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The Zollverein:
Bought about by complaints in 1818 from Rhineland manufacturers to the
King of Prussia over the post-1815 customs barriers and internal tariffs
from the 39 states managing their own economies as well as the
multitude of different currencies and exchange rates used throughout the
Confederation, meaning there was higher competition from unrestricted
duty-free foreign imports and consequently the home industries struggled
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to find trade. The result came in the form of the Prussian Tariff Reform
Law, which spawned the Prussian Customs Union, a service that removed
the network of internal taxes and replaced them with one fee charged at
the Prussian border frontier. This disappointed the Rhine manufacturers as
they had hoped for a highly protectionist policy of raised charges,
especially on British goods. However, the rates remained at no charge on
raw materials, an average of 10% on manufactured goods and 20% on
luxury goods including sugar and tea. This was in fact to reduce the
already prevalent smuggling from increasing further and to stop reaction
tariffs in other countries importing Prussian goods, as this taxation war
would put an end to German-external trade. This move proved successful
and eventually, charges were placed on raw materials, especially iron and
cotton yarn to protect home industries and appease the Rhine
manufacturers. The success was so great that soon smaller states
requested entry to the newly named Zollverein to extend the benefits of
free inter-German trade. As the Union expanded south, crossing over the
River Main in 1828 when Hesse-Darmstadt joined, the price of German
goods dropped as goods moved more freely and at cheaper prices,
although not every state saw the benefit and resisted Prussias
encouragement to join. Rival customs unions were established and by
1830 the Middle German Commercial Union run by Hanover, Brunswick,
Saxony and several smaller states stood alongside another union between
Bavaria and Wrttemberg. The former of which was formed with the
primary objective of spiting Prussia, rather than reaping the trade
benefits. Prussias location meant it stood well to control the routes
through Germany and while the Middle Union worked hard to avoid paying
the heavy duty for travelling through Zollverein states by building new
routes from the North Sea, Prussias finance minister encouraged the
building of roads directly to states of opposing unions in addition to
extending the Zollverein further by signing an agreement with the Dutch.
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being attacked before solders restored order. Class conflicts may have
been an issue and historians following the opinion of Carl Marx, German
revolutionary, consider this a major issue. Political turbulence was
certainly an issue as the increasingly educated middle class grew against
the politicians in power at the time. Changes in Baden, a small Southwestern state (where the citizens were more politically educated than
most), meant that the liberal majority took control and demanded a plan
for unification. By the beginning of 1848, the economic situation had
actually begun to improve, however on 24th February 1848 King Louis
Philippe was overthrown by a republic in France. This was the first domino
in a long chain; next to fall was Austria {13th March, Metternich fled the
country}. This in turn encouraged the German revolutionaries who rose up
changing whatever they saw fit; peasants attacked their landlords
castles, feudal records were destroyed, artisans destroyed new machinery
they feared were a threat to their trade. In Baden, Radicals tried to raise
the peasants but there was little support and they were soon suppressed
by the Liberal Government. When the middle classes arose, their main
weapons were discussion and demonstration as they aimed to work with
the existing princes, not destroy them. The revolutions were mainly shortlived in Germany, as leaders quickly gave into rebel demands, if only
temporarily. Elections were held, constitutions overhauled and liberal
ministries were appointed. The Declaration of Heidelberg {5th March
1848} agreed between Prussia, Bavaria, Wrttemberg, Baden, Nassau and
Frankfurt to Germanys political changes before they were altered too
drastically by the revolutions. The only resulting major clashes between a
military force and the people occurred in Austria and Prussia. On the 13th
of March 1848, a workers demonstration in a Berlin square soon escalated
to a battle between Prussian troops and workers armed with small rocks.
