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Biology Unit 4 revision summary of processes

Photosynthesis
Photolysis decomposes H2O to O2, e- and H+
O2 air as waste product
e- PS2 to PS1 (via electron chain, energy released to transport protons into thylakoid
membrane, the concentration gradient causes protons to be released back into the stroma
generating energy which adds phosphate to adenine diphosphate generating ATP)
H+ used to reduce NADP (with electron from PS1)
Calvin cycle
RuBP (+CO2) > RUBISCO > GP [NADP+ATP] > GALP > GLUCOSE / RuBP
Primary Succession
Landslide / volcano
Empty inorganic surface bare rock / sand dune
Pioneer species algae/moss
Penetrate surface break it down into grains
Organic material becomes trapped breaks down into humus
Humus + rock grains = soil
Grass/ferns can develop root systems die and add to soil
Larger plants can survive due to newer soil layers more water/nutrients stored
Plant/animal biodiversity increases until climax community
Secondary Succession
Fire/flood
Existing soil
Plants/animals present Increase in diversity until climax community
Experiment: Ecology
Random sample avoid bias [use water boatman from pond]
Frame quadrat / point quadrat populations
Line transect / belt transect / interrupted transect
Abiotic/biotic factors - measured
Repeat for reliability
Evolution
1) Individuals within a population show variation in their phenotypes
2) Predation disease and competition create a struggle for survival.
3) Individuals with better adaptations are more likely to survive reproduce and pass on their
advantageous adaptations to their offspring.
4) Over time, the number of individuals with the adaptations increases so over generations
the adaptations become more common in the population through evolution.
Rigor mortis
Oxygen not being transferred throughout body
Lack of oxygen in cells leads to anaerobic respiration
ATP is used, lactic acid is produced
Acid reduces pH denatures enzymes - muscles stay contracted rigor mortis
Bonds between muscle proteins become fixed.
Lysosomes eventually break down cells

Adam Clarke www.brain-freeze.co.uk

Insect succession
Colonisers anaerobic bacteria (from the gut) spread over body
Blowflies lay eggs in bed / feed on tissue
Beetles eat maggots
Parasitic wasps lay eggs in fly/beetle larvae
Entomology life cycle
Blowflies lay eggs in corpses (in orifices / wounds) maggots hatch and feed on body until
they form a pupa new adult fly hatches
Based on what stage of the life cycle the blowflies are at determine time of death
Higher temperatures decrease in the length of life cycle.
Experiment: effect of temperature on organism (brine shrimp)
1) Determine range of temperatures to be used
2) Add sea salt to beaker
3) Add de-chlorinated water and stir until salt dissolves
4) Place brine shrimp egg cysts onto paper
5) place paper into beaker
6) Incubate the beakers at different temperatures controlling extraneous variables
7) Each day use a light source to attract the larvae and count how many there are.
8) Evaluate any ethical issues that can arrive from using living organisms.
Protein synthesis
Transcription (nucleus)
DNA hydrogen bonds broken down by RNA polymerase
DNA template strand is transcribed to complementary mRNA antisense strand (formed with
RNA polymerase)
Thymine is replaced with uracil
mRNA passes through pores in the nuclear membranes to cytoplasm then to surface of
ribsomes
Translation (cytoplasm / ribosomes)
tRNA carries anticodon carried to surface of ribosome
Each strand on mRNA has a start codon / stop codon
mRNA becomes attached to ribosome reads at the start codon
tRNA carries amino acids to the surface of the ribosome lining up its anticodon against a
complementary codon on the mRNA
Hydrogen bonds between tRNA and the ribosome bind it in place while enzymes link amino
acids together with peptide bonds forming proteins
tRNA finishes and returns to cytoplasm for more amino acids

