AMICUS CURIAE CORPORATE STATEMENT

Pursuant to Court's Rule, undersigned Amicus Curiae Petitioners are not a public
and or privately held corporation or an individual with an entity in association
with either Appellee or Appellant and or a party similarly situated herein.
CHRISTOPHER EARL STRUNK is a business trust organization
represented by undersigned Agent, Christopher Earl Strunk, in esse Sui juris
pre-1933 Private National Citizen of the United States sole secured party
beneficiary agent whose non-combatant status is registered with the United
States Secretary of the Treasury accepted there on January 21, 2014 at 4:22
AM at WASHINGTON D.C. confirmed by Certified Mail with numbers in
recognition
of
and
for
account
#130-36-8096
Accruals
#70103090000192293013 and 70123460000358729106, previously filed and
duly recorded on December 5, 2013 at 9:54 AM by the Clerk of the Superior
Court of Georgia for Lamar County at BPA BOOK 30 PAGES 763 thru 800.

THE EXPRESS DEED IN TRUST TO THE UNITED STATES OF

AMERICA, represented by the Executor and Settlor undersigned in esse Sui
juris beneficiary Agent for CHRISTOPHER EARL STRUNK business
trust organization public officer appointed by the beneficiaries of the
Posterity filed and duly recorded on 29 April 2014 at 1:20 PM by the clerk of
the Superior Court of Georgia at BPA BOOK 32 PAGES 716 thru 754. .

THE EXPRESS DEED IN TRUST TO THE UNITED STATES OF

AMERICA, beneficiary Eric Jon Phelps in esse Sui Juris American Freeman
is a pre-1933 Private National Citizen of the United States of America
Private Citizen of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Private Resident
of the County of Lebanon with his non-combatant status under 12 USC 95
with 50 USC Appendix 5(b) duly registered with the United States Secretary
of the Treasury and United States Trustee with All Rights Reserved Without
Prejudice

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Amicus Corporate Statement...i
Table of Authoritiesiv
Introduction.1
A Brief History of Financial and Political Dictatorship In France and the
United States Overseen by the Society of Jesus..3
Rome Conquers the United States of America Declared State of National
Emergency on March 9, 1933..8
Conclusion.12
Points of Argument
Point A: Plaintiff and Defendant are under the Jurisdiction of the United
States Trustee President of the United States and the Secretary of the
Treasury using 12 USC 95 with 50 USC Appendix 5(b) continuously since
13 March 193313
Point B: The Court also has jurisdiction under 50 USC App. 17.14
Point C: The Plaintiff trust with beneficiaries must be considered as non
combatants under 12 USC 95 with 50 USC Appendix 5(b)..14
Point D: Defendant based upon litigation and discovery in the SDNY appear
to have a 62 year dormant rule, raises suspicion that the Plaintiffs property is

ii

part of the Gold Reserve Act Exchange Stabilization Fund and or placed in
private trusts..14
Point E: POTUS commander-in-chief administers a Military government
that, despite annual appropriations approved by Congress14
Point F: That were the EBRA repealed15
Point G: Plaintiff may also seek relief with 50 USC App. 9e..15
Point H: Having exhausted administrative relief, based upon information and
belief, the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) Section 9 affords relief to
Plaintiff non combatant..15
Amicus Summary16
Signature Page.17
Compliance Statement 18

iii

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES
Statutes
12 USC 95(a) with 50 USC Appendix 5(b) under EO 2039 and EO 2040
The Trading with the Enemy Act of October 6, 1917, CH. 106, 40 STAT. 411
2. Definitions
5. Suspension of provisions relating to ally of enemy; regulation of
transactions in foreign exchange of gold or silver, property transfers, vested
interests, enforcement and penalties
9. Claims to property transferred to custodian; notice of claim; filing; return of
property; suits to recover; sale of claimed property in time of war or during
national emergency
17. Rules by district courts; appeals
33. Notice of claim; institution of suits; computation of time
39. Retention of properties or interests of Germany and Japan and their
nationals; proceeds covered into Treasury; ex gratia payment to Switzerland
40. Intercustodial conflicts involving enemy property; authority of President to
conclude; delegation of authority
The Emergency Banking Relief Act of 9 March 1933 (48 Stat. 1).1,2,11-13
The Gold Reserve Act of January 30, 1934 Pub.L. 7387 (48 Stat. 337) ..2,12,13
The Emergency Powers Act of Sept. 14, 1976 PL 94-412 90 Stat. 1255.2
The International Emergency Economic Powers Act (50 U.S.C. 1701-1707).2
the War Claims Fund established by section 13 of the War Claims Act of 1948
(Public Law 896, 80th Congress, July 3, 1948; 62 Stat. 1240; 50 U.S.C. app.
20012013), as amended [section 2012 of this Appendix].

