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The term "spiritual theology" has been used for over two centuries by
Roman Catholic theologians and is gaining more widespread usage today in
evangelical educational institutions and publications. Due to this upsurge
in use and popularity, this article seeks to introduce readers to the main
themes of the historical discipline of spiritual theology while also offering
direction forward towards a uniquely evangelical spiritual theology that
makes use of the church's rich history.
B. Mystical Theology
In addition to texts under a variety of names discussing and distilling
the tripartite scheme and/or theologizing about the spiritual life in general,
there was also, beginning in earnest in the high Middle Ages, texts dedicated to presenting a "mystical theology."' The Christian foundation for
these treatises was the Mystical Theology of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a Syrian Christian of the fifth or sixth century steeped in the Neoplatonic tradition. Pseudo-Dionysius begins the Mystical Theology with a
summary of his understanding of the spiritual life, addressed to his "fellowelder" Timothy:
For this I pray; and, Timothy, my friend, my advice to you as you look
for a sight of the mysterious things, is to leave behind you everything
perceived and understood, everything perceptible and understandable,
all that is not and all that is, and, with your understanding laid aside,
to strive upward as much as you can toward union with him who is beyond all being and knowledge. By an undivided and absolute abandonment of yourself and everything, shedding all and freed from all, you
' Gregory the Great, Moralia in lob 22.20. English translation in Morals on the
Book of Job, by S. Gregory the Great, Volume II (Oxford: John Henry Parker, 1845),
586.
' William of St. Thierry, The Golden Epistle: A Letter to the Brethren at Mont
Dieu, trans. Theodore Berkeley (Kalamazoo: Gistercian Publications, 1980), 25.
' Bernard of Glairvaux, The Steps of Humility and Pride 2.4; English translation
in Bernard of Glairvaux, Treatises I: The Steps of Humility and Pride and On Loving God (Kalamazoo: Gistercian Publications, 1980), 33.
' It is important to keep in mind that the phrase "mystical theology" does not
only refer to a genre of theology but also to the contemplative task of knowing God
by way of negation. See Pseudo-Dionysius, Mystical Theology 3 for different ways of
knowing God. Thanks are due to an anonymous reader for this insight.
will be uplifted to the ray of the divine shadow which is above everything that is.'"
For Pseudo-Dionysius the spiritual life consists in leaving behind everything, both material and immaterial, in order to be united with God.
Through abandonment one takes "flight upward" in order to "plunge into
that darkness which is beyond intellect" (i.e., God)." Pseudo-Dionysius
further summarizes his understanding of the spiritual life in a prayer that
begins the Mystical Theology:
Trinity!! Higher than any being,
any divinity, any goodness!
Guide of Christians
in the wisdom of heaven!
Lead us up beyond unknowing and light,
up to the farthest, highest peak
of mystic scripture,
where the mysteries of God's Word
lie simple, absolute and unchangeable
in the brilliant darkness of a hidden silence.
Amid the deepest shadow
they pour overwhelming light
on what is most manifest.
Amid the wholly unsensed and unseen
they completely fill our sightless minds
with treasures beyond all beauty.'^
Pseudo-Dionysius prays that God would lead humankind beyond the
knowledge of him that comes through the written Scriptures. Instead,
Pseudo-Dionysius asks that humankind be led directly to the Word, the Son
of God himself. Thus, for Pseudo-Dionysius, mystical theology is the explication of the means of attaining union with God.
The thought of Pseudo-Dionysius spread rapidly with the assistance of
a ninth-century translation of the Dionysian corpus by John Scotus Eriugena and by the popularity of the works in the new universities of the
twelfth century.'^ Several works illustrate the significance of not only
1 Pseudo-Dionysius, "Mystical Theology 1.1," in Pseudo-Dionysius: The Complete Works, trans. Colm Luibheid (New York/Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1987),
135.
" Pseudo-Dionysius, Pseudo-Dionysius, 139.
'^ Pseudo-Dionysius, Pseudo-Dionysius, 135.
'^ Dale Coulter, "Pseudo-Dionysius in the Twelfth Century Latin West," in The
ORB Online Encyclopedia (September 7, 2010), http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop
/culture/philos/coulter.html.