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Experiment: Gel electrophoresis
DNA divided into fragments using restriction endonuclease
Gel electrophoresis chromatography
DNA fragments- agarose gel (containing dye that will be apparent under UV / buffer / known
DNA fragments)
Electric current is passed through DNA fragments move towards positive anode (negative
charge on phosphate groups)
Fragments move at varied rates dependent on mass/charge
Once electrophoresis is complete UV light is shone to display DNA
Southern blotting alkaline buffer added nylon filter paper placed over gel dry
absorbent paper used to draw solution containing DNA fragments to filter leaving them as
blots on the filter
Alkaline solution denatures DNA fragments strands separate base sequences observable
Experiment: Polymerase chain reaction
Mix DNA sample, primers (small sequences of DNA which must join to the beginning of the
separated DNA strands before copying can begin) and many of the four nucleotide bases
into a PCR machine
Mixture is heated to 90oC breaking hydrogen bonds and DNA strands
Mixture cooled to 55oC so primers bind to single DNA strands
Heated to 75oC optimum temperature for DNA polymerase to build complementary
strands of DNA
DNA profiling and identification of genetic relationships between organisms
1) 90% of DNA is made of introns - regions of chromosomes used for DNA profiling
2) Within introns there are short sequences of DNA repeated many times forming microsatellites (2-4 bases repeated 5-15 times) and mini-satellites (20-50 repeated 50-100 times).
3) The same micro/mini-satellites appear in the same positions on each pair of homologous
chromosomes
4) Number of repeats of each satellite vary as different patterns are inherited from
mother/father
5) Many different introns with a huge variation in the number of repeats likelihood of two
individuals having same pattern of DNA is low.
6) More closely related individuals are more likely it is that similarities will be apparent in
DNA patterns.
Inflammation
1)Mast cells and damaged white blood cells release histamines
2)Histamines cause blood vessels to dilate, increasing blood flow
3)Raised temperature reduces effectiveness of pathogen reproduction
4)The walls of the capillaries also leak as the cells forming the walls separate slightly
(increase in permeability)
5)Fluid including plasma, white blood cells and antibodies are forced out of the capillaries
causing swelling and pain.

Adam Clarke www.brain-freeze.co.uk

The humoral response

Pathogen enters body
Macrophage engulfs pathogen vesicle containing pathogen fuses with lysosome
Enzymes in lysosome break down pathogen separates off the antigens
Inside macrophage antigens combine with MHC
These complexes move to surface of cell outer membrane
Macrophage + antigen/MHS on cell surface = antigen-presenting cell
CD4 receptors on the outer membrane of the T helper cell enable it to bind to specific
antigen of the antigen/MHC complex
T helper cell reproduce clone of the cells
New cells have same CD4 receptors as original T helper cell specific for original antigen
Cloned cells become active T helper cells
Some clone cells become T memory cells remain in the body to become active if same
antigen is encountered again.
Effector stage: T helper cells and B cells active
Different B cells which have immunoglobulins specific for antigen are presented by the
pathogen they bind to it B cell then engulfs pathogen by endocytosis
Vesicle formed fuses with a lysosome Enzymes break down antigen leaving fragments of
processed antigen These become attached to MHC another APC forms
T helper cell from active clone recognises antigen displayed on MHC complex on B cell
Cytokines released from T helper cell stimulate B cell to divide and form a clone of
identical cells.
B effector cells and B memory cells
Cloning of b cells eventually forms correct antibodies clonal selection
B effector cells differentiate into plasma cell clones which produce antibodies (species
protein released into circulation- identical to immunoglobulin of original parent B cell)
Antibodies bind to specific antigens on pathogens which cause their destruction
Microorganisms agglutinate/clump together preventing their spread
Antigen-antibody complex readily engulfed and digested by phagocytes
Stimulate other reactions within body destruction of membrane release of histamine by
invaded cells causing inflammation
B memory cells produced by divisions of B cell APC
Allow body to respond rapidly to second invasion by same antigen
Cell-mediated response
Pathogen digested surface antigens become bound to MHC forming APC
T killer cells present in blood complementary receptor proteins
Bind to antigen/MHC surface of body cell
T killer cells exposed to cytokines active T helper cell cell divisions clone of identical T
killer cells bind to infected body cells
T killer cells release enzymes pores appear in membrane of infected cells
Free entry of water and ions cells swell and burst
Any pathogens intact are labelled with antibodies produced by B effector cells destroyed