By now the initial reason of pay and working conditions had been lost and
this was a vague conflict for rights of the people. When news of
Metternichs departure reached Berlin on the 16th, King Frederick Wilhelm
IV of Prussia agreed to a new constitution and the end of censorship. More
fighting, sometimes thought of to be an accident, on the 18th left 300
rioters dead and the military in control of the city once again. As the King
had never been in support of needless bloodshed and [atypically for a
Prussian king] was disinterested in military matters, he recalled the
troops, wrote a personal letter of apology and agreed to withdraw his
forces on the condition the street barricades were demolished. By the
21st, the King was walking the streets in the German national colours, a
sign of support of the revolution. By May 1848, Austrian Emperor
Ferdinand had agreed to a new assembly for the Austrian constitution
where the members were fairly elected. As Austria was a large empire, it
had many rebellions to deal with and could therefore not oversee the
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through; the task itself was a mammoth one: To create a constitution that
all German citizens were to accept to live by, in addition to writing the law
on a number of issues such as freedom of the press, taxation, political
rights regardless of religion and German citizenship. To top this, the
Parliament felt it should have a far stronger central government than the
Confederation as this allowed the states a great degree of independence
from federal control. It was therefore decided that states could make laws,
providing they do not interfere with the National Laws. By the end of May,
their authority had been stated and all that was left was to draw up a
constitution for the Future of Germany. Here it becomes apparent that
there is no decisive leadership in the almost 600 members and so the
Parliament became a place for arguments and discussion, rather than
action. To maintain control over the long wait while the constitution was
decided, the Provisional Central Power was set up with Austrian Archduke
John as the Prince Regent, although with minimal resources, his rule
though his ministers was highly ineffective.
- Indecisions:
By the end of Summer 1848, it had become clear that the Parliament was
not going to produce a united Germany and it was a great surprise when
the Fifty Articles were released and made law; these mostly covered
freedom, class discrimination and equality with regards to the press,
religion and law; an all-round success for the Parliament. No matter what
victories were obtained in the area of law, the biggest issue still remained
with the main task and major factors such as the definition of Germany
still existed. Should all of Prussia and Austria be included when they
themselves contain many ethnicities and languages? Lands excluded from
the Confederation but have a mainly German-speaking population existed
and should they be a part of the Parliament? The Austrian Empire as a
whole was gigantic and Germans were in a minority, thereby leading to
the debate of whether any, some or all of Austria should be a part of the
Parliament. This spawned two definitions of Germany and a division in the
members; Klein und Grodeutschland either included or did not include
Austria. To include meant leaving Catholic Austria as the controlling state
whereas Kleindeutschland passed power to Protestant Prussia. The
argument continued without conclusion and the faith in nave European
Liberals that peace would descend once the revolutions had finished soon
diminished along with relations with other nations. More national conflicts
broke out and the Parliament had little sympathy for non-Germans as they
felt this detracted from German power. They therefore refused Polish,
Czechoslovakian and Danish claims over German land including Posen,
Bohemia and Schleswig-Holstein. Of course, the typical divisions
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the first time. Despite this infusion of enthusiasm, the hopes of the
masses had been lost. The Frankfurt Government removed the Parliament
from the city and moved to Stuttgart [Capital to Kingdom of Wrttemberg]
where in June 1849 they were forcibly dispersed by the Kings soldiers.
The final nail in the Frankfurt Parliament Experiments coffin came in 1849
when Franz Joseph, Austrian Emperor regained control of his territory, the
Austrian Government totally opposed all revolutionary change and once
Austrian authority was recovered no state dared to be seen as taking a
lead in establishing a German Empire. Thus, the Frankfurt Parliament,
Council of Germany had failed.
- Post Mortem:
Often historians, especially Marxists, are harsh on the Parliament; blaming
it for not overthrowing existing power structures, however this not what
most wanted; they were not violent revolutionaries; they were educated,
mild-mannered people trying to reform their country. Others blame them
for wasting time discussing ideals that were clearly impractical and for
wasting six months of everyones time because of it. Because they could
not agree on a constitution, they failed to grasp the power vacuum quickly
forming in the wake of 1848. In actual fact, if they had been as decisive as
they were in setting up the Assembly, they would have simply been
disbanded faster as William and other leaders with far much more power
than them had the Parliament dissolved. If they had possessed an army of
their own, the result may have been different, however they relied on the
good will of the surrounding states, most of whom still preferred their own
rule and did not want a higher power dictating their own autocratic
actions. Moreover, the two most powerful playing-pieces on the board of
Europe were Prussia and Austria and in their current state, both needed to
agree with the terms of the constitution and to national unity or else any
move contrary would simply provoke a war that would undoubtedly end
badly for Frankfurt. Austria liked Germany in its current state as the
annexations of the Austrian Empire could fit in easily between the German
states. Alone, the states were weak and with inter-state relations being
what they were in the 1840s, Austria could ensure they stayed divided.