iv

Federal Authorities
Executive Order 2038,
Executive Order 2039,
Executive Order 2040,
Executive Order 6073
Executive Order 6102
United States Senate Report 93-549 Emergency Powers Statutes
Uniform Commercial Code
Amicus Curiae Appendix of 125 pages A-1 thru A-125 herein:
THE EXPRESS DEED IN TRUST TO THE UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA BPA BOOK 32 PAGES 719 thru 733A-1
Executive Order 2039 of 6 March 1933.A-16
Executive Order 2040 of 9 March 1933.A-17
12 USC 95(a)- Regulation of transaction in foreign exchange of gold and
silver; property transfers; vested interests, enforcement and penalties..A-18
United States Senate Report 93-549 Emergency Powers Statutes.A-21
National Emergencies Act of Sept. 14, 1976 PL 94-412 90 Stat. 1255.A-46
CRS Report to Congress 98-505 National Emergency Powers update
September 18, 2001A-51
Markham v. Cabell 326 U.S. 404 (1945) ...A-75
From the National Archives: CONCERN OF THE UNITED STATES OVER
ENEMY ATTEMPTS TO SECRETE FUNDS OR OTHER ASSETS IN
NEUTRAL COUNTRIES: INCEPTION OF THE SAFE-HAVEN
PROGRAM pages 213 thru 251 Correspondence February 22, 1944 thru
January 6, 1945A-87

AMICUS CURIAE BRIEF

For Appeal from the Final Judgment of the United States District Court.
Northern District of California, Oakland (Hon. Phyllis J. Hamilton)
U.S.D.C. No. 4:14-cv-04125-PJH

INTRODUCTION
This Amicus Curiae Brief is jointly submitted by Undersigned Christopher
Earl Strunk (Strunk), Candidate ID No.: P60007010 for Office of President of the
United States (POTUS) registered with the Federal Election Commission, who is
Executor of THE EXPRESS DEED IN TRUST TO THE UNITED STATES OF
AMERICA (see combined Appendix page A-1) for its Posterity beneficiaries, and
by Undersigned beneficiary Eric Jon Phelps (Phelps) an expert on the Society of
Jesus (Jesuits) and their 82 year global time of war or state of Emergency under 12
USC 95 with 50 USC Appendix 5(b).
Strunk and Phelps contend as friends of this Court that Parties herein are
also properly within the jurisdiction of this Court with 50 USC Appendix 17 under
12 USC 95(a) with 50 USC Appendix 5(b) (A-18); however may not have
jurisdiction, were Strunks promise to repeal The Emergency Banking Relief Act of
9 March 1933 (48 Stat. 1) (EBRA) that brought inland jurisdiction of The Trading
with the Enemy Act of October 6, 1917, CH. 106, 40 STAT. 411 (TWEA) by
operation of Executive Orders: 2039 of 6 March 1933 (A-16) and 2040 of 9 March
1933 (A-17), to be done by Congress as explained below.
1

Congress had an opportunity to repeal the EBRA following the United States
Senate Report 93-549 Emergency Powers Statutes (A-21), but kept the EBRA
and Military government of occupation when it enacted The Emergency Powers
Act of Sept. 14, 1976 PL 94-412 90 Stat. 1255, expressly retained 12 USC 95(a)
with 50 USC Appendix 5(b) (A-49), even maintains EBRA in 1977 with The
International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) (50 U.S.C. 1701-1707),
EBRA remains the law of the land over banking and commerce internationally
cited by the Congressional Research Service Report to Congress 98-505 National
Emergency Powers update September 18, 2001 (A-51).
Therefore, Strunk and Phelps contend the Court is well served by judicial
review done in the case Markham v. Cabell 326 U.S. 404 (1945) (A-75); and that
there is a requirement for discovery based upon the history of bad faith dealing by
Defendant that the CONCERN OF THE UNITED STATES OVER ENEMY
ATTEMPTS TO SECRETE FUNDS OR OTHER ASSETS IN NEUTRAL
COUNTRIES: INCEPTION OF THE SAFE-HAVEN PROGRAM pages 213 thru
251 Correspondence of February 22, 1944 thru January 6, 1945 (A-87) apply in the
commingling of Plaintiffs beneficiary funds by Defendants investments under
Executive Order 6073 requirements associated with the Gold Reserve Act of
January 30, 1934 Pub.L. 7387 (48 Stat. 337) in the Exchange Stabilization Fund
and or private trust for United States securities, such review applies herein.
2

A Brief History of Financial and Political Dictatorship

In France and the United States Overseen by the Society of Jesus
The purpose of this essay is to remind the reader of the design of the Society
of Jesus in its military service of the pope of Rome. Surnamed the militia of the
pope, its endgame is complete restoration of the popes political Temporal
Power over all the nations of the world. That restoration includes the total
destruction of the Reformation-Bible-based, White Anglo-Saxon Protestant
Reformation birthed in Germany and England during the Sixteenth Century. All
political and financial systems born out of the so-called Reformation must also
be decimatedby any means necessary, for the ends justify the meansalong
with the peoples benefitting from those institutions. That restoration includes the
calculated instigation of war between targeted nations (specifically Protestant
Germany and Protestant Great Britain, as was the case during World War I and
World II dubbed the Second Thirty Years War) and the subsequent imposition
of absolute governmental and financial power vested in the hands of one manthe
Trustee of the Global Estate, known today as Pope Francis I, the Jesuit!
We shall peruse a brief overview of the Companys quest.

Our first

authority, James A. Wylie, declares the Orders design against the financial wealth
and sovereignty of all nations:
The soldiers of Loyola are about to go forth. Before beginning the
campaign we see their chief assembling them and pointing out the field
on which their prowess is to be displayed. The nations of Christendom
3

are in revolt [Protestant nations throwing off the Temporal Power of the
pope]: it will be theirs to subjugate them, and lay them once more, bound
in chains, at the feet of the Papal See. They must not faint; the arms he
has provided them with are amply sufficient for the arduous warfare on
which he sends them. Clad in that armour, and wielding it as he has been
at pains to instruct them, they will expel knowledge as night chases away
the day; liberty will die wherever their foot treads; and in the ancient
darkness they will be able to rear again the fallen throne of the Great
Hierarch of Rome. But if the service is hard, the wages will be ample.
As the saviours of that throne they will be greater than it. And though
meanwhile their work is to be done in great show of humility and
poverty, the silver and the gold of Christendom will in the end be theirs;
they will be the lords of its lands and palaces, the masters of the bodies
and the souls of its inhabitants, and nothing of all that the heart can desire
will be withholden from them if only they will obey him [their Father
General, Ignatius Loyola]. 1
Wylie continues as to the Orders intent to rule the governments of all nations:
But further, these sons of Loyola are the kings of the world, and the sole
heirs of all its wealth, honours, and pleasures; and whatever law, custom,
sacred and venerable office, august and kingly authority, may stand
between them and their rightful lordship over mankind, they are at liberty
to throw down and tread into the dust as a vile and accursed thing. The
moral maxims of the Jesuits are to be put in force against kings as well as
against peasants. 2
France
Founded in Paris in 1534, the Society of Jesus regarded France as a foremost
base of operations in Europe as did its predecessors, the Knights Templars. From
the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572), to the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) to
1

Wylie, James A., The History of Protestantism, (London: Cassell Petter & Galpin, 1878), Vol.
II of III, p. 412.

Ibid, p. 398.
4

the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685), the Company gained much ground
using Roman Catholic France. However, in the late 1700s a huge financial scandal
involving a particular Jesuit merchant rocked the country. At the trial French
prosecutors sought recompense from the Order, the defendant citing the Societys
Constitution as a bar to that demand. The result was the Jesuits being forced to
disclose their Constitution to the world for the first time in its history. After
careful review the Parliament:
. . . denounced their doctrines and practices as perverse, destructive of
every principle of religion, and even of probity; as injurious to morality,
pernicious to civil society; seditious, dangerous to rights of the persons
of sovereigns; as fit to excite the greatest troubles in States, to form and
maintain the most profound corruption in the hearts of men. . . . And
that the institutions of the Jesuits should forever cease to exist throughout
the whole extent of the kingdom. 3
In 1764, the Jesuits were expelled by King Louis XV at the behest of
Parliament. For this, the life of the king would be attempted by Daimons, and the
French nation would suffer the French Revolution and subsequent Napoleonic
wars for over twenty-five years.
After the Congress of Vienna (1814-15) the Order would be restored by
King Louis XVIII along with the Holy Office of the Inquisition. But LouisPhilippe (the Citizen King) came to power in 1830 expelling the Company the
following year. Ruling until 1848, he was overthrown and replaced with Louis
3

Cusack, M.F., The Black Pope, (London: Marshall, Russell & Co., 1896) p. 76.
5

Napoleon, who, via a Jesuit-led coup detat in 1852, was made Emperor Napoleon
III. The Emperor would then wage war for the benefit of the Jesuits, including
the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). As we can see, the Jesuits used France for its
Counter-Reformation ends, while in the process, kill millions of Frenchmen who
were anti-Jesuit, lovers of republican liberty championed by their beloved antiJesuit, Marquis de Lafayette. A similar scenario would be repeated in America on
a scale unknown in its magnitude in service of the Company of Jesus. It would
commence with the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln and consummate
the Orders quest for absolute power with the inauguration of President Franklin D.
Roosevelt, the American Augustus Caesar.
United States of America
The plot of the Society of Jesus to rule the United States was first made
known by Samuel Morse, the father of Morse Code.

That plot was fully

revealed by ex-priest Charles Chiniquy, who also exposed the Jesuit hand behind
the murder of President Abraham Lincoln in 1865. Of the design to take the
United States, Chiniquy wrote of a meeting of priests he attended at Buffalo in the
Spring of 1852. The following was said:
We are determined, like you, to take possession of the United States and
rule them; but we cannot do that without acting secretly and with the
utmost wisdom. If our plans are known, they will surely be defeated. . . .
Silently and patiently, we must mass our Roman Catholics in the great
cities of the United States, remembering that the vote of a poor
journeyman, though he be covered with rags, has as much weight in the
6

scale of power as the millionaire Astor, and that if we have two votes
against his one, he will become as powerless as an oyster. . . . Let no one
awake those sleeping giants, to-day. Let us pray God that they may sleep
and dream their sweet dreams, a few years more. . . . What will those
hypocritical and godless sons and daughters of the fanatical Pilgrim
Fathers say, when not a single judge, not a single teacher, not a single
policeman, will be elected if he be not a devoted Irish Roman Catholic?
What will those so-called giants think of their matchless shrewdness and
ability, when not a single Senator or member of Congress will be chosen,
if he be not submitted to our holy father the Pope! What a sad figure
those Protestant Yankees will cut when we will not only elect the
President, but fill and command the armies, man the navies and hold the
keys of the public treasury? It will then be time for our faithful Irish
people to give up their grog shops, in order to become the judges and
governors of the land. . . .
Then yes! then, we will rule the United States, and lay them at the feet
of the Vicar of Jesus Christ, that he may put an end to their godless
system of education, and impious laws of liberty of conscience which are
an insult to God and man! 4
In 1901, a more concise statement was given by James Quigley, Archbishop
of Chicago. He boldly declared:
Within twenty years this country will rule the world. Kings and
emperors will soon pass away and the democracy of the United States
will take their place [the Jesuits to use the United States to make the
world safe for democracy as advocated during World War I]. . . . When
the United States rules the world, the Catholic Church will rule the
world. 5

Chiniquy, Charles, Fifty Years in the Church of Rome, (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House,
1968; first printed in 1886) pp. 475-476.
5

Crowley, Jeremiah J., Romanism: A Menace to the Nation, (Aurora, Missouri: The Menace
Publishing Company, 1912) p. 573.
7

Hence we see the Jesuit Orders political, financial and military design to
first conquer the sovereign People of the United States then to use them to
impose the Temporal Power of the pope over all nations. To accomplish this
diabolical vision, the de jure, Constitutional civilian government must be
temporarily ousted under a declared state of national emergency, and a de
facto military government must be imposed in its place. Once accomplished,
all financial power could be centralized in New York City subject to the
Archbishop of New York City overseen by the Jesuits of Fordham University,
and all military power could be centralized in Washington, D.C., subject to the
Archbishop of Washington, D.C., overseen by the Jesuits of Georgetown
University. This day would arrive on a Thursday, March 9, 1933.

Rome Conquers the United States of America

Declared State of National Emergency on March 9, 1933
Rome would make good on its promise to conquer the United States. The
Jesuits of Georgetown University would choose Franklin D. Roosevelt to bring it
to pass. They needed to create the necessary crisis to implement a coup detat that
would justify the temporary suspension of limited, Constitutional government in
Washington. The design was well-conceived and transpired over a period of thirty
years.

First, the Order would command its paramount American banker, J. P.

Morgan, to cause a financial panic in 1907 justifying the creation of the Federal
Reserve Banking System in 1913.

Reticent enemies of the plan would be

eliminated in 1912. The means of elimination would be the sinking of the RMS
Titanic owned by J. P. Morgans White Star Line. The Federal Reserve Act was
passed in the evening of December 23, 1913, when most of the Congressional
members had returned to their states for Christmas break. The popes central bank
was now in place to finance the military government yet to be imposed. President
Wilson later confessed, I have betrayed my country.
Secondly, a World War I statute had to be put in place, and kept in place
after the hostilities, upon which authority a national emergency could be
declared in a time of peace. That law was known as the Trading With the Enemy
Act passed on October 6, 1917, after America had entered the Great War.
Never repealed, the statute was amended fourteen times from 1918 to 1930, fitting
it for its intended use in 1933. One of the words added to section 5(b) of the Act
was hoarding. It would come in handy.
Thirdly, a national crisis had to be created. Enter the Great Depression of
1929. It was caused by the Federal Reserve Bank withdrawing currency from
circulation.