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TB
Bacteria inhaled into lungs multiply slowly for primary infection
Localised inflammatory response tubercule forms with dead bacteria and macrophages
8 weeks immune system controls the bacteria inflammation dies down lung tissue
heals. If it avoids the immune system it may survive primary infection stage
Bacteria thick waxy outer layer protects them from enzymes of macrophages
Bacteria remains in tubercules dormantly growing - effective bacteria selected/ passed on
When immune system is not working well active tuberculosis is produced,
Bacteria multiply rapidly in lungs
Symptoms of TB fever, night sweats, loss of appetite, loss of weight.
Infection in lungs cough lung tissue damaged cough up blood
T cells targeted reduced production of antibodies
TB run a temperature denaturing enzymes
Insufficient oxygen/ organs fail due to lack of nutrition
HIV causes AIDS
1)HIV attaches to CD4 receptors on T helper cells and infects them
2)Takes over host DNA and replicates
3) Viruses leave T helper cell and destroy it
4) Host T killer cells destroy heavily infected T helper cells reducing their number
5) Activation of macrophages and T killer cells doesnt occur
Normal functioning of T helper cells is lost immune system cant fight off other pathogens
HIV/AIDS infection
Stage 1 acute HIV syndrome
Fevers, headaches, tiredness, swollen glands
3-12 weeks after infection HIV antibodies appear in blood HIV positive
Stage 2 asymptomatic /chronic - Infection established symptoms disappear
Virus replicates infecting CD4 T helper cells
Secondary infections develop immune system overwhelmed
Stage 3 symptomatic disease immune system fails T helper cell count falls
Patients suffer HIV related symptoms
Weight loss, fatigue, diarrhoea, night sweats, thrush
Stage 4 advanced aids
T helper cell fall
Weight loss / dementia/ cancers/ TB
Experiment: Effects of antibiotics
1) Place some bacteria on an agar plate
2) Place discs of absorbent filter paper in different antibiotics / different concentrations of
the same antibiotic
3) Have one disc of absorbent paper in only ethanol (control)
4) Place the paper discs on the agar plate with the bacteria on it same conditions and same
time
5) Incubate the plate (cover it) to allow the bacteria to grow
6) Where the bacteria is prevented from growing there will be a clear area called the
inhibition zone
7) The larger the inhibition zone the more effective the antibacterial properties of the
antibiotic

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Glossary
Stroma matrix in chloroplast containing enzymes
Thylakoid chlorophyll molecules are found
Grana stacks of thylakoid
Photolysis decomposition of water to H+, e- and O2
Photophosphorylation the production of ATP using energy from sunlight
NPP = GPP - R
Biotic factors (living factors)- predation, mate-finding, territory, parasitism and disease,
competition
Abiotic factors (non-living factors) - light, temperature, wind and water current, water
availability, oxygen availability, soil structure
Carbon sink carbon is removed from the atmosphere and stored biotic: photosynthesis /
abiotic stored in rocks
Speciation the formation of two new species from one species
Reproductive isolation the separation of one species into two populations that dont
interbreed
Pre-zygotic isolation fertilisation is prevented
Habitat isolation populations go into different habitats so they dont come in contact
during reproductive season
Temporal isolation populations out of reproductive time synchronisation
Mechanical isolation mutation resulting in physical barrier to isolation
Behavioural isolation may not recognise others as mating partners
Post-zygotic isolation failure to breed Low hybrid zygote vigour zygote (sperm fertilised egg) fails to develop properly
Low hybrid adult viability offspring fail to thrive/ grow
Hybrid infertility offspring may appear healthy but are infertile
Antisense strand RNA strand as template of DNA
Allele frequency the relative proportion of different forms of a particular gene within a
gene pool
Triplet code sequence of three bases forming a codon
Virus structure capsid, capsomere, nucleic acid
Bacterial structure mitochondria, nucleic acid, mesosome, plasmid

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Pathogen invading microorganisms
Antigen substance that stimulates the production of an antibody
Antibody immunoglobulins fight antigens
Bacteriocidal antibiotics kills bacteria
Bacteriostatic antibiotics prevents bacteria from multiplying
Vaccination procedure through which people are immunised
Natural active immunity immune system of the body
Natural passive immunity antibodies from mother to baby providing it with temporary
immunity until its bodys immune system becomes activated.
Artificial passive immunity antibodies formed in one individual extracted and injected into
another.
Artificial active immunity some amounts of a weakened antigen are used to produce
immunity immune system produces antibodies against the antigen and memory cells form
so if real pathogen enters body it is prepared to destroy it immediately.
Independent/ dependent variables in an experiment e.g. where the effect of varying
temperatures on enzyme activity is measured, the independent variable would be the
temperature and the dependent variable would be enzyme activity.
Extraneous variable anything other than what is being changed that may affect the
outcome of the experiment e.g. if effect of changing light on plant growth was being
measured, volume of water available may be an extraneous variable.

Adam Clarke www.brain-freeze.co.uk