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The triple way only fell out of favor in Roman Catholic circles after being
seriously questioned by the Jesuit theologian Karl Rahner (d. 1984)." Yet,
as Waaijman warns us, "the name 'mystical theology' . . . must not deceive
us. In these mystical theologies we are dealing not with a certain part of
spirituality (mysticism), but with a complete spiritual program in which the
term 'mystical' is applied to every stage of the spiritual journey."^" A good
modern example of this is Mark Mclntosh's Mystical Theology.^^
C. Ascetical Theology
The next stage in the development of spirituality was the age of "ascetical theology," a term that first appeared in Christoph Schorrer's Theologia
asctica sive doctrina spiritualis, published at Rome in 1658. The premier
example of this genre, however, is by Scaramelli, entitled Direttorio asctico and published in Italy in the 1750s. According to Schorrer, "ascetic
theology" "is the science which studies action in accordance with its ultimate goal."^^ Scaramelli writes that he intends to give spiritual "[djirectors
a true idea of Christian perfection, and, at the same time, to suggest to them
practical methods by which they may instil [sic^ this perfection into the
souls intrusted [sic^ to their keeping."^^ What is common to both of these
stated purposes is that "ascetical theology" is concerned with the means of
attaining Christian perfection. This is echoed elsewhere: "ascetical theology
teaches the means by which sanctity of life may be acquired, increased, and
perfected."^'' Thus, these treatises are not simply theological in nature, but
practical and, therefore, give attention to such practices as spiritual direction, the reading of Scripture, meditation, prayer, examination of conscience, the Eucharist, etc. Exalted topics such as "mysticism" were only
" G. B. Scaramelli, A Handbook of Mystical Theology, trans. D. H. S. Nicholson (1913; rept. Berwick, ME: Ibis Press, 2005), 15-16.
" Karl Rahner, "Reflections on the problem of the gradual ascent to Ghristian
perfection," Revue d'Asctique et de Mystique 19 (1944): 65-78. Reprinted in Karl
Rahner, Theological Investigations, Volume III: The Theology of the Spiritual Life,
trans. Karl-H. and Boniface Kruger (Baltimore/London: Helicon Press/Darton, Longman and Todd, 1967), 3-23.
^^ Waaijman, Spirituality: Forms, Foundations, Methods, 376.
" Mark A. Mclntosh, Mystical Theology: The Integrity of Spirituality and Theology (Maiden, MA/Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1998).
" Quoted in Waaijman, Spirituality: Forms, Foundations, Methods, 378.
" John Baptist Scaramelli, The directorium asceticum; or. Guide to the Spiritual
Life (London: R & T Washbourne, 1902), 1-2.
" Arthur Devine, A Manual of Ascetical Theology (London: R &c T Washbourne, 1902), V.
11
discussed occasionally and served to bring more clearly into focus the need
for ascetic practices. Again, as Waaijman writes, the "ascetic perspective is
focused on action which, sustained by a steadfast will and directed toward
the ultimate goal, employs the necessary means."-^^ This genre of spiritual
writings dominated the field of spirituality throughout the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. A recent example of the genre is Gustave
Thils' Christian Holiness: A Precis of Ascetical Theology.''-^
D. Spiritual Theology
"Spiritual theology" as a phrase was given prominence in 1926 by the
Jesuit theologian Joseph de Guibert.-^^ Yet, de Guibert was not the first author to employ "spiritual theology." The first use of the phrase likely comes
from the seventeenth century work of Felix Simplex entitled Theologia spiritualis fundamentalis, published at Oliva, Italy in 1687.^* A "spiritual theology" is characterized by a specific attention to the theological principles
of the spiritual life as opposed to an explication of the triple way (as in
"mystical theology") or a focus on one's will as it is directed towards an
end, aided by certain actions (as in "ascetical theology").^' Waaijman explains the difference well:
Asceticism and mysticism are . . . developed as the flowering of these
[spiritual] theological principles which terminate under the influence of
divine grace. In these treatises [i.e., spiritual theologies] the principles
are designated in various ways: revelation, sanctifying grace, the supernatural life, the Holy Spirit, the gifts of the Holy Spirit, participation in
" Waaijman, Spirituality: Forms, Foundations, Methods, 380.
