EDPSY 528 Achievement Motivation in Education

Term Project Prospectus

Caitlin M. Araldi
1. What form will your project take? Literature review? Research proposal? Case study?
Other (if other, discuss with me first, please.)
I would like to conduct a literature review for my term project; if this is not an option, I would
like to create a research proposal based on the literature review I have in mind.
2. Describe the issue that you will be exploring. What is your main question regarding this
issue? What directions do you plan to take in exploring this issue? Why is this issue
interesting to you?
I would like to explore choice and motivation further, specifically in young children (ages 3-4).
My main question regarding this issue is: how does the language used by teachers when offering
choices impact the motivation of young children to apply what they know to a new learning
task/activity?
I plan to review current literature taken from theory discussed in course readings, as well as from
outside sources in order to find overlap or holes in the research topics discussed.
This issue is interesting to me because my undergraduate studies involved language acquisition,
which I have continued in graduate work with young children. I am hoping to explore teacherchild interactions and the language they involve in early childhood learning environments in
research, particularly with regard to issues of motivation, identity and best practice in teaching.
I have developed a passion for promoting the understanding of development in early childhood
as the foundation for later educational outcomes.
3. Explain how you think this issue and your main question are related to the theories we
are discussing in class. Be specific enough for me to get a good idea of how you will draw on
the readings and class discussion to plan your research, interpret your data, etc. You may
have to skim some of the readings we have not done yet in order to do this. All projects
require some outside readings.
Although much of the literature in motivation theory seems to be on older learners, such as
adolescents and adults, I would like to draw on the following elements found in the course
readings to examine choice and motivation as they might apply to early learners:

Katz (2006): When choice motivates and when it does not; choice as a multi-faceted
phenomenon; effects of teachers feedback on students self-efficacy; autonomy as a
universal psychological need (SDT); connection to interest

Flink (1990): Effects of controlling strategies on childrens intrinsic motivation and selfdetermination; specifically the language used in controlling strategies

Ryan & Deci (2000): SDT; social contexts/environmental factors that foster v. undermine
positive potentials for performance, growth and well-being

Nicholls (1984): Achievement motivation; young childrens conceptions of ability and

effort

I plan to review outside literature on the research topics of offering choice in preschool learning
activities, as well as language in teacher-child interaction. Some of my ideas for those include:

Markus & Kitayama (1991) Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion,
and Motivation
o Cultural construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of both;
influence of these factors on individual experience, including motivation

Hamre et. al. (2014) Evidence for General and Domain-Specific Elements of Teacher
Child Interactions: Associations With Preschool Childrens Development
o General and domain-specific impact of teacher-child interactions on development

SN: I think there are a number of studies you could draw on that are specific to motivation; the
Koestner et al piece I mentioned in class on limit-setting is one that would be useful and would
likely be cited by others who took this further. From a goal theory perspective, you might want
to look at Nicholls & Hazzard's 1993 book "Education as Adventure," an ethnographic account
of a second-grade class. You might also want to look at my 2001 Cognition & Instruction article
on literacy motivation in kindergarten for some ideas.

Running Head: CHOICE AND MOTIVATION IN PRESCHOOL

How the Communication of Choice in a Preschool Classroom Impacts Young Childrens

Intrinsic Motivation
Caitlin M. Araldi
University of Washington

Author Note
This research proposal was written in order to fulfill a final project assignment requirement for
EDPSY 528 Achievement Motivation in Education
Instructor: Dr. Susan Nolen
Winter 2015

CHOICE AND MOTIVATION IN PRESCHOOL

Introduction
Research Problem
The purpose of this descriptive qualitative study will be to ______(understand, describe,
develop, discover) the ________(central focus) for _______(participants: person, process,
groups) at ______________(site).
The following proposal first presents the findings of current research on the communication
of choice and preschool-aged childrens intrinsic motivation within the framework of selfdetermination theory. A research study has been designed in response to the literature review,
using qualitative methods to investigate the effects of teacher communication styles on intrinsic
motivation in 4-5 year old children engaged in free-choice activities at a Washington statelicensed, NAEYC (National Association for the Education of Young Children)-accredited child
care center.
The ability to engage in a task for long periods of time is valued highly in many United
States school settings, but very young children are often perceived as incapable of sustaining
prolonged attention and focus. Early childhood classrooms often respond by planning activities

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 1:26 PM

Comment [1]: Nancy: Relationship of
long periods of time to of choice? Or
motivation?

that are both brief and isolated, and therefore opportunities to sustain high levels of engagement
are infrequent (Blank & Hertzog, 2003). The reality of high stakes testing pressures means that
school readiness has also become a focal concern for early childhood education, but what
constitutes effective instruction continues to be highly debated.
The aims of this study are to further challenge the prevalent use of controlling styles of
communication in promoting school-readiness with young children, and to carefully examine
perceptions of what constitutes effective communication through the experiences that children
have with teacher communication styles during choice-based activities.

Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:21 PM

Comment [2]: What evidence is there
that adults use controlling styles in this
way?
Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:21 PM
Comment [3]: Whose?

CHOICE AND MOTIVATION IN PRESCHOOL

Keywords: teacher communication styles, intrinsic motivation in young children, free-choice

activities

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 2:11 PM

Comment [4]: Nancy: Set the stage for
what typical classrooms are like

Literature Review
Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
This proposal is written primarily in the context of Ryan and Decis (2000) selfdetermination theory (SDT) framework, in order to suggest that the use of a controlling
classroom communication style does not satisfy young childrens innate psychological needs for

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 1:31 PM

Comment [5]: Nancy: What is controlling
and non-controlling?

autonomy, competence and relatedness, which may ultimately leave them underprepared to
achieve sustained high potential in later learning.
Self-determination theory not only seeks to explain universal truths about human motivation,
but more importantly, to describe its relationship to development. According to Ryan & Deci
(2000), social contexts catalyze both within- and between-person differences in motivation and
personal growth (p. 68). The theory assumes that humanity is most positively represented by
behavior that is curious, vital, and self-motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 68). Research that
demonstrates the conditions which best support positive human potential is essential to
understand both theoretically and in practice because it can contribute not only to formal
knowledge of the causes of human behavior but also to the design of social environments that
optimize people's development, performance, and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 68). For
early childhood, this is imperative, assuming that the three psychological needs outlined by Ryan
& Deci (2000): autonomy, competence and relatedness; are in fact the foundation of universal
psychological well being, and thus intrinsic motivation, across all social contexts.

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 1:35 PM

Comment [6]: Nancy: Describe this
theory in detail; how has it been applied?
Has it been applied to young children?

Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:23 PM

Comment [7]: Explain how this relates
to your argument.

CHOICE AND MOTIVATION IN PRESCHOOL

The issue of choice-based activity also fits into the framework of SDT in this proposal, as
Katz (2006) proposes that choice is motivating only when options meet the needs of autonomy,
competence and relatedness. When analyzing the data of this study, it is important to therefore
consider how teachers communicate to children during free choice time, indicating which
elements of the environment do or do not seem to support intrinsic motivation by meeting those
needs.
Koestner, Ryan, Bernieri and Holt (1984) discuss the imposition of external constraints on an
activity has frequently been shown to undermine intrinsic motivation (tangible rewards, symbolic

Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:24 PM

Comment [8]: Explain what this issue is,
and how it relates to your studys
questions or purpose.
Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:25 PM
Comment [9]: Meaning the proposed
study?
Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 1:52 PM
Comment [10]: Nancy: Free-choice time
or student choice? Not the same
Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:25 PM
Comment [11]: This suggests an
observational study of teacher
communication with children, but thats not
what you are proposing.

rewards, verbal praise, avoidance of punishment, deadlines, surveillance, explicit competition).

This undermining occurs only under specific conditions, those with functional significance
(Koestner, 1984, p. 234). Limits can be set without undermining intrinsic motivation if they are
informational in nature. Information/control distinction of cognitive evaluation theory is
particularly relevant to creativity, which emphasizes the importance of autonomy or self-

Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:27 PM

Comment [12]: Meaning?
Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:28 PM
Comment [13]: Explain.

determination. Koestner wanted to determine if limits could be set in a way that does not
undermine intrinsic motivation or creativity in a task (p. 245), and it was found that intrinsic
motivation was significantly greater for subjects in informational conditions than for controlling
conditions.
This review of literature within a self-determination theoretical framework helps to
predict that children will be more likely to engage for longer periods in new learning when given
choices in a free-choice when informational-style communication is used, and that those in an
environment that uses a controlling style will engage less often in new learning (as measured by
tracking engagement during free-choice).
Methodological and Ethical Considerations

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 2:21 PM

Comment [14]: Nancy: What are these?
Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 2:22 PM
Comment [15]: Nancy: What are these?
Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:30 PM
Comment [16]: Critical review of this is
needed.
Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:31 PM
Comment [17]: A more thorough lit
review would be needed to support these
predictions. You have cited only one study
in any depth.
Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 2:18 PM
Comment [18]: Nancy: A qualitative
study is relative to its questions. You
choose methodologically based on the
questions you havewhere are your
questions?

CHOICE AND MOTIVATION IN PRESCHOOL

The research proposed here has taken into account the methodology of previous research,
particularly Koestner (1984), and determined that qualitative data would add further dimension
to quantitative findings on the relationship between teacher communication styles and childrens
intrinsic motivation.
The use of focus groups has been chosen for this study because the method carries a
number of advantages over the use of individual interviews alone. Compared to individual
interviews, Vaughn et. al. (1996) found that the support offered in focus groups allows
participants the opportunity for greater openness in their responses (as cited in Hennessy &

Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:32 PM

Comment [19]: On what basis?

Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:32 PM

Comment [20]: It is not clear why you
would do interviews, or with whom. What
are your research questions?

Heary, 2005, p. 237). Lewis (1992) underscores the fact that, unlike in an interview, the focus
group does not have to be terminated when an individual chooses not to respond (as cited in
Hennessy & Heary, 2005, p. 237). Furthermore, Basch (1987) feels that the method allows for
greater flexibility in use with other research methods, as well as offers greater cost efficiency (as
cited in Hennessy & Heary, 2005, p. 237).
As this study involves an interest in the experiences and perspectives of children, focus
group work is considered particularly appropriate (Hennessy & Heary, 2005, p. 237). Hennessy
& Heary (2005) suggest that the use of single-sex groupings are most effective, as well as
groupings of no more than eight children who are no more than two years in age difference.
Furthermore, Mauthner (1997) argues that focus groups create a safe atmosphere with peers that
can replicate familiar small group settings that children experience regularly in their classrooms,
which ultimately may offer greater balance of power than do one-to-one interviews with adults
(as cited in Hennessy & Heary, 2005, p. 237). Even more critically, Levine & Zimmerman
(1996) suggest that the method acknowledges the participants as experts (as cited in Hennessy
& Heary, 2005, p. 238). This echoes an earlier aim of this study to affirm the findings of

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 2:35 PM

Comment [21]: Nancy: Or teacher talk
and responses of children? Why groups?
Go back to research questions
Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 2:27 PM
Comment [22]: Nancy: I agree with Sue;
can you find a study that has done focus
groups with preschoolers?
Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:34 PM
Comment [23]: Preschool children are
very hard to interview. What would you
ask them, and why? Why not use
observational methods if you are
interested in teacher communication style?

CHOICE AND MOTIVATION IN PRESCHOOL

Christensen & Prout (2005), who emphasize the need to understand children in terms of being,
rather than becoming, and by what Thorne (1987) argues is valuing their conceptual
autonomy (as cited in Hennessy & Heary, 2005, p. 43).
Focus group sessions are to be held for no longer than 45 minutes per session, which is
considered most appropriate for children under 10 years of age by Vaughn et. al. (1996) (as cited

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 2:39 PM

Comment [24]: Nancy: What are the
questions?

in Hennessy & Heary, 2005, p. 241). Audio is to begin recording at the beginning of each data
collection session by the studys designated moderator, while an assistant moderator is to be
present to take additional field notes on overall group dynamic, including the nonverbal
behaviors of participants. Sitting on the floor in a circle, as the children are accustomed to for
large group discussions, is to contribute to a comfortable atmosphere during the focus group
session where eye contact is possible for all individuals. The focus group interview is to be
possibly on-location at the center if space is available, up to twice per week for the duration of an
academic quarter, or ten weeks.
The moderator is to clearly describe the purpose of the discussion to the participants
before beginning data collection, including giving an opportunity to ask questions and obtaining
permission to record audio. The discussion is to begin with more general questions about when
children feel motivated during free-choice time, to more specific questions about the language of
limit setting communicated by their teachers.
Research questions, hypotheses and/or objectives
Questions involved in this research proposal include: How do children conceptualize
their own motivation during free-choice activity? How do the styles of communication used by

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 2:39 PM

Comment [25]: Nancy: What are
examples of this?
Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:35 PM
Comment [26]: Again, young children
will not likely be able to tell you much
about this.

teachers during free-choice activity impact the intrinsic motivation of young children to remain
engaged in a particular activity?

Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:35 PM

Comment [27]: It is not clear what data
you will obtain that bears on this question.

CHOICE AND MOTIVATION IN PRESCHOOL

Based on Koestners (1984) claim, it is predicted that intrinsic motivation will be

expressed as lower when participants are exposed to controlling styles of communication, and
conversely predicts that children will demonstrate longer levels of engagement, and therefore
higher levels of intrinsic motivation, when exposed to less controlling styles of teacher
communication. There is a predicted discrepancy between the perceptions of teachers and
children in the effectiveness of limit setting communication styles.
Method
Participants
The participants are to be sampled from a Washington state-licensed and NAEYC-accredited

Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:37 PM

Comment [28]: If we know this to be the
case (assuming there is prior research on
this), what will the contribution of your
study be? How will this add to Koestner et
als findings, for example? Will it address
something that the previous research has
not addressed?

early learning center that identifies as play-based. Twelve children, who are aged between four
and five years old, are to be sampled from full-time attendees of the preschool classroom. As
they are to be assigned to one of two focus groups, one of males and one of females, the groups
are to consist of relative equivalency of gender (i.e., ideally six males and six females). All
participants have at least one, if not both, parents of Caucasian descent, and parents of children
who attend the participating center are assumed to have an average or higher than average socioeconomic status. This is due to the fact that enrollment almost exclusively favors employees of
the prominent federal agency upon whose campus the center operates (the majority of the
employment positions offered at the agency require higher-education degrees).
Data sources
Audio recording of focus group interview sessions is to be used as the primary data
source for this study; although supplemental observations, perhaps with video recording, are
recommended for future comparative research.
Analysis

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/2/2015 3:18 PM

Comment [29]: Need NOAA
demographic information?

CHOICE AND MOTIVATION IN PRESCHOOL

The analysis of focus group data is to be done inductively, in four phases (Hennessy &
Heary, 2005). First, the research team is to engage in an initial reading of the transcript, while
recalling details of the discussion in light of possible emergent themes. In the second phase,
which Vaughn et. al. (1996) refer to as unitizing the data (as cited in Hennessy & Heary, 2005),
a basis for defining coding categories will be established. Thirdly, the units will be grouped
according to common features; and lastly, comparing the initial categories with the previouslyidentified themes.
Significance of the Study
Potential implications for theory
The development of theory from this research seeks to further problematize a deficit view
of the educational system, overcoming pressures for school-readiness created a high-stakes
testing environment and extending greater participation to young children in conceptualizing
what makes their education effective. This study attempts to use qualitative methodology to
further re-conceptualize children as participants rather than subjects (Koestner, 1984).
Further research should be considered involving a deeper analysis of engagement and
interest in individual participants, especially when examining domain-specific interactions
through video-recorded naturalistic observation sessions. An investigation into the relationship
between communication style and intrinsic motivation in the home context to potentially
determine how educators can bring home strategies of support into the classroom is also
proposed as an area for future qualitative research, which would take an ecological perspective
on the questions posed here.
Potential applications

Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:39 PM

Comment [30]: Im not sure what you
mean here, or how this relates to your
study.

CHOICE AND MOTIVATION IN PRESCHOOL

The new information presented in the proposed study discussed here could easily be
applied to early educational settings. Firstly, it might serve as evidence for early childhood

Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 6:41 PM

Comment [31]: It is not clear what that
new information is. Explain.

programs to consider child-centered pedagogical approaches that take into account the impact of
communication style in the teacher-child interaction. The use of informational styles of
communication, such as Tom Drummonds Enterprise Talk (2000) for example, are better
suited to promote SDTs three dimensions of well being in children.
If teachers promote the use of Enterprise Talk in the classroom as described, Drummond
(2000) asserts that communication in the learning environment will reflect a path to integrity

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 2:41 PM

Comment [32]: Nancy: You need this at
the beginning described in detail
Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 7:08 PM
Comment [33]: Described where and by
whom?

and authenticity and ultimately shape and support quality relationships within the learning
space. Drummonds (2000) strategies could be applied to the early childhood classroom as a
form of informational communication because it fosters an environment of positivity and
productivity, and high levels of intrinsic motivation, wherein teachers can emphasize their
understanding of childrens voices in an authentic, non-controlling way (Drummond 2000).

Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 7:09 PM

Comment [34]: What evidence supports
this claim?

Enterprise Talk communicative strategies include description, narration, self -talk, non-verbal
recognition, and intrinsically-phrased response, allow for creating a realistic environment that
demonstrates consistently positive and effective ways of interacting, particularly during times of
challenge. Contrary to controlling models for teacher and student communication, these
strategies are implemented along with the explicit prohibition of directions, questions or praise
(Drummond 2000).
This information offers teachers a practical application of theory that embodies recent
research in developmental psychology, which rejects the notion that children are only
becoming, and instead recognizing their worth as capable contributors to their own education.
This study offers further evidence to support the claim that communication designed to promote

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 2:42 PM

Comment [35]: Nancy: Some people
say specific praise is motivating

CHOICE AND MOTIVATION IN PRESCHOOL

10

the co-construction of meaning between teacher and child is positively correlated to intrinsic
motivation and psychological well being, and should be intentionally be considered in early
learning instructional and professional development decisions.
References
Blank, J. & Nancy, B. H. (October 01, 2003). Strengthening task commitment in preschool
children : Reflections from an early education program. Young Exceptional Children,
7, 1, 11-20.
Christensen, P. & Prout, A. (2005). Anthropological and sociological perspectives on the study
of children. In S. Green & D. Hogan (Eds.) Researching childrens experience:
Approaches and methods (p. 42-60). London: Sage Publications.
Drummond, T. (2000). Enterprise Talk: A Handrail to Integrity and Authenticity.
Katz, I., & Assor, A. (January 01, 2007). When choice motivates and when it does not.
Educational Psychology Review, 19, 4, 429-442.
Koestner, R., Ryan, R. M., Bernieri, F., & Holt, K. (September 01, 1984). Setting limits on
children's behavior: The differential effects of controlling vs. informational styles on
intrinsic motivation and creativity. Journal of Personality, 52, 3, 233-248.
Nicholls, J. G. (July 01, 1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective
experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, 3, 328-346.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (January 01, 2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of
intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. The American Psychologist, 55,
1, 68-78.

Caitlin M. Araldi 4/13/2015 2:43 PM

Comment [36]: Nancy: This wasnt
mentioned at all
Susan Nolen 3/21/2015 7:09 PM
Comment [37]: What evidence,
specifically, supports this claim?