guided missiles.
44.5.2
Vehicles
While the U.S. Army operates a few xed-wing aircraft,

it mainly operates several types of rotary-wing aircraft.
These include the AH-64 Apache attack helicopter,* [80]
the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior armed reconnaissance/light
attack helicopter,* [81] the UH-60 Black Hawk utility
tactical transport helicopter,* [82] and the CH-47 Chinook heavy-lift transport helicopter.* [83] Restructuring
plans call for reduction of 750 aircraft and from 7 to 4
types.* [84]
Fixed wing aircraft used by the US Army are for nonfront line combat and light transport roles. The army relies on the United States Air Force for airlift capabilities.
44.5.3 Uniforms
Main article: Uniforms of the United States Army
A US soldier on patrol with the support of a Humvee vehicle
The Army Combat Uniform, or ACU, currently features

a digital Universal Camouage Pattern (UCP) and is designed for use in woodland, desert, and urban environments. However, Soldiers operating in Afghanistan are
being issued a re-resistant ACU with the "MultiCam"
pattern, ocially known as Operation Enduring Freedom
Camouage Pattern or OCP.* [85]
The army's most common vehicle is the High Mobility

Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), commonly
called the Humvee, which is capable of serving as a
cargo/troop carrier, weapons platform, and ambulance,
among many other roles.* [72] While they operate a wide
variety of combat support vehicles, one of the most common types centers on the family of HEMTT vehicles. The
M1A2 Abrams is the army's main battle tank,* [73] while
the M2A3 Bradley is the standard infantry ghting vehicle.* [74] Other vehicles include the Stryker,* [75] and the
M113 armored personnel carrier,* [76] and multiple types
of Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicles.
The Pentagon bought 25,000 MRAP vehicles since 2007
in 25 variants through rapid acquisition with no long-term
plans for the platforms. The Army plans to divest 7,456 The Ranger Honor Platoon marching in dress uniform.
vehicles and retain 8,585. Of the total number of vehicles
the Army will keep, 5,036 will be put in storage, 1,073 The standard garrison service uniform is known as Army
330
Greens or Class-As and has been worn by all ocers and

enlisted personnel since its introduction in 1956 when
it replaced earlier olive drab (OD) and khaki (and tan
worsted or TW) uniforms worn between the 1950s and
1985. The Army Blue uniform, dating back to the mid19th century, is currently the Army's formal dress uniform, but in 2013, it replaced the Army Green, and in
2014 it will replace the Army White uniform (a uniform similar to the Army Green uniform, but worn in
tropical postings) and will become the new Army Service Uniform, which will function as both a garrison uniform (when worn with a white shirt and necktie) and a
dress uniform (when worn with a white shirt and either a
necktie for parades or a bow tie for after six or black tie
events).
welfare, and recreation (MWR) facilities, and security

checkpoints. Furthermore, most of these tents are set up
and operated through the support of Natick Soldier Systems Center.
The U.S. Army is beginning to use a more modern tent
called the deployable rapid assembly shelter or DRASH.
In 2008, DRASH became part of the Army's Standard
Integrated Command Post System.* [86]
44.5.5 3D printing
In November 2012 the United States Army developed a
tactical 3D printing capability to allow it to rapidly manufacture critical components on the battleeld. (BBC)
Berets
The Army black beret (having been permanently replaced
with the patrol cap) is no longer worn with the new ACU
for garrison duty. After years of complaints that it wasn't
suited well for most work conditions, Army Chief of Sta
General Martin Dempsey eliminated it for wear with the
ACU in June 2011. Soldiers may still wear colored berets
who are currently in an airborne unit (maroon beret),
Rangers (tan beret), and Special Forces (green beret) and
may wear it with the Army Service Uniform for nonceremonial functions. Unit commanders may still direct
the wear of patrol caps in these units in training environments or motor pools.
44.5.4
Tents
Main article: Tent

The army has relied heavily on tents to provide the var-
44.6 See also

List of wars involving the United States
America's Army (Video games for recruitment)
Army National Guard
Comparative military ranks
History of the US Army
List of active United States military aircraft
List of former United States Army medical units
Ocer Candidate School (United States Army)
ROTC / JROTC
Timeline of United States military operations
Transformation of the United States Army
U.S. Army Regimental System
United States Military Academy
United States Army Basic Training
United States Army Center of Military History
U.S. Soldier's Creed
United States Volunteers
A DRASH maintenance facility in Iraq
Vehicle markings of the United States military
ious facilities needed while on deployment. The most

common tent uses for the military are as temporary
barracks (sleeping quarters), DFAC buildings (dining facilities), forward operating bases (FOBs), after action review (AAR), tactical operations center (TOC), morale,
Warrant Ocer Candidate School (United States

Army)
Army CHESS (Computer Hardware Enterprise
Software and Solutions)
44.7. REFERENCES
44.7 References
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[27] 597 killed in 2003,, 23,984 killed from 2004 through
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February),
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[28] Shanker, Thom; Cooper, Helene (23 February 2014).
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[30] DA Pam 10-1 Organization of the United States Army; Figure 1-1. '"Army Organizations Execute Specic Functions and Assigned Missions
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1775 1995, DA PAM 101. Headquarters, Department
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[16] Woodru, Mark. Unheralded Victory: The Defeat of

the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army 19611973
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[32] Finnegan, John Patrick; Romana Danysh (1998).Chapter 2: World War I. In Jerey J. Clarke. Military Intelligence. Army Lineage Series. Washington, D.C., United
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[17] Wilson, John B. (1997). Maneuver and Firepower: The

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[33] Pullen, Randy (23 April 2008). Army Reserve Marks

First 100 Years. DefenceTalk. Archived from the original (ONLINE ARTICLE) on 24 April 2008. Retrieved
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[34] http://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/pdf/go1204.pdf
[19] Carafano, James, Total Force Policy and the Abrams Doctrine: Unfullled Promise, Uncertain Future, Foreign Policy Research Institute, 3 February 2005.
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[36] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1202.pdf
[67] M224, U.S. Army Fact Files
[39] U.S. Army (1 October 2010). Army establishes Army

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[41] The Relationship of U. S. Army Cyber Command and
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[71] John Pike. M777 Lightweight 155mm howitzer

(LW155)". globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[72] HMMWV, U.S. Army Fact Files
[73] Abrams, U.S. Army Fact Files
[74] Bradley, United States Army Fact Files
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[77] Majority of MRAPs to be scrapped or stored, Military

Times, 5 January 2014
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[48] Perpich v. Department of Defense, 496 U.S. 334 (1990)
[78] Paladin, Army.mil

[79] MLRS, U.S. Army Fact Files
[80] Apache, U.S. Army Fact Files
[81] Kiowa, U.S. Army Fact Files
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[49] 10 U.S.C. 3013

[50] 10 U.S.C. 3033
[51] 10 U.S.C. 151
[52] 10 U.S.C. 162
[53] http://www.army.mil/article/140768/CSA__SMA_
hold_virtual_town_hall/ CSA Odierno and SMA
Chandler virtual town hall, Jan 6, 2015
[83] Chinook, U.S. Army Fact Files

[84] Stevenson, Beth (22 January 2015),US Army continues
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[86] NG, DHS Technologies to support SICPS/TMSS United
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[56] http://www.armytimes.com/story/military/2015/01/14/
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[61] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/r600_20.pdf
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19051944, 19441962, and 1962 to the present.
Woodward, David R. The American Army and
the First World War (Cambridge University Press,
2014). 484 pp. online review
44.9 External links

Army.mil United States Army ocial website
GoArmy.com ocial recruiting site
U.S. Army Collection Missouri History Museum
Finding Aids for researching the US Army (compiled by the United States Army Center of Military
History)
US-militaria.com The US Army during the second
world war
from the United States Army Center of Military History document Army Birthdays.
333
Chapter 45
United States Marine Corps

USMCredirects here. For other uses, see USMC
(disambiguation).
45.1 Mission
The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness.

The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is a branch As outlined in 10 U.S.C. 5063 and as originally introof the United States Armed Forces responsible for produced under the National Security Act of 1947, it has
viding power projection from the sea,* [7] using the mo- three primary areas of responsibility:
bility of the U.S. Navy to rapidly deliver combined-arms
task forces. The U.S. Marine Corps is one of the four
The seizure or defense of advanced naval bases and
branches in the U.S. Department of Defense as a memother land operations to support naval campaigns;
ber of the Joint Chiefs of Sta. It is one of the seven
uniformed services of the United States.
The development of tactics, technique, and equipment used by amphibious landing forces in coordiThe Marine Corps has been a component of the U.S. Denation with the Army and Air Force; and
*
*
partment of the Navy since 1834, [8] [9] working closely
with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics.* [10] The USMC operates posts on land and aboard
sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world,
and several of the Marines' tactical aviation squadrons,
primarily Marine Fighter Attack squadrons, are also embedded in Navy carrier air wings and operate from the
Navy's nuclear-powered aircraft carriers.* [11]
Such other duties as the President may direct.
Two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on

10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as an Infantry force
capable of ghting for independence both at sea and on
shore.* [12] The role of the Corps has since grown and
evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular
titles such as America's third air forceand second
land army.* [13] The Marine Corps has distinguished
itself as it has served in the majority of American wars,
from its inception to the modern era, and attained prominence in the 20th century when its theories and practices
of amphibious warfare proved prescient and ultimately
formed the cornerstone of the Pacic campaign of World
War II.* [14]
By the mid-20th century, the U.S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist and the dominant practitioner of
amphibious warfare.* [15]* [16]* [17] Its ability to rapidly
respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it
a strong role in the implementation and execution of
American foreign policy.* [18] The USMC has around
194,000 active duty members and just under 40,000
reserve Marines as of 2010.* [3] It is the smallest of the
U.S. Armed Forces within the U.S. Department of Defense.* [19]* [20]* [21]
A Marine Corporal and Lance Corporal of 3rd Battalion, 6th

Marines engaging the enemy during Operation Moshtarak in
Afghanistan's Helmand Province.
This last clause, while seemingly redundant given the

President's position as Commander-in-chief, is a codication of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the
Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the
334
45.1. MISSION
Marine Corps of 1834, and Establishing and Organizing a Marine Corps of 1798. In 1951, the House of
Representatives' Armed Services Committee called the
clause one of the most important statutory and traditional functions of the Marine Corps.It noted that
the corps has more often than not performed actions of a
non-naval nature, including its famous actions in Tripoli,
the War of 1812, Chapultepec, and numerous counterinsurgency and occupational duties (such as those in Central America), World War I, and the Korean War. While
these actions are not accurately described as support of
naval campaigns nor as amphibious warfare, their common thread is that they are of an expeditionary nature,
using the mobility of the Navy to provide timely intervention in foreign aairs on behalf of American interests.* [22]
A U.S. Marine Security Guard reviews a security system at a U.S.

embassy in December 2004.
In addition to its primary duties, the Marine Corps has

missions in direct support of the White House and the
State Department. The Marine Band, dubbed thePresident's Ownby Thomas Jeerson, provides music for
state functions at the White House.* [23] Marines from
Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., guard presidential retreats, including Camp David, and the Marines of the Executive Flight Detachment of HMX-1 provide helicopter
transport to the President and Vice President, with the
call signs "Marine One" and Marine Two, respectively.* [24] By authority of the 1946 Foreign Service Act,
the Marine Security Guards of the Marine Embassy Security Command provide security for American embassies,
legations, and consulates at more than 140 posts worldwide.* [25]
45.1.1
Historical mission
The Marine Corps was founded to serve as an infantry

unit aboard naval vessels and was responsible for the security of the ship and its crew by conducting oensive
and defensive combat during boarding actions and de-
335
fending the ship's ocers from mutiny; to the latter end,
their quarters on ship were often strategically positioned
between the ocers' quarters and the rest of the vessel. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at
sea and ashore. America's rst amphibious assault landing occurred early in the Revolutionary War on 3 March
1776 as the Marines gained control of Fort Montague
and Fort Nassau, a British ammunition depot and naval
port in New Providence, the Bahamas. The role of the
Marine Corps has expanded signicantly since then; as
the importance of its original naval mission declined with
changing naval warfare doctrine and the professionalization of the naval service, the Corps adapted by focusing
on formerly secondary missions ashore. The Advanced
Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codied their
combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the
seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval
campaigns.
Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships and
carriers. Marine detachments (generally one platoon per
cruiser, a company for battleships or carriers) served their
traditional duties as ship's landing force, manning the
ship's weapons and providing shipboard security. Marine
detachments were augmented by members of the ship's
company for landing parties, such as in the First Sumatran
Expedition of 1832, and continuing in the Caribbean and
Mexican campaigns of the early 20th centuries. Marines
would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War
II.* [26] During World War II, Marines continued to serve
on capital ships. They often were assigned to man antiaircraft batteries. When gun cruisers were retired by the
1960s, the remaining Marine detachments were only seen
on battleships and carriers. Its original mission of providing shipboard security nally ended in the 1990s as the
battleships were retired and nuclear weapons were withdrawn from deployment on aircraft carriers.
45.1.2 Capabilities
The Marine Corps fullls a vital role in national security
as an amphibious, expeditionary, air-ground combined
arms task force, capable of forcible entry from the air,
land, and sea. It is capable of asymmetric warfare with
conventional, irregular, and hybrid forces.
While the Marine Corps does not employ any unique
combat arms, as a force it can rapidly deploy a combinedarms task force to almost anywhere in the world within
days. The basic structure for all deployed units is a
Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) that integrates a ground combat element, an aviation combat
element and a logistics combat element under a common command element. While the creation of joint
commands under the GoldwaterNichols Act has improved inter-service coordination between each branch,
the Corps' ability to permanently maintain integrated
336
CHAPTER 45. UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS

of junior Marines, particularly the NCOs (corporals and
sergeants), as compared with many other military organizations. The Marine Corps emphasizes authority and responsibility downward to a greater degree than the other
military services. Flexibility of execution is implemented
via an emphasis on "commander's intent" as a guiding
principle for carrying out orders; specifying the end state
but leaving open the method of execution.* [29]
The amphibious assault techniques developed for World

War II evolved, with the addition of air assault and
maneuver warfare doctrine, into the current "Operational
Maneuver from the Sea" doctrine of power projection
from the seas.* [7] The Marines are credited with the
development of helicopter insertion doctrine and were
the earliest in the American military to widely adopt
U.S. Marines from the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit training in
maneuver-warfare principles which emphasize low-level
amphibious warfare during Operation Talisman Sabre at Shoalinitiative and exible execution. In light of recent warwater Bay in Australia
fare that has strayed from the Corps' traditional missions,* [30] it has renewed an emphasis on amphibious
multi-element task forces under a single command pro- capabilities.* [31]
vides a smoother implementation of combined-arms warfare principles.* [14]
The close integration of disparate Marine units stems
from an organizational culture centered around the infantry. Every other Marine capability exists to support
the infantry. Unlike some Western militaries, the Corps
remained conservative against theories proclaiming the
ability of new weapons to win wars independently. For
example, Marine aviation has always been focused on
close air support and has remained largely uninuenced
by air power theories proclaiming that strategic bombing
can single-handedly win wars.* [26]
Marines conduct a patrol in Iraq.
Bravo Battery, 1st Battalion, 11th Marines, a.k.a. the Beastmasters ght o Iraqi unit on 26 March 2003
This focus on the infantry is matched with the doctrine

that Every Marine a rieman, a focus of Commandant Alfred M. Gray, Jr., emphasizing the infantry combat abilities of every Marine. All Marines, regardless of
military specialization, receive training as a rieman; and
all ocers receive additional training as infantry platoon
commanders.* [27] For example, at Wake Island, when
all of the Marine aircraft were shot down, pilots continued the ght as ground ocers, leading supply clerks
and cooks in a nal defensive eort.* [28] As a result,
a large degree of initiative and autonomy is expected
The Marine Corps relies on the Navy for sealift to provide its rapid deployment capabilities. In addition to basing a third of the Fleet Marine Force in Japan, Marine
Expeditionary Units (MEU) are typically stationed at sea.
This allows the ability to function as rst responders to international incidents. The United States Army maintains
light infantry units capable of rapid worldwide deployment, but those units do not match the combined-arms
integration of a MAGTF and lack the logistics that the
Navy provides.* [14] Therefore, the Marine Corps is often assigned to non-combat missions such as the evacuation of Americans from unstable countries and providing humanitarian relief during natural disasters. In larger
conicts, Marines act as a stopgap, to get into and hold
an area until larger units can be mobilized. The Corps
performed this role in World War I and the Korean War,
where Marines were the rst signicant combat units deployed from the United States and held the line until the
country could mobilize for war.* [32] To aid rapid deployment, the Maritime Pre-Positioning System was developed: eets of container ships are positioned throughout the world with enough equipment and supplies for a
45.2. HISTORY
337
of 18 March 1794,* [36] which specied the numbers of

The USMC is planning to reduce its logistical require- Marines to be recruited for each frigate.
ments and by 2025 eliminate all liquid fuel use for Marine Expeditionary Forces, except for highly ecient vehicles.* [33]
Marine Expeditionary Force to deploy for 30 days.
45.1.3
Doctrine
Two small manuals published during the 1930s would

establish USMC doctrine in two areas. The Small
Wars Manual laid the framework for Marine counterinsurgency operations from Vietnam to Iraq and
Afghanistan while the Tentative Landing Operations
Manual established the doctrine for the amphibious op- The battle between Hornet and Penguin, the nal engagement
erations of World War II. "Operational Maneuver from between British and American forces during the War of 1812,
the Sea" is the current doctrine of power projection.* [7] which led to the capture and destruction of the British ship by
Marine infantry troops.
45.2 History
Main article: History of the United States Marine Corps
45.2.1
Origins
The Marines' most famous action of this period occurred during the First Barbary War (18011805) against
the Barbary pirates,* [37] when William Eaton and First
Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led eight Marines and 500
mercenaries in an eort to capture Tripoli. Though they
only reached Derna, the action at Tripoli has been immortalized in the Marines' hymn and the Mameluke Sword
carried by Marine ocers.* [38]
During the War of 1812, Marine naval detachments took
part in the great frigate duels that characterized the war,
which were the rst and last engagements of the conict.
Their most signicant contribution was holding the center
of Gen. Andrew Jackson's defensive line at the Battle of
New Orleans, the nal major battle of the conict. By
the end of the war, most notably during the capture of
HMS Cyane, Levant and Penguin, the nal engagements
between British and American forces, the Marines had
acquired a well-deserved reputation as expert marksmen,
especially in ship-to-ship actions.* [38]
Continental Marines land at New Providence during the Battle of

Nassau, the rst amphibious landing of the Marine Corps.
The United States Marine Corps traces its institutional

roots to the Continental Marines of the American Revolutionary War, formed by Captain Samuel Nicholas by
a resolution of the Second Continental Congress on 10
November 1775, to raise 2 battalions of Marines. That
date is regarded and celebrated as the date of the Marine
Corps' birthday. At the end of the American Revolution,
both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were
disbanded in April 1783. The institution itself would
not be resurrected until 11 July 1798. At that time, in
preparation for the Quasi-War with France, Congress created the United States Marine Corps.* [34] Marines had
been enlisted by the War Department as early as August
1797* [35] for service in the new-build frigates authorized
by the CongressionalAct to provide a Naval Armament
After the war, the Marine Corps fell into a depression

that ended with the appointment of Archibald Henderson
as its fth Commandant in 1820. Under his tenure, the
Corps took on expeditionary duties in the Caribbean, the
Gulf of Mexico, Key West, West Africa, the Falkland Islands, and Sumatra. Commandant Henderson is credited
with thwarting President Jackson's attempts to combine
and integrate the Marine Corps with the Army.* [38] Instead, Congress passed the Act for the Better Organization
of the Marine Corps in 1834, stipulating that the Corps
was part of the Department of the Navy as a sister service to the Navy.* [39] This would be the rst of many
times that the existence of the Corps was challenged.
Commandant Henderson volunteered the Marines for
service in the Seminole Wars of 1835, personally leading
nearly half of the entire Corps (two battalions) to war.
A decade later, in the MexicanAmerican War (1846
1848), the Marines made their famed assault on Chapultepec Palace in Mexico City, which would be later cele-
338
James Walker, Storming of Chapultepec, 1847
the Marine Corps. The Navy's transition from sail to

steam put into question the need for Marines on naval
ships. Meanwhile, Marines served as a convenient resource for interventions and landings to protect American lives and interests overseas. The Corps was involved
in over 28 separate interventions in the 30 years from the
end of the American Civil War to the end of 19th century. They would be called upon to stem political and
labor unrest within the United States.* [42] Under Commandant Jacob Zeilin's tenure, Marine customs and traditions took shape: the Corps adopted the Marine Corps
emblem on 19 November 1868. It was during this time
that "The Marines' Hymn" was rst heard. Around 1883,
the Marines adopted their current motto "Semper Fidelis"
(Always Faithful).* [38]
brated by the phrase From The Halls of Montezuma

in Marines' hymn. In the 1850s, the Marines would see
further service in Panama and Asia, escorting Matthew
Perry's East India Squadron on its historic trip to the Far
East.* [40]
John Philip Sousa, the musician and composer, enlisted
as a Marine apprentice at the age of 13, serving from 1867
until 1872, and again from 1880 to 1892 as the leader of
the Marine Band.
During the SpanishAmerican War (1898), Marines led

American forces ashore in the Philippines, Cuba, and
Puerto Rico, demonstrating their readiness for deployment. At Guantnamo Bay, Cuba, the Marines seized
an advanced naval base that remains in use today. Between 1899 and 1916, the Corps continued its record
of vigorous participation in foreign expeditions, including the PhilippineAmerican War, the Boxer Rebellion
in China (18991901), Panama, the Cuban Pacications,
the Perdicaris Incident in Morocco, Veracruz, Santo
Domingo, and the Banana Wars in Haiti and Nicaragua;
the experiences gained in counter-insurgency and guerFive Marines with xed bayonets, and their NCO with his sword rilla operations during this period were consolidated into
at the Washington Navy Yard, 1864
the Small Wars Manual.* [43]
With their vast service in foreign engagements, the Marine Corps played a moderate role in the Civil War (1861 45.2.3
1865); their most prominent task was blockade duty. As
more and more states seceded from the Union, about a
third of the Corps' ocers left the Union to join the
Confederacy and form the Confederate States Marine
Corps, which ultimately played little part in the war.
The battalion of recruits formed for the First Battle of
Bull Run (First Manassas) performed poorly, retreating
with the rest of the Union forces.* [32] Blockade duty
included sea-based amphibious operations to secure forward bases. In late November 1861, Marines and sailors
landed a reconnaissance in force from the USS Flag at
Tybee Island, Georgia, to occupy the Lighthouse and
Martello Tower on the northern end of the island. It
would later be the Army base for bombardment of Fort
Pulaski.* [41]
World War I
Georges Scott, American Marines in Belleau Wood, 1918.
45.2.2
Interim: American Civil War to

During World War I veteran Marines served a central role
World War I
in the late American entry into the conict. The Marine

The remainder of the 19th century was marked by de- Corps had a deep pool of ocers and NCOs with battle
clining strength and introspection about the mission of experience, and experienced a small expansion. Here, the
45.2. HISTORY
339
The ag of the U.S. Marine Corps from 1914 to 1939.
Marines fought their famed battle at Belleau Wood, creating the Marines' reputation in modern history. While
its previous expeditionary experiences had not earned it
much acclaim in the Western world, the Marines' ferocity and toughness in France earned them the respect of
the Germans, who rated them of stormtrooper quality.
Though Marines and American media reported that Germans had nicknamed them Teufel Hunden as meaning
"Devil Dogs", there is no evidence of this in German
records (as Teufelshunde would be the proper German
phrase). Nevertheless, the name stuck.* [44]
Photograph of the USMC War Memorial, which depicts the agraising on Iwo Jima. The memorial is modeled on Joe Rosenthal's
famous Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima.
accomplished at very high losses, with 26,000 American

casualties and 22,000 Japanese.* [48]
By the end of the war, the Corps expanded from two

brigades to six divisions, ve air wings, and supporting troops, totaling about 485,000 Marines. In addition,
20 defense battalions and a parachute battalion were set
raised.* [49] Nearly 87,000 Marines were casualties durThe Corps entered the war with 511 ocers and 13,214
ing World War II (including nearly 20,000 killed), and 82
enlisted personnel, and by 11 November 1918 had
were awarded the Medal of Honor.* [50]
reached a strength of 2,400 ocers and 70,000 enlisted.* [45] African-Americans were entirely excluded Despite Secretary Forrestal's prediction, the Corps faced
an immediate institutional crisis following the war due to
from the Marine Corps during this conict.* [46]
the low budget. Army generals pushing for a strengthened
Between the World Wars, the Marine Corps was headed
and reorganized defense establishment attempted to fold
by Commandant John A. Lejeune, and under his leadthe Marine mission and assets into the Navy and Army.
ership, the Corps presciently studied and developed amDrawing on hastily assembled Congressional support, and
phibious techniques that would be of great use in World
with the assistance of the so-called "Revolt of the AdmiWar II. Many ocers, including Lt. Col. Earl Hanrals,"the Marine Corps rebued such eorts to dismantle
cockPeteEllis, foresaw a war in the Pacic with Japan
the Corps, resulting in statutory protection of the Marine
and undertook preparations for such a conict. Through
Corps in the National Security Act of 1947.* [51] Shortly
1941, as the prospect of war grew, the Corps pushed urafterward, in 1952 the Douglas-Manseld Bill aorded
gently for joint amphibious exercises and acquired amthe Commandant an equal voice with the Joint Chiefs of
phibious equipment that would prove of great use in the
Sta on matters relating to the Marines and established
upcoming conict.* [47]
the structure of three active divisions and air wings that
remain today.
45.2.4
World War II
In World War II, the Marines played a central role in the