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was Prussia, who had failed to grasp the opportunity of chaos in Austria to
gain control of German political policy, mostly due to the Berlin Riots of
the same year. William was also not keen to see the concentrated Prussian
culture dissolved with the differences of Germany, at least not in the way
the Frankfurt Parliament had envisioned. It was not just Prussias William
who had doubts about the authority of Frankfurt; most of the individual
states questioned the implications of such a system, however the princes
feared their power and even their thrones because of the revolutions and
were therefore more than happy to subdue their people with promises of
democracy and worried that opposing it would only encourage the
revolutionaries all the more. However, as soon as their authority had been
re-established, they followed Prussias lead and opposed the Assembly.
The concept of a United Germany was a good one, but the individual loss
of power for the rulers of each kingdom was simply too great.
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modernise Prussia, but insisted that reform should come from a King, not
his people. The masses seemed to be turning towards their favour as by
Summer, most Prussians had lost interest in revolution and unity, thereby
isolating the Liberal Ministry. August saw Williams return and his resuming
control of foreign policy with the first act being armistice with Denmark, at
the disgust of the equally liberal Frankfurt Parliament. Support from the
middle classes was won by William when further Riots took place in Berlin
come October as Prussia seemed to drift back towards the traditional
ways of ruling from the Upper Class and this was strengthened by
Williams dismissal of the Prussian Parliament and liberal ministers.
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there were now ambitions to make Prussia the leading state in Germany,
thereby making William the leading monarch.
- Post-1848 Prussia:
Despite appearing to lose interest in rebellion, the people of Germany had
not quite had their fill yet with popular uprisings in Saxony, Baden,
Bavaria and some of the Rhine were all swiftly suppressed by Prussian
forces. Governmental changes still occurred, including constitutional
revoking from leaders in Saxony, Hanover and several smaller states.
Throughout Germany, Liberals were arrested and some even executed.
However, in Prussia the revolutions had most definitely failed and the
Liberals defeated. The police now held more power and local governments
less; the illusion of democracy was maintained while the three-class
taxation system of the Lower House ensured equality was merely for
show.
- Post-1848 Austria:
Counter-revolution movements in Austria took the form of genocide; In
October 1848, two thousand people lost their lives in Vienna as the
government brutally regained their control, plucking it from the hands of
the Radicals. In December, Franz-Joseph became Austrian Emperor aged
just eighteen. His violent policy saw the sum total of power in the Austrian
Empire return to Vienna by mid-1849, including Hungary where rioters had
often rebelled against Austria to such extents as refusing to pay taxation.
The Austrian Constituent Assembly [an organisation more divided than
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lose power and significance. Eventually, it was agreed that the original
German Confederation of 1815 was to be revived and so Europe returned
to a state of close co-operation. However, relations between the two
superpowers were not close and many Prussians blamed Austria for the
humiliation at Olmutz, hoping that Prussia would one day dominate
Germany. Later, in 1856, Statesman Otto von Bismarck commented
that Germany was too small for both Prussia and Austria and that
war was imminent.
- Economy (Up to 1866):
Upon realising the potential political implications of Prussias economic
success with the Zollverein, in 1849 Schwarzemberg proposed a Zollunion
between the existing Zollverein and Austria. This failed. Alongside this
failure lay the equal ruination of attempts to create an alternative customs
union featuring the few other German states not incorporated into
Prussias Union. Austria had seen some success in industrial expansion,
however this was not sufficient, neither were taxes and the central
administration could not function properly, or maintain an efficient army.
Austria was incredibly vulnerable by the end of the Crimean War [October
1853-February 1856] mainly due to the military costs of keeping the army
mobilised, although the European Depression of the late 1850s did not
help either. This was the beginning of Austrias decline as they maintained
the political influence, but watched in dismay as Prussia grew in economy
before them. Prussian economy boomed during the 1850s with industrial
production, railway construction and foreign trade all more than doubling.
Apart from the Zollverein, which is often given too much credit as it
did not protect the Prussian industry nor unify Germanys economy,
other factors include a good education system up to university level,
plenty of raw materials for sale and use including coal, iron and
chemicals, a wide communications system and entrepreneurs such
as Alfred Krupp who opened factories across Germany that were
thoroughly well established by 1866. Good economy and strong
industry meant the Prussian War Machine was readily available for the
inevitable war just around the corner, however neutrality in previous wars
including Crimea and the North Italian War {1859, Page 55} ensured that
Prussia gained diplomatically from continued friendship with Russia as well
as the other European powers. Austrias wavering diplomacy lost the
alliance with Russia without gaining that of Britain & France. Prussia could
have gained more from siding with Piedmont and France against Austria,
however the anti-French feeling was strong in Prussia and so they did not
involve themselves beyond offering Austria help in exchange for
supremacy in Germany, (albeit unsuccessfully). A long series of Prussian
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Reforms {Page 54-5 in the textbook} helped to reduce Liberal unrest and
also improve lives of the working class ensuring Prussia maintained the
strange mix of reactionary and repressive politics, socially reforming and
economically prosperous.
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1862-1871:
- Bismarcks Diplomacy:
When becoming Minister-President in 1862; his initial aims were far more
modest than the final result of Germany in 1871. Bismarck looked no
further than Prussian domination of North Germany, rather than full
national unity. However, his day-to-day ambitions lay not with the quarrels
of the Prussian people, but to King William to whom he was ever loyal. His
lack of interest in the Prussian population is shown in the late 1850s, when
he saw the popular nationalist movement as a source to be manipulated
in the interests of obtaining further Prussian Power. The first step to
Prussian rule, as he saw it, was to displace Austria as the dominant state,
however he initially sought to find a way that did not involve military
conflict.
Throughout his political life, Bismarck followed one characterising policy;
Realpolitik. Realpolitik is a term used to describe the ruthless
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use of railways for the moving of troops meant that Prussia was
ready far before Austria. While Prussia was more mobile, on paper, it
appeared that Austria should have the upper hand; {Page 69 in textbook}
100,000 more troops than Prussia, a central position with support from
most of the German states, while even many Prussians were lukewarm
about the idea of the war. However, Prussia had further support from Italy,
meaning Austria was forced into fighting a war on two fronts; North
against Prussia and South against Italy. The Austrians easily defeated the
Italians on the 24th of June 1866 largely down to their being weak and
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inefficient. This led to a dilemma for Moltke; in order to stop the victorious
southern troops from linking up with the Austrians in the North, he would
have to invade Bohemia and for fastest movement of troops, the five
Prussian rail lines connecting to Bohemia would have to be used and thus
divide up the army, compared to the single-track line from Vienna to
Bohemia. Austrian High Command missed many opportunities to
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generals raged on July 23rd against Bismarck and his policy, but he stood
his ground; breaking crockery, crying and even threatening suicide by
throwing himself from the roof of the building in which they were currently
situated. Eventually, his advice was taken begrudgingly and the only
alongside Prussia in the event of war, but would put their armies
under the control of Prussias King. While technically a step towards
unification, this actually can be seen as more dividing Germany into three
separate parts; the Southern states, the North German Confederation and
the Austrian Empire.
While moderation was shown towards Austria, Bismarck was merciless in
his treatment of Prussias latest annexes; none of Schleswig, Holstein,
Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, Nassau or Frankfurt were consulted on the matter
of joining Prussia and the King of Hanover was exiled and his private
fortune was confiscated in punishment for resisting Prussia during the war.
(This fortune was later used to bribe the King of Bavaria in 1871.) Those
states left with independence have sparked a debate as to their purpose;
historians often see them as a trial run by Bismarck for a larger
confederation when Germany was united, stating that it would have been
easy to annex them, yet he chose not to in order to demonstrate to the
states South of the Main just how beneficial membership could be. Other
arguments are that there was no purpose in Bismarck taking these states
and so they were left to exist as they were. One fear Bismarck possessed
was the Prussia would become too diluted in a larger Germany; rather
than Prussia absorbing Germany, Germany would be dissolving Prussia.
- North German Confederation (1867-71):
By the end of 1866, Bismarck had begun to draft a constitution for the
North German Confederation, which was accepted in April 1967 and came
into effect in July. While the confederation itself only lasted four years, this
constitution would later be used as the basis for the new German Empire
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He is said to have opened it, read it and then edited it in front of his
guests, but not by adding or augmenting the document, merely
striking words from it to give it a more uncompromising feel.
{Moltkes reaction to the telegram is on Page 89 in the textbook}
Bismarck sent the new challenge to Paris, the Press and Prussian
embassies with the intention of sharing this news as far as possible. When
William saw the updated version of the document, he is said to have
remarked with a shudder This is war.
As predicted, this news caused eruptions on France with the media
demanding that war be declared immediately to defend French honour.
Napoleon, now being pushed by his wife, ministers, Chamber of Deputies
and the public opinion, declared war on Prussia on the 19th of July 1870.
Bismarck is likely to have prepared for this war from France anytime from
1866 onwards, providing that it was French-provoked and it looked like a
defensive motion from Prussia. It was a war of this style that he had been
hoping for as it would clearly and easily bring the South German States
into the Prussian fold and the Hohenzollern Affair provided the perfect
opportunity to start one. He most certainly did not control each aspect of
the affair, however used it to navigate in the vague direction of war with
France. A set of French mistakes and a hunger for war helped to kindle the
fire even before it was lit with the Ems Telegram; If Bismarck set a trap
for France, it was largely one of Frances own making . Bismarck
then played the card he had been waiting to use for half a decade;
he called on the South German States for support in accordance with
the terms of their military alliances with Prussia. Convinced that the
Fatherland was in danger, they agreed to support Prussia.
The 1871 Franco-Prussian War was a turning point; it mainly marked the
beginning of Todays Germany, but was also renowned for the speed and
effectiveness with which the German troops dominated the battlefield;
while mostly Prussian, every state contributed to the fight and remembers
1871 proudly, united by a hatred of all things French and further
encouraged by contemporary anti-French propaganda in the form of
letters, speeches and articles.
Diplomatically, the initial setup of this war was very similar to the last;
throughout Europe offers of support were made to France, but they were
either too expensive or scared off by the threat of Russia joining Germany,
meaning yet again, it was just Bismarck versus the opposition. Britain,
who distrusted the unpredictable Napoleon III anyway, refused to come to
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points on the 14th of August, marched past Metz and blocked off any
escape route the French had to Paris. One quick attempt was made to
flee north, but a violent battle had the French retreating back to the
fortress, which was besieged until its surrender at the end of October. This
decision to hide in the fortress was a fatal one, as the bulk of Napoleons
best troops were unable to fight.
When the fighting began at Metz, Napoleon left for the Marne River where
a new French army of 130,000 men was hurriedly assembled under the
command of General MacMahon. Setting off with the intention of rescuing
the army stuck at Metz, the German forces intercepted this new battalion
and drove it in confused panic towards Sedan, near the Belgian border.
The First of September saw the most crucial battle of the war, which was
surveyed from a hilltop by William I, Bismarck, Moltke and other German
princes. MacMahon refused to surrender, despite facing around six
hundred German guns. When the French had failed to break out of Metz,
Napoleon was seen roaming the battlefield looking for a bullet or a shell,
so that he would not have to face the shame of surrender. In a letter to his
wife, Bismarck described how the French suffered great casualties; The
day before yesterday and yesterday [1st and 2nd September 1871]
cost France one hundred thousand men and an emperor. This has
been an event of vast historic importance. {Full letter on Page 93}
News of Napoleons capture reached France on the 4th of September and
he remained a German prisoner until 1872 when he was exiled to England
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army and independent postal service, while their king, Ludwig II was
eventually bribed by Bismarck using the King of Hanovers fortune
confiscated in 1866. Four separate treaties were then signed with each
of the rulers whereby they agreed to join the new German Empire under
the Federal Reich State. Domestic matters were left up to each state,
while the main body of power rested in the hands of the Emperor,
William I, Bismarck (now Imperial Chancellor) and their army officers
and handpicked ministers.
Ludwig II was persuaded to put his name on the letter sent to William
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asking him to accept the position of Emperor. This appeal was seconded
by the other princes and the North German Reichstag and achieved the
desired result. On the 18th of January 1871, King William I of Prussia was
proclaimed Kaiser of Germany in the ceremony taken place in the French
Palace of Versailles. This insult added to an already bitter French reception
with a humiliating treaty and painful peace-price to come. The terms of
the Treaty of Frankfurt were harsh; a fine of 200 million to be paid
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