" Gustave Thils, Christian Holiness: A Precis of Ascetical Theology (Tielt, Belgium: Lannoo Publishers, 1961).
" Joseph de Guibert, Theologia spiritualis, asctica et mystica: quaestiones selectae in praelectionum usum (Rome, 1926), trans. Paul Barrett as The Theology of
the Spiritual Life (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1953).
^' See Joseph de Guibert, Leons de thologie spirituelle (Toulouse: ditions de
la Revue d'asctique et de mystique et de l'Apostolat de la prire, 1946), 18, n. 31.
" It should be born in mind, however, that there are examples where these categories blend into one another. For example, the aforementioned Giovanni Scaramelli
defined mystical theology, in at least one place, in overt doctrinal terms: "For the
proper comprehension of Mystical Theology as a whole, it is necessary to distinguish
between that which is experimental and that which is doctrinal. Experimental Mystical Theology is a pure knowledge of God which the soul receives in the bright darkness of some high contemplation, together with so intimate an experience of love that
it is utterly lost to itself and united and transformed in God. It thus embraces the actual experiences of the mystic. Doctrinal Mystical Theology is, on the other hand, a
science, the business of which is to examine the above experiences, and to draw from
them what conclusions it may with regard to their essential qualities and effects."
12
Perhaps the best examples of the genre of spiritual theology are de Guibert's
The Theology of the Spiritual Life, Adolphe Tanquerey's The Spiritual Life,
and Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange's The Three Ages of the Interior Life. De
Guibert spends quite a few pages discussing the nature of mystical and ascetical theology before turning to spiritual theology proper. Noting that
there is not necessarily much agreement on the exact meanings of mystical
and ascetical theology, de Guibert goes on to offer a definition of spiritual
theology "as the science which deduces from revealed principles what constitutes the perfection of the spiritual life and how man can advance towards and obtain it."^' Tanquerey's preface demonstrates well the shift
from mystical and ascetical theology (though Tanquerey retains these
words) to spiritual theology:
It is the writer's conviction that Dogma is the foundation of Ascetical
Theology and that an exposition of what God has done and still does
for us is the most efficacious motive of true devotion. Hence, care has
been taken to recall briefly the truths of faith on which the spiritual life
rests. This treatise then is first of all doctrinal in character and aims at
bringing out tbe fact that Christian perfection is the logical outcome of
dogma, especially the central dogma of the Incarnation. The work
however is also practical, for a vivid realization of the truths of faith is
the strongest incentive to earnest and steady efforts towards the correction of faults and the practice of virtues. Consequently in the first part
of this treatise the practical conclusions that naturally flow from revealed truths and the general means of perfection are developed. The
second part contains a more detailed exposition of the special means of
advancing along the Three Ways towards the heights of perfection.^^
In short, Tanquerey sees the task of spiritual theology as laying the theological or dogmatic foundation of the spiritual life and only then to venture
into the areas of ascetical and mystical theology. The Dominican GarrigouLagrange echoes Tanquerey when he writes that
Spiritual theology . . . ought to consider the interior life as such, and
not in a given individual in the midst of rather unfavorable given circumstances . . . Spiritual theology, while noting the exceptions that
may arise from the absence of a given condition, ought especially to es'" Waaijman, Spirituality: Forms, Foundations, Methods, 381.
^' Guibert, The Theology of the Spiritual Life, 11.
^^ Adolphe Tanquerey, The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical
Theology, trans. Herman Branderis (Tournai, Belgium: Descle, 1930), vii.
13
tablish the higher laws of the full development of the life of grace as
such, and the proximate disposition to receive the beatific vision immediately in a fully purified soul . . . In the following pages we insist far
more on the principles generally accepted in theology, by showing their
value and their radiation, than on the variety of opinions on one particular point or another proposed by often quite secondary authors . . .
We propose another aim, and that is why we quote mostly from the
greatest masters. Constant recourse to the foundations of their doctrine seems to us what is most necessary for the formation of the mind,
which is more important than erudition.^^
For Garrigou-Lagrange the "greatest masters" are Thomas Aquinas, St.
John of the Cross, and Francis de Sales; and it is these authors, he believes,
that have established most firmly and most acceptably the necessary doctrinal foundation upon which spiritual theology can construct its edifice. This
understanding of "spiritual theology" appears consistent throughout the
genre's history and across the vast array of treatises dedicated to the subject.
Before the Second Vatican Council, there were a number of published
treatises from Roman Catholic authors on the spiritual life that commented
in some way on the distinctions between mystical, ascetical, and spiritual
theology. For example, Pierre Pourrat says that "[s]pirituality is that part of
theology which deals with Christian perfection and the ways that lead to it.
Dogmatic Theology teaches what we should believe. Moral Theology what
we should do or not do to avoid sin, mortal or venial, and above them both,
though based upon them both, comes Spirituality or Spiritual Theology.
This, again, is divided into Ascetic Theology and Mystical Theology."^''
Gabriele di Santa Maria Maddalena, a Discalced Carmelite, wrote that
"[s]piritual theology is the theological study of the evolution of the supernatural life in the human subject that leads to perfection."^^ Likewise the
Dominican Antonio Royo Marn defined spiritual theology as that "part of
sacred theology that was set up on the principles of divine revelation and
the experience of the saints, it studies the organism of the supernatural life,
explains the laws of its progress and its development, and describes the process that follows the soul since the beginning of the Christian life until the
climax of perfection."^^ Finally, Alexius Benigar, a Franciscan writing soon
after Marn, says that "[s]piritual theology is that part of theology that
" R. Garrigou-Lagrange, The Three Ages of the Interior Life: Prelude of Eternal Life, trans. M. Timothea Doyle (St. Louis/London: B. Herder Book Co., 1947),
x-xi.
'"' Pierre Pourrat, Christian Spirituality: From the Time of our Lord tili the
Dawn of the Middle Ages, trans. W. H. Mitchell and S. P. Jacques (London: Burns,
Oates and Washbourne, 1922), v.
' ' Gabriele di S. M. Maddalena, "ndole psicolgica dlia teologia spirituale,"
Rivista di filosofia neoscolastica 32 (1940): 42.
^' Antonio Royo Marn, Teologa de la perfeccin cristiana, 6th ed. (Madrid:
BAC, 1954, 1988), 35.
14
deals with the kindness and gentleness of God's perfection with all the
members of the mystic body of Christ until he takes them to the state of the
perfect man, to the maturity of the fullness of Christ (Eph. 4:13) its
head;"^^ and Amato Dagnino writes, "Spiritual theology is the term that
looks to us most appropriate and scientific, in the sense of integrating the
ascetical-mystical into 'sacred doctrine' as part of everything, suggesting
the idea of the unity of the spiritual life and excluding all separation between ascetical and mystical, but unifying and organizing one with the
other only with a unique purpose of one to another: progressive union with
God and the continual growing of mercy (positive aspect) and the progressive elimination of the obstacles that block its growth (negative aspect)."^*
Notice, in particular, the emphasis on "spiritual theology" as an overt theological category as opposed to a descriptive or prescriptive category.
Following the Second Vatican Council, manuals of spirituality^' would
change, with the emphasis being on clarification and a re-centering of the
discipline. As Salvador Ros Garca comments, "These are the years [i.e.,
1960-1980] of fervent theological renovation, very sensitive to all council
events, and in one moment they feel the urgent necessity to clarify the concept of spirituality, and to inclusively impugn the multiplication of spiritualities and highlight the centrality of the Gospel (Bouyer, Vandenbroucke,
Balthasar), to make way for all the manuals that came to represent it as a
unitary science (in a formal unity with dogmatic and moral theology) and
with the phenomenon of experience as the key element of its epistemological
status."'"' Representative post-conciliar definitions of spiritual theology often simply refer to the discipline as "spirituality" and often clearly challenge
the older, pre-conciliar understandings of spiritual theology/spirituality.'"
^' Alexius Benigar, Compendium theologiae spiritualis (Roma: Secretaria Missionum OFM, 1957), 2.
^* Amato Dagnino, La vita interiore secondo la Rivelazione, studiata dalla
Teologia e insegnata dalla Chiesa (Milan: Ed. Paoline, 1960), 16-17.
^' Scholars are still divided as to the differences between "spiritual theology"
and "spirituality." See Philip Sheldrake, A Brief History of Spirituality (Maiden, MA:
Blackwell Publishing, 2007), 1-11 and relevant articles in Kenneth Collins, ed. Exploring Christian Spirituality: An Ecumenical Reader (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2000).
'"' Salvador Ross Garcia, "Definiciones de la teologa espiritual en el siglo XX,"
Teresianum 51 (2001): 308.
" Charles Andr Bernard explains the replacement of the phrase "spiritual theology" with "spirituality:" "Numerous authors . . . made . . . the distinction between
ordinary ascetical prayer and extraordinary mystical prayer. After lengthy disputes,
it was decided to adopt a terminology that did not imply an exclusive opposition between the ascetical and the mystical stages of the spiritual life. Ultimately the French
word, spiritualit, was deem the most suitable to designate the spiritual life in all its
phases. Similarly, the term 'spiritual theology,' became the title of the systematic
study of Christian perfection and the spiritual life." See Charles Andr Bernard, "The
Nature of Spiritual Theology," in Exploring Christian Spirituality: An Ecumenical
Reader, ed. Kenneth Collins (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2000), 230.
15
16
17
and sacramentis, our experience of life with and in God becomes, alongside of discursive theology, the "stuff" of spiritual theology.
Tied up with one's experiences, of course, are the subjective aspects of
one's self, such as gender, education, family, and race. Though these aspects
should not be overlooked, they need to be utilized in spiritual theology
carefully since one's subjective self must never replace God's revealed truth
in the Scriptures or God's theological work in one's life. Human-centered
"P'-ism must not hold a higher place than a God-centered "Thou"-ism spiritual theology.^^ Though they help define who a person is, which then gives
shape to one's consciousness, the spiritual theologian must bear in mind
that God does work in the particular lives of individuals and it is this intersection between the person and God that is of greatest concern to the spiritual theologian. As Charles Bernard writes, "The study of personality and
social structure in relation to spiritual theology is very complex; in fact, it
requires an interdisciplinary study in order to delineate with precision the
components of authentic spiritual experience."^^
A. Scripture
Apart from experience, spiritual theology also rests upon a solid theological foundation, "positive, and deductive" according to Guibert. The
sources for such a theology have traditionally been understood to be the Sacred Scriptures, systematic theology (encompassing both dogmatic and
moral theology), and church history. It must be taken for granted by all
spiritual theologians that the foundational theological text of the Christian
faith is the divinely inspired Scriptures, interpreted throughout history by
the People of God. Though referring perhaps only to Jewish writings, Paul
says to the Romans that "whatever was written in former days was written
for our instruction, that through endurance and through the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope" (Rom. 15:4). Tbe same is true
of tbe Bible in totoit gives us hope "that we are very members incorporate in the mystical body of [the] Son, the blessed company of all faithful
people; and are also heirs, through hope, of [God's] everlasting kingdom."^''
The Scriptures, on the one hand, reveal to believers God's plan of salvation,
encompassing persons from all the nations of the world; while on the other
believer to receive grace and to cooperate with it. See Anscar J. Ghupungco, ed..
Handbook for Liturgical Studies IV: Sacraments and Sacramentis (Gollegeville:
Liturgical Press, 2000), xxiv-xxvii.
" For a historical presentation of this tension, favored heavily by Martin Luther
and other Reformers, see The Theologia Germnica of Martin Luther, trans. Bengt
Hoffman (New York: Paulist Press, 1980).
'^ Gharles Andr Bernard, "The Nature of Spiritual Theology," in Exploring
Ghristian Spirituality, 231.
" The Book of Gommon Prayer, According to the Use of the Episcopal Ghurch
(New York: Seabury Press, 1979), 339.
18
hand they give the practical prescriptions that regulate the life of God's people. Thus, the Holy Scriptures are at once both doctrinal and practical. Regarding God's plan of salvation, the Scriptures tell us that the church is
God's chosen people and that he desires to see her become holy and spotless
and to grow up into complete maturity (Eph. 1:4, Heb. 6:1). The content
and description of this holiness is revealed throughout the New Testament
by way of example and exhortation. However, the spiritual theologian must
bear in mind that Word without Spirit will likely lead to a rationalism or
mysticism that kills as opposed to giving life. Evangelical theologian Donald Bloesch writes, "Evangelical spirituality upholds the complementarity
of Word and Spirit . . . In biblical faith the knowledge of God has its roots
in the paradoxical unity of Word and Spirit. Against rationalism we do not
appeal to the Bible in and of itself but to the Bible illumined by the [Holy]
Spirit. Against mysticism and spiritualism we insist that the Spirit acts in
conjunction with the revealed Word of God."'^ Thus, the Sacred Scriptures
are a primary source of spiritual theology, but only as illumined by the Holy
Spirit.
B. Systematic Theology
The second source of spiritual theology is a systematic theology, for as
Philip Sheldrake writes, "Attempts to speak about our understanding of
God (theology) and our efforts to live in the light of that understanding
(spirituality) cannot be separated."^* If a clear systematic theology does not
undergird the spiritual theology project then theology appears to encompass only personal opinion with a resulting privatization of spirituality.
Such an individualist focus misses the fact that one's personal story, that is,
one's personal spiritual journey, is intimately connected to the larger story
of God's salvific work in history and that the believer's story is a continuation of and in conversation with the story of Jesus Christ. Moreover, as
Sheldrake says, "Any version of Christian spirituality that is individualistic
in tone fails to reflect the communion of equal relationships that is God-inTrinity."'^ God is a unity of three persons, therefore there is no room for individualism in God nor should there be in the spiritual life of his followers.
As Mark Mclntosh says, "[P]ersonal experience is not in itself the goal of
spirituality. Individuals are not so much seeking to discover their own feelings as to live into the knowledge and love of God through the hard work of
being members one with another of the Body of Christ."^* Finally, the qual" Donald Bloesch, Spirituality Old and New: Recovering Authentic Spiritual
Life (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2007), 85
'* Philip Sheldrake, Spirituality and Theology: Christian Living and the Doctrine of God (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1998), 3.
"Ibid., 16.
'* Mclntosh, Mystical Theology, 7.
19
ity of a spiritual theology is only as good as the theology that serves as its
foundation. For bad theology leads to bad spiritual practices.
C. Church History
The final source for spiritual theology is church history and it is here
that I want to say more than what has been said about the Scriptures and
systematic theology. When one studies church history or theology for that
matter, it is important to keep in mind that one is studying the movement of
God the Holy Spirit in history and in the lives of the people of God. Because
God is sovereign and providential over all of his creation, there is no area of
human or creaturely activity that is beyond his control or oversight.
Though creation cries out and awaits its own redemption (Rom. 8:19-23)
due to humankind's sin and fallenness, it is still God's good creation and he
continues to act in it. Thus, God's action is history is a necessary source for
spiritual theology. The theologians of the Second Vatican Council summed
it up well in Dei Verbum, the Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation,
the apostolic preaching, which is expressed in a special way in the inspired books, was to be preserved by an unending succession of preachers until the end of time. Therefore the Apostles, handing on what they
themselves had received, warn the faithful to hold fast to the traditions
which they have learned either by word of mouth or by letter (see 2
Thess. 2:15), and to fight in defense of the faith handed on once and
for all (see Jude 1:3). Now what was handed on by the Apostles includes everything which contributes toward the holiness of life and increase in faith of the peoples of God; and so the Church, in her teaching, life and worship, perpetuates and hands on to all generations all
that she herself is, all that she believes. This tradition which comes
from the Apostles develops in the Church with the help of the Holy
Spirit. For there is a growth in the understanding of the realities and
the words which have been handed down. This happens through the
contemplation and study made by believers, who treasure these things
in their hearts (see Luke, 2:19, 51) through a penetrating understanding of the spiritual realities which they experience, and through the
preaching of those who have received . . . the sure gift of truth. For as
the centuries succeed one another, the Church constantly moves forward toward the fullness of divine truth until the words of God reach
their complete fulfillment in her.^'
20
Ibid., 9.
"Ibid., 21.
" Ibid., 27.
" Ibid., 28-29.
21
22
23
24
(3:9). However, none of these passages say that these different doctrines,
myths, endless geneaologies, irreverant babblings, foolish controversies, or
dissensions and quarrels are associated with written sources and it is written sources that serve to form canons of authority in the evangelical church,
for example, the canon of sacred Scriptures (literally the "holy writings" of
Rom. 1:2). Instead, these exhortations and commandments are most likely
speaking about oral traditions and beliefs that were circulating among the
churches in Ephesus and Crete. Thus, Scripture itself does not appear to
limit the canon of authority in spiritual theology.
How biblical authors utilized non-biblical texts, particularly classical
Greek works, has been the topic of an excellent article by Robert Renehan." Renehan begins by differentiating between "general allusions of a
proverbial nature and specific quotations."^" Under the category of general
allusions he says that 1 Timothy 6:10a "is in fact a familiar Greek TOJto"
and that the "evidence is fairly clear that this kind of statement is a proverbial commonplace which had long been current in the classical world."^'
He shows that in Acts 5:39, 9:5, 19:35, and 26:14 there is "apparent familiarity with Euripides."^-^ 1 Corinthians 8:2 and Galatians 6:3 reveal clear
echoes of Plato's Apology and "we can safely trace Paul's inspiration here,
one way or another, ultimately back to Plato."^' Similarly, Romans 7:15
and following seems to have an "intellectual archetype" in several passages
of Euripides as well as Plato, Xenophon, Ovid and Horace.''' Thus, Renehan concludes that "in this passage of Romans we can still detect, clothed
in a new dress, traces of a motif which, so far as is now known, first appeared in Athens in the fifth century before Christ."'^ 1 Corinthians 13:1-3
has a "structural correspondence" to "the early elegiac poet Tyrtaeus" and
1 Corinthians 12:4-11 parallels passages in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.
Next Renehan turns his attention to exact quotations and identifies the
following direct uses of classical Greek texts. First, 1 Corinthians 15:33 is a
quotation from Meander who most likely borrowed it from Euripides. Second, Clement of Alexandria, in Stromata 1.14.59, says that Titus 1:12 is a
quotation from Epimenides the Cretan, described by Renehan as a "shad-
25
26
Greek word jtt9\)|xa further reveals that the New Testament authors utilized a wide variety of classical Greek materials and further supports the
claim that there was an unlimited canon of authority for the New Testament authors.
It is clear that Paul used classical Greek sources. However, this does
not have to imply that because New Testament authors used non-scriptural
sources that this allows us the same freedom nor does it necessarily validate
an unlimited canon of sources in the area of spiritual theology. The purpose
of the ahove survey was not to justify the use of all writers when discussing
spiritual theology but to suggest that a canon must be open and not limited.
Rather, the purpose of the exercise was to remind us that, in fact, non-scriptural sources have heen used from the earliest beginnings of the history of
the church. This allows us, I believe, the freedom to pursue the option of using a plethora of sources of the Christian tradition in the development of a
spiritual theology. With this option available to us, we can begin to examine all the non-evangelical sources from history that can contribute positively to an evangelical spiritual theology. This would necessitate the development of a "hermeneutic of spiritual theology," if you will, that would
provide the framework within which each spiritual text is judged for its
usefulness and appropriate utilization hy the evangelical church.*^ A viable
"hermeneutic of spiritual theology" will make each author of the Christian
tradition a possible resource that can be appropriated hy evangelical spiritual theologians. The subjective nature of the current canon of spiritual
texts will give way to a totality (all writings, peoples, histories, etc.) of the
church's tradition, making evangelical spiritual theology a discipline without boundaries, or at least a discipline with appropriate boundaries.
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