Pacic War. The battles of Guadalcanal, Bougainville,
Tarawa, Guam, Tinian, Cape Gloucester, Saipan, Peleliu,
Iwo Jima, and Okinawa saw erce ghting between
Marines and the Imperial Japanese Army.
The island of Iwo Jima served as the next area of battle,
which began on 19 February 1945. The Japanese had
learned from their defeats in the Marianas campaign and
prepared many fortied positions on the island, including
pillboxes and underground tunnels. The Japanese put up
erce resistance, but American forces reached the summit
of Mount Suribachi on 23 February. The mission was
45.2.5 Korean War

The Korean War (19501953) saw the hastily formed
Provisional Marine Brigade holding the defensive line at
the Pusan Perimeter. To execute a anking maneuver,
General Douglas MacArthur called on Marine air and
ground forces to make an amphibious landing at Inchon.
The successful landing resulted in the collapse of North
Korean lines and the pursuit of North Korean forces north
near the Yalu River until the entrance of the People's Republic of China into the war. Chinese troops surrounded,
surprised and overwhelmed the overextended and outnumbered American forces. X Corps, which included
340
F4U Corsairs provide close air support to Marines ghting Chinese forces, December 1950.
U.S. Marines of 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines during Operation

Allen Brook in Vietnam, 1968
withdrawn in 1971, and returned briey in 1975 to evacthe 1st Marine Division and the Army's 7th Infantry Diviuate Saigon and attempt a rescue of the crew of the
sion, regrouped and inicted heavy casualties during their
Mayagez.* [54]
ghting withdrawal to the coast, now known as the Battle
Vietnam was the longest war for Marines; by its end,
of Chosin Reservoir.
13,091* [55]* [56] had been killed in action, 51,392 had
The ghting calmed after the Battle of the Chosin Reserbeen wounded, and 57 Medals of Honor had been
voir, but late in March 1953 the relative quiet of the war
awarded.* [57]* [58] Due to policies concerning rotation,
was broken when the Chinese Army launched a massive
more Marines were deployed for service during Vietnam
oensive on three outposts manned by the 5th Marine
than World War II.* [59]
Regiment. These outposts were codenamed Reno,
Vegas, and Carson. The campaign was collec- While recovering from Vietnam, the Corps hit a detritively known as the Nevada Cities Campaign. There was mental low point in its service history caused by courtsbrutal ghting on Reno hill, which was eventually cap- martial and non-judicial punishments related partially to
tured by the Chinese. Although Reno was lost, the 5th increased unauthorized absences and desertions during
Marines held both Vegas and Carson through the rest of the war. Overhauling of the Corps began in the late
the campaign. In this one campaign, the Marines suf- 1970s, discharging the most delinquent, and once qualfered approximately 1,000 casualties, while the Chinese ity of new recruits improved, the Corps focused on resuered at least twice as many. Marines would continue forming the NCO Corps, a vital functioning part of its
*
a battle of attrition around the 38th Parallel until the 1953 forces. [14]
*
armistice. [52]
The Korean War saw the Corps expand from 75,000 reg- 45.2.7
ulars to a force of 261,000 Marines, mostly reservists.
30,544 Marines were killed or wounded during the war
and 42 were awarded the Medal of Honor.* [53]
45.2.6
Interim: Vietnam War to the War

on Terrorism
Vietnam War
The Marine Corps served an important role in the

Vietnam War taking part in such battles as Da Nang,
Hue City, Con Thien and Khe Sanh. Individuals from
the USMC operated in the Northern I Corps Regions of
South Vietnam. While there, they were constantly engaged in a guerrilla war against the Viet Cong, along with
an intermittent conventional war against the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). Portions of the Corps were responsible for the less-known Combined Action Program Beirut Memorial at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune
(CAP) that implemented unconventional techniques for
counter-insurgency and worked as military advisers to After the Vietnam War, the U.S. Marines resumed
the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps. Marines were their expeditionary role, participating in the failed 1980
45.2. HISTORY
341
Iran hostage rescue attempt Operation Eagle Claw, the

invasion of Grenada (Operation Urgent Fury) and the
invasion of Panama (Operation Just Cause). On 23 October 1983, the Marine headquarters building in Beirut,
Lebanon, was bombed, causing the highest peacetime
losses to the Corps in its history (220 Marines and 21
other service members were killed) and leading to the
American withdrawal from the country. The year 1990
saw Marines of the Joint Task Force Sharp Edge save
thousands of lives by evacuating British, French and
American nationals from the violence of the Liberian
Civil War.
U.S. Marines conducting a dawn patrol in Afghanistan's Nawa
District, Helmand Province (May 2010).
Following the attacks on 11 September 2001, President

George W. Bush announced the Global War on Terrorism. The stated objective of the Global War on Terror is
the defeat of Al-Qaeda, other terrorist groups and any
nation that supports or harbors terrorists.* [61] Since
then, the Marine Corps, alongside other military and federal agencies, has engaged in global operations around the
world in support of that mission.
U.S. Marines from 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines during the Desert
Storm deployment in 1990-1991
During the Persian Gulf War (19901991), Marine task

forces formed the initial core for Operation Desert Shield,
while United States and Coalition troops mobilized, and
later liberated Kuwait in Operation Desert Storm.* [38]
Marines participated in combat operations in Somalia
(19921995) during Operations Restore Hope, Restore
Hope II, and United Shield to provide humanitarian relief.* [60] In 1997, Marines took part in Operation Silver
Wake, the evacuation of American citizens from the US
Embassy in Tirana, Albania.
45.2.8
In spring 2009, President Barack Obama's goal of reducing spending in the Defense Department was led by
Secretary Robert Gates in a series of budget cuts which
did not result in signicant changes in the Corps' budget and programs, cutting only the VH-71 Kestrel and resetting the VXX program.* [62]* [63]* [64] However, the
National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform singled the Corps out for the brunt of a series of
recommended cuts in late 2010.* [65] In light of budget
sequestration in 2013, commandant Amos set a goal of
a force of 174,000 Marines.* [66] He testied that this
was the minimum number that would allow for an eective response to even a single contingency operation, but
it would reduce the peacetime ratio of time at home bases
to time deployed down to a historical low level.* [67]
Global War on Terrorism

Afghan Campaign (Operation Enduring FreedomAfghanistan)
U.S. Marines from 1st Battalion, 7th Marines enter a palace in

Baghdad in April 2003.
Marines and other American forces began staging in Pakistan and Uzbekistan on the border of Afghanistan as
early as October 2001 in preparation for Operation Enduring Freedom.* [68] The 15th and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units were the rst conventional forces into
Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom
in November 2001, and in December, the Marines seized
Kandahar International Airport.* [69] Since then, Marine battalions and squadrons have been rotating through,
engaging Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces. Marines of
the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit ooded into the
Taliban-held town of Garmsir on 29 April 2008, in
Helmand Province, in the rst major American operation
342
solve) and November 2004 (Operation Phantom Fury)

and saw intense ghting in such places as Ramadi, AlQa'im and Ht.* [73] Their time in Iraq has courted controversy with the Haditha killings and the Hamdania incident.* [68]* [74] The Anbar Awakening and 2007 surge
reduced levels of violence. On 1 March 2009, at
Camp Lejeune, President Obama announced an accelerated withdrawal, promising all troops out by August
2010.* [75] The Marine Corps ocially ended its role
in Iraq on 23 January 2010 when they handed over responsibility for Al Anbar Province to the United States
Army.* [75]* [76] US Marines would ultimately return to
U.S. Marines dismounting from an Assault Amphibious Vehicle Iraq in the summer of 2014, in response to growing vioin Djibouti.
lence there.* [77]
Horn of Africa Operations
in the region in years.* [70] In June 2009, 7,000 Marines
with the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade deployed to
Afghanistan in an eort to improve security,* [71] and began Operation Strike of the Sword the next month. In
February 2010, the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade
launched the largest oensive of the Afghan Campaign
since 2001, the Battle of Marjah, to clear the Taliban
from their key stronghold in the Helmand Province. After
Marjah, Marines progressed north up the Helmand River
and cleared the towns of Kajahki and Sangin. Marines
remained in the Helmand Province until 2014.
Iraq Campaign (Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation New Dawn, Operation Inherent Resolve)
Throughout the Global War on Terrorism, the US

Marines have supported operations in Africa to counter
Islamic extremism and piracy in the Red Sea. In late
2002, Combined Joint Task Force Horn of Africa
was stood up at Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti to provide regional security.* [78] Despite transferring overall
command to the Navy in 2006, the Marines continued
to operate in the Horn of Africa into 2007.* [79] See
Operation Enduring Freedom- Horn of Africa.
45.3 Organization
Main article: Organization of the United States Marine
Corps
The Department of the Navy, led by its Secretary, is the
federal government agency which oversees the Marine
Corps and the Navy. The most senior Marine ocer
is the Commandant, responsible to the Secretary of the
Navy for organizing, recruiting, training, and equipping
the Marine Corps so that its forces are ready for deployment under the operational command of the Combatant
Commanders. The Marine Corps is organized into four
principal subdivisions: the Headquarters (HQMC), the
Operating Forces, the Supporting Establishment, and the
Reserve (MARFORRES or USMCR).
U.S. Marines during the Second Battle of Fallujah in November

2004.
The U.S. Marines served prominently in the Iraq War's

Operation Iraqi Freedom. The I Marine Expeditionary
Force, along with the U.S. Army's 3rd Infantry Division, spearheaded the 2003 invasion of Iraq.* [72] The
Marines left Iraq in the summer of 2003, but returned
for occupation duty in the beginning of 2004. They
were given responsibility for the Al Anbar Province, the
large desert region to the west of Baghdad. During
this occupation, the Marines spearheaded both assaults
on the city of Fallujah in April (Operation Vigilant Re-
The Operating Forces are divided into three categories:

Marine Corps Forces (MARFOR) assigned to unied
commands, Security Forces guarding high-risk naval installations, and Security Guard detachments at American
embassies. Under the Forces for Unied Commands
memo, in accordance with the Unied Command Plan
approved by the President, Marine Corps Forces are assigned to each of the Combatant Commands at the discretion of the Secretary of Defense. Since 1991, the
Marine Corps has maintained component headquarters at
each of the regional unied combatant commands.* [80]
Marine Corps Forces are divided into Forces Command
(MARFORCOM) and Pacic Command (MARFORPAC), each headed by a Lieutenant General. MARFOR-
45.3. ORGANIZATION
343
COM has operational control of the II Marine Expeditionary Force; MARFORPAC has operational control of
the I Marine Expeditionary Force and III Marine Expeditionary Force.* [32]
bilities into the other services. Leading this movement

were such prominent Army ocers as General Dwight
D. Eisenhower and Army Chief of Sta George C. Marshall.* [51] With most of the 2000s spent in operations
The Supporting Establishment includes the Combat De- in Afghanistan and Iraq, Secretary of Defense Robert
that the Marines are becomvelopment Command (MCCDC), the Logistics Com- Gates has voiced concerns
*
ing
a
second
Army.
[30]
mand, the Recruiting Command and its depots, administration of Marine bases and air stations, and the Marine Doctrinally, the Marine Corps' focus is on being expeBand.
ditionary and independent, and places emphasis on amphibious mobility and combined arms; these make it a
much lighter force than many units of the Army. A larger
45.3.1 Relationship with other services
percentage of the Marine Corps' personnel and assets are
in the combat arms (infantry, artillery, armor, and close
In general, the Marine Corps shares many resources air support) than the Army. However, the Army mainwith the other branches of the United States military. tains much larger and diverse combat arms (infantry, arHowever, the Corps has consistently sought to main- mor, artillery, special operations), ground transport, lotain its own identity with regards to mission, funding, gistics, while the Marines have a more diverse aviation
and assets, while utilizing the support available from the arm (which constitutes a larger percentage of forces), and
larger branches. While the Marine Corps has far fewer is usually organic to the MAGTF. Marines operate as exinstallations both in the U.S. and worldwide than the peditionary units and are completely amphibious. The
other branches, many Army posts, Naval stations, and Air Marine Corps focus on standardized infantry units with
Force bases have a Marine presence. They also cross train the other arms in support roles as the Every Marine a
with other countries.
riemancreed shows. This commitment to standardized units can be seen in the short-lived experiment of
the Marine Raiders, born in World War II, was controverUnited States Army
sial. While the U.S. Army's 75th Ranger Regiment, also
born in World War II, enjoys high prestige to this day.
Main article: United States Army
The Army has a longer continuous tradition of special
The Marine Corps combat capabilities in some ways operations forces; the Marines joined the Special Operations Command with the establishment of MCSOCOM
Detachment One in 2003.* [81]
The Marines often leverage the Army's acquisition of
ground equipment (as well as beneting from Army research and development resources), training resources,
and other support concepts. The majority of vehicles
and weapons are shared with, modied, or inherited from
Army programs.
Culturally, Marines and soldiers share most of the common U.S. military slang and terminology, but the Corps
utilizes a large number of naval terms and traditions incompatible with the Army lifestyle, as well as their own
unique vernacular. Many Marines regard their culture to
have a deep warrior tradition, with the ethos that Every Marine a riemanand emphasis on cross-training
A soldier from the 1st Infantry Regiment provides security for a
joint Army-Marine patrol in Rawa in 2006. The shoulder sleeve and combat readiness despite actual job, be it infantry or
otherwise. One source states Marines tend to decentralinsignia has the logo of the 2nd Marine Division.
ize and push leadership to lower levels, while fostering
*
overlap those of the United States Army, the latter hav- initiative to a greater degree. [82]
ing historically viewed the Corps as encroaching on the
Army's capabilities and competing for funding, missions,
and renown. The attitude dates back to the founding of United States Navy
the Continental Marines, when General George Washington refused to allow the initial Marine battalions to be Main article: United States Navy
drawn from among his Continental Army. Most signi- The Marine Corps' counterpart under the Department
cantly, in the aftermath of World War II, Army eorts to of the Navy is the United States Navy. As a result, the
restructure the American defense establishment included Navy and Marine Corps have a close relationship, more
the dissolution of the Corps and the folding of its capa- so than with other branches of the military. Whitepa-
344

and Religious Programs Specialists, generally wear Marine uniforms emblazoned with Navy insignia. Conversely, the Marine Corps is responsible for conducting
land operations to support naval campaigns, including the
seizure of naval and air bases. Both services operate a
network security team in conjunction.
Marines and Sailors share many naval traditions, especially terminology and customs. Marine Corps Medal
of Honor recipients wear the Navy variant of this and
other awards;* [26] and with few exceptions, the awards
and badges of the Navy and Marine Corps are identical.
Much of testing for new Marine Corps aircraft is done
at NAS Patuxent River. The Navy's Blue Angels ight
Assault Amphibious Vehicles approach the well deck of USS Bon- demonstration team is staed by both Navy and Marine
homme Richard.
ocers and enlisted men, and includes a Marine C-130
Hercules aircraft.* [26]
pers and promotional literature have commonly used the
phraseNavy-Marine Corps Team,* [83]* [84] or refer
to the Naval Service. Both the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) and Commandant of the Marine Corps
report directly to the Secretary of the Navy.
Cooperation between the two services really begins with
the training and instruction of Marines. The Corps
receives a signicant portion of its ocers from the
United States Naval Academy and Naval Reserve Ocer
Training Corps (NROTC). NROTC sta includes Marine instructors, while Marine drill instructors contribute
to training of ocers in the Navy's Ocer Candidate
School. Marine aviators are trained in the Naval Aviation training pipeline and are winged as Naval Aviators.
In 2007, the Marine Corps joined with the Navy and

Coast Guard to adopt a new maritime strategy called A
Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower that raises
the notion of prevention of war to the same philosophical level as the conduct of war.* [85] This new strategy
charts a course for the Navy, Coast Guard and Marine
Corps to work collectively with each other and international partners to prevent regional crises, man-made or
natural, from occurring or reacting quickly should one occur to avoid negative impacts to the United States.
The Marines have reduced the requirement for large amphibious ships from 42 to a bare minimum of 33 ships;
the eet currently stands at 29 ships and is likely to shrink
in the future.* [86]
United States Air Force
Main article: United States Air Force
While the majority of Marine aviation assets ultimately
derive from the Navy, some support is drawn from the
United States Air Force. The Marine Corps makes extensive use of the USAF Air Mobility Command to airlift
Marines and equipment.
Marine and sailor train with ries in Djibouti.
Training alongside each other is viewed as critical, as

the Navy provides transport, logistical, and combat support to put Marine units into the ght, for example, the
Maritime Prepositioning ships and naval gunre support.
Most Marine aviation assets ultimately derive from the
Navy, with regard to acquisition, funding, and testing,
and Navy aircraft carriers typically deploy with a Marine squadron alongside Navy squadrons. Marines do
not recruit or train noncombatants such as chaplains or
medical/dental personnel; naval personnel ll these roles.
Some of these sailors, particularly Hospital Corpsmen
The Air Force traditionally provides the Joint Force Air

Component Commander who controls sorties for air
defense, and long range interdiction and reconnaissance
while the MAGTF commander retains control of the
Marines' organic aviation assets.* [87]* [88]
The Marines provide some ground training for Air Force
ground personnel, but most is handled by the Army.* [89]
45.3.2 Air-ground task forces

Main article: Marine Air-Ground Task Force
Today, the basic framework for deployable Marine units
is the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF), a exible structure of varying size. A MAGTF integrates a
45.3. ORGANIZATION
Marines unload CH-46 helicopters from an Air Force C-5

Galaxy.
345
A team of Marine Force Recon operators training during a Maritime Interdiction Operation (MIO) exercise-example of black
operations.
45.3.3 Special Operations
ground combat element (GCE), an aviation combat element (ACE), and a logistics combat element (LCE)* [90]
under a common command element (CE), capable of operating independently or as part of a larger coalition. The
MAGTF structure reects a strong tradition in the Corps
towards self-suciency and a commitment to combined
arms, both essential assets to an expeditionary force often called upon to act independently in discrete, timesensitive situations. The history of the Marine Corps as
well has led to a wariness of overreliance on its sister services, and towards joint operations in general.* [14]
A MAGTF varies in size from the smallest, a Marine
Expeditionary Unit (MEU), based around a reinforced
infantry battalion and a composite squadron, up to the
largest, a Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF), which ties
together a Division, an Air Wing, and a Logistics Group
under a MEF Headquarters Group. The seven MEUs
constantly rotate between themselves and their attached
components to maintain a high state of readiness. Each
MEU is rated as capable of performing special operations.* [91] The three MEFs contain the vast majority of
active duty deployable forces.
Main article: United States Marine Corps Forces Special

Operations Command
See also: United States Marine Corps Reconnaissance
Battalions and United States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance
Although the notion of a Marine special forces con-
Marine special operators conduct CQB training.
tribution to the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) was considered as early as the founding of USSOCOM in the 1980s, it was resisted by the
Marine Corps. Then-Commandant Paul X. Kelley ex-
346
pressed the popular belief that Marines should support

Marines, and that the Corps should not fund a special operations capability that would not support Marine operations.* [92] However, much of the resistance from within
the Corps dissipated when Marine leaders watched the
Corps' 15th and 26th MEU(SOC)ssit on the sidelines
during the very early stages of Operation Enduring Freedom while other special operations units actively engaged
in operations in Afghanistan.* [81] After a three-year development period, the Corps agreed in 2006 to supply
a 2,500-strong unit, Marine Forces Special Operations
Command (MARSOC), which would answer directly to
USSOCOM.* [93]
and nicknamed the Crossroads of the Marine Corps

.* [100]* [101] Marines operate detachments at many installations owned by other branches, to better share resources, such as specialty schools. Marines are also
present at, and operate many, forward bases during expeditionary operations. Finally, Marines operate a presence
in the National Capital Region, with Headquarters Marine Corps scattered amongst the Pentagon, Henderson
Hall, Washington Navy Yard, and Marine Barracks,
Washington, D.C.
45.3.4
See also: List of notable United States Marines and List

of historically notable United States Marines
Budget
45.4 Personnel
The Marine Corps accounts for around six percent of the

military budget of the United States. The cost per Marine is $20,000 less than the cost of a serviceman from
45.4.1 Leadership
the other services, and the entire force can be used for
*
both hybrid and major combat operations, [94] enabling
it to carry out full scale military action, peacekeeping operations and humanitarian aid the entire Three Block
War. Note that these per capita costs do not account for
support provided by the Navy and other branches, such
as the Navy's amphibious warfare ships and long-range
air transport by the USAF.* [95] However given expected
defense budget cuts, the Marines are well positioned for
elding cheap options for an uncertain world.* [96] The
Marine Corps budget is comparably well handled with
a tiny fraction of the Anti-Deciency Act violations of
any of the other three major branches.* [97] In 2013, the Joseph F. Dunford, Jr.,
USMC became the rst American military branch to ever Commandant of the Marine Corps
have a fully audited annual budget.* [98]
45.3.5
Marine Corps bases and stations
Main article: List of United States Marine Corps installations

The Marine Corps operates many major bases, 14 of
which host operating forces, several support and train- John M. Paxton, Jr.,
ing installations, as well as satellite facilities.* [99] Ma- Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps
rine Corps' bases are concentrated around the locations
of the Marine Expeditionary Forces, though reserve units
are scattered throughout the United States. The principal
bases are Camp Pendleton on the West Coast, home to I
MEF; Camp Lejeune on the East Coast, home to II MEF;
and Camp Butler in Okinawa, Japan, home to III MEF.
Other important bases include air stations, recruit depots, logistics bases, and training commands. Marine
Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms in
California is the Marine Corps' largest base and home
to the Corps' most complex, combined-arms, live-re Micheal P. Barrett,
training. Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia is Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps
home to Marine Corps Combat Development Command,
45.4. PERSONNEL
As stated above, the Commandant of the Marine Corps is
the highest-ranking ocer of the Marine Corps; though
he may not be the senior ocer by time in grade and/or
position of oce. He is both the symbolic and functional head of the Corps, and holds a position of very
high esteem among Marines. The Commandant has the
U.S. Code Title 10 responsibility to man, train, and equip
the Marine Corps. He does not serve as a direct battleeld commander. The Commandant is a member of the
Joint Chiefs of Sta, and reports to the Secretary of the
Navy.* [102]
The Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps acts as
a deputy to the Commandant. The Sergeant Major of
the Marine Corps is the senior enlisted Marine, and acts
as an adviser to the Commandant. Headquarters Marine
Corps comprises the rest of the Commandant's counsel
and sta, with deputy Commandants that oversee various
aspects of the Corps assets and capabilities.
The current and 36th Commandant is Joseph F. Dunford, Jr., who assumed the position on 17 October
2014.* [103]* [104] The 33rd and current Assistant Commandant is John M. Paxton, Jr.,* [105] while the 17th
and current Sergeant Major is Micheal P. Barrett. Other
Marine generals may be senior to the Commandant or
Assistant Commandant in terms of time in grade and/or
billet.
45.4.2
Rank structure
Main article: United States Marine Corps rank insignia

As in the rest of the United States military, Marine Corps
ranks fall into one of three categories: commissioned ofcer, warrant ocer, and enlisted, in decreasing order of
authority (excluding the Air Force, which does not currently appoint warrant ocers). To standardize compensation, each rank is assigned a pay grade.* [106]
Commissioned ocers
Commissioned ocers are distinguished from other ocers by their commission, which is the formal written authority, issued in the name of the President of the United
States, that confers the rank and authority of a Marine ofcer. Commissioned ocers carry thespecial trust and
condenceof the President of the United States.* [22]
Marine Corps commissioned ocers are promoted based
on anup or outsystem in accordance with the Defense
Ocer Personnel Management Act of 1980.
Warrant ocers
See also: Warrant ocer (United States)
347
Warrant ocers are primarily former enlisted experts in a
specic specialized eld and provide leadership generally
only within that speciality.
Enlisted
Enlisted Marines in the pay grades E-1 to E-3 make up
the bulk of the Corps' ranks, usually referred to simply as
Marines. Although they do not technically hold leadership ranks, the Corps' ethos stresses leadership among
all Marines, and junior Marines are often assigned responsibility normally reserved for superiors. Those in the
pay grades of E-4 and E-5 are non-commissioned ocers
(NCOs). They primarily supervise junior Marines and act
as a vital link with the higher command structure, ensuring that orders are carried out correctly. Marines E-6 and
higher are Sta Non-Commissioned Ocers (SNCOs),
charged with supervising NCOs and acting as enlisted advisers to the command.
The E-8 and E-9 levels each have two and three ranks
per pay grade, respectively, each with dierent responsibilities. The First Sergeant and Sergeant Major ranks
are command-oriented, serving as the senior enlisted
Marines in a unit, charged to assist the commanding ocer in matters of discipline, administration and the morale
and welfare of the unit. Master Sergeants and Master
Gunnery Sergeants provide technical leadership as occupational specialists in their specic MOS. The Sergeant
Major of the Marine Corps also E-9, is a billet conferred
on the senior enlisted Marine of the entire Marine Corps,
personally selected by the Commandant. It is possible
however for an enlisted Marine to hold a position senior
to Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps as has been the
case since the 1 October 2011, appointment of Sergeant
Major Bryan B. Battaglia to the billet of Senior Enlisted
Advisor to the Chairman which is deemed the senior enlisted member of the United States military.
Dierent forms of address can be found at United States
Marine Corps rank insignia and List of United States Marine Corps acronyms and expressions.
45.4.3 Military Occupational Specialty

Main articles: Military Occupational Specialty and List
of United States Marine Corps MOS
The Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) is a system
of job classication. Using a four digit code, it designates what eld and specic occupation a Marine performs. Segregated between ocer and enlisted, the MOS
determines the stang of a unit. Some MOSs change
with rank to reect supervisory positions, others are secondary and represent a temporary assignment outside of
a Marine's normal duties or special skill.
348

recruits must pass a tness test to start training; those who
fail receive individualized attention and training until the
minimum standards are reached. Marine recruit training
is the longest among the American military services; it is
12 weeks long, compared to the Army's 10 weeks and the
Navy's 9 weeks.* [108]
A Warrant Ocer observes recruits ring on a rie range.
45.4.4
Initial training
Main articles: United States Marine Corps Recruit

Training and Ocer Candidates School (United States
Marine Corps)
Following recruit training, enlisted Marines then attend

School of Infantry training at Camp Geiger or Camp
Pendleton. Infantry Marines begin their combat training, which varies in length, immediately with the Infantry
Training Battalion (ITB). Marines in all other MOSs
other than infantry train for 29 days in Marine Combat
Training (MCT), learning common infantry skills, before continuing on to their MOS schools which vary in
length.* [109]
45.5 Uniforms
Every year, over 2,000 new Marine ocers are commis- Main article: Uniforms of the United States Marine
sioned, and 38,000 recruits accepted and trained.* [32] Corps
All new Marines, enlisted or ocer, are recruited by the The Marine Corps has the most stable and most recMarine Corps Recruiting Command.* [107]
Commissioned ocers are commissioned mainly
through one of three sources: Naval Reserve Ocer
Training Corps (NROTC), Ocer Candidates School
(OCS), or the United States Naval Academy (USNA).
Following commissioning, all Marine commissioned
ocers, regardless of accession route or further training
requirements, attend The Basic School (TBS) at Marine
Corps Base Quantico, Virginia. At TBS, second lieutenants, warrant ocers, and selected foreign ocers
learn the art of infantry and combined arms warfare.* [22]
Left to right: Utility Uniform, Dress Uniform, Service Uniform,

and Evening Dress Uniform
Marine recruits at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego.
ognizable uniforms in the American military; the Blue

Dress dates back to the early 19th century* [32] and the
service uniform to the early 20th century. Marines' uniforms are distinct in their simplicity; Marines do not wear
unit patches or United States ags on any of their uniforms, nor name tags on their service and formal uniforms. Only a handful of skills (parachutist, air crew,
explosive ordnance disposal, etc.) warrant distinguishing
badges, and rank insignia is not worn on uniform headgear (with the exception of an ocer's garrison service
cover). While other servicemembers commonly identify
with a sub-group as much as or more than their service
(Ranger, submariner, aircrew, etc.), Marine uniforms do
not reect such division.
Enlisted Marines attend recruit training, known as boot

camp, at either Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego or
Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island. Historically,
the Mississippi River served as the dividing line which
delineated who would be trained where, while more recently, a district system has ensured a more even distribution of male recruits between the two MCRD facili- Marines have three main uniforms: Dress, Service,
ties. Females attend only the Parris Island depot as part and Utility. The Marine Corps Dress uniform is the
of the segregated Fourth Recruit Training Battalion. All most elaborate, worn for formal or ceremonial occasions.
45.6. CULTURE
There are three dierent forms of the Dress uniform,
the most common being the Blue Dress Uniform, called
Dress Bluesor simply Blues. It is most often seen
in recruiting advertisements and is equivalent to black tie.
There is aBlue-WhiteDress for summer, and Evening
Dress for formal (white tie) occasions. Versions with a
khaki shirt in lieu of the coat (Blue Dress Charlie/Delta)
are worn as a daily working uniform by Marine recruiters
and NROTC sta.* [110]
The Service Uniform was once the prescribed daily work
attire in garrison; however, it has been largely superseded
in this role by the utility uniform. Consisting of olive
green and khaki colors, it is commonly referred to as
Greens. It is roughly equivalent in function and composition to a business suit.* [110]
The Utility Uniform, currently the Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform, is a camouage uniform intended for
wear in the eld or for dirty work in garrison, though it has
now been standardized for regular duty. It is rendered in
a distinctive MARPAT pixelated camouage (sometimes
referred to as digitals or digies) that breaks up the wearer's
shape, and serves to distinguish Marine uniforms from
those of other services. In garrison, the woodland uniform is worn in winter, and the desert uniform is worn in
summer.* [111] Marines consider the utilities a working
uniform and do not permit their wear o-base, except in
transit to and from their place of duty and in the event of
an emergency. This, too, distinguishes them from other
services, which have less stringent restrictions.* [110]
45.6 Culture
Main article: Culture of the United States Marine Corps
349
45.6.1 Ocial traditions and customs

The Marines' Hymn dates back to the 19th century and is
the oldest ocial song in the United States armed forces.
The Marine motto Semper Fidelis means always faithful
in Latin, often appearing as Semper Fi; also the name of
the ocial march of the Corps, composed by John Phillip
Sousa. The mottos Fortitudine (With Fortitude); By
Sea and by Land, a translation of the Royal Marines' Per
Mare, Per Terram; and To the Shores of Tripoli were used
until 1868.* [112] The Marine Corps emblem is the Eagle,
Globe, and Anchor, sometimes abbreviated EGA,
adopted in 1868.* [113] The Marine Corps seal includes
the emblem, also is found on the ag of the United States
Marine Corps, and establishes scarlet and gold as the ofcial colors.* [114]
Two styles of swords are worn by Marines: the ocers' Mameluke Sword, similar to the Persian shamshir
presented to Lt. Presley O'Bannon after the Battle of
Derna, and the Marine NCO sword.* [32] The Marine
Corps Birthday is celebrated every year on 10 November in a cake-cutting ceremony where the rst slice of
cake is given to the oldest Marine present, who in turn
hands it o to the youngest Marine present. The celebration includes a reading of Commandant Lejeune's Birthday Message.* [115] Close Order Drill is heavily emphasized early on in a Marine's initial training, incorporated
into most formal events, and is used to teach discipline
by instilling habits of precision and automatic response
to orders, increase the condence of junior ocers and
noncommissioned ocers through the exercise of command and give Marines an opportunity to handle individual weapons.* [116]
An important part of the Marine Corps culture is the traditional seafaring naval terminology derived from its history with the Navy.
As in any military organization, the ocial and unocial 45.6.2 Unocial traditions and customs
traditions of the Marine Corps serve to reinforce camaraderie and set the service apart from others. The Corps' Marines have several generic nicknames:
embrace of its rich culture and history is cited as a reason
for its high esprit de corps.* [22]
Devil Dog has several oft-disputed explanations,* [117]* [118]* [119] but the tradition has
expanded to include the English bulldog's association with the Corps, especially as a mascot.* [32]
gyrene has dropped out of popular use.* [120]
Leatherneck refers to a leather collar formerly part
of the Marine uniform during the Revolutionary
War period.* [121]
Jarhead has
tions.* [122]
Eagle, Globe and Anchor along with the U.S. ag, the Marine
Corps ag and the Commandant's ag.
several
oft-disputed
explana-
Some other unocial traditions include mottos and exclamations:
350

Marineis acceptable and considered complimentary by most Corps personnel.
Former Marineor Veteran Marineis acceptable in referring to anyone who has been honorably
discharged from the Corps.
Retired Marineis generally reserved for those
who have completed 20 or more years of service are
called Lifersand formally retired or those who
have been medically retired.
According to one of theCommandant's White lettersfrom Commandant Alfred M. Gray, Jr., referring to a Marine by their last earned rank is appropriate.* [125]
45.6.4 Martial arts program
A recruiting poster makes use of theTeufel Hundennickname.
Oorah is common among Marines, being similar in

function and purpose to the Army's hooah and the
Navy's hooyah cries. Many possible etymologies
have been oered for the term.* [123]
Semper Fi is a common greeting among serving and
veteran Marines. It is short for the Marine Corps
Motto Semper Fidelis
Improvise, Adapt and Overcome has become an
adopted mantra in many units.* [124]
Marine performs a shoulder throw.
45.6.3
Veteran Marines
The Corps encourages the idea thatMarineis an earned

title and most Marine Corps personnel take to heart the
phrase Once a Marine, Always a Marine. They reject the termex-Marinein most circumstances. There
are no regulations concerning the address of persons who
have left active service, so a number of customary terms
have come into common use:* [51]
Ex-Marineis used in reference to persons removed from the Corps with less than a full and honorable discharge, especially those dishonorably discharged. Persons wishing to avoid this issue address
these individuals by name with no reference to the
Corps.
Main article: Marine Corps Martial Arts Program

In 2001, the Marine Corps initiated an internally designed martial arts program, called Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP). Due to an expectation that
urban and police-type peacekeeping missions would become more common in the 21st century, placing Marines
in even closer contact with unarmed civilians, MCMAP
was implemented to provide Marines with a larger and
more versatile set of less-than-lethal options for controlling hostile, but unarmed individuals. It is a stated aim of
the program to instill and maintain the Warrior Ethos
within Marines.* [126] The Marine Corps Martial Arts
program is an eclectic mix of dierent styles of martial arts melded together. MCMAP consists of punches
and kicks from Taekwondo and Karate, opponent weight
45.7. EQUIPMENT
transfer from Jujitsu, ground grappling involving joint
locking techniques and chokes from Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,
and a mix of knife and baton/stick ghting derived from
Eskrima, and elbow strikes and kick boxing from Muay
Thai. Marines begin MCMAP training in boot camp,
where they will earn the rst of ve available belts.* [127]
351
gun and MK19 automatic grenade launcher (40 mm) are
available for use by dismounted infantry, though they are
more commonly vehicle-mounted.
Precision repower is provided by the M40 series, and
the Barrett M107, while designated marksmen use the
DMR (being replaced by the M39 EMR), and the SAMR.* [131]
45.7 Equipment
Main pages: Category:United States Marine Corps
equipment and List of United States Marine Corps
individual equipment
As of 2013, the typical infantry rieman carries $14,000
worth of gear (excluding night-vision goggles), compared
to $2,500 a decade earlier. The number of pieces of
equipment (everything from radios to trucks) in a typical
infantry battalion has also increased, from 3,400 pieces
of gear in 2001 to 8,500 in 2013.* [128]
45.7.1
Infantry weapons
Marine Amphibious Assault Vehicles emerge from the surf onto

the sand of Freshwater Beach, Australia.
Main article: List of weapons of the United States MaThe Marine Corps utilizes a variety of direct-re rockrine Corps
The basic infantry weapon of the Marine Corps is the ets and missiles to provide infantry with an oensive
and defensive anti-armor capability. The SMAW and
AT4 are unguided rockets that can destroy armor and
xed defenses (e.g., bunkers) at ranges up to 500 meters.
The smaller and lighter M72 LAW can destroy targets
at ranges up to 200 meters.* [132]* [133] The Predator
SRAW, FGM-148 Javelin and BGM-71 TOW are antitank guided missiles. The Javelin can utilize top-attack
proles to avoid heavy frontal armor. The Predator is a
short-range re-and-forget weapon; the Javelin and TOW
are heavier missiles eective past 2,000 meters that give
infantry an oensive capability against armor.* [134]
The USMC is currently seeking to purchase commercial o-the-shelf bullet-trap or shoot-through rie*
Marines ring the MEU(SOC) pistol while garrisoned aboard grenades. [135] These grenades will provide individual
Marines additional repower and will allow indirect re
ship.
against targets in delade, behind walls and buildings or
M16 assault rie family, with a majority of Marines be- rooftops and elevated positions at ranges between 30 and
*
ing equipped with the M16A2 or M16A4 service ri- 150 meters. [135]
es (the M16A2 is being phased out). The M4 carbine* [129] and Colt 9mm SMG* [130] have also been issued. The standard side arm is the M9A1 pistol. The 45.7.2 Ground vehicles
Colt M1911A1 is also being put back into service as
the M45A1 Close Quarter Battle Pistol (CQBP) in small Main article: List of vehicles of the United States Marine
numbers. Suppressive re is provided by the M249 SAW Corps
(currently transitioning to the M27 IAR) and M240 machine guns, at the squad and company levels respectively. The Corps operates the same HMMWV and M1A1
In addition, indirect re is provided by the M203 grenade Abrams tank as does the Army. However, for its spelauncher and the M32 grenade launcher in reteams, cic needs, the Corps uses a number of unique vehicles.
M224 60 mm mortar in companies, and M252 81 mm The LAV-25 is a dedicated wheeled armored personmortar in battalions. The M2 .50 caliber heavy machine nel carrier, similar to the Army's Stryker vehicle, used
352

Main article: United States Marine Corps Aviation
The organic aviation capability of the Marine Corps is
essential to its mission. The Corps operates both rotarywing and xed-wing aircraft mainly to provide assault
support and close air support to its ground forces. However, other aircraft types are also used in a variety of support and special-purpose roles.
A Marine M1 Abrams tank ooading from a Landing Craft Air

Cushioned vehicle.
to provide strategic mobility.* [136] Amphibious capability is provided by the AAV-7A1 Assault Amphibious Vehicle, an armored tracked vehicle that doubles as
an armored personnel carrier, due to be replaced by the
Amphibious Combat Vehicle, a faster vehicle with superior armor and weaponry. The threat of land mines
and improvised explosive devices in Iraq and Afghanistan
has seen the Corps begin purchasing heavy armored
vehicles that can better withstand the eects of these
weapons as part of the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected
vehicle program.* [137] The Marine Corps has ordered
1,960 MRAP vehicles, hoping to use them to replace
HMMWVs and some Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacements on patrols in Iraq.* [138] The Logistics Vehicle
System Replacement began replacing the Logistics Vehicle System in 2009.* [139]
Prior to 2005, the Marines operated exclusively tube artillery the M198 155 mm howitzer, now being replaced
by the M777 155 mm howitzer. However, the Corps has
expanded its artillery composition to include the High
Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS), a truckmounted rocket artillery system. Both are capable of ring guided munitions.* [140]
45.7.3
Aircraft
Marine parachutists jumping from an MV-22 Osprey at 10,000

feet.
The light transport and attack capabilities are provided

by the Bell UH-1Y Venom and Bell AH-1 SuperCobra,
which is being replaced by the Bell AH-1Z Viper.* [141]
Medium-lift squadrons ying the CH-46E Sea Knight and
CH-53D Sea Stallion helicopters are converting to the
MV-22 Osprey tiltrotor with superior range and speed.
Heavy-lift squadrons are equipped with the CH-53E Super Stallion helicopter, eventually to be replaced with the
upgraded CH-53K.* [142]
A U.S. Marine AH-1Z Viper lands on USS Makin Island in 2010.
Marine attack squadrons y the AV-8B Harrier II; while

the ghter/attack mission is handled by the single-seat
and dual-seat versions of the F/A-18 Hornet strikeghter aircraft. The AV-8B is a V/STOL aircraft that
can operate from amphibious assault ships, land air
bases and short, expeditionary airelds, while the F/A18 can only be own from land or aircraft carriers.
Both are slated to be replaced by 340 of the STOVL
B version of the F-35 Lightning II, beginning training operations in 2008,* [143] and 80 of the carrier
F-35C versions for deployment with Navy carrier air
wings.* [144]* [145]* [146]* [147]
In addition, the Corps operates its own organic aerial refueling and electronic warfare (EW) assets in the form of
the KC-130 Hercules and EA-6B Prowler, respectively.
The Hercules doubles as a ground refueller and tacticalairlift transport aircraft. The Prowler is one of only two
active tactical electronic warfare aircraft left in the United
States inventory, and has been labeled a national asset"; frequently borrowed along with Navy Prowlers and
EA-18G Growlers to assist in any American combat action since the retirement of the Air Force's own EW aircraft.* [148]
The Marines operate unmanned aerial vehicles: the
45.9. NOTES AND REFERENCES
353
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45.8 See also

Iron Mike
United States Marine Corps Women's Reserve
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(TOW) Missile Weapon System. USMC Fact File. U.S.
Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 11 February
2007.
[135] 13-Ammunition and Explosives M6785412I1003
(Archived) Federal Business Opportunities: Opportunities. Fbo.gov (9 November 2011).
[136] Light Armored Vehicle-25 (LAV-25)". USMC Fact File.
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[137] U.S. Marine Corps Orders More Force Protection Vehicles. Force Protection, Inc. In the News. Force Protection, Inc. August 2006. Retrieved 3 January 2007.
[138] Andrew Feickert (21 August 2007). Mine-Resistant,
Ambush-Protected (MRAP) Vehicles: Background and
Issues for Congress (PDF). United States Congress.
Marine Corps.

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Story of Rowdy US Marines in the Gulf War. Frederick, Md.: PublishAmerica. ISBN 1-4137-9902-7.
Martinez, Marco (2007). Hard Corps: From Gangster to Marine Hero. New York: Crown Forum.
ISBN 978-0-307-38304-4.
Ricks, Thomas E. (1997). Making the Corps. New
York: Scribner. ISBN 1-4165-4450-X.
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Thomas Holcomb and the Making of Modern Marine
Corps, 19351943. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute
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358

Marines.mil Ocial site
Ocial USMC recruitment site
Marine Corps recruitment video
Marine Corps History Division
A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower
Marine Corps Heritage Foundation
Online Marine community
Members of the USMC on RallyPoint
An Unocial Dictionary for Marines
Chapter 46
United States Special Operations

Command
See also: United States special operations forces
The United States Special Operations Command
(USSOCOM or SOCOM) is the Unied Combatant
Command charged with overseeing the various Special
Operations Component Commands of the Army, Air
Force, Navy and Marine Corps of the United States
Armed Forces. The command is part of the Department
of Defense and is the only Unied Combatant Command
legislated into being by the U.S. Congress. USSOCOM
is headquartered at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa,
Florida.
lighted the need within the Department of Defense for

reform and reorganization. Since the incident, the Army
Chief of Sta, General Edward C. ShyMeyer, called
for a further restructuring of special operations capabilities, eventually helping to create the U.S. Delta Force.* [6]
Although unsuccessful at the joint level, Meyer nevertheless went on to consolidate Army SOF units under the
new 1st Special Operations Command in 1982, a signicant step to improve the U.S. Army's SOF.
The idea of a unied special operations command had its

origins in the aftermath of Operation Eagle Claw, the disastrous attempted rescue of hostages at the American embassy in Iran in 1980. The ensuing investigation, chaired
by Admiral James L. Holloway III, the retired Chief of
Naval Operations, cited lack of command and control
and inter-service coordination as signicant factors in
the failure of the mission.* [2] Since its activation on 16
April 1987, U.S. Special Operations Command has participated in many operations, from the 1989 invasion of
Panama to the ongoing Global War on Terrorism.* [3]* [4]
USSOCOM conducts several covert and clandestine
missions, such as direct action, special reconnaissance, counter-terrorism, foreign internal defense,
unconventional warfare, psychological warfare, civil
aairs, and counter-narcotics operations. Each branch
has a Special Operations Command that is unique
and capable of running its own operations, but when
the dierent special operations forces need to work
together for an operation, USSOCOM becomes the joint
component command of the operation, instead of a SOC
of a specic branch.* [5]
Senator Barry Goldwater, Former Chairman of the Senate
Armed Services Committee
By 1983, there was a small but growing sense in the

Congress for the need for military reforms. In June,
the Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC) began a
The unworkable command and control structure of sepa- two-year-long study of the Defense Department, which
rate U.S. military special operations forces (SOF), which included an examination of SOF spearheaded by Senled to the failure of Operation Eagle Claw in 1980, high- ator Barry Goldwater (R-AZ). With concern mounting
46.1 History
359
360
CHAPTER 46. UNITED STATES SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND
on Capitol Hill, the Department of Defense created the

Joint Special Operations Agency on 1 January 1984; this
agency, however, had neither operational nor command
authority over any SOF.* [7]* [8] The Joint Special Operations Agency thus did little to improve SOF readiness,
capabilities, or policies, and therefore was insucient.
Within the Defense Department, there were a few staunch
SOF supporters. Noel Koch, Principal Deputy Assistant
Secretary of Defense for International Security Aairs,
and his deputy, Lynn Rylander, both advocated SOF reforms.* [9]
At the same time, a few on Capitol Hill were determined
to overhaul United States Special Operations Forces.
They included Senators Sam Nunn (D-GA) and William
Cohen (R-ME), both members of the Armed Services
Committee, and Representative Dan Daniel (D-VA), the
chairman of the United States House Armed Services
Subcommittee on Readiness. Congressman Daniel had
become convinced that the U.S. military establishment
was not interested in special operations, that the country's capability in this area was second rate, and that SOF
operational command and control was an endemic problem.* [9] Senators Nunn and Cohen also felt strongly that
the Department of Defense was not preparing adequately
for future threats. Senator Cohen agreed that the U.S.
needed a clearer organizational focus and chain of command for special operations to deal with low-intensity
conicts.* [7]
In October 1985, the Senate Armed Services Committee
published the results of its two-year review of the U.S.
military structure, entitled Defense Organization: The
Need For Change.* [10] Mr. James R. Locher III, the
principal author of this study, also examined past special operations and speculated on the most likely future
threats. This inuential document led to the GoldwaterNichols Defense Reorganization Act of 1986.* [11]* [12]
By spring 1986, SOF advocates had introduced reform
bills in both houses of Congress. On 15 May, Senator Cohen introduced the Senate bill, co-sponsored by Senator
Nunn and others, which called for a joint military organization for SOF and the establishment of an oce in the
Defense Department to ensure adequate funding and policy emphasis for low-intensity conict and special operations.* [13] Representative Daniel's proposal went even
furtherhe wanted a national special operations agency
headed by a civilian who would bypass the Joint Chiefs
and report directly to the Secretary of Defense; this would
keep Joint Chiefs and the Services out of the SOF budget
process.* [8]
ers testied in favor of the need for reform.* [9] By most

accounts, retired Army Major General Richard Scholtes
gave the most compelling reasons for change. Scholtes,
who commanded the joint special operations task force in
Grenada, explained how conventional force leaders misused SOF during the operation, not allowing them to use
their unique capabilities, which resulted in high SOF casualties. After his formal testimony, Scholtes met privately with a small number of Senators to elaborate on
the problems that he had encountered in Grenada.* [14]
Both the House and Senate passed SOF reform bills,
and these went to a conference committee for reconciliation. Senate and House conferees forged a compromise. The bill called for a unied combatant command
headed by a four-star general for all SOF, an Assistant
Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and LowIntensity Conict, a coordinating board for low-intensity
conict within the National Security Council, and a new
Major Force Program (MFP-11) for SOF (the so-called
SOF checkbook).* [15]* [16] The nal bill, attached as
a rider to the 1987 Defense Authorization Act, amended
the Goldwater-Nichols Act and was signed into law in October 1986. Congress clearly intended to force DOD and
the Administration to face up to the realities of past failures and emerging threats. DOD and the Administration
were responsible for implementing the law, and Congress
subsequently had to pass two additional bills to ensure
proper implementation.* [9] The legislation promised to
improve SOF in several respects. Once implemented,
MFP-11 provided SOF with control over its own resources, better enabling it to modernize the force. Additionally, the law fostered interservice cooperation: a
single commander for all SOF promoted interoperability
among the forces assigned to the same command. The
establishment of a four-star Commander in Chief and
an Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations
and Low Intensity Conict eventually gave SOF a voice
in the highest councils of the Defense Department.* [15]
Implementing the provisions and mandates of the NunnCohen Act, however, was neither rapid nor smooth. One
of the rst issues to surface was appointing an ASD
(SO/LIC), whose principal duties included monitorship
of special operations activities and low-intensity conict
activities of the Department of Defense. The Congress
even increased the number of assistant secretaries of defense from 11 to 12, but the Department of Defense
still did not ll this new billet. In December 1987,
the Congress directed Secretary of the Army John O.
Marsh to carry out the ASD (SO/LIC) duties until a suitCongress held hearings on the two bills in the summer of able replacement was approved by the Senate. Not until 18 months after the legislation passed did Ambas1986. Admiral William J. Crowe Jr., Chairman of the
Whitehouse assume the duties of ASD
Joint Chiefs of Sta, led the Pentagon's opposition to the sador Charles
(SO/LIC).* [17]
bills. He proposed, as an alternative, a new Special Operations Forces command led by a three-star general. This Meanwhile, the establishment of USSOCOM provided
proposal was not well received on Capitol HillCongress its own measure of excitement. A quick solution to manwanted a four-star general in charge to give SOF more ning and basing a brand new unied command was to
clout. A number of retired military ocers and oth- abolish an existing command. United States Readiness
46.1. HISTORY
361
MH-60 landing on Hercules
General James Lindsay the rst Commander in Chief, Special

Operations Command
Command (USREDCOM), with an often misunderstood

mission, did not appear to have a viable mission in the
post Goldwater-Nichols era, and its Commander in Chief,
General James Lindsay, had had some special operations
experience. On 23 January 1987, the Joint Chiefs of Sta
recommended to the Secretary of Defense that USREDCOM be disestablished to provide billets and facilities
for USSOCOM. President Ronald Reagan approved the
establishment of the new command on 13 April 1987.
The Department of Defense activated USSOCOM on 16
April 1987 and nominated General Lindsay to be the
rst Commander in Chief Special Operations Command
(USCINCSOC). The Senate accepted him without debate.* [9]
46.1.1
which used mines and small boats to harass the convoys

steaming to and from Kuwait. In late July 1987, Rear
Admiral Harold J. Bernsen, commander of the Middle
East Force, requested NSW assets. Special Boat Teams
deployed with six Mark III Patrol Boats and two SEAL
platoons in August.* [9] The Middle East Force decided
to convert two oil servicing barges, Hercules and Wimbrown VII, into mobile sea bases. The mobile sea bases
allowed SOF in the northern Persian Gulf to thwart clandestine Iranian mining and small boat attacks.
On 21 September, Nightstalkers ying MH-60 and Little
Birds took o from the frigate USS Jarrett to track an Iranian ship, the Iran Ajr. The Nightstalkers observed the
Iran Ajr turn o its lights and begin laying mines. After
receiving permission to attack, the helicopters red guns
and rockets, stopping the ship. As the Iran Ajr's crew began to push mines over the side, the helicopters resumed
ring until the crew abandoned ship. Special Boat Teams
provided security while a SEAL team boarded the vessel at rst light and discovered nine mines on the vessel's
deck, as well as a logbook revealing areas where previous mines had been laid. The logbook implicated Iran in
mining international waters.* [9]
Operation Earnest Will
USSOCOM's rst tactical operation involved SEALs,

Special Boat Teams (SBT), and 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) (Night Stalkers)
aviators working together during Operation Earnest Will
in September 1987. During Operation Earnest Will,
the United States ensured that neutral oil tankers and
other merchant ships could safely transit the Persian Gulf
during the IranIraq War. Iranian attacks on tankers
prompted Kuwait to ask the United States in December
1986 to register 11 Kuwaiti tankers as American ships so
that they could be escorted by the U.S. Navy. President One of two Iranian oil platform set ablaze after shelling by AmerReagan agreed to the Kuwaiti request on 10 March 1987, ican destroyers.
hoping it would deter Iranian attacks.* [9] The protection
oered by U.S. naval vessels, however, did not stop Iran, Within a few days, the Special Operations forces had de-
362
termined the Iranian pattern of activity; the Iranians hid

during the day near oil and gas platforms in Iranian waters
and at night they headed toward the Middle Shoals Buoy,
a navigation aid for tankers. With this knowledge, SOF
launched three Little Bird helicopters and two patrol craft
to the buoy. The Little Bird helicopters arrived rst and
were red upon by three Iranian boats anchored near the
buoy. After a short but intense reght, the helicopters
sank all three boats. Three days later, in mid-October, an
Iranian Silkworm missile hit the tanker Sea Isle City near
the oil terminal outside Kuwait City. Seventeen crewmen and the American captain were injured in the missile attack.* [9]* [18] During Operation Nimble Archer,
four destroyers shelled two oil platforms in the Rostam
oil eld. After the shelling, a SEAL platoon and a demolition unit planted explosives on one of the platforms to
destroy it. The SEALs next boarded and searched a third
platform 2 miles (3 km) away. Documents and radios
were taken for intelligence purposes.
On 14 April 1988, 65 miles (100 km) east of Bahrain,
the frigate USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58) hit a mine,
blowing an immense hole in its hull.* [19] Ten sailors were
injured. During Operation Praying Mantis the U.S. retaliated ercely, attacking the Iranian frigate Sahand and
oil platforms in the Sirri and Sassan oil elds.* [18] After U.S. warships bombarded the Sirri platform and set
it ablaze, a UH-60 with a SEAL platoon ew toward the
platform but was unable to get close enough because of
the roaring re. Secondary explosions soon wrecked the
platform.* [9] Thereafter, Iranian attacks on neutral ships
dropped drastically. On 3 July 1988, the USS Vincennes
shot down an Iranian civilian airliner, Iran Air Flight 655,
killing all 290 people on board, including 66 children. On
18 July, Iran accepted the United Nations cease re; on
20 August 1988, the IranIraq War ended. The remaining SEALs, patrol boats, and helicopters then returned to
the United States.* [9] Special operations forces provided
critical skills necessary to help CENTCOM gain control
of the northern Persian Gulf and balk Iran's small boats
and minelayers. The ability to work at night proved vital,
because Iranian units used darkness to conceal their actions. Additionally, because of Earnest Will operational
requirements, USSOCOM would acquire new weapons
systemsthe patrol coastal ships and the Mark V Special
Operations Craft.* [9]
46.1.2
Division paramilitary ocers with elements of JSOC.

They conducted very high risk advanced force operations prior to the entry of the follow on forces. The
rst casualty of the conict came from this team and
was a Paramilitary ocer and former Delta Force operator name Larry Freedman. Freedman was awarded the
Intelligence Star forextraordinary heroismfor his actions.* [22]
The earliest missions during Operation Restore Hope
were conducted by Navy SEALs. The SEALs performed
several hydro-graphic reconnaissance missions to nd
suitable landing sites for Marines. On 7 December, the
SEALs swam into Mogadishu Harbor, where they found
suitable landing sites, assessed the area for threats, and
concluded that the port could support ooading ships.
This was a tough mission because the SEALs swam
against a strong current which left many of them overheated and exhausted. Furthermore, they swam through
raw sewage in the harbor, which made them sick.* [9]
When the rst SEALs hit the shore the following night,
they were surprised to meet members of the news media.
The rst Marines came ashore soon thereafter, and the
press redirected their attention to them. Later, the SEALs
provided personal security for President George Bush
during a visit to Somalia.* [9]* [21] In December 1992,
Special Forces assets in Kenya moved to Somalia and
joined Operation Restore Hope. January 1993, a Special Forces command element deployed to Mogadishu as
the Joint Special Operations Forces-Somalia (JSOFOR)
that would command and control all special operations
for Restore Hope. JSOFOR's mission was to make initial
contact with indigenous factions and leaders; provide information for force protection; and provide reports on the
area for future relief and security operations. Before redeploying in April, JSOFOR elements drove over 26,000
miles (42,000 km), captured 277 weapons, and destroyed
over 45,320 pounds (20,560 kg) of explosives.* [9]
Somalia
Special Operations Command rst became involved in

Somalia in 1992 as part of Operation Provide Relief. C130s circled over Somali airstrips during delivery of relief
supplies. Special Forces medics accompanied many relief ights into the airstrips throughout southern Somalia
to assess the area. They were the rst U.S. soldiers in Somalia, arriving before U.S. forces who supported the expanded relief operations of Restore Hope.* [9]* [20]* [21]
The rst teams into Somalia were CIA Special Activities
Bravo Company, 3rd Battalion of the 75th Ranger Regiment in

Somalia, 1993.
In August 1993, Secretary of Defense Les Aspin directed

the deployment of a Joint Special Operations Task Force
(JSOTF) to Somalia in response to attacks made by General Mohamed Farrah Aidid's supporters upon U.S. and
UN forces. The JSOTF, named Task Force (TF) Ranger,
was charged with a mission named Operation Gothic
46.1. HISTORY
363
Serpent to capture Aidid. This was an especially arduous mission, for Aidid had gone underground, after several Lockheed AC-130 air raids and UN assaults on his
strongholds.* [9]* [23]* [24]
While Marines from the 24th MEU provided an interim
QRF (Force Recon Det and helicopters from HMM263), the task force arrived in the country, and began
training exercises. The Marines were asked to take on
the Aidid snatch mission, but having the advantage of
being in the area for more than two months, decided after mission analysis that the mission was a no-godue
to several factors, centered around the inability to rescue the crew of a downed helicopter (re: the indigenous
forces technique of using RPGs against helicopters and
blocking the narrow streets in order to restrict the movement of a ground rescue force). This knowledge was not
passed on to the Rangers, due to the Marines operating
from the USS Wasp and the Rangers remaining on land.
TF Ranger was made up of operators from Delta Force,
75th Ranger Regiment, 160th SOAR, Air Force special
tactics units, and SEALs from the Naval Special Warfare Development Group.* [9]* [23] During August and
September 1993, the task force conducted six missions
into Mogadishu, all of which were successes. Although
Aidid remained free, the eect of these missions seriously limited his movements.* [24]
On 3 October, TF Ranger launched its seventh mission,
this time into Aidid's stronghold the Bakara Market to
capture two of his key lieutenants. The mission was expected to take only one or two hours.* [23] Helicopters
carried an assault and a ground convoy of security teams
launched in the late afternoon from the TF Ranger compound at Mogadishu airport. The TF came under increasingly heavy re, more intense than during previous
missions. The assault team captured 24 Somalis including Aidid's lieutenants and were loading them onto the
convoy trucks when a MH-60 Blackhawk was hit by a
rocket-propelled grenade (RPG).* [9]* [24] A small element from the security force, as well as an MH-6 assault helicopter and an MH-60 carrying a fteen man
combat search and rescue (CSAR) team, rushed to the
crash site.* [9]* [23]* [24] The battle became increasingly
worse. An RPG struck another MH-60, crashing less
than 1 mile (1.6 km) to the south of the rst downed
helicopter. The task force faced overwhelming Somali
mobs that overran the crash sites, causing a dire situation.* [23] A Somali mob overran the second site and, despite a heroic defense, killed everyone except the pilot,
whom they took prisoner. Two defenders of this crash
site, Master Sergeant Gary Gordon and Sergeant First
Class Randall Shughart, were posthumously awarded the
Medal of Honor.* [9]* [23]* [24] About this time, the mission's quick reaction force (QRF) also tried to reach the
second crash site. This force too was pinned by Somali
re and required the re support of two AH-6 helicopters
before it could break contact and make its way back to the
base.* [9]
Map of the main battle sites during the Battle of Mogadishu.
The assault and security elements moved on foot towards

the rst crash area, passing through heavy re, and occupied buildings south and southwest of the downed helicopter. They fought to establish defensive positions so not
to be pinned down by very heavy enemy re, while treating their wounded, and worked to free the pilot's body
from the downed helicopter. With the detainees loaded
on trucks, the ground convoy force attempted to reach
the rst crash site. Unable to nd it amongst the narrow,
winding alleyways, the convoy came under devastating
small arms and RPG re. The convoy had to return to
base after suering numerous casualties, and sustaining
substantial damage to the their vehicles.
Reinforcements, consisting of elements from the QRF,
10th Mountain Division soldiers, Rangers, SEALs,
Pakistan Army tanks and Malaysian armored personnel carriers, nally arrived at 1:55 am on 4 October.
The combined force worked until dawn to free the pilot's body, receiving RPG and small arms re throughout the night.* [9] All the casualties were loaded onto
the armored personnel carriers, and the remainder of the
force was left behind and had no choice but to move out
on foot.* [23] AH-6 gunships raked the streets with re
to support the movement. The main force of the convoy arrived at the Pakistani Stadium-compound for the
QRF-at 6:30 am,* [23] thus concluding one of the bloodiest and ercest urban reghts since the Vietnam War.
Task Force Ranger experienced a total of 17 killed in
action and 106 wounded. Various estimates placed So-
364
mali casualties above 1,000.* [23] Although Task Force

Ranger's few missions were successes, the overall outcome of Operation Gothic Serpent was deemed a failure because of the Task Force's failure to complete their
stated mission, capturing Mohamed Farrah Aidid.* [23]
Most U.S. forces pulled out of Somalia by March 1994.
The withdrawal from Somalia, was completed on March
1995.* [9] Even though Operation Gothic Serpent failed,
USSOCOM still made signicant contributions to operations in Somalia. SOF performed reconnaissance and
surveillance missions, assisted with humanitarian relief,
protected American forces and conducted riverine patrols. Additionally, they ensured the safe landing of the
Marines and safeguarded the arrival of merchant ships
carrying food.* [9]* [18]
46.1.3
Iraq
cessfully training the Iraqi security forces.* [28]* [29]
46.2 Current role

United States Special Operations Command played a pivotal role in ghting the former Taliban government in
Afghanistan in 2001* [30] and toppling it thereafter, as
well as combating the insurgency and capturing Saddam
Hussein in Iraq. USSOCOM in 2004 was developing
plans to have an expanded and more complex role in the
global campaign against terrorism,* [31] and that role continued to emerge before and after the killing of Osama
bin Laden in Pakistan in 2011.* [32]* [33] In 2010, of
about 13,000 Special Operations forces deployed overseas, about 9,000 [were] evenly divided between Iraq and
Afghanistan.* [32]
USSOCOM's 10th Special Forces Group, elements of 46.2.1

JSOC and CIA/SAD Paramilitary Ocers linked up
again and were the rst to enter Iraq prior to the invasion.
Their eorts organized the Kurdish Peshmerga to defeat
Ansar Al Islam in Northern Iraq before the invasion. This
battle was for control of a territory in Northeastern Iraq
that was completely occupied by Ansar Al Islam, an ally
of Al Qaeda. This was a very signicant battle and led
to the termination of a substantial number of terrorists
and the uncovering of a chemical weapons facility at Sargat. These terrorists would have been in the subsequent
insurgency had they not been eliminated during this battle. Sargat was the only facility of its type discovered in
the Iraq war. This battle may have been the Tora Bora
of Iraq, but it was a sound defeat for Al Qaeda and their
ally Ansar Al Islam. This combined team then led the
Peshmerga against Saddam's northern Army. This eort
kept Saddam's forces in the north and denied the ability
to redeploy to contest the invasion force coming from the
south. This eort may have saved the lives of hundreds if
not thousands of coalition service men and women.* [25]
At the launch of the Iraq War dozens of 12-member
Special Forces teams inltrated southern and western Iraq
to hunt for Scud missiles and pinpoint bombing targets.
Scores of Navy SEALs seized oil terminals and pumping stations on the southern coast.* [26] Air Force combat
controllers ew combat missions in MC-130H Combat
Talon IIs and established austere desert airstrips to begin
the ow of soldiers and supplies deep into Iraq. It was a
far cry from the Persian Gulf war of 1991, where Special
Operations forces were kept largely on the sidelines. But
it would not be a replay of Afghanistan, where Army Special Forces and Navy SEALs led the ghting. After their
star turn in Afghanistan, many special operators were disappointed to play a supporting role in Iraq. Many special
operators felt restricted by cautious commanders.* [27]
From that point, USSOCOM has since killed or captured
hundreds of insurgents and Al-Qaeda terrorists. It has
conducted several foreign internal defense missions suc-
War in Afghanistan
A 7th SFG Special Forces medic in Kandahar Province,

Afghanistan, in September 2008.
In the initial stages of the War in Afghanistan, USSOCOM forces linked up with CIA Paramilitary Ocers
from Special Activities Division to defeat the Taliban
without the need for large-scale conventional forces.* [34]
This was one of the biggest successes of the global War on
Terrorism.* [35] These units linked up several times during this war and engaged in several furious battles with
the enemy. One such battle happened during Operation
Anaconda the mission to squeeze life out of a Taliban
and Al-Qaeda stronghold dug deep into the Shah-i-Kot
mountains of eastern Afghanistan. The operation was
seen as one of the heaviest and bloodiest ghts in the War
in Afghanistan.* [36] The battle on an Afghan mountaintop called Takur Ghar featured special operations forces
46.3. SUBORDINATE COMMANDS

from all 4 services and the CIA. Navy SEALs, Army
Rangers, Air Force Combat Controllers, and Pararescuemen fought against entrenched Al-Qaeda ghters atop a
10,000-foot (3,000 m) mountain. Subsequently, the entrenched Taliban became targets of every asset in the
sky. According to an executive summary, the battle
of Takur Ghar was the most intense reght American
special operators have been involved in since 18 U.S.
Army Rangers were killed in Mogadishu, Somalia, in
1993.* [37]* [38]* [39] During Operation Red Wings on
28 June 2005, four Navy SEALs, pinned down in a reght, radioed for help. A Chinook helicopter, carrying
16 service members, responded but was shot down. All
members of the rescue team and three of four SEALs
on the ground died. It was the worst loss of life in
Afghanistan since the invasion in 2001. The Navy SEAL
Marcus Luttrell alone survived.* [40]* [41] Team leader
Michael P. Murphy was awarded the Medal of Honor for
his actions in the battle.
365
Brennan said that the United States will not merely respond after the factof a terrorist attack but willtake the
ght to al-Qaeda and its extremist aliates whether they
plot and train in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia
and beyond.Olson said, In some places, in deference
to host-country sensitivities, we are lower in prole. In
every place, Special Operations forces activities are coordinated with the U.S. ambassador and are under the operational control of the four-star regional commander.
*
[32]
The conduct of actions by SOC forces outside of Iraq and

Afghan war zones has been the subject of internal U.S.
debate, including between representatives of the Bush administration such as John B. Bellinger III, on one hand,
and the Obama administration on another. The United
Nations in 2010 also questioned the administration's
authority under international law to conduct such raids,
particularly when they kill innocent civilians. One possible legal justication the permission of the country
in question is complicated in places such as Pakistan
and Yemen, where the governments privately agree but
46.2.2 Global presence
do not publicly acknowledge approving the attacks,as
*
SOC chief Olson said in 2011 that SOCOMis a micro- one report put it. [32]
cosm of the Department of Defense, with ground, air, and
maritime components, a global presence, and authorities
and responsibilities that mirror the Military Departments, 46.3 Subordinate Commands
Military Services, and Defense Agencies.* [33] In 2010,
special operations forces were deployed in 75 countries,
compared with about 60 at the beginning of 2009.* [32]
In 2011, SOC spokesman Colonel Tim Nye (Army* [42])
was reported to have said that the number of countries
with SOC presence will likely reach 120 and that joint
training exercises will have been carried out in most or all Special Operations Command Structure (Media:U.S. Special Opof those countries during the year. One study identied erations Command.png).
joint-training exercises in Belize, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Germany, Indonesia, Mali, Norway, Panama,
and Poland in 2010 and also, through mid-year 2011,
in the Dominican Republic, Jordan, Romania, Senegal, 46.3.1 Joint Special Operations Command
South Korea, and Thailand, among other nations. In addition, SOC forces executed the high prole killing of * [44] Joint Special Operations Command is a compoOsama bin Laden in Pakistan in 2011.* [33]
nent command of the USSOCOM and is charged to study
Wikileaks' releases of cables from the U.S. Embassy, special operations requirements and techniques to ensure
Pakistan, revealed the presence of a detachment of SO- interoperability and equipment standardization, plan and
COM (or possibly United States Army Special Opera- conduct special operations exercises and* training, and detions Command) referred to as SOC(FWD)-PAK (09IS- velop Joint Special Operations Tactics. [1] It was estabLAMABAD2449, 9 August 2010). This unit or head- lished in 1980 on recommendation of Col. Charlie Beckquarters may be, in full form, Special Operations Com- with, *in the aftermath of the failure of Operation Eagle
mand (Forward)-Pakistan. It seems unlikely that the Claw. [45]
symbol refers to the minus sign that sometimes means Units
that the unit or headquarters is operating at less than full
strength. The unit or headquarters includes a Military
The U.S. Army's 1st Special Forces Operational
Information Support Team (MIST ).* [43] Another story
Detachment-Delta, popularly known as Delta Force,
that reported on JSOC/Blackwater anti-terrorist operais the rst of the two primary counter-terrorist
tions in Pakistan was Jeremy Scahill's The Secret U.S.
units of JSOC and SOCOM.* [46] Modeled after
War in Pakistan, in the 7 November 2009, issue of The
the British Special Air Service, Delta Force is reNation.
garded as one of the premier special operations
In 2010, White House counterterrorism director John O.
forces in the world.* [47] This is because of Delta's
366

The Air Force 24th Special Tactics Squadron (24th
STS) is the AFSOC component of JSOC. The 24th
STS usually operates with Delta and DEVGRU because of the convenience of 24th STS ability to synchronize and control the dierent elements of air
power and enhance air operations deep in enemy territory.* [23]
The Joint Special Operations Command insignia
stringent training and selection process. Delta recruits primarily from the most talented and highly
skilled operators in the Army Special Forces and
the 75th Ranger Regiment although Delta will take
anyone and everyone that can pass their screening.* [23]* [47] Recruits must pass a rigid selection
course before beginning training. Delta has received
training from numerous U.S. government agencies
and other tier one SOF and has created a curriculum based on this training and techniques that it
has developed.* [47] Delta conducts clandestine and
covert special operations all over the world.* [47] It
has the capability to conduct myriad special operations missions but specializes in counter-terrorism
and hostage rescue operations.* [23]* [46]* [48]
Portions of JSOC units have made up the constantly

changing special operations task force, operating in
the U.S. Central Command area of operations. The
Task Force 11, Task Force 121, Task Force 6-26 and
Task Force 145 are creations of the Pentagon's post-11
September campaign against terrorism, and it quickly became the model for how the military would gain intelligence and battle insurgents in the future. Originally
known as Task Force 121, it was formed in the summer
of 2003, when the military merged two existing Special
Operations units, one hunting Osama bin Laden in and
around Afghanistan, and the other tracking Sadaam Hussein in Iraq.* [52]* [53]
46.3.2 Special Operations Command

Joint Capabilities
Special Operations Command Joint Capabilities (SOCJC) was transferred to USSOCOM from the soon
to be disestablished United States Joint Forces Command.* [54]
Primary Mission: SOC-JC trains conventional and SOF

commanders and their stas, supports USSOCOM international engagement training requirements, and supports implementation of capability solutions in order to
improve strategic and operational Warghting readiness
and joint interoperability. SOC-JC must also be prepared
to support deployed Special Operations Joint Task Force
The Naval Special Warfare Development Group (SOJTF) Headquarters (HQ).
(DEVGRU, SEAL Team Six) is the second of the As a joint sub-unied command under USSOCOM,
two primary counter-terrorist units of JSOC and SOC-JC's core function is to enhance the interoperabilSOCOM.* [46] DEVGRU is Naval Special War- ity of conventional and Special Operations Forces (SOF)
fare's counterpart to Delta. Like Delta, DEVGRU commanders and stas through robust strategic and operrecruits the best operators from the best units in ational level joint training. In coordination with the USits branch, the Navy SEALs. DEVGRU is capable SOCOM J3, J7/9 and Joint Special Operations University
of performing any type of special operations mis- (JSOU), SOC-JC provides excellent training and support
sion, but trains especially for counter-terrorist and to the education for SOF and Conventional Forces (CF)
hostage rescue operations.* [23]* [46]
worldwide. Additionally, SOC-JC supports the joint SOF
The Intelligence Support Activity (ISA, The Activity) is the support branch of JSOC and USSOCOM. Its primary missions are to provide Human Intelligence (HUMINT) and Signal Intelligence
(SIGINT) mainly for Delta and DEVGRU's operations.* [46]* [49] Before the establishing of the
Strategic Support Branch in 2001, the ISA needed
the permission of the CIA to conduct its operations,
which sometimes caused it to be less eective in its
support of JSOC's primary units.* [46]* [50]* [51]
capabilities development process while maintaining the

exibility to support emerging initiatives.
46.3.3 Army
On 1 December 1989 the United States Army Special
Operations Command (USASOC) activated as the 16th
major Army command. These special operations forces
have been America's spearhead for unconventional warfare for more than 40 years. USASOC commands such
367
or airelds.* [58]
USASOC patch.
units as the well known Special Forces (SF, or theGreen

Berets) and Rangers, and such relatively unknown units
as the Psychological Operations Group (PSYOP) and
Civil Aairs Brigade (CA). These are one of the USSOCOM's main weapons for waging unconventional warfare and counter-insurgency. The signicance of these
units is emphasized as conventional conicts are becoming less prevalent as insurgent and guerrilla warfare increases.* [55]* [56]
United States Army Special Forces (SF) aka Green

Berets perform several doctrinal missions: unconventional warfare, foreign internal defense, special
reconnaissance, direct action and counter-terrorism.
These missions make Special Forces unique in the
U.S. military, because they are employed throughout the three stages of the operational continuum:
peacetime, conict and war.* [59] Foreign internal
defense operations, SF's main peacetime mission,
are designed to help friendly developing nations by
working with their military and police forces to improve their technical skills, understanding of human
rights issues, and to help with humanitarian and civic
action projects. Special Forces unconventional warfare capabilities provide a viable military option for
a variety of operational taskings that are inappropriate or infeasible for conventional forces. Special
Forces are the U.S. military's premier unconventional warfare force.* [60] Foreign internal defense
and unconventional warfare missions are the bread
and butter of Special Forces soldiers. For this reason
SF candidates are trained extensively in weapons,
engineering, communications and medicine. SF soldiers are taught to be warriors rst and teachers second because they must be able to train their team
and be able to train their allies during a FID or
UW mission.* [59]* [61] Often SF units are required
to perform additional, or collateral, activities outside their primary missions. These collateral activities are coalition warfare/support, combat search
and rescue, security assistance, peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance, humanitarian de-mining and
counter-drug operations.* [62]
Units
The 75th Ranger Regiment (U.S. Army Rangers)
is the premier light-infantry unit of the United
States Army and is headquartered at Fort Benning,
Georgia. The 75th Ranger Regiment's mission is to
plan and conduct special missions in support of U.S. Special Forces on a patrol in Afghanistan.
policy and objectives.* [57] The Rangers are a exible and rapid-deployable force. Each battalion can
The 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment
deploy anywhere in the world within 18 hours no(Night Stalkers) headquartered at Fort Campbell,
tice. The Army places much importance on the 75th
Kentucky provides aviation support to units within
Ranger Regiment and its training; it possesses the
USSOCOM. The Regiment consists of MH-6 and
capabilities to conduct conventional and most speAH-6 light helicopters, MH-60 helicopters and
cial operations missions. Rangers are capable of inMH-47 heavy assault helicopters. The capabilities
ltrating by land, sea, or air and direct action operations such as conducting raids or assaulting buildings
of the 160th SOAR (A) have been evolving since the
368

early 1980s. Its focus on night operations resulted
in the nickname, the Night Stalkers.* [63] The
primary mission of the Night Stalkers is to conduct
overt or covert inltration, exltration, and resupply
of special operations forces across a wide range of
environmental conditions.* [64]
John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center (USAJFKSWCS) trains USSOCOM and Army Special Operations Forces through development and evaluation
of special operations concepts, doctrines and trainings.* [70]
4th Military Information Support Group (Airborne) 46.3.4 Navy

and 8th Military Information Support Group (Airborne) Soldiers use persuasion to inuence perceptions and encourage desired behavior.* [65]* [66]
PSYOP soldiers supports national objectives at the
tactical, operational and strategic levels of operations. Strategic psychological operations advance
broad or long-term objectives; global in nature, they
may be directed toward large audiences or at key
communicators. Operational psychological operations are conducted on a smaller scale. 4th PSYOP
Gp is employed by theater commanders to target
groups within the theater of operations. 4th PSYOP
Gp purpose can range from gaining support for
U.S. operations to preparing the battleeld for combat. Tactical psychological operations are more limited, used by commanders to secure immediate and
near-term goals. In this environment, these forceenhancing activities serve as a means to lower the United States Naval Special Warfare Command emblem.
morale and eciency of enemy forces.* [67]
The United States Naval Special Warfare Command
(NAVSPECWARCOM, NAVSOC, or NSWC) was commissioned April 16, 1987, at Naval Amphibious Base
Coronado in San Diego as the Naval component to the
United States Special Operations Command. Naval Special Warfare Command provides vision, leadership, doctrinal guidance, resources and oversight to ensure component special operations forces are ready to meet the operational requirements of combatant commanders.* [71] Today, SEAL Teams and Special Boat Teams comprise the
elite combat units of Naval Special Warfare. These teams
are organized, trained, and equipped to conduct a variety
of missions to include direct action, special reconnaissance, counter-terrorism, foreign internal defense, unconventional warfare and support psychological and civil affairs operations. Their highly trained operators are deployed worldwide in support of National Command Au Sustainment Brigade (Special Operations) (Airthority objectives, conducting operations with other conborne) (SBSO(A)) has a dicult mission supventional and special operations forces.
porting USASOC. In their respective elds, signal
and support soldiers provide supplies, maintenance, Units
equipment and expertise allowing Special Operation
United States Navy SEALs have distinguished
Forces toshoot, move and communicateon a conthemselves as an individually reliable, collectively
tinuous basis. Because USASOC often uses Special
disciplined and highly skilled special operations
Operations Forces-unique items, soldiers assigned
force. The most important trait that distinguishes
to these units are taught to operate and maintain
Navy SEALs from all other military forces is that
a vast array of specialized equipment not normally
SEALs are maritime special operations, as they
used by their conventional counterparts. SBSO(A)
strike from and return to the sea. SEALs (SEa,
also provides the USASOC with centralized and inAir, Land) take their name from the elements in
tegrated material management of property, equipand from which they operate. SEALs are experts
ment maintenance, logistical automation and repair
in direct action and special reconnaissance missions.
parts and supplies.* [69]
95th Civil Aairs Brigade (Airborne) specialists
identify critical requirements needed by local citizens in war or disaster situations. They also locate
civilian resources to support military operations,
help minimize civilian interference with operations,
support national assistance activities, plan and execute noncombatant evacuation, support counterdrug operations and establish and maintain liaison
with civilian aid agencies and other nongovernmental organizations. In support of special operations,
these culturally oriented, linguistically capable Soldiers may also be tasked to provide functional expertise for foreign internal defense operations, unconventional warfare operations and direct action missions.* [68]
369
SEALs emerge from the water during a demonstration.
Their stealth and clandestine methods of operation

allow them to conduct multiple missions against targets that larger forces cannot approach undetected.
Because of the dangers inherent in their missions, Air Force Special Operations Command emblem.
prospective SEALs go through what is considered
by many military experts to be the toughest training the Twenty-Third Air Force and holds operational and
regime in the world.* [72]* [73]
administrative oversight of subordinate special operations
wings and groups in the regular Air Force, Air Force Re Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVserve Command and the Air National Guard.
GRU), referred to as SEAL Team Six, the name
of its predecessor which was ocially disbanded in AFSOC provides Air Force special operations forces for
worldwide deployment and assignment to regional uni1987.
ed commands. The command's SOF are composed
SEAL Delivery Vehicle Teams are SEAL teams of highly trained, rapidly deployable airmen, conducting
with an added underwater delivery capability who global special operations missions ranging from precision
use the SDV MK VIII and the Advanced SEAL De- application of repower via airstrikes or close air support,
livery System (ASDS), submersibles that provides to inltration, exltration, resupply and refueling of SOF
NSW with an unprecedented capability that com- operational elements.* [77] AFSOC's unique capabilities
bines the attributes of clandestine underwater mo- include airborne radio and television broadcast for psybility and the combat swimmer.* [74]* [75]
chological operations, as well as aviation foreign internal
defense instructors to provide other governments military
Special Warfare Combatant-craft Crewmen expertise for their internal development.
(SWCC) operate and maintain state-of-the-art
surface craft to conduct coastal patrol and inter- The command's core missions include battleeld air operdiction and support special operations missions. ations; agile combat support; aviation foreign internal deFocusing on inltration and exltration of SEALs fense; information operations; precision aerospace res;
and other SOF, SWCCs provide dedicated rapid psychological operations; specialized air mobility; spemobility in shallow water areas where larger ships cialized refueling; and intelligence, surveillance and re*
*
*
cannot operate. They also bring to the table a connaissance. [27] [78] [79]
unique SOF capability: Maritime Combatant Craft Units
Aerial Delivery System the ability to deliver
combat craft via parachute drop.* [1] Like SEALs,
Combat Controllers (CCT) are ground combat
SWCCs must have excellent physical tness, highly
forces specialized in a traditional pathnder role
motivated, combat-focused and responsive in high
while having a heavy emphasis on simultaneous air
stress situations.* [76]
trac control, re support (via airstrikes, close air
support and command, control, and communications in covert or austere environments.* [80]* [81]
46.3.5
Air Force
Air Force Special Operations Command was established

May 22, 1990, with headquarters at Hurlburt Field,
Florida. AFSOC is one of the 10 Air Force Major Commands or MAJCOMs, and the Air Force component of
United States Special Operations Command. It contains
Pararescuemen (PJ) are the only Department of Defense specialty specically trained and equipped to
conduct conventional and unconventional personnel
recovery operations. A PJ's primary function is
as a personnel recovery specialist with emergency
trauma medical capabilities in humanitarian and
370

combat environments.
Special Operations Weather Technicians (SOWT)

gather, assess, and interpret weather and environmental intelligence from forward deployed locations, working alongside special operations forces.
Organization
The 1st Special Operations Wing (1 SOW) is located at Hurlburt Field, Florida. Its mission focus
is unconventional warfare: counter-terrorism, combat search and rescue, personnel recovery, psychological operations, aviation assistance to developing
nations, deep battleeldresupply, interdiction
and close air support. The wing's core missions include aerospace surface interface, agile combat support, combat aviation advisory operations, information operations, personnel recovery/recovery operations, precision aerospace res, psychological operations dissemination, specialized aerospace mobility
and specialized aerial refueling.* [82] Among its aircraft is the MC-130 Combat Talon II, a low-level
terrain following special missions transport that can
evade radar detection and slip into enemy territory at
a 200-foot (61 m) altitude for inltration/exltration
missions, even in zero visibility, dropping o or recovering men or supplies with pinpoint accuracy. It
also operates the AC-130 Spooky and Spectre gunships that provide highly accurate airborne gunre
for close air support of conventional and special operations forces on the ground.* [46]
The 193d Special Operations Wing (193 SOW) is

an Air National Guard (ANG) unit, operationally
gained by AFSOC, and located at Harrisburg International Airport/Air National Guard Station (former Olmsted Air Force Base), Pennsylvania. Under
Title 32 USC, the 193 SOW performs state missions for the Governor of Pennsylvania as part of the
Pennsylvania Air National Guard. Under Title 10
USC, the 193 SOW is part of the Air Reserve Component (ARC) of the United States Air Force. Its
primary wartime and contingency operations mission as an AFSOC-gained unit is psychological operations (PSYOP). The 193 SOW is unique in that
it is the only unit in the U.S. Air Force to y and
maintain the Lockheed EC-130J Commando Solo
aircraft.
The 24th Special Operations Wing (24 SOW) is

located at Hurlburt Field, Florida. It's composed
of the 720th Special Tactics Group, 724th Special
Tactics Group, Special Tactics Training Squadron
and 16 recruiting locations across the United
States.* [83]* [84] The Special Tactics Squadrons, Air Force Special Operators on a training mission.
under the 720th STG and 724th STG, are made
up of Special Tactics Ocers, Combat Controllers,
Combat Rescue Ocers, Pararescuemen, Special
Operations Weather Ocers and Airmen, Air Lian Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) unit, opaison Ocers, Tactical Air Control Party operators,
erationally gained by AFSOC, and located at Eglin
and a number of combat support airmen which comAFB Auxiliary Field #3/Duke Field, Florida. The
prise 58 Air Force specialties.* [84]
919 SOW ies and maintains the MC-130E Combat Talon I and MC-130P Combat Shadow special
operations aircraft designed for covert operations.
located at Cannon AFB, New Mexico. Its pri The 352d Special Operations Wing (352 SOW) at
mary mission includes inltration, exltration and
RAF Mildenhall, United Kingdom serves as the
re-supply of special operations forces; air refuelcore to United States European Command's standing of special operations rotary wing and tiltrotor
ing Joint Special Operations Air Component headaircraft; and precision re support. These capaquarters. The squadron provides support for three
bilities support a variety of special operations misying squadrons, one special tactics squadron and
sions including direct action, unconventional warone maintenance squadron for exercise, logistics,
fare, special reconnaissance, counter-terrorism, perand war planning; aircrew training; communicasonnel recovery, psychological operations and infortions; aerial delivery; medical; intelligence; secumation operations.* [85]
371
rity and force protection; weather; information technologies and transformation support and current operations.* [86]
The 353d Special Operations Group (353 SOG) is
the focal point for all U.S. Air Force special operations activities throughout the United States Pacic
Command (USPACOM) theater. Headquartered at
Kadena AB, Okinawa, Japan the group is prepared
to conduct a variety of high-priority, low-visibility
missions. Its mission is air support of joint and allied
special operations forces in the Pacic. It maintains
a worldwide mobility commitment, participates in
Pacic theater exercises as directed and supports humanitarian and relief operations.* [87]
The United States Air Force Special Operations
School (USAFSOS) at Hurlburt Field, Florida is a
primary support unit of the Air Force Special Operations Command. The USAFSOS prepares special
operations Airmen to successfully plan, organize,
and execute global special operations by providing
indoctrination and education for AFSOC, other USSOCOM components, and joint/interagency/ coali- DA/SR Operators from 1st SOB (Special Operations Battalion)
tion partners.* [88]
respond to enemy re in Afghanistan
46.3.6
Marine Corps
had been formed to conduct foreign internal defense.

FMTU is now designated as the Marine Special Operations Advisor Group (MSOAG).* [89]
As a service component of USSOCOM, MARSOC is
tasked by the Commander USSOCOM to train, organize, equip, and deploy responsive U.S. Marine Corps
special operations forces worldwide, in support of combatant commanders and other agencies. MARSOC has
been directed to conduct foreign internal defense, direct
action and special reconnaissance. MARSOC has also
been directed to develop a capability in unconventional
warfare, counter-terrorism, and information operations.
MARSOC deployed its rst units in August 2006, six
months after the group's initial activation. MARSOC
reached full operational capability in October 2008.* [90]
Units
United States Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command

emblem
In October 2005, the Secretary of Defense directed the

formation of United States Marine Corps Forces Special
Operations Command, the Marine component of United
States Special Operations Command. It was determined
that the Marine Corps would initially form a unit of approximately 2500 to serve with USSOCOM. On February
24, 2006 MARSOC activated at Camp Lejeune, North
Carolina. MARSOC initially consisted of a small sta
and the Foreign Military Training Unit (FMTU), which
Marine Special Operations RaiderRegiment

(MSOR) consists of a Headquarters Company and
three Marine Special Operations Battalions, the 1st,
2nd and 3rd MSOB. The Regiment provides tailored
military combat-skills training and advisor support
for identied foreign forces in order to enhance their
tactical capabilities and to prepare the environment
as directed by USSOCOM as well as the capability to form the nucleus of a Joint Special Operations Task Force. Marines and Sailors of the MRR
train, advise and assist friendly host nation forces
including naval and maritime military and paramilitary forces to enable them to support their governments' internal security and stability, to counter
372

subversion and to reduce the risk of violence from
internal and external threats. MRR deployments are
coordinated by MARSOC, through USSOCOM, in
accordance with engagement priorities for Overseas
Contingency Operations.
Marine Intelligence Battalion (MIB) trains, sustains,

maintains combat readiness, and provides intelligence support at all operational levels in order to
support MARSOF training and operations worldwide with mission-specic intelligence capability.
Marine Special Operations Support Group
(MSOSG) trains, equips, structures, and provides specially qualied Marine forces, including,
operational logistics, intelligence, Military Working
Dogs, Firepower Control Teams, and communications support in order to sustain worldwide special
operations missions as directed by Commander,
U.S. Marine Corps Forces Special Operations
Command (COMMARFORSOC).
The Marine Special Operations School (MSOS)
performs the screening, recruiting, training, assessment and doctrinal development functions for
MARSOC. It includes two subordinate Special Missions Training Branches (SMTBs), one on each
coast.
The Special Mission Training Branch East
provide special operations training in tactics,
techniques and procedures, and evaluation and
certication of MARSOC forces to specied conditions and standards for SOF. The
Marines of MSOS are operators with the training, experience and mature judgment to plan,
coordinate, instruct and supervise development of SOF special reconnaissance and direct
action skills.* [91]
46.4 List of USSOCOM Combatant Commanders

46.5 USSOCOM medal
46.6 See also

46.7 References
46.7.1 Citations
[1] SOCOM Public Aairs (2013). SOCOM Fact Book 2013
(PDF). SOCOM Public Aairs.
[2] Biography of Admiral James L. Holloway III, US Navy
(Ret.)". June 2006. Retrieved 21 March 2008. |rst1=
missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
[3] Rother, Larry (6 December 1996). With a Bang,
Panama Is Erasing House of Horrors. The New York
Times.
[4] Shanker, Thom (12 February 2004). Regime Thought
War Unlikely, Iraqis Tell U.S. The New York Times.
[5] USSOCOM Posture Statement (PDF). USSOCOM.
2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February
2008. Retrieved 12 February 2008.
[6] Delta: America's Elite Counterterrorist Force. Terry Griswold, D. M. Giangreco. Zenith Imprint, 2005. ISBN 07603-2110-8. p. 35
[7] Sloan, Stephen (October 1992). Beating International
Terrorism: An Action Strategy for Preemption and Punishment. Diane Pub Co. ISBN 1-56806-104-8.
[8] Daniel, W.C. (September 1986). H.R.5109. A bill
to establish a National Special Operations Agency within
the Department of Defense to have unied responsibility
for all special operations forces and activities within the
Department.
[9] USSOCOM Command History (PDF). Retrieved 12
October 2014.
[10] Goldwater, Barry; Sam Nunn. S.CON.RES.80. A
concurrent resolution to authorize the printing of 2,000 additional copies of the Committee Print of the Committee on
Armed Services (99th Congress, 1st Session) entitled Defense Organization: The Need for Change.
[11] Nichols, Bill; Barry Goldwater (1986). H.R.3622.
A bill to amend title 10, United States Code, to strengthen
the position of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Sta, to
provide for more ecient and eective operation of the
Armed Forces, and for other purposes.
The United States Special Operations Command Medal

was introduced in 1994 to recognize individuals for out- [12] Lederman, Gordon Nathaniel (November 1999). Reorganizing the Joint Chiefs of Sta: The Goldwater-Nichols Act
standing contributions to, and in support of, special opof 1986. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31085-8.
erations. Since it was created, there have been more
than 50 recipients, four of which are not American.
[13] Cohen, William (May 1986).S.2453. A bill to enhance
Some of which includes: Genera broni Wodzimierz
the capabilities of the United States to combat terrorism and
*
*
Potasiski (Poland, 2010, posthumously), [92] [93]
other forms of unconventional warfare.
Kaptein Gunnar Snsteby (Norway, 2008), Genera brygady Jerzy Gut (Poland, June 2014)* [94] and Genera dy- [14] Taubman, Philip (5 December 1984).U.S. Military tries
wizji Piotr Patalong (Poland, October 2014).* [95]
to catch up in ghting terror. New York Times.
46.7. REFERENCES
[15] Special Operations/Low Intensity Conict & Interdependent Capabilities (ASD SO/LIC & IC)". DoD. Retrieved 19 March 2008. |rst1= missing |last1= in Authors
list (help)
[16] Giles, James E.; Altizer, Harrell B. ; Glass, David V.
Parker, Robert W. (March 1989). Providing Resources
for Special Operations Forces: Completing the Transition. Retrieved 19 March 2008.
[17] Lewis, Paul (1 July 2001). Charles S. Whitehouse, 79,
Diplomat and C.I.A. Ocial. New York Times.
373
[33] Turse, Nick, A Secret War in 120 Countries: The Pentagon's New Power Elite, CounterPunch, 4 August 2011.
[34] Washington Post op-ed, John Lehman former Secretary of
the Navy, October 2008
[35] Waller, Douglas (3 February 2003). The CIA Secret
Army. Time Magazine (Washington). Retrieved 28
September 2009.
[36] Operation Anaconda. Time. 10 March 2002.
[18] Andrew Kelley, Stephen (June 2007). Better Lucky

Than Good: Operation Earnest Will as Gunboat Diplomacy(PDF). Naval Postgraduate School. Archived from
the original (PDF) on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 12 May
2008.
[37] Garamone, Jim.The Battle of Takur Ghar. American

[19] Peniston, Bradley (July 2006). No Higher Honor: Saving

the USS Samuel B. Roberts in the Persian Gulf. United
States Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-661-5.
[39] MacPherson, Malcolm (2006). Roberts Ridge: A Story

of Courage and Sacrice on Takur Ghar Mountain,
Afghanistan. Dell. ISBN 0-553-58680-7.
[20]A Big Second Step in Somalia. New York Times. 4

May 1993.
[40] Luttrell, Marcus; Patrick Robinson (2007). Lone Survivor: The Eyewitness Account of Operation Redwing and
the Lost Heroes of SEAL Team 10. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-06759-8.
[21]Two Tough Tracks in Somalia. New York Times. 10

December 1992.
[22] The Book of Honor: Cover Lives and Classied Deaths at
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[38] Executive Summary of the Battle of Takur Ghar (PDF).

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[41] Blumeneld, Laura (11 June 2007).The Sole Survivor

. Washington Post.
[23] Bowden, Mark (2001). Black Hawk Down: A Story of

Modern War. Signet. ISBN 0-451-20393-3.
[42] Naylor, Sean D., McRaven tapped to lead SOCOM,

Army Times, 1 March 2011 16:53:04 EST. Retrieved 5
August 2011.
[24] Eversmann, Matt; Dan Schilling (July 2006). The Battle

of Mogadishu: Firsthand Accounts from the Men of Task
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[43] http://www.imgc-global.com/testimonials.html.
trieved February 2012.
[25] Plan of Attack, Bob Woodward, 2004

[26] Dao, James (22 March 2003). The Commandos; Navy
Seals Easily Seize 2 Oil Sites. New York Times.
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[44] Risen, James (20 September 1998).The World: Passing

the Laugh Test; Pentagon Planners Give New Meaning to
'Over the Top'". New York Times.
[45] Emerson 1988, p. 26.
[27] Dao, James (28 April 2003). Aftereects: Special Operations Forces; War Plan Drew U.S. Commandos From
Shadows. The New York Times.
[46] Emerson, Steven (13 November 1988). Stymied Warriors. New York Times.
[28] Kruzel, John (26 May 2007). Navy SEALs share war
stories from Anbar province. American Forces Press
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[47] L. Haney, Eric (August 2005). Inside Delta Force: The

Story of America's Elite Counterterrorist Unit. Delta.
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[29] R. Gordon, Michael (13 June 2003). After The War:

The Allies; In Major Assault, U.S. Forces Strike Hussein
Loyalists. New York Times.
[48] Mark Mazzetti (13 January 2007).Pentagon Sees Move

in Somalia as Blueprint. New York Times.
[30] D. Kozaryn, Linda (14 December 2001). U.S. Special

Operations Forces Change Face of War"". American
[49] Smith, Michael (2007). Killer Elite: The Inside Story

of America's Most Secret Special Operations Team. New
York, New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-362722.
[31] Thom Shanker, Eric Schmitt (2 August 2004). The [50] Gellman, Barton (23 January 2005). Secret Unit ExReach of War: Military; Special Warriors Have Growing
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Ranks and Growing Pains in Taking Key Antiterror Role
[51] Gerth, Je; Philip Taubman (8 June 1984).U.s. military
. The New York Times. Retrieved 11 March 2008.
creates secret units for use in sensitive tasks abroad. New
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Room,' a Grim Portrait of U.S. Abuse. New York Times.
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[53] E. Sanger, David (29 February 2004). New U.S. Eort

Steps Up Hunt For bin Laden. New York Times.
[74] Navy SEALs insertion/extraction page. Retrieved 11

January 2008.
[54] SOCJFCOM transitions to USSOCOM and becomes Special Operations Command Joint Capabilities, 2 May
2011
[75] Tiron, Roxana (February 2002). New Mini-Sub Gives

SEALs Extra Speed, Range, Payload. National Defense
Magazine.
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[76] Ocial U.S. Navy SWCC Info Website. Retrieved 11

January 2008.
[56] Schmitt, Eric; Michael R. Gordon (21 September 2001).

A Nation Challenged: The Military: Top Air Chief Sent [77] Steven Lee Meyers, Thom Shanker (16 October 2001).
A Nation Challenged: The Oensive; Special Operations
. New York Times.
Gunship Being Used Against Taliban. New York Times.
[57] 75th Ranger Regiment website. Archived from the
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original on 27 January 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2008.
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A Nation Challenged: Air War; Pilots Told to Fire at
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[59] Couch, Dick (March 2007). Chosen Soldier: The Making
of a Special Forces Warrior. Three Rivers Press. ISBN
0-307-33939-4.
[60] Shanker, Thom (21 January 2002). A Nation Challenged: Battleeld; Conduct of War Is Redened By Success of Special Forces. New York Times.
[61] Schmitt, Eric; Thom Shanker (2 March 2008). U.S.
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[62] USASF mission. Archived from the original on 11
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[64] 160th SOAR,MH-60 Black Hawk Helicopter Fact
Sheet. Retrieved 12 February 2008.
[65] PSYOP Recruiting website. Archived from the original
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[66] Army Civil Aairs, Psychological Operations Soldiers
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46.7.2
Bibliography
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Couch, Dick (March 2007). Chosen Soldier: The
Making of a Special Forces Warrior. Three Rivers
Press. ISBN 0-307-33939-4.
Couch, Dick (2006). Down Range: Navy SEALs in
the War on Terrorism. New York, New York: Three
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Kelley, Stephen Andrew (June 2007). Better
Lucky Than Good: Operation Earnest Will as
Gunboat Diplomacy (PDF). Naval Postgraduate
School. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18
March 2009. Retrieved 12 May 2008.
Luttrell, Marcus; Patrick Robinson (June 2007).
Lone Survivor: The Eyewitness Account of Operation Redwing and the Lost Heroes of SEAL Team 10.
Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-06759-8.
Pirnie, Bruce R. (August 1998). Assessing Requirements for Peacekeeping, Humanitarian Assistance
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Smith, Michael (2007). Killer Elite: The Inside Story
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David Tucker, Christopher J. Lamb (2007). United
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Talmadge, Eric (27 February 2008).New US Submarines Trade Nukes for SEALs. Fox News. Associated Press.
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in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
46.8 External links

U.S. Special Operations Command
Air Force Special Operations Command
U.S. Army Special Operations Command
U.S. Naval Special Warfare Command
U.S. Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command
Department of Defense
Joint Special Operations University
Chapter 47
Utility aircraft
A utility aircraft is a general-purpose light aircraft or
helicopter, usually used for transporting people or freight,
but also for other duties when more specialized aircraft
are not required or available.
The term can also refer to an aircraft certied under
American, Canadian, European or Australian regulations
as a Utility Category Aircraft, which indicates that it is
permitted to conduct limited aerobatics. The approved
maneuvers include chandelles, lazy eights, spins and steep
turns over 60 of bank.* [1]* [2]* [3]
In the United States, military utility aircraft are given the
prex U in their designations.
47.1 See also

FAR Part 23 (refers toutility categoryin United
States aviation regulations)
Utility helicopter
47.2 References
[1] Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 535. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997.
ISBN 1-56027-287-2
[2] Federal Aviation Administration (July 2011). Title 14:
Aeronautics and Space PART 23 Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category Airplanes, Subpart A General. Retrieved 15 July
2011.
[3] Transport Canada (July 2011). Part V - Airworthiness Manual Chapter 523 - Normal, Utility, Aerobatic
And Commuter Category Aeroplanes. Retrieved 15 July
2011.
376
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
377
47.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

47.3.1
Text
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Johnleemk, Riddley, Robbot, Dale Arnett, RedWolf, Spamhog, Seano1, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Tom harrison, Lefty,
Bird, Rpyle731, Mboverload, Meswiss, Siroxo, Bobblewik, Maclyn611, Wmahan, OverlordQ, DNewhall, Phil1988, Lord Bodak, AliveFreeHappy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, ArnoldReinhold, Fluzwup, Night Gyr, ESkog, S.R. Heller, PrOeliuM, Sukiari, Alansohn,
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Memotype, Climax Void, Petter Bckman, Expertfp1, OttoMkel, Jon Ascton, Skottt1978, DanMP5, Ana Nim, Jetwave Dave, VoidLurker, Fantasia69, Priceman86, Thai714, VolkovBot, Thomas.W, Secarius, Liko81, Jackfork, Kilmer-san, (MOB)DeadMeat, Francis
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ClueBot, Gerwen, PipepBot, Fyyer, Drmies, Theholst, RafaAzevedo, Three-quarter-ten, Noca2plus, John Nevard, Trbenning, Clantz1,
Joe4570, Thewellman, HarrivBOT, Berean Hunter, Johnuniq, DumZiBoT, Winterkrieg, Nukes4Tots, Elmo iscariot, Addbot, Binary TSO,
Mac Dreamstate, Saurabh111, Mjquinn id, Legobot, Luckas-bot, ConquerorPBN, Ptbotgourou, JippoJabber, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Aneah, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Xqbot, Winged Brick, Mlpearc, WotWeiller, WebCiteBOT, Chaheel Riens, Pukepwnage, FrescoBot,
Surv1v4l1st, LMSPEED, Miguel Escopeta, Vrenator, 777sms, ROG5728, Dennis503, Boatdink, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, EmausBot,
Derek280, Gburgyan, Ajraddatz, Rin tin tin, Faceless Enemy, Kekator, Solarra, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, ZroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, L1A1 FAL, ArsenicofManila, Avatar9n, ChuispastonBot, Bfreund422, ClueBot NG, Ralph X. Williams III, Frietjes, ThatKid98,
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.50 BMG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.50%20BMG?oldid=662723607 Contributors: JidGom, Cabalamat, Riddley, Donreed,
Clngre, Xanzzibar, Carnildo, Jrash, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Tom harrison, Lefty, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Mzajac, Wikster
E, Phil1988, Cynical, Greenwave75, Karl Dickman, AliveFreeHappy, Eyrian, Avriette, Hydrox, MCBastos, Fluzwup, Night Gyr, Helicon,
Tjic, Bob the Cannibal, Tronno, Hooperbloob, Thatguy96, Anthony Appleyard, Redxiv, Geo Swan, Thewalrus, Lectonar, Ledrug, Voltagedrop, Kenyon, Marasmusine, Alvis, Woohookitty, D.E. Watters, Christopher Welsh, Jrkarp, Abel29a, GregorB, GraemeLeggett, Jclemens,
Rjwilmsi, Gewhere, FlaBot, Ysangkok, Nemo5576, Kerowyn, Alvin-cs, Alex Klotz, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Petiatil, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, Lavenderbunny, Friday, NawlinWiki, Dudtz, Ve3, Froth, BOT-Superzerocool, Asams10, Pejhman, Sandstein,
Hayden120, Jonathan.s.kt, Vidarlo, Ricka0, Groyolo, Attilios, Jsnx, SmackBot, Beatle1967, Pielover87, Boris Barowski, Kintetsubualo,
Klauth, Hmains, Stuart P. Bentley, Chris the speller, MrNonchalant, Thumperward, Wikisamh, Jlochoap, Yaf, ApolloCreed, Sephiroth
BCR, MJCdetroit, RavenStorm, MrRadioGuy, Jumping cheese, Mr Minchin, Ohconfucius, Luigi-ish, Hotspur23, LWF, TauntingElf, Regan123, Slogby, Jmcneill2, Dr Smith, RyJones, Meco, Buckboard, Therealhazel, Citicat, RMHED, Wwagner, JoeBot, Blackhawk charlie2003, Blehfu, Alexander Iwaschkin, CmdrObot, B4Ctom1, Timothylord, Karenjc, Mato, SyntaxError55, Go229, Jimduchek, AtTheAbyss, Hebrides, ST47, BMG~enwiki, Carguychris, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Wikid77, Totensiebush, CynicalMe, Deathbunny, Dtgriscom, Peter Deer, Marek69, Ryan Scott, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Luna Santin, MegaTroopX, Spencer, Lklundin, DagosNavy, JAnDbot, Aki009,
Bencherlite, Robsavoie, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Apollyon48, Carom, Avicennasis, Thernlund, Animum, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Eastsidehastings, BilCat, Havanafreestone, Patpend, Gwern, Bebopspike13, Jarhed, J.delanoy, Greg Glover, Zorakoid, Icseaturtles, New Hampshirite, Cannibalicious!, Gurchzilla, Richard D. LeCour, Nwbeeson, Extermino, Hunter2506, S, Xiahou, Zazzer, VolkovBot, Thomas.W,
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Sonicology, RJaguar3, Radon210, Mockingbus, Buttons, Faradayplank, Lightmouse, Greatrobo76, Dodger67, Wuhwuzdat, Hamiltondaniel, Lenny1776, Msjayhawk, Stevecalloway, Martarius, Malis-cs, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Desertus Sagittarius,
The ms dos nerd, Gattsuru, Rockfang, Jfdavis668, John Nevard, Lopbisz, Vikings80, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Efddd, Monkey52, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Gazimo, Inchiquin, 13Tawaazun14, MatthewVanitas, Dave1185, Addbot, Nohomers48, DutchDevil, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot, Nathan58, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Jaws5263, NYEcom, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Donfbreed, Snook6869,
QueenCake, YungJo$h, Tokarevsvt, AnomieBOT, Metalhead94, Deboj, Hodgy91, Materialscientist, RobertEves92, Quebec99, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Mark Schierbecker, SassoBot, SCRECROW, Kenny10210, Tempuser4321, Shadowjams, WebCiteBOT, Erik9, K3x, Surv1v4l1st, Krj373, Sushinut, Nitrousmudbogger, MGA73bot, Weetoddid, Killer12384, DrilBot, FiremanDave6024,
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5.5645mm NATO Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5.56%C3%9745mm%20NATO?oldid=662772581 Contributors: The Epopt,
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Maclyn611, AlexanderWinston, Pettifogger, Ary29, Phil1988, Gurkha, Tobias Wolter, AliveFreeHappy, Avriette, Rama, Darren Olivier,
Fluzwup, Paul August, Night Gyr, Bender235, ESkog, GeZe, Iamtheari, El C, Kiand, Sietse Snel, Chuckstar, Sukiari, Thatguy96, Redxiv,
The RedBurn, TheAznSensation, AN(Ger), Aquaseafoam, Bobrayner, Pekinensis, D.E. Watters, Mrbigg9969, Je3000, GregorB, GraemeLeggett, Graham87, Tomtheman5, SchuminWeb, Nemo5576, Rune.welsh, BjKa, Pete.Hurd, WouterBot, MoRsE, Chobot, Bgwhite, Sus
scrofa, Measure, YurikBot, Noclador, RussBot, Superknijn, Junky, Epolk, Russoc4, CambridgeBayWeather, Adam Martinez, Evan-
378
CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
turner, Alex43223, EEMIV, Shotgunlee, Gadget850, Kassie, Asams10, Stiletto Null, Chriszuma, Hayden120, Curpsbot-unicodify, Diagraph01~enwiki, Tirronan, SmackBot, Reedy, Gigs, Boris Barowski, Scott Paeth, JLRAtwil, KingRaptor, Winterheart, Bluebot, JackSparrow, LinguistAtLarge, Jprg1966, Scienz Guy, Htra0497, Chameleons84, Squalla, Sommers, ThirtyOneKnots, Magore, Blake-, TGC55,
P33M, Synthe, BHC, Jpogi, Hotspur23, LWF, AllStarZ, Tim bates, Breno, Stevecudmore, Stwalkerster, Beetstra, 2T, Andrwsc, Krispos42,
Ossipewsk, Johnnydc, Sketch051, Musashi1600, Orca1 9904, Overmind 900, Fnlayson, Meno25, AtTheAbyss, Gbondy, Myscrnnm,
Nabokov, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Oldwildbill, Donovan515, Deathbunny, Ryan Scott, Hcobb, Rotundo, Blauer Heinrich, USMA, Bobbfwed,
Twagger, JAnDbot, Mark Grant, Mstrawn, Cgwhitsett, Acroterion, J.R.W., JamesBWatson, Cantle, Gabe1972, Degenret01, Thernlund,
Nubius, Eastsidehastings, Xen 7, BeadleB, Bissinger, Trixt, CommonsDelinker, Smokizzy, Dutchguy, NATOss109, Reginhild, Bjsdoc,
Erik1980, Cannibalicious!, AntiSpamBot, SJP, Robertgreer, DanMP5, Ana Nim, Kyle the bot, Achroma, FergusM1970, Takeitupalevel,
Broadbot, Mzmadmike, Shdowcrwler, Andy Dingley, Synthebot, Francis Flinch, Bahamut0013, Insanity Incarnate, Koalorka, C0N6R355,
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7.6251mm NATO Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7.62%C3%9751mm%20NATO?oldid=662665212 Contributors: The Epopt,
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Koalorka, AlleborgoBot, Solicitr, Karmo0, ToePeu.bot, Kurokishi, ShadowSix, Lightmouse, Michael Courtney, Spartan198, Alatari, Maliscs, EoGuy, Winky Bill, Ridge Runner, DragonBot, Ghostrider, Cglabe, Jellysh dave, Sustructu, Jfunnyguy, DumZiBoT, Nukes4Tots,
MystBot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Heavenlyblue, Magus732, U000tbm, Pietrow, Takashi kurita, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Winged Brick, Tragino, GrouchoBot, Anotherclown, Tornadowhiz, CaboverPete, D'ohBot, MGA73bot,
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DieSwartzPunkt, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, America789, Sixgunslinger, Liamsoprych, Juanitoy32, Khazar2, Mogism, Nosaj2011,
Kingrhem, Shane Stachwick, Wqwt, Hibob841 and Anonymous: 241
919mm Parabellum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9%C3%9719mm%20Parabellum?oldid=662819069 Contributors: The
Epopt, Zippy, Delirium, JonathanDP81, Jeq, Riddley, Romanm, Profoss, Seano1, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Tom harrison, Marcika, Wwoods, Meswiss, Bobblewik, Maclyn611, Chowbok, Sonjaaa, Mark5677, Qleem, Tin soldier, Phil1988, Marc Mongenet, Oknazevad, AliveFreeHappy, Eyrian, Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, 3~enwiki, Fluzwup, MDCore, Bender235, S.R. Heller, Srbauer,
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YurikBot, Jimp, RussBot, Spirituallyinsane, Allister MacLeod, KamuiShirou, DanMS, Kirill Lokshin, Gaius Cornelius, Haizum, Welsh,
Dudtz, Ve3, Moe Epsilon, Elkman, Botteville, Asams10, Sandstein, CWenger, Ilmari Karonen, Sacxpert, SmackBot, Lepeu1999, Gigs,
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Torana, Jachim, Nfutvol, Rkosh, Tawkerbot2, EightyOne, CuriosityCosby, VoxLuna, CmdrObot, Vyznev Xnebara, WeggeBot, LCpl,
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Titofer, Wikidenizen, Doktor Faustus, JAnDbot, Ktt, Max Hyre, Appraiser, Gabe1972, Paularized, Thernlund, Eastsidehastings, Mike
Searson, ROsattin, CeeWhy2, FlieGerFaUstMe262, GoldThong, R'n'B, PrestonH, Rrostrom, Austin512, Tatrgel, DanMP5, BrettAllen,
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Ripchip Bot, Noommos, Burmiester, DASHBot, Zaqq, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Sophie, Faceless Enemy, Bobkart,
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379
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name, StraightAsADie, Bigdaddygirl, BethNaught, Grizzly chipmunk, Publius-Mad, Shane Stachwick and Anonymous: 271
Anti-materiel rie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-materiel%20rifle?oldid=650915606 Contributors: Julesd, Owen, Riddley,
Donreed, Rholton, DocWatson42, Djinn112, Gtrmp, Greyengine5, St3vo, Bobblewik, Christopherlin, Twinxor, Avriette, Roo72, Kross,
Tronno, LtNOWIS, Calton, TaintedMustard, SteinbDJ, D.E. Watters, Dmol, Abel29a, BlaiseFEgan, GraemeLeggett, Allen3, DVdm, Rollie, Hydrargyrum, Neilbeach, Sandstein, Mursel, Faulty, Matt Heard, Deon Steyn, Geo B, Bluebot, Silent SAM, Shabbs, Yaf, Frap,
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Flinch, UnneededAplomb, Imthelimodriver9, Spunking, Socrates2008, Lopbisz, Shem1805, Aloysius the Gaul, Addbot, Leszek Jaczuk,
Eivindbot, Dominicg100, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Donfbreed, Rubinbot, ArthurBot, Ajpralston1, Amendola90, Chaheel Riens, Beiktal48,
Rushbugled13, TheMightyGeneral, EmausBot, Slightsmile, Donedata, CRCJianan, ClueBot NG, Vjvjfjnbhvnvfnfv, Lukas Tobing, Polmas,
AvocatoBot, MilitaryHistorian1990-PD, G PViB, Maxx786, SatCa, Carbon dubbs, Ne2641, Verosaurus and Anonymous: 79
Anti-tank warfare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-tank%20warfare?oldid=659916914 Contributors: Christian List, Deb,
Maury Markowitz, JohnOwens, Ahoerstemeier, Jll, Nikai, Itai, Riddley, AlainV, Securiger, Radomil, Matt Gies, Oberiko, Marcika, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Geni, Mzajac, Wikster E, Balcer, Sam Hocevar, Klemen Kocjancic, Ularsen, Rama, Xezbeth, Aerodotus, SpookyMulder, Night Gyr, Darkone, RJHall, Bobo192, BrokenSegue, Cmdrjameson, Maurreen, Espoo, Wendell, The RedBurn, Joshbaumgartner,
Bukvoed, Hohum, Ashlux, Gene Nygaard, Dennis Bratland, SteveHFish, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, LOL, Tabletop, GregorB, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Edison, Rjwilmsi, Eyu100, Muchenhaeser, MWAK, SchuminWeb, Catsmeat, Ahpook, BlueJaeger, Sus scrofa, RussBot,
Arado, Gaius Cornelius, Los688, Nahallac Silverwinds, Rmackenzie, FoolsWar, DisambigBot, Jinxs, SmackBot, DMorpheus, Mike McGregor (Can), Hmains, Ppntori, Chris the speller, Rcbutcher, Emrrans, MinuteHand, Latre, Wiki.capwn, The PIPE, DMacks, Mlorton,
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Khazar2, DA - DP, Cerabot~enwiki, Rajmaan, URTh, Kratos007745757, Dough34, HHubi, Vareckin, Samf4u and Anonymous: 155
Armored car (military) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armored%20car%20(military)?oldid=659075099 Contributors: Fubar Obfusco, Topory, Patrick, Liftarn, DJ Clayworth, David.Monniaux, Riddley, AlainV, Altenmann, Ojigiri~enwiki, Wikibot, Leonard G., Per
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GoldDragon, Jibbajabba, Thumperward, BrendelSignature, Tewk, OrphanBot, Newsmare, Drunken Pirate, JackLumber, Vgy7ujm, Gobonobo, Volker89, Muadd, Therealhazel, Peter Horn, Phuzion, Hetar, OnBeyondZebrax, Clarityend, Octane, CmdrObot, Gogo Dodo, Hebrides, Thijs!bot, Liquid-aim-bot, Ingolfson, Niagara, Argie boy, Pax:Vobiscum, JRWalko, KTo288, Jcraig, ArmorSolutions, Ian.thomson,
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4twenty42o, Lordelicht, Anna Frodesiak, Doorvery far, Mark Schierbecker, Some standardized rigour, FrescoBot, Ionisiso, ,
EmausBot, Akerans, Guiltlessgecko, SporkBot, Noodleki, Mentibot, ClueBot NG, Biggleswiki, Hengistmate, Helpful Pixie Bot, Marcosarts, Katangais, R9109, Glacialfox, Yadsl, Mediran, Kbog, Frosty, SteenthIWbot, DMorpheus2, Jamesw007, Lesser Cartographies,
Ultimate Broseph Stalin, Monkbot, Mitchell328, Tomandjerry211 and Anonymous: 100
Armoured personnel carrier Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured%20personnel%20carrier?oldid=655514785 Contributors:
The Epopt, Bryan Derksen, Heron, Patrick, Nikai, Rob Hooft, Cabalamat, David.Monniaux, AlainV, RedWolf, Pibwl, Altenmann, Nurg,
Wikibot, GreatWhiteNortherner, Marc Venot, Oberiko, Pretzelpaws, MathKnight, Brona, DO'Neil, Bobblewik, Christopherlin, Mzajac,
Burgundavia, Klemen Kocjancic, Leibniz, Pmsyyz, Rama, Night Gyr, CanisRufus, KuriosD, Harald Hansen, Get It, Maurreen, Russ3Z,
Haham hanuka, DimaY2K, Sandstig, Ashley Pomeroy, Denniss, TaintedMustard, Gene Nygaard, Tobyc75, Bastin, Shikai shaw, Drak2,
GraemeLeggett, Descendall, Muchenhaeser, Ian Dunster, MWAK, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, Noclador, Borgx, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Theredstarswl, Gaius Cornelius, PatCheng, Ergbert, Breathstealer, OettingerCroat, Nate1481, Mieciu K, Zzuuzz, Nikkimaria, Petri Krohn, NickD, Groyolo, SmackBot, Brossow, Hibernian, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Colonies Chris, Redline, Ajaxkroon, Radagast83,
Pissant, Jiddisch~enwiki, Wiki.capwn, Kukini, Rheo1905, Synthe, Khazar, Gobonobo, AllStarZ, Darz Mol~enwiki, Wilhelm Wiesel,
Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, SkyWalker, Zarex, Noha307, Fnlayson, Danrok, Aldis90, Ildin~enwiki, PaulVIF, JAnDbot, Magioladitis,
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CohesionBot, Estirabot, Arjayay, Peter.C, Xander89, SchreiberBike, Vivo, SilvonenBot, Jaanusele, Addbot, Pelex, AndersBot, Abi.insani,
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MilyMart, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, GeoMartal, Ranggamalvino, Mdann52, ZuluKane, 93, Alfy32, Jloughry, YiFeiBot,
Ancholm, Abe Atkins, Ronald Ledecky, 2TonyTony and Anonymous: 119
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Alan Liefting, MathKnight, Mark.murphy, Quadell, Mzajac, Rama, Harald Hansen, RussBlau, Bukvoed, Hohum, Bobrayner, Mindmatrix, Wdyoung, PoccilScript, Tabletop, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Ian Dunster, Catsmeat, RussBot, Los688, Royalbroil, Mieciu K, BOT-
380
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Zephyrus67, Seedbot, ZH Evers, Ibericus Lusitanus, Reforger, Ridge Runner, Wikiuser100, WikHead, SelfQ, Dave1185, Addbot, Nohomers48, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Delta 51, Luckas-bot, MileyDavidA, Themfromspace, Mark Schierbecker, Some standardized rigour,
FrescoBot, Lotje, IRISZOOM, John of Reading, GoingBatty, L1A1 FAL, Plinio Cayo Cilesio, SojerPL, KLBot2, Glevum, ChrisGualtieri,
LittleFoxJpn, Cadet Pilot, ZBIGNIEW1963, Mogism, Lemnaminor and Anonymous: 19
Assault rie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault%20rifle?oldid=662864157 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Robert Merkel,
Timo Honkasalo, The Anome, 0, William Avery, Ray Van De Walker, Europrobe, Edward, Patrick, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Stw,
Ahoerstemeier, Jpatokal, Snoyes, Djmutex, Michael Shields, Nikai, Scott, Jonik, JidGom, Adam Bishop, Giddytrace, Fuzheado, Andrewman327, Sertrel, Steinsky, Nv8200pa, DTanner, Indefatigable, Huangdi, Riddley, AlainV, Astronautics~enwiki, RedWolf, Romanm,
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Andyvphil, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, RealBigFlipsbrain, Dictouray, Liko81, TwilligToves, DennyColt, Franklum, BotKung, Ancjr,
Greswik, Andy Dingley, Enigmaman, SQL, Soccer stud, Koalorka, EnviroGranny, Manyties, Darxus, NHRHS2010, Signsolid, Lightbreather, SieBot, Degourdon, Reevnar, Milnivri, Work permit, BonesBrigade, Kleshni, Sf46, Lightmouse, Greatrobo76, Waves00, Anchor
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IJA, Berean Hunter, Egmontaz, Apparition11, Sholokhov, DumZiBoT, 20percent, Andy Fisher-Scott, Pichpich, SilvonenBot, Quickload,
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Aoidh, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, Nutarama, Ripchip Bot, Barbula, Slon02, EmausBot, AssiPunjabi, Mrarmyrules,
9Martel9, Faceless Enemy, Sdafhgh, Skyy Train, Sdicastro, Solarra, Animal-wiki, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Ll0l00l, Wikipelli, Lucas Thoms, RajeshPriemJagdeo, East of Borschov, Ksu6500, Will I aml2them2they, Battoe19, Access Denied, Kilopi, FinalRapture,
L1A1 FAL, Mojowiha, Rusala1965, , L Kensington, Skrunyak, Pun, FeatherPluma, Rocketrod1960, Whoop whoop pull up, UCRstudent, ClueBot NG, The Master, Phili211, Route3, Yomama123987, Helpful Pixie Bot, DMac1326, Calabe1992, BG19bot, Ouikimedia,
MusikAnimal, Makrom, Dr. Whooves, Axel334, Ranggamalvino, -dam-, Nmabhinandan, 2minty, Cojue 25, Atork85, Historyphysics, The
Illusive Man, UserConrm, Khazar2, EuroCarGT, Jabotito48, Mogism, Kbog, 2018bhum, Lugia2453, BillxMach, Sturmgewehr88, Rupert loup, NewNew22, G PViB, Ar-15ish, Harrydawson, Blythwood, Icemanwcs, B14709, Neorakian, Someone not using his real name,
RAF910, Speak123451, Vitek232, Vieque, Skylandersrahil, HK9900, OiBlud, Utrutrzr, Corster24, AldairXD, Veday1945, MARINE
MIKE0311, KasparBot and Anonymous: 582
Attack helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack%20helicopter?oldid=662782857 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Rlandmann, David.Monniaux, Finlay McWalter, Mirv, SoLando, Rossrs, MathKnight, Trujaman, Gadum, Latitudinarian, Sam Hocevar, C14,
Karl Dickman, Darren Olivier, GeZe, Cap'n Refsmmat, PPGMD, Kross, Sietse Snel, Amerika, Harald Hansen, Hooperbloob, Denniss, Dr
Gangrene, Akerkhof, GSlicer, Alvinying, Miq, Rjwilmsi, Carl Logan, GagHalfrunt, Russavia, Vidkun, Coolhawks88, Ahpook, Sus scrofa,
Noclador, Arado, Los688, Anetode, Lomn, Donald Albury, De Administrando Imperio, Shyam, Nick-D, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Deon
Steyn, Delldot, By78, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Hibernian, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Lyta79, Kellyprice, The PIPE,
Fireswordght, MilborneOne, JorisvS, Casg, Crocodilicus, Generalcp702, Lahiru k, CmdrObot, Stevo1000, Fnlayson, Rieman 82, Gogo
Dodo, GSTQ21C, Thirdstar, Thijs!bot, Kubanczyk, Hcberkowitz, Dfrg.msc, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, Spud Gun, Born2ie, Dan D. Ric,
Chanakyathegreat, Magioladitis, Apocno10, Sarahj2107, BilCat, NJR ZA, STBot, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Bapho~enwiki, Ash sul,
ILoveFuturama, MchlWngr, VolkovBot, Sporti, Pjm4474, A4bot, CobraDragoon, Broadbot, LeaveSleaves, Usergreatpower, Kobalt64,
Docclabo, SieBot, Ivan tambuk, Flyer22, Onopearls, ClueBot, Neverquick, DragonBot, Ktr101, Nolispanmo, The Founders Intent, BOTarate, DumZiBoT, Harman malhotra, LordJesseD, DanielAgorander, Avik pram, Addbot, Jecario, Metagraph, AkhtaBot, BlackGT,
LaaknorBot, Blaylockjam10, Westrim, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Mjf3719, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Trivelt, GrouchoBot, Mark Schierbecker, Jineshgopinathan, Leb90, FrescoBot, Part Time Security, Everlasting Winner, Bambuway, Citation bot 1, King Zebu, Bcs09,
381
Cnwilliams, Gagan11111, 777sms, Jojo7727644it, Dewritech, Thecheesykid, Werieth, ZroBot, Subtropical-man, Victory in Germany,
Arson beetle, Plotting it out, I, Englishman, ClueBot NG, Simonstone, AktiNo, JesseW900, A06em2, Touchtheskywithglory, Justintbassett, Northamerica1000, Chanthujohnson, Ranggamalvino, CitationCleanerBot, Edit00100, Harshvardhansonkar, Juakoblabla, BattyBot,
America789, ChrisGualtieri, Mail2arunjith, Cidarr, Lakun.patra, HHubi, DanieB52, Sierra-Hawk, Mikhail The Russian, Indiandefence,
Filedelinkerbot, GSh630, Sir Richard Richard VC and Anonymous: 129
Carbine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbine?oldid=661044505 Contributors: Mav, Timo Honkasalo, The Anome, Alex.tan,
David spector, Ixfd64, Delirium, Claypipe, Aarchiba, , Ugen64, Fuzheado, Selket, Ed g2s, Flockmeal, Riddley, Astronautics~enwiki, Nurg, Alba, Profoss, Kent Wang, Buster2058, Fudoreaper, MathKnight, Marcika, Per Honor et Gloria, Jasontn, Bobblewik,
Alan Au, Chowbok, Manuel Anastcio, Pgan002, LiDaobing, Sam Hocevar, Blue387, Sonett72, AliveFreeHappy, Erc, Rich Farmbrough,
Avriette, Leibniz, Frehorse, Cfailde, Rama, Fluzwup, Kenb215, Kbh3rd, Kwamikagami, Keno, Rhaas, Tronno, John Fader, Anthony Appleyard, Paul Bonneau, Moanzhu, Filladdar, Evil Monkey, Sleigh, SteinbDJ, Dmol, GraemeLeggett, Behun, Jclemens, Nightscream, George
Burgess, Vary, Gewhere, Kajmal, Bubba73, Brighterorange, Bubbleboys, BjKa, Srleer, Zotel, Chobot, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, DanMS,
Hellbus, IanManka, Gaius Cornelius, Ve3, Saberwyn, Rosensteel, Flapeyre, Asams10, Koblentz, Suburbanslice, Kungfuadam, Some guy,
Wallie, Groyolo, SmackBot, Reedy, KocjoBot~enwiki, Niayre, Jab843, Boris Barowski, Geo B, Macintosh User, Hmains, Betacommand, Souper b, Chris the speller, Kurykh, GoldDragon, SchftyThree, Hellre83, Dr. Dan, Citronym, Attakmint, Lazar Taxon, MJCdetroit, RavenStorm, Jumping cheese, Chrylis, Soooper B, Robomaeyhem, The9muse, Fanx, LWF, Robosh, Mgiganteus1, Nobunaga24,
16@r, K K~enwiki, Naaman Brown, Krispos42, Marysunshine, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, CmdrObot, CBM, Neelix, Cydebot, Future
Perfect at Sunrise, Achangeisasgoodasa, TenthEagle, MaaCapo, Starsword333, Thijs!bot, Seng Yew, Commander Zulu, Deathbunny,
Legaiaame, Brianmarx, USMA, Rsciaccio, Tlabshier, Deective, Hut 8.5, Neil McCauley, Magioladitis, Nyet, Sdcrym, Je dean, Thernlund, Viperix, STBot, CommonsDelinker, Re34646, Slash, Krisirk, New Hampshirite, InspectorTiger, DanMP5, Jevansen, Idioma-bot,
VolkovBot, DOHC Holiday, Kwsn, Ulstulst, Robk6364, TXiKiBoT, Hqb, Oxfordwang, Rumiton, Andy Dingley, SQL, Curtis~enwiki,
Alucard365, Paul J Williams, NHRHS2010, Insane Burner, SieBot, Moogle 12, Thehornet, Matt5572, Demonic1993, Aruton, Martarius,
Kajigoddess, ClueBot, IPAddressConict, Hutcher, Takamini, Fredgamble, Nick19thind, Jersey emt, Kitsunegami, Crywalt, Hillsen, Sorman, Dekisugi, Jellysh dave, Scalhotrod, Berean Hunter, Wikieditor24, Wikiuser100, MystBot, Wickie37, Wirehead2501, Akyoyo94,
Pigoutultra, Lightbot, Legobot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Um, Jfcinternationalinc, Xqbot, Ched, GrouchoBot, Midnightvisions,
RibotBOT, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Coppermallow, DivineAlpha, OgreBot, SaturdayNightSpecial, Miguel Escopeta, Vometia, Jauhienij, Misconceptions2, EmausBot, Slatibarfast, Sdafhgh, Slightsmile, Winner 42, Battoe19, L1A1 FAL, JoeSperrazza, Euzen,
Orange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, Tosh.0expert, DASHBotAV, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Vjvjfjnbhvnvfnfv, ChrisGualtieri,
YFdyh-bot, Makecat-bot, Cerabot~enwiki, Smohammed2, Ckharyal, Camrynnel, TeriEmbrey, Thegreatmuka, Rezin, Felsic, Knife-in-thedrawer and Anonymous: 235
Cargo aircraft Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo%20aircraft?oldid=662900179 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Xlation, Arpingstone, AugPi, Karl Dickman, Ericg, N328KF, Ularsen, Marsian~enwiki, Kross, Adrian~enwiki, Alansohn, Iothiania, GL, Korrigan,
Before My Ken, A Train, Icey, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, Amire80, Rillian, Wongm, Russavia, Mmx1, Borgx, Arado, Hede2000, Pigman, Veledan,
Logawi, Change1211, Closedmouth, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, Ssbohio, Hmains, Betacommand, Bluebot, Jlochoap, Radagast83, TGC55, Richsage, The PIPE, Will Beback, Alan.ca, Hayttom, Ageoo, FairuseBot, Henrickson, N2e, Neelix, Stewartp, Fnlayson, Pascal.Tesson, RottweilerCS, Aldis90, Golf Bravo, JAnDbot, Chanakyathegreat, PaleAqua, PhilKnight, Fabricebaro, BilCat,
Tondose, Olegwiki, Paddy.carroll, Hammersoft, Itsfullofstars, DoorsAjar, Jkstark, Poligraf, Beyond silence, Brian Ammon, Sce03066,
JetLover, Anchor Link Bot, Alpha Centaury, YSSYguy, MenoBot, Martarius, Ramif 47, T18, XLinkBot, MystBot, Addbot, Andyjamesuk,
CvetanPetrov1940, Legobot II, Gobbleswoggler, Mo7amedsalim, Sorruno, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Aquitania, LilHelpa, Xqbot, The Magnicent Clean-keeper, Incidious, Slickh20, PeterEastern, Aogouguo, Panagiotis Pietris, Snlf1, EmausBot, Sanjana s j, Dewritech, RA0808,
RenamedUser01302013, Wikipelli, ZroBot, VtTN, Noodleki, O.Koslowski, YuGo0dy, , Demon Hill, Strower, Shivamsetu, Khazar2,
Omid, Spray787, Dagmar.reinerth, EPsi, Phantom1209, HuTheWeevil, Justinalanbass, KasparBot and Anonymous: 74
Cartridge (rearms) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge%20(firearms)?oldid=656261148 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The
Anome, Ray Van De Walker, SimonP, Ellmist, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Sannse, Aarchiba, Julesd, Jll, Whkoh, RadRafe, Nikai,
, JidGom, Jon Roland, Riddley, Robbot, Moriori, Pibwl, Seano1, Buster2058, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Ferkelparade,
Ds13, Lefty, Wicked~enwiki, Curps, Per Honor et Gloria, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Wiki Wikardo, Kudz75, Apotheon, Sam Hocevar, Io
usurped, Khatores, LiSrt, Mormegil, AliveFreeHappy, Eyrian, Twinxor, Edentrad, Fluzwup, Mani1, Night Gyr, Brian0918, Shanes, Prsephone1674, Harald Hansen, Duk, Hooperbloob, Pouya, Ynhockey, Dragunova, Velho, Kelly Martin, D.E. Watters, Je3000, Dmol, GregorB, Julo, GraemeLeggett, Descendall, BD2412, Miq, Rjwilmsi, Nneonneo, Parababelico, Chobot, Fourdee, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot,
Jimp, Kvuo, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, Jrideout, Friday, Dialectric, Ve3, Koblentz, HereToHelp, Katieh5584, Groyolo, Nick Michael,
SmackBot, Hux, Reedy, Melchoir, Deon Steyn, Unyoyega, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, Boris Barowski, Geo B, Shai-kun, Ohnoitsjamie,
Hmains, Chris the speller, LinguistAtLarge, Thumperward, Silent SAM, Appaloosa2k, Badger151, Trekphiler, Yaf, Can't sleep, clown
will eat me, OrphanBot, KaiserbBot, Kellyprice, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, SirIsaacBrock, Marzolian, LWF, AllStarZ, Jack Rarebit, Gungho,
WalterWalrus3, Adamq, Phasmatisnox, Tawkerbot2, Swwright, Andkore, MrFish, ElectricEye, Trasel, RelentlessRecusant, Myscrnnm,
Nabokov, Thijs!bot, ShaggyZed, Commander Zulu, Deathbunny, Philippe, Wikidenizen, SummerPhD, Fru1tbat, L0b0t, JAnDbot, Nthep,
.anacondabot, Geniac, Magioladitis, Avicennasis, MachIV, Thernlund, Eastsidehastings, STBot, BeadleB, Trixt, Glrx, R'n'B, Maurice Carbonaro, Northmetpit, Johnbod, Mikael Hggstrm, Cannibalicious!, Skullers, Trilobitealive, Remember the dot, Dorftrottel, Rantingmadhare, Idioma-bot, Kurosa~enwiki, DarkShroom, TXiKiBoT, Technopat, Una Smith, Wordsmith, Raymondwinn, Andy Dingley, Francis
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Addbot, Jncraton, Darth Cracker, SamatBot, Oakphotozone, Pigoutultra, Lightbot, Vasi, Zorrobot, The Bushranger, Legobot, Luckasbot, Yobot, Nallimbot, AnomieBOT, Metalhead94, Hunnjazal, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Xqbot, Drilnoth, AaronN322, Gbchaosmaster, Joan
Rocaguinard, Eugene-elgato, Nitpyck, FrescoBot, CaboverPete, Regigiti, jlfr, Pinethicket, LittleWink, Jonesey95, Hlvirton, Jauhienij,
Mercy11, , 777sms, ROG5728, PraxisThanatopsis, Beyond My Ken, NerdyScienceDude, BobbieCharlton, Catalaalatac, Zakdak, GenomicaUASLP, Kilinkie, Rodentguy, Orange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Technician Fry, KySharpshooter, Frietjes, Mesoderm, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, GWFrog, Kyrmyzy gul, Aggarank, Writ Keeper, JunoBeach, Finkeltje, RudolfRed, Fdsdh1,
S1D3winder016, ChrisGualtieri, Fundamental Motivation, Nouniquenames, Kjorg23, Aymankamelwiki, Reconmarinecanada, YiFeiBot,
Pravito, StraightAsADie, NoMoreGuns, JaconaFrere, Dict1111, Figugegl and Anonymous: 196
CBRN defense Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBRN%20defense?oldid=661316787 Contributors: The Anome, Karada, Jerzy,
DocWatson42, Michael Devore, Falcon Kirtaran, Zantolak, Mzajac, Pippo~enwiki, Urhixidur, Nick Precision, Hohum, Zntrip, Pol098,
382
Jonnabuz, Rjwilmsi, King of Hearts, Cactus.man, Arado, Malcolma, TDogg310, Syed, Intershark, Clayhalliwell, ViperSnake151, BiH,
SmackBot, Vincent de Ruijter, Mauls, Hibernian, Factorylad, Radagast83, Thegraham, Jvandyke, Zaniac, Beetstra, Dl2000, Eastlaw,
JohnCD, Cahk, Kenster102.5, Alphachimpbot, CosineKitty, Magioladitis, Yurei-eggtart, Chris G, D.h, IvoShandor, Pvosta, Lithium57,
R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Fusion7, KTo288, Nono64, Kvdveer, RVJ, Marine0922, Meltonkt, Reillykw, Doctoruy, Reecem27, Stillwaterising, Twinsday, ClueBot, Tomas e, Arjayay, Ottodog~enwiki, Pgpotvin, EpicDream86, DumZiBoT, Viking6, Dthomsen8, SilvonenBot,
Sameer0s, Dave1185, Iceblock, Fieldday-sunday, Arunrama, Curlupndie, Csf.shoot, Fraggle81, TehGus, Hvannorman, Roux-HG, GB fan,
Kddodge, Biophysiscool, Brad101AWB, Tsuchida54, Iljambonsen, Hsrc, Pratheekrebala, Diannaa, Fry1989, Afcbrne, DexDor, Slatibarfast, Maliepa, Tyrsepheus, Heralder, ClueBot NG, Jgkratky, Delusion23, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, Goldwindow47, Yowanvista,
AdFerrao, Yash528, Ligne11, ChrisGualtieri, Hmainsbot1, Lugia2453, Josephc3000, Limnalid, Curlupndie85, Iljamb, Jimbock, IrishSpook, Trendyrandy7290, IQLessThanCustard, Jlayerbear and Anonymous: 97
Combat engineer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat%20engineer?oldid=662370538 Contributors: Hephaestos, Rschroev, Liftarn, CORNELIUSSEON, Stan Shebs, CatherineMunro, Aarchiba, Nikai, Netsnipe, Mako, Lou Sander, Wik, Maximus Rex, Grendelkhan,
Wernher, Cjrother, Greybeard, Johnleemk, David.Monniaux, Securiger, Chris Roy, Rholton, Steeev, GreatWhiteNortherner, Andries,
MathKnight, Btphelps, SimonArlott, Mzajac, Necrothesp, Neutrality, Gest, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Fluzwup, Neko-chan, CanisRufus, El C, Sietse Snel, Bobo192, Harley peters, Sentience, Alansohn, TShilo12, Woohookitty, GraemeLeggett, Turnstep, Mandarax,
BD2412, Jmcc150, MZMcBride, Vegaswikian, Aapo Laitinen, Nguyen Thanh Quang, Mark83, Srleer, Chobot, RussBot, Bhny, Mipadi, Geo NoNick, Pb30, Jhamner, DisambigBot, Sacxpert, Marksburg, SmackBot, Ifnord, Mike McGregor (Can), Hmains, Sadads,
Hongooi, Tewk, Sapper Ancient, Shuki, Ww2censor, Elendil's Heir, Nahum Reduta, Completesentence, Serein (renamed because of
SUL), Kuru, IronGargoyle, FrostyBytes, Rainwarrior, Ebnz~enwiki, Polybos~enwiki, Atomicnewt, Wilhelm Wiesel, Eastlaw, CmdrObot,
Hemlock Martinis, Necessary Evil, Rieman 82, Phydend, Saintrain, Buistr, A3RO, Signaleer, WinBot, Jaredroberts, Ingolfson, Leuko,
OhanaUnited, PhilKnight, Caeinepuppy, Askari Mark, JamesBWatson, Buckshot06, MCG, KTo288, Nono64, DomBot, Stephanwehner,
Reedy Bot, Katalaveno, Mrg3105, Buddha379, FergusM1970, Koonter, Relaxtoday, Sid513, Oxfordwang, Avro-Lancaster, Telecineguy,
Timt1006, Mharrsch, ASJ94, JSpung, Oxymoron83, Ibericus Lusitanus, TabooTikiGod, Byzerodivide, ClueBot, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Madpostie, EoGuy, Ryoutou, Niceguyedc, Ngebendi, WH40k guy, XLinkBot, Baron von HoopleDoople, Wikiuser100, Addbot,
DougsTech, Leszek Jaczuk, Glane23, West.andrew.g, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Pietrow, QuadrivialMind, Legobot II, Fizyxnrd, Washburnmav, AnomieBOT, VeroAraujo, RandomAct, Materialscientist, Erud, TurboLT, Aristeiakorps, Pinethicket, Hillarin, Monstrelet, Saayiit,
Lotje, Markkannedy, Dewritech, UltimaRatio, Engini86, NTox, ClueBot NG, MerlIwBot, ProtoFire, Muhammad Shuaib Nadwi, SoledadKabocha, Mogism, BRABBIN, Donchipman, A Dictionary and Anonymous: 151
Designated marksman rie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designated%20marksman%20rifle?oldid=662389401 Contributors:
Riddley, Xanzzibar, MathKnight, Avriette, Bobrayner, Dmol, GraemeLeggett, Mmx1, Jimp, Shotgunlee, Phichanad, Ominae, Deon Steyn,
JudithSouth, Chris the speller, Bluebot, JHunterJ, Dl2000, Eastlaw, Orca1 9904, Tr1290, Gogo Dodo, Darrenhusted, Mike Searson, CommonsDelinker, Francis Flinch, Drmies, Kjeserud, Pigoutultra, Markunator, Pmfap, C.Mezzo-1, Mark Schierbecker, FrescoBot, RjwilmsiBot, Shiftyfty, EmausBot, Mircea87, Shuipzv3, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Sonaz, BG19bot, Cosmosgu, Oinbuh, BattyBot, Squirrel523, G PViB, DanieB52, Leobold111 and Anonymous: 36
Electronic warfare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20warfare?oldid=656058015 Contributors: The Anome, Karen
Johnson, Europrobe, Heron, Michael Hardy, Wernher, Rossumcapek, Robbot, Donreed, GreatWhiteNortherner, Tim, Micru, Andycjp, Beland, Gazpacho, Rama, El C, Pjrich, Art LaPella, Cmdrjameson, ZayZayEM, Maurreen, John Fader, Dziban303, Sylvain Mielot,
Kyle Maxwell, Nvinen, Turnstep, KharBevNor, Ian Dunster, SchuminWeb, Cherubino, Wongm, Krishnavedala, Roboto de Ajvol, Wavelength, Tom Barnwell 0, Matanya (renamed), Fabartus, Kirill Lokshin, Wimt, Schneiderb, TDogg310, Donald Albury, KnightRider~enwiki,
SmackBot, Rjohanning, Xaosux, Gilliam, Dual Freq, Sim man, TheGerm, Frap, Ne0Freedom, A.R., Eliyak, Robbie.daniell, Recondaddy,
BoH, Random name, NRLBuilder, Necessary Evil, Ttoensing, Thijs!bot, Hcberkowitz, Nuworld, Sazaedo, Hcobb, List of marijuana slang
terms, Smartse, JAnDbot, JeltLuthor, Careless hx, Buckshot06, Soulbot, Graven69, Demodemodemon, The freddinator, C7L5N9, Beowulf7120, Hans Dunkelberg, Terrek, Mrg3105, EH101, WOSlinker, Applehead77, CarlosFlys, Ipankonin, Yintan, Comint, Martarius,
ClueBot, Zackwee, Chessy999, TypoBoy, Masterblooregard, Supremedemency, PotentialDanger, Iam666, Addbot, Tanhabot, NjardarBot, MrOllie, 3rdgenarmybrat, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 1971, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, IRP, Accuruss, Materialscientist,
Xqbot, EWProp, DSisyphBot, GrouchoBot, Jbourque, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot, Sidna, Steve Quinn, Qwikix, Adlerbot, Tinton5, RedBot, Wickelyby, Thi Nhi, Jeremystalked, Orphan Wiki, Ibbn, TuHan-Bot, Yattum, Barrysandell, Rangoon11, Grampion76, Zabanio,
ClueBot NG, Beyondsquirrelly, Widr, 220 of Borg, Sander.v.Ginkel, ChrisGualtieri, Jjstrydom, Mogism, Radicalmix66, ArmbrustBot,
BigO717, Gunningmt, Neutralphrasing, Moonbeamio, Quantres and Anonymous: 84
Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family%20of%20Medium%20Tactical%20Vehicles?oldid=
661706243 Contributors: Finlay McWalter, Chowbok, Hohum, Gene Nygaard, Bobrayner, Before My Ken, Rjwilmsi, Mark83, Choess,
Tony1, Kaelorr, Endomion, SmackBot, Quidam65, Bluebot, Lyta79, Jumping cheese, Nobunaga24, Fnlayson, ALittleSlow, Burningchrome, Andy1188, Nono64, Aleksandr Grigoryev, RaptorR3d, Tmaull, Bachcell, Angelscatie, Senseisk, Mongol003, Russl5445,
DumZiBoT, Ngs61, Addbot, Yobot, IraqVet225, JackieBot, RevelationDirect, Mark Schierbecker, Softboyled, Beagle1987, Degen Earthfast, Dana60Cummins, Chessmasterx, DexDor, Robert Bin Peters, SporkBot, WI5454, Ain92, Mukalo, Andresvu, Frietjes, America789,
Sammy D III, Ickandgak and Anonymous: 31
Firearm Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm?oldid=663010271 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Jimbo Wales, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Chuckhomann, Rmhermen, Zoe, Tscher, Tbarron, Stevertigo, Edward, Banshee~enwiki, Patrick, Kchishol1970, JohnOwens, Dominus, Ixfd64, AlexR, CruciedChrist, CesarB, Ronabop, DavidWBrooks, Mac, Notheruser, Jaimenote, Kingturtle, BigFatBuddha, Rlandmann, GCarty, , Alaric, EALacey, Daniel Quinlan, Tpbradbury, Morwen, Thue, AaronSw, Flockmeal, Riddley, Pibwl, Nurg, Modulatum, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Halibutt, Sheridan, JesseW, Saforrest, Hcheney, Alan Liefting, Buster2058, Fabiform, DocWatson42,
Christopher Parham, Djinn112, Oberiko, Philwelch, Greyengine5, Cobaltbluetony, Tom harrison, Lupin, Yekrats, Mboverload, Gracefool, Jrdioko, Edcolins, Dingo~enwiki, SoWhy, Antandrus, Beland, Jmueller71, Mzajac, Maximaximax, Tubedogg, Sam Hocevar, Tsemii,
RevRagnarok, Brianjd, AliveFreeHappy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Rama, Adam850, Talldean, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, Night Gyr, Jgrosch, Ground, J-Star, Shanes, Sietse Snel, Thunderbrand, Jonathan Drain, Bobo192, Xevious, Whiskers, Giraedata,
La goutte de pluie, Jojit fb, MSex, Physicistjedi, Rje, Sukiari, Kbir1, Ranveig, Alansohn, Duman~enwiki, Joshbaumgartner, TerryElliott,
Lord Pistachio, Primalchaos, Denniss, Hohum, Velella, ArminTamzarian, Evil Monkey, Randy Johnston, Cmapm, Magicjigpipe, MIT
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384
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385
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Anonymous: 391
Infantry ghting vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry%20fighting%20vehicle?oldid=659640245 Contributors: Patrick,
386
TUF-KAT, TUF-KAT, Jniemenmaa, Kimiko, Andres, Thue, Riddley, Robbot, AlainV, Pibwl, Nurg, GreatWhiteNortherner, Oberiko,
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BlackBaton, Kharkiv07, Flak155, Quenhitran, Fitzcarmalan, Coolbreeze29er, Ben Tuckett, Thebuscamebyandigoton, UnbiasedVictory,
Bernardwoodpecker, AbelM7, Samanthaplove, Jrishton, Hongshinjoo, Spivorg, Jmaun411, Redoer3, Alphamale2000, The Tepes, Thegreatmuka, Tervealbeeps, Babestress, Hanibal911, Jpl09c, OJOM, 105hummel, Monkbot, Abeerajafar, Armynut15, Lugnuthemvar, Soa
Koutsouveli, Wnicholas70, Monopoly31121993, Jesyka325, Cassandra Truth, Sciophobiaranger, Koncord111, Marytheo45, Swdoody,
Robespierre 8286, Gouncbeatduke, Mragsa, Daxter71199, Creativeboss, Drawosh499, Ucelik83, Caealn, Obama is a socialist, Johnbothan101, Tank7150, Revihist, StanTheMan87, Jlanzer, Myth420, Korrywatain, The Unbiased Truth, Sabot Cat, Nina Companeez,
Balkan Boxer, Magedq, PleaseConsider, Pishcal, Alpharit, YeOldeGentleman, Hey170, Anonymous awesome, AdamBzeek, Usama zide,
Kennsington, Joseph2302, Cmanlegend, Xharm, Jmoore1188, Aidep.a.pedia, Isla incum, Sabrinala20022, Fishmaan, Bobmurleyman, Relevantdad, TGIFFTW!, Ssssss124234, Dickchaneymademoneyotheiraqwar, Pacquaio and Anonymous: 1776
Joint Special Operations Command Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint%20Special%20Operations%20Command?oldid=
659311506 Contributors: Edward, Nurg, JerryFriedman, DocWatson42, Beland, OwenBlacker, DragonySixtyseven, Canterbury Tail,
Jayjg, Discospinster, JoeHenzi, Rackham, Nsaa, Orangemarlin, Geo Swan, Vcelloho, Alai, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty,
Apokrif, Kgrr, RicJac, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Josiah Rowe, Vegaswikian, The wub, Windchaser, Sus scrofa, Sanjosanjo, Manys, Thiseye,
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Cra0422, N5iln, Signaleer, Seaphoto, HolyT, .K, Epeeeche, Faizhaider, Buckshot06, Papalatiolais, Jaigurudev, Tracer9999, CommonsDelinker, Fconaway, SaviorSix, Novis-M, Bennynoneck, Asymmetric, Sdsds, Thundermaker, Black6, Aaron mcd, StAnselm, Claudevsq,
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EpicDream86, Loranchet, Erobos, TomPointTwo, MystBot, Addbot, Hda3ku, AtheWeatherman, Blaylockjam10, Tassedethe, Lightbot,
Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Waxworklibation, Charlie Tango Bravo, Magreenberg, AnomieBOT, EverettMcGill, Ace SOCNET, MakeBelieveMonster, Earlypsychosis, HoyaPro, AustralianRupert, FFlixx7481, LucienBOT, DrilBot, Spcop, Bobmack89x, Reconsider the
static, Lotje, EmausBot, Dewritech, ZroBot, Shuipzv3, Pathnder71, H3llBot, Julierbutler, Thewolfchild, ChuispastonBot, Afranelli,
TheTimesAreAChanging, ClueBot NG, Zechola, Intforce, Kevin Gorman, Widr, Paolau.kalani, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Chris0834,
Mark Arsten, Dainomite, WikiHannibal, BattyBot, Choor monster, EvergreenFir, Trident1983, Monkbot, Ceboolitas Chavarria and Anonymous: 120
Light machine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light%20machine%20gun?oldid=662667596 Contributors: The Anome, Marknen, Romanm, Securiger, Halibutt, Buster2058, Oberiko, Piotrus, Pettifogger, One Salient Oversight, Phil1988, WikiDon, RevRagnarok,
Miborovsky, Twinxor, WegianWarrior, Kross, Longhair, Tronno, Viriditas, La goutte de pluie, Mysdaao, Denniss, Cecil, Gene Nygaard, Alai, GraemeLeggett, Matt Deres, Nemo5576, YurikBot, Borgx, RobotE, Hairy Dude, Manxruler, Ve3, Ergbert, LeoX, Shotgunlee, Mieciu K, Maphisto86, GMan552, Paganpan, SmackBot, Emoscopes, Ariedartin, Gjs238, Geo B, Hmains, Chris the speller,
Thumperward, Snori, Trekphiler, Squalla, Synthe, SashatoBot, LWF, Cyclopaedic, Lkegley9, Kencf0618, Tawkerbot2, Orca1 9904, Clovis Sangrail, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Deathbunny, Marek69, WhaleyTim, F l a n k e r, Matteo Amato, Sebastian R., CeeWhy2, MartinBot, FlieGerFaUstMe262, JamesL85, NewEnglandYankee, Idioma-bot, Broadbot, Tmaull, Sevela.p, Koalorka, Kobalt64, Lyh, Ridepo,
EmxBot, 13dble, Sorstalan, ClueBot, Binksternet, John Nevard, Staygyro, Eleven even, Kakrackle, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Irish
Duck, LatitudeBot, LaaknorBot, West.andrew.g, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Uckersas, ArthurBot, Man74, WotWeiller, SCRECROW, Locobot,
Haeinous, NetherSarum, Hoo man, Yadayadayaday, EmausBot, WhereItNeedstoBe, Faceless Enemy, Sdafhgh, Eltomo85, ZroBot, L1A1
FAL, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Raghith, Hengistmate, Widr, McCull1n, Ranggamalvino, Glevum, Oinbuh, 0989bv, Touranushertz,
390
Icemanwcs, Wukkawakka, HK9900, 1994thegoodolddays and Anonymous: 105

Machine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine%20gun?oldid=662680222 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, The Epopt,
Mav, The Anome, BlckKnght, Andre Engels, Ray Van De Walker, Europrobe, TomCerul, Panairjdde~enwiki, Topory, Stevertigo, Rbrwr,
Patrick, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Jtdirl, Delirium, CatherineMunro, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Aarchiba, Cgs, Glenn, Evercat, EdH,
Elvis, JidGom, Daniel Quinlan, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, DJ Clayworth, Head, Cjrother, Russell Dovey, David.Monniaux, Riddley, Robbot,
ChrisO~enwiki, Kristof vt, RedWolf, Donreed, Romanm, Securiger, Mayooranathan, Mirv, Ojigiri~enwiki, Halibutt, Hadal, UtherSRG,
Profoss, GreatWhiteNortherner, Carnildo, Acm, Buster2058, Fabiform, Julianp, Crculver, Djinn112, Darklight, Oberiko, Greyengine5,
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end, Ejgm, Vina, MacGyverMagic, Mzajac, Wikster E, Pettifogger, Sam Hocevar, Ojw, Mike Rosoft, N328KF, Wesha, Discospinster,
Rich Farmbrough, Leibniz, FranksValli, Trkkazulu, Mecanismo, Xezbeth, Fluzwup, Pavel Vozenilek, Night Gyr, ESkog, ZeroOne, Nekochan, El C, Kross, Sietse Snel, Deztrd, Bobo192, TomStar81, Ypacara, Viriditas, Nomist, La goutte de pluie, Darwinek, Larry V, Thatguy96, Zachlipton, Alansohn, LtNOWIS, Xanxz, Spangineer, Denniss, Malo, Katefan0, Hohum, Snowolf, Blobglob, Dhartung, Icewolf34,
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Ajraddatz, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, Italia2006, ZroBot, Lhdty, Lesswealth, F, Wackywace, Lateg, Bahudhara, HK417, Brettburcham, Wayne Slam, Jgavin, Mcmatter, Tolly4bolly, UltimaRatio, Thine Antique Pen, L1A1 FAL, L Kensington, Stefan Milosevski,
Skrunyak, Babybabybaby123, ChuispastonBot, Dthakkar8, Whoop whoop pull up, Sonicyouth86, Grandmof101, Eworrall, ClueBot NG,
Chumpstump777, Astatine211, Jake4cmdh, Gilderien, Piast93, Cntras, , Widr, Picturepurfect, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ucantndme77,
Bobthebuilder18, Teh fail myn, Lowercase sigmabot, TRnD xFuZe, BG19bot, Roidlover606, Beethoven123456, LuckySevens777, Boogieman90, Ranggamalvino, Erickson660, Muzzy136, Danmoberly, EuroCarGT, TotallyThatGuy, DudeManGuy1223, Hmainsbot1, Webclient101, Lugia2453, Smohammed2, Jcoolkid, Jakec, Emeliieeee, Icemanwcs, WPGA2345, Chemistguy27, Caydenluke, Rezin, TranquilHope, Issparkly, Kjfhny, 1994thegoodolddays, Felsic, Goodathon, KasparBot and Anonymous: 631
Magazine (rearms) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magazine%20(firearms)?oldid=662678061 Contributors: Ray Van De Walker,
Edward, Patrick, Mulad, Riddley, Robbot, Toiyabe, Gtrmp, Mcapdevila, Per Honor et Gloria, Maclyn611, AliveFreeHappy, Mecanismo, Fluzwup, Night Gyr, CanisRufus, Kross, Shanes, Bobo192, Harald Hansen, Tronno, Zwilson, Matani2005~enwiki, Redxiv, Geo
Swan, Pouya, Hohum, Ashlux, RJFJR, Mikeo, OwenX, Woohookitty, LOL, Raygun, GregorB, SDC, GraemeLeggett, Jclemens, Vary,
WouterBot, Scoo, NSR, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, Borgx, Filippof, Hellbus, Gaius Cornelius, Kvn8907, AeonicOmega, Ve3, Ergbert, Shotgunlee, Asams10, Georgewilliamherbert, Jmackaerospace, Sarefo, Hayden120, Jaranda, Diagraph01~enwiki, Groyolo, SmackBot, TestPilot, McGeddon, Deon Steyn, Gilliam, Winterheart, Drake2, Chris the speller, LinguistAtLarge, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg,
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Dakart, HowardSelsam, FlyingToaster, Orca1 9904, Cydebot, Danrok, Trasel, Myscrnnm, Luccas, Christian75, Msnicki, Pbla4024, Ultimus, Commander Zulu, Legaiaame, Marek69, Noclevername, Dehneshin, Corella, Ingolfson, JAnDbot, Plm209, Acroterion, Magioladitis, Nyttend, Froid, Thernlund, Alex Spade, Edward321, Tacticus, FlieGerFaUstMe262, CommonsDelinker, RWyn, KTo288, J.delanoy,
Ops101ex, Lucaswilkins, Benscripps, Cephlapod, DanMP5, SnitchyCat, Ana Nim, Jetwave Dave, Num1dgen, Station1, Anynobody, TXiKiBoT, A4bot, Agricola44, Liko81, JhsBot, Andy Dingley, Francis Flinch, MajorHazard, Koalorka, Mukster, Aubri, Logan, Alucard365,
Lightbreather, SieBot, Skiendog, BonesBrigade, Zephyrus67, Sf46, Zarakinthish, Sinfulparade, Svick, Capitalismojo, Maltzer, ImageRe-
391
movalBot, ClueBot, Paul Iliano, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Ze Imaginary Mun, Excirial, Theheraticleader, John Nevard, Scalhotrod, Montourage, Bilsonius, WikHead, Nukes4Tots, Andrewrstevens, Nohomers48, CanadianLinuxUser, Someguyfromhell, Glane23, TheWatcherREME, Herr Gruber, Lightbot, Evers, CrimsonSage, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 1971, Donfbreed, Bhikshu Nagarjuna, AnomieBOT,
PeskySaurus, RevelationDirect, Eumolpo, ArthurBot, Karagamber, 4twenty42o, Nathaniel Mikkola, FlashHawk4, Anotherclown, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, Kwiki, Onjacktallcuca, A8UDI, MKFI, Brebre4180, Miguel Escopeta, Newt Winkler, Elizabeth Gordon, Vrenator, Reaper
Eternal, ROG5728, RjwilmsiBot, Misconceptions2, Martin Meise, Faceless Enemy, Sdafhgh, GoingBatty, Dgd, Wingman4l7, RaptureBot, Skrunyak, Avatar9n, ClueBot NG, Intlaware, Zenonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Kungfu2187, Stumpi88, Sporktek, Khazar2, Captmoonlight, SuperbowserX, CelerSilensMortalis, Rbizzy1343, JPhebus, Smohammed2, BigJackman, Betasniper, Bardbom, Himni1, RAF910,
Kateszymborski, Monkbot, KitFistoPL, Rezin, Everybodyswillyisaspeedboat, Ibropalic and Anonymous: 173
Main battle tank Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main%20battle%20tank?oldid=661274945 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Andrewman327, Bender235, Giraedata, Anthony Appleyard, Ashley Pomeroy, Denniss, Hohum, A D Monroe III, Pol098, BD2412,
Rjwilmsi, Rillian, Me and, Arima, Lockesdonkey, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Trekphiler, Elryacko, Orca1 9904,
Fnlayson, Aldis90, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Hans Dunkelberg, TXiKiBoT, Rumiton, Andy Dingley, Brozozo, Hamiltondaniel, Denisarona, ClueBot, Binksternet, Bliskner, IVP, Sun Creator, 7&6=thirteen, Pichpich, Addbot, Graham.Fountain, Atlantians, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Metalhead94, Rubinbot, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Amqui, Mark Schierbecker, Fortdj33, Gire
3pich2005, Jonesey95, RedBot, Bcs09, VEO15, Visite fortuitement prolonge, Phoenix and Winslow, DexDor, TGCP, Look2See1, Winner 42, MintCCC, ZroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Kieranlatty, Space25689, Coloursoftherainbow, Simbagraphix, At612, KazekageTR,
Victory in Germany, Iron Archer, Riotforlife, Quite vivid blur, EdoBot, Zedenstein, Georgiaboy 15, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Khalidawais,
Michaelmas1957, AktiNo, AD66, Vagobot, Ranggamalvino, 220 of Borg, Tankwarfare, 4Jays1034, BattyBot, Markharis07, ChrisGualtieri,
Guywholikesca2+, VitisAestivalis, , BTRand1, Limefrost Spiral, Ginsuloft, Quenhitran, Ancholm, Andrew J.Kurbiko, Indiandefence, Monkbot, Brutal Russian, TuntematonSika, Aliaharian, Yolozzzzzzz and Anonymous: 112
Military helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20helicopter?oldid=662737593 Contributors: Lowellian, Jason Quinn,
Woohookitty, Pol098, Hovea, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, SchuminWeb, Chwyatt, Cornellrockey, Arado, Saberwyn, Chris93, SmackBot, Flamarande, Tnkr111, Chris the speller, Neo-Jay, Colonies Chris, Will Beback, Willy turner, Levineps, Stewartp, Fnlayson, Barticus88, Bobblehead, BenTremblay, Darklilac, Born2ie, BilCat, Ekki01, Anaxial, R'n'B, KTo288, Bapho~enwiki, Tatrgel, VolkovBot,
TXiKiBoT, Usergreatpower, Schnellundleicht, Heb, Zephyrus67, Yerpo, Hoplon, Binksternet, Gits (Neo), Shentosara, Ktr101, Excirial,
Jusdafax, The Founders Intent, XLinkBot, Subversive.sound, Addbot, ContiAWB, MrOllie, LaaknorBot, SpBot, Samuel Pepys, Galoubet,
Citation bot, Srich32977, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, MGA73bot, Theo10011, Jerd10, DexDor, EmausBot, John of Reading, Naev, ClueBot NG, AktiNo, Antiqueight, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Jay8g, Northamerica1000, MusikAnimal, Hurricanefan24, Cyberbot II, Adnan
bogi, MilleniumBlue, Keijhae, KasparBot and Anonymous: 33
Pistol Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistol?oldid=662889138 Contributors: Patrick, Andrewman327, Altenmann, Antandrus,
Rama, Dbachmann, LtNOWIS, Spangineer, Svartalf, Woohookitty, GraemeLeggett, Mandarax, Koavf, Tedd, Huw Powell, NawlinWiki, ThunderE6, A.BigHead, CWenger, SmackBot, Skizzik, Emurphy42, Seduisant, Lambiam, Mouse Nightshirt, Ergative rlt, J 1982,
ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, DumbBOT, Legaiaame, QuiteUnusual, Bongwarrior, KConWiki, Keith D, Tulkolahten, J.delanoy, Trusilver,
Adamdaley, Andy Dingley, Happysailor, Jdaloner, Excirial, Three-quarter-ten, Addbot, Pigoutultra, Fruckert, LuK3, Sprachpeger,
DemocraticLuntz, Materialscientist, Mark Schierbecker, Sabrebd, Gulftanker, FrescoBot, Knightwhosayni, The Great Detective, HJ
Mitchell, Pinethicket, Jschnur, Callanecc, ROG5728, Misconceptions2, Rabbabodrool, Wikipelli, Thecheesykid, John Cline, Cimmerian praetor, SporkBot, Mayur, Xiaoyu of Yuxi, Status, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Snotbot, Lukeno94, User89113, Nightenbelle,
Wbm1058, Mh3rocksdude, Jimeradams, PHD-teacher, Elijahranensiegal, Maxdudeyo, Cman411, Matrin44, Kitisgay, CorneliusA, Mcneill97, Soumyascholar, Halo Jerk1, Miningpyropony, Marigold100, Glaisher, HK9900, Prodigy 16, NQ, Gomu gomu no pistol, KasparBot
and Anonymous: 112
Reconnaissance vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconnaissance%20vehicle?oldid=662859828 Contributors: Versageek,
GraemeLeggett, Rjwilmsi, Aldis90, Lexington50, Andy Dingley, Addbot, Rubinbot, Mark Schierbecker, Kyng, Jonesey95, John of Reading, SporkBot, ChuispastonBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Katangais, DanieB52, Monkbot, Cavalryman V31, Inyouchuu shoku, KasparBot and
Anonymous: 2
Rie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifle?oldid=654561308 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Ed Poor, LA2,
Rmhermen, Hephaestos, Stevertigo, Edward, Banshee~enwiki, Patrick, Voidvector, Oliver Pereira, Minesweeper, Ahoerstemeier, Stan
Shebs, Theresa knott, Notheruser, Cadastral, Anshumangaur, Julesd, Rossami, Tkinias, Evercat, Lancevortex, Dino, Dysprosia, Furrykef,
Ed g2s, Jason M, Nptr, Riddley, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Jwpurple, Kadin2048, Romanm, FeZn~enwiki, Ojigiri~enwiki, Meelar, Marc Venot,
Oberiko, Cobaltbluetony, Lee J Haywood, Tom harrison, MathKnight, Hagedis, Leonard G., Radius, Per Honor et Gloria, Jason Quinn,
Finn-Zoltan, Gracefool, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Jrdioko, LiDaobing, Antandrus, Kilogulf59, Mzajac, Michael Rowe, Tin soldier, CesarFelipe, Mrrhum, Klemen Kocjancic, Kevin Rector, RevRagnarok, Mubli, HedgeHog, AliveFreeHappy, CALR, DanielCD, Vincom2,
Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, MeltBanana, Deelkar, Pavel Vozenilek, Night Gyr, WegianWarrior, Kaisershatner, Panu~enwiki, El
C, Workster, Kross, Shanes, RoyBoy, Ypacara, FETuriousness, BrokenSegue, Captain Blood~enwiki, Rje, King nothing, Nsaa, Alansohn,
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392
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478
Shotgun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shotgun?oldid=652772166 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, Jimbo Wales, Bryan Derksen,
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Rezin and Anonymous: 589
393
Shoulder-launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder-launched%20Multipurpose%

20Assault%20Weapon?oldid=656315234 Contributors: The Anome, Conti, Katana0182, Riddley, DocWatson42, MathKnight, Bobblewik, Mzajac, Kramer, Grunt, Night Gyr, ZeroOne, Loren36, CanisRufus, Gmarine3000, David kitson, Cmdrjameson, Kjkolb,
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NG, Dainomite, BattyBot, America789, Khazar2, Redalert2fan, Shkvoz, DanieB52, Bulldogdaniel24 and Anonymous: 78
Sniper rie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sniper%20rifle?oldid=661341202 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Malcolm Farmer,
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and Anonymous: 448
Submachine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submachine%20gun?oldid=661828564 Contributors: Jimbo Wales, Taw, Europrobe, Hephaestos, Kchishol1970, Liftarn, Angela, Nikai, Andres, VeryVerily, Riddley, Robbot, Vardion, Chrism, Donreed, Sam Spade,
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artist:
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U S Military Equipment

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U S Military Equipment

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U S MILITARY EQUIPMENT

Design and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Military cartridge types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Links used for feeding machine guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Partial list of .50 BMG rearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.56 mm NATO versus .223 Remington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.56 mm NATO versus 7.62 mm NATO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Military cartridge types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Military cartridge types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Department Of Defense Identication Codes (DODIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Improvements and variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Russian military overpressure variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of anti-materiel ries by country of origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

First World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Development between the world wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Second World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

First armored cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Armoured personnel carrier

Infantry Fighting vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Infantry Mobility Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Armoured recovery vehicle

10.1 Development history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1.1 Early models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1.2 Second World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3 List of ARVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3.12 Soviet Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3.13 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3.14 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.3 Assault rie gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.4 Assault ries vs. assault weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.1 Background and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.1.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.1.2 Soviet Union and its successor states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.1.3 People's Republic of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.1.4 France, Germany and Spain

12.1.7 South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.6.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.1.1 Word origin

13.1.2 Early history: before the 1900s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.1.4 After World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.2 Modern history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.2.1 Contemporary military forces

13.2.2 Special forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.3.1 Pistol-caliber carbines (PCC)

13.3.2 Pistol conversion carbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.4 Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.4.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14.2 Types of cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14.2.1 Derivatives of non-cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .