Hydrocarbons: organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen

A fat molecule: consists of a small, nonhydrocarbon component joined to three

hydrocarbon tails that account for the hydrophobic behavior of fats. The tails can be
broken down to provide energy
Isomers: Variation in the architecture of organic molecules can be seen in isomers,
compounds that have the same numbers of hence different properties
Structural isomers: differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.
cis-trans isomers: (formerly called geometric isomers), carbons have covalent bonds to
the same atoms, but these atoms differ in their spatial arrangements due to the
inflexibility of double bonds.

The subtle difference in shape between such isomers can dramatically affect the
biological activities of organic molecules.
Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape
due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon, one that is attached to four different atoms
or groups of atoms.

Female HormoneMale Hormone

Functional groups are chemical groups that affect molecular function by being directly
involved in chemical reactions. The 7 most important are hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl,
amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl groups. Each functional group participates in
chemical reactions in a characteristic way from one organic molecule to another.
Hydroxyl

o
o

bound to an oxygen atom and then a carbon skeleton

Alcohols ( usually end in -ol)

Ex.
Polar because of the oxygen atom on the end and can form hydrogen bonds with
water to help dissolve things like sugar
Carbonyl
o
o

o
o

Ketones (if in a carbon skelton) and Aldehyde (if at the end of a carbon structure)
are structural isomers in the group of Carbonyl

o Ex.
o Both sub groups are found in two major groups of sugars: ketoses and aldoses
Carboxyl

o
o

Carboxylic acids (organic acid)

Ex.
Acts as an acid because it can donate an H+ from the OH so it is generally found in
cells with a -1 charge and referred to as a carboxylate ion
Amino
o
o

o
o

Amines

Ex.
The counter to the carboxyl group, Amino are found within cells with a +1 charge as
it picks up H+ from the surrounding solution so basic
Sulfhydryl
o
o

o
o

Ex.
When two Sulfhydryl groups react they form a covalent bond that helps stabilize
protein structures (reason hair can be curly and be curled when bonds are broken or
made)
Phosphate
o
o

Thiols

Organic phosphates (more complicated organic phosphate, adenosine triphosphate,

or ATP)

Ex.
Contributes -2 charge when at the end of a molecule or -1 when in the middle of a
chain
Methyl
o
o

o
o

o
o

Methylated Compounds

Found in DNA or molecules bound to DNA, methyl affects gene expressions and is
also found in male and female sec hormones and influences shape and function

ATP is formed when three of the phosphate groups bind (HOPO3 2-). When one phosphate
group splits off because of a reaction with water it becomes ADP. ATP has the potential to
react with water so it commonly referred to as energy.

o
Macromolecules are molecules like carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids because
they are huge. They are chain-like molecules called polymers. Monomers are the
individual smaller molecules that make up polymers.
Enzymes are specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions and help to
break down polymers.
Dehydration reaction is when two monomers are bound together to make a polymer
and a water molecule is created
Hydrolysis is when a water molecule is consumed to break a polymer into monomers
Carbohydrates: include both sugars and polymers of sugars.
Monosaccharides: generally have molecular formulas that are some multiple of the unit
CH2O. Simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides, or simple sugars.
Disaccharide: consists of two monosaccharide
Glycosidic linkage, a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a
dehydration reaction.
Polysaccharides are macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand
monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages

Starch is a polymer of glucose monomers, as granules within cellular structures known as

plastids, which include chloroplasts
Glycogen is a polymer of glucose that is like amylopectin but more extensively branched
Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells.
Cellulose is a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells made of
polysaccharides
lipids are grouped together because they share one important trait: They mix poorly
fat is constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids
An unsaturated fatty acid has one or more double bonds
saturated fatty acid has no double bonds
Triacylglycerol is formed when a bond between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group.
The resulting fat, also called a triacylglycerol, thus consists of three fatty acids linked tone
glycerol molecule
Phospholipids are essential for cells because they make up cell membranes.
Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
Cholesterol is a crucial molecule in animals. It is a common component of animal cell
membranes and is also the precursor from which other steroids are synthesized
Enzymatic proteins regulate metabolism by acting as catalysts
polypeptides are Polymers of amino acids
A protein is a biologically functional molecule that consists of one or more polypeptides,
each folded and coiled into a specific three dimensional structure
o primary structure of a protein is a linked series of amino acids with a unique
sequence.
o secondary structure include coils and folds and are the result of hydrogen bonds
between the repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone (not the amino
acid side chains)
o Beta pleated sheet is the third structure where two or more strands of the
polypeptide chain lying side by side (called strands) are connected by hydrogen
bonds between parts of the two parallel polypeptide backbones
chaperonins (also called chaperone proteins), protein molecules that assist in the proper
folding of other proteins
A gene is an amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a discrete unit of
inheritance
Nucleic acids are polymers made of monomers called nucleotides.
o two types of nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA),
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that exist as polymers called polynucleotides
each polynucleotide consists of monomers called nucleotides
Pyrimidine has one six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms. The members of
the pyrimidine family are cytosine (C), thymine(T), and uracil (U).
Purines are larger, with a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring. The purines
are adenine (A) and guanine (G).
In DNA the sugar is deoxyribose; in RNA it is ribose. The only difference between these
two sugars is that deoxyribose lacks an oxygen atom on the second carbon in the ring;
hence the name deoxyribose.
DNA molecules have two polynucleotides, or strands, that spiral around an imaginary
axis, forming a double helix
Antiparallel 3 and 5 to 5 and 3 in DNA structure
antiparallel

1. Distinguish molecules are organic

2. Different types of bond
3. Configuration
4. Identify functional groups
5. Ph and basic vs. acidic
6. Dehydration and hydrolysis and know the products of the reaction
7. Polymer formation
8. Macromolecules ( composition )
9. Protein structures
10.Denaturing a protein, nitrogenous bases