Further, a massive short-selling of stock on the Stock Exchange, led by

Irish-American Roman Catholic Joseph P. Kennedy, effectively crashed the
market. This plunged the nation into a social and financial upheaval lasting from
1929 to 1939: ten million people would die. The depth of the Depression would be
1932, the year 32nd Degree Scottish-Rite Freemason Franklin Roosevelt was
elected to office backed by Fourth Degree Knight of Columbus Al Smith and the
Jesuits ruling Tammany Hall. The Jesuits now had their man in place to crown
the Orders enterprise with success. It was now time to conquer the limited
Protestant Republic converting it into an unlimited Jesuit Empire.
The day of inauguration has arrived. Franklin Roosevelt is sworn into office
on March 4, 1933. In the background are no less than six Fourth Degree Knights
of Columbus composing the honor guard evidenced by the wearing of their
Chapeaus.
Off to FDRs right is a priest sitting in a chair donning his Beretta. FDR
declares this day a day of national consecration and reveals he may call for a
temporary departure from that normal balance of public procedure. He makes
known that he intends to ask Congress for broad Executive power to wage a war
against the emergency as great as the power that would be given me if we were in
fact invaded by a foreign foe. He wants emergency war powers to lead this great

10

army of our people dedicated to a disciplined attack upon our common problems.
He intends to turn the nation into a war camp.
On March 6, 1933, FDR declares a state of national emergency.

His

Proclamation 2039 is based upon a statute, not the Constitution. That law is the
amended Trading With the Enemy Act cleverly referred to in the proclamation
as section 5(b) of the Act of October 6, 1917. Upon another proclamation of the
president, Congress assembles in Washington. On March 9, 1933, it is urged to
quickly pass H.R. 1491 titled the Emergency Banking Relief Act. It is an act
that is not in print, that no one has read, that only the Speaker possesses (he to read
just one time to the House), and that no one knows who, in fact, is its author. The
man pushing the Act is none other than the most powerful man in the Senate,
Jimmy F. Byrnes, surnamed the Assistant President. The Act passes the House,
is sent to the Senate for passage, FDR signs it into law, and then

decrees

Proclamation 2040, continuing the terms of Proclamation 2039 until terminated by

the president.
The Act, cart blanch, approved and confirmed every proclamation of the
president beginning on March 4, 1933, the day of his inauguration. The Twentieth
Amendment will be passed, changing the date of every subsequent inauguration
from March 4th to January 20th. After all, the new, statutory-based, de facto
military government and its new Commander in chief needs a new date of
11

inauguration. The Orders coup detat is fait accompli, a done deal! The Jesuits
are delighted!
Conclusion
The nation is now under the Trading With the Enemy Act as amended by
the Emergency Banking Relief Act. Every individual American is now deemed
an enemy since he engages in banking transactions within the United States. He
is deemed to be hoarding if he owns any gold coins. All his property is now
enemy property to be held in trust by the Secretary of the Treasury subject to the
will of the Commander in chief. Therefore, on April 5, 1933, by the authority of
the amended Trading with the Enemy Act, FDR will issue Executive Order 6102
demanding every person, presumed to be under the amended Trading with the
Enemy Act, turn in his gold coins to the Federal Reserve Banks by May 1st,
communist/nazi/fascist May Day.
On June 6, 1933, Congress will deem all contractual payments in gold to be
against public policy. On January 30, 1934, President Roosevelt will sign into
law the Gold Reserve Act vesting legal title to all monetary gold in the United
States government, i.e., the de facto military government. On April 25, 1938, the
Roosevelt Court, via two treacherous decisions, will abolish common law
process and common law rights once protected by the Supreme Court. Section 17
of the amended Trading With the Enemy Act will fill the jurisdictional vacuum,
12

imposing a military jurisdiction on all courts sitting in temporary emergency war

powers and flying military colors, federal and state.
Rome has conquered, its enterprise crowned with success. Its foundation is
merely one statute: the Emergency Banking Relief Act having amended the
Trading With the Enemy Act. Repeal the Emergency Banking Relief Act and
the entire de facto, statutory, military government ceases to exist, the de jure,
Constitutional, civilian government is automatically restored, and the American
People are once again the Private Citizens of the United States protected by
Section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment to the grand and glorious Constitution of
the United States of America!
Until that day, the Society of Jesus will remain our political and financial
masters. It will continue to use the conquered American peoples to finance world
government and conduct military crusades for the benefit of the pope of Rome.
Points of Argument
Point A: Plaintiff and Defendant are subject to the authority of the United
States Trustee(s), the POTUS Commander-in-chiefs occupation of the
territories of the United States and Secretary of Treasury receiver, under 12
USC 95 with 50 USC Appendix 5(b), because all banking of the Federal
Reserve system must operate with private trusts continuously since 13 March
1933 by Executive Order 6073 and Gold Reserve Act, whether domestically or
internationally, Defendant utilizes the Federal Reserve system.
13

 Point B: The Court also has jurisdiction over Parties under 50 USC App. 17 ( 6 )
especially when the Plaintiffs beneficiary funds appear seized by Defendant for
use in Exchange Markets and or trading in United States securities.
Point C: Plaintiffs private trust with beneficiaries is a non statutory trust to be
treated as a non-combatant under 12 USC 95 with 50 USC Appendix 5(b).
Point D: Defendant based upon litigation and discovery in the SDNY appear to
have a 62 year dormant rule, raises suspicion that the Plaintiffs property is part
of the Gold Reserve Act with its requirement for the Exchange Stabilization
Fund and or placed in private trusts in order for Defendant to register with the
Controller of the Currency and Federal Reserve Bank both domestically and
internationally.
Point E: The POTUS commander-in-chief administers a Military government
that, despite annual appropriations approved by Congress, operates beyond the
authority of Congress or the American People to maintain a time of global war
and emergency with more than 1000 military bases and operations both
domestically and internationally for the benefit of international creditors, and
were the EBRA repealed would require Congress to approve such absent
supremacy of the administrative military government.
6

17. Rules by district courts; appeals : The district courts of the United States are given
jurisdiction to make and enter all such rules as to notice and otherwise, and all such orders and
decrees, and to issue such process as may be necessary and proper in the premises to enforce the
provisions of this Act [sections 1 to 6, 7 to 39, and 41 to 44 of this Appendix], with a right of
appeal from the final order or decree of such court as provided in sections one hundred and
twenty-eight and two hundred and thirty-eight of the Act of March third, nineteen hundred and
eleven, entitled An Act to codify, revise, and amend the laws relating to the judiciary.
14

 Point F: That were the EBRA repealed the present Public US Citizen with
natural surety-indentures would revert to a natural private citizen free to operate
in commerce as the beneficiary agent of the name used in commerce.
Point G: Plaintiff may also seek relief with 50 USC App. 9e ( 7 ) as was applied
in Markham v Cabell, under 12 USC 95 with 50 USC App. 5(b).
Point H: Having exhausted administrative relief, based upon information and
belief, the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) Section 9 affords relief to
Plaintiff non combatant, and having established a secured creditor interest in the
accounts in question, and as Defendant admits to be in the control of the sums
notwithstanding the dormancy issue and location of home office. UBS and its
associated entities are duly registered with the United States Trustees in the
international Federal Reserve Banking system, and as such with due notice, the
Plaintiff secured creditor may choose to have the deposits relocated to a
California Bank or elsewhere.

9(e) No money or other property shall be returned nor any debt allowed under this section to
any person who is a citizen or subject of any nation which was associated with the United States
in the prosecution of the war, unless such nation in like case extends reciprocal rights to citizens
of the United States: Provided, That any arrangement made by a foreign nation for the release of
money and other property of American citizens and certified by the Secretary of State to the
Attorney General as fair and the most advantageous arrangement obtainable shall be regarded as
meeting this requirement; nor in any event shall a debt be allowed under this section unless it
was owing to and owned by the claimant prior to October 6, 1917, and as to claimants other than
citizens of the United States unless it arose with reference to the money or other property held by
the Alien Property Custodian or Treasurer of the United States hereunder; nor shall a debt be
allowed under this section unless notice of the claim has been filed, or application therefor has
been made, prior to the date of the enactment of the Settlement of War Claims Act of 1928 [Act
Mar. 10, 1928, ch. 167, 45 Stat. 254].
15

Amicus Summary
Strunk and Phelps worked together in the case Keenan v. Bosco etal
in the USDC SDNY 11-cv-8500 wherein the historical record of the Society of
Jesus in Asia and the Pacific was provided to the Court to more fully understand
how the matters and details of that case flowed from the establishment of the
Trading with the Enemy Act too. For the large secreted caches of Gold, Platinum
and other precious booty kept mostly in the Philippines, Indonesia and Australia as
established in the Twentieth Century, now effect control of the Pacific rim nations
and the private trusts established under the EBRA until this day. The Jesuits
experience in France that lead to their 1773 banishment in 83 countries were very
careful in the 1933 scheme to ensure not to repeat previous errors of 1764 in the
establishment of the EBRA Military government in 1933. Jesuits safeguard the
private trusts to collateralize the Debt of the United States for the beneficiaries for
their own survival. Were the EBRA repealed with a properly designed transition
enacted by a veto proof Congress to end the Military government to revive
Constitutional government, with a resuscitated Congress / Article III Court system
and civil Executive and end to war, for transition will shed Military Administration
and employees to the States and or private sector, as Strunk and Phelps encourage;
such transition would require the private trusts to guarantee our continued survival
as a nation. We encourage the Court to provide Parties equity relief in this matter.
16

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR

THE NINTH CIRCUIT

AM TRUST, on behalf of itself and
others similarly situated,
Plaintiff-Appellant,

UBS AG,

Defendant-Appellee.

AMICUS CURIAE APPENDIX

Appeal fkom the Final Judgment of the United States District Court.
Northern District of California, Oakland @on. Phyllis J. Hamilton)
U.S.D.C.NO. 4:14-CV-04125-PJH

AMICUS - Christopher Earl Stmnk in esse Szli juris Beneficiary Agent and
Attorney in fact for TMCHRIISTOPHEREARL STRUNKO and THE EXPRESS
DEED IN TRUST OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
c/o 593 Vanderbilt Avenue, PMB 281
Brooklyn New York Zipcode excepted 1112381
Ph: 718-414-3760 Email: suretynomore@gmail.com

AMICUS - Eric Jon Phelps in esse Sui juris Beneficiary Agent and
Attorney in fact for TMERICJON PHELPSO
c/o 203 South Fort Zellers Road
Newmanstown Pennsylvania Zipcode excepted [I70731

AMICUS CURIAE APPENDIX

For Appeal from the Final Judgment of the United States District Court.
Northern District of California, Oakland (Hon. Phyllis J. Hamilton)
U.S.D.C. No. 4:14-cv-04125-PJH

Appendix of 125 pages A-1 thru A-125 herein:

THE EXPRESS DEED IN TRUST TO THE UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA BPA BOOK 32 PAGES 719 thru 733A-1
Executive Order 2039 of 6 March 1933.A-16
Executive Order 2039 of 6 March 1933.A-17
12 USC 95(a)- Regulation of transaction in foreign exchange of gold and
silver; property transfers; vested interests, enforcement and penalties..A-18
United States Senate Report 93-549 Emergency Powers Statutes.A-21
National Emergencies Act of Sept. 14, 1976 PL 94-412 90 Stat. 1255.A-46
CRS Report to Congress 98-505 National Emergency Powers update
September 18, 2001A-51
Markham v. Cabell 326 U.S. 404 (1945) ...A-75
From the National Archives: CONCERN OF THE UNITED STATES OVER
ENEMY ATTEMPTS TO SECRETE FUNDS OR OTHER ASSETS IN
NEUTRAL

COUNTRIES:

INCEPTION

OF

THE

SAFE-HAVEN

PROGRAM pages 213 thru 251 Correspondence February 22, 1944 thru
January 6, 1945..A-87

EXPRESS DEED IN TRUST TO W UNITED STATES OF AMEaXW

WITH BENEFICIARY DWCRETION FOR PWATJE CI!lXZENS OF THE UNXTF2l STATESWHO
ABE TRUE NA-BORN
C-NS
UNDER TEE UNITED STATFS CONSTITUTION
ABTICLE 2 S1ECTION 1 CLAUSE B AND NOT SURETY-INDENTUXESFOB T m I R
]RESPECTIVE DEBTOR TBUST ENTITY UNDER 12 USC 96 AND 60 USC APP. 6(b) AKARW
GOVERNMENT WITH A CONTINUING NATIONAL m R G E N C Y
This Express Deed in Trud is a cIajm of ~ e ~ e f i c interest
hh
in and over dl the pubic and private
real, personal, tangible and intangible Proper@witbin l3E I l N l E D STATES OF AMERJCA geographic
border to safeguard and secu~efar the posterity &WE the People ofthe Unitad States of America in the
nation given by QOI) for securing each private Citizen%udienable rights and bem&M intern& in
p m u i t d li& liberty and happinem in perpetuiw, and with the Executor and Bern-s
duty to thh
Trusrt e W gumantee that dl incumbents and future cmdidate(s) for the 0- of Resident or Vice
Reddent dtk United States (POTUS) shall be a b d d e Naurd-Born Citizen (NBCT)private citizen of
the United States agent who is surety no more to the Debtor TRlstEntits in compliance with the United
States ConstitutionAaicle 2 Section 1 Clause 6,eith& under. 12 USC 96 and 50 USC App. 6 0 with the
MYitary Government a u t w of renewed annual National Emergency or otherwise WEED in TRUST).
That &is NATION of THE UMITED STATES OF AME:RICA is a gift h x n GOD,not men, amording
to the Declaration of Independen- in CONGRESS, July 4,1776as the ummhous D
e of the ~
Freemen ofthe thirteen united State8 of America state, quate:
'When in the Course of humon events, it bem- m m r y for om people to dissolve the political bands
which h u e eonmeted them with another,and to assume among thepowrs of t h earth*the separate and
e q d s t d o n to which the &s
of Ncatum a d of Nature's God entitle them*a decent respect to the
opinwm of mmhind requires that tHey should &im tlae m m a which impel #hemto the w w n .
We hold these truths to be self-evident, th& &
men
i am cmded mudathat $hey are endowed by their
Creator with c&
pd+k
Ri~hts,W among $ h eam Life. Liberty a d the xnsrsdt of H a x ) n i m
"Tkcrt to secure ght?se righi%,&vernments om h t h t e d among Men, d&uing theirjust p o w 8 from the
camelat of the ~~uet-ned,
That whmuer any Form of Government ~ E C O ~ I Wdesfrudive
S
of t k w em&, it is t h
Rkht of ithe P e ~ p kto alter or to abolbh it, a d to inatit& new Gowmmnt,laying its foundation on such
principh and organking it% powera in such formI aa to them ahdl seem m f likely bx, effect their Safe@
Happiness- M n c e , indeed, will dictate tha$ Goven%rnents long estab&&ed s h o d d be cltnnged
for light and transient muses; and ~ ~ i n galll eqerkme
y
h t h shewn, t?tut m&d
rsre mre drkposed
t~ sufer, while evih me sufferable,than to right themelm by Qboliahing th form to which&!i are
bod But when a long f rain of abmeg and w r p d b m , purwing invariably the same Object minces
cr desigx to r e d m than under absolute I.kmmfhm.it i~ their right, it is their duty, to throw off smh

,Gouemnnat, a d to pmvide new ~~for their tbture sec

e..."

The Preamble to the Constitution of the UniM States provides Authoriw and purpose dedmes:

We the People of the United Stub, k Ordm foform a more &ect Union, estublish Jwbke, inawe
h m e s t i c Tkunqrsility,provide for dJae common &fence, promote the general We*,
und secure the
Bka&qgs of Liberty to ourselves cud our &t&&,
do ordain a d estab8ish this Cowti#t&un for ikhe United
Smtes of A&.

Exhibit A

Page 1 of 16

That W E the People are only thorse private Citizens under COD,not public citizew nnder men, and thst
guarantee within th% Nation that each X v a t e Citizen's unalienable rights and bendcial interest is
secure in perpetuity a& long as the Sovereign People of t;his Nation act under GOD as expmswd in the
Book of Isaiah Chapter 66 Verse 1 thru 5, Bereafter quoting h m the King James Version of the Bible:

1. Ho, every one that thir~teth,come ye to the waters, and he that hath no money; come ye, buy, and
eat; yea,come, buy wine and milgwithout money and without price.
2. Wherefore do ye spend money for that which is not bread? and your hbour for that which
sathfieth not? hearken diligently unto me,aad eat ye b
h
t
s
twhich is good, and let your s o d delight
itself in fatness.
3. Incline your ear, and come unto me:hear, and your soul a h d live; and I will make an everlasting
covenant e t h you, even the sure mercies of David.
4. Behold, I have given him for a nitnees 0 the people, a bader and commander to the people.
6. Behold, thou shalt call a nation that thou knowest not, and nations that knew not thee
shall run unto thee because ofthe LORDthy God, mdfor the Holy One of Ism1; for he
hath glormed thee,

That the geographic border and size ofthis NATION ofTHE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
including its p a p u l a ~ naccording to khe Cenaus of 2010 is depided in the map and chart below with a
map showing public and private land that include8 the coastal water8 out ta the limit of 200 miles as
fdllows:
Federal Gavemutent h d a iu the U.S.

AIIHlra

I.LRaa#ldtandMmW

m-

-"--

meLIA--dy,m5mlw
~

u. S. F

Exhibit;A

&

~ Fmmi N

~
~

~
*u.p.a3lru-aw

u--mwa

Page 2 of 16

**w

Wt*

W
A
R COUNTY. GA. SUPERIOR COURT
BPA BOOK

Exhibit A

Page 3 of I5

That the Natural-born Citizen clause does NOT derive h m the term of art %aturalborn Subject?',but instead was derived h m ancient cornideration of GOD'S Naturd Law as expressed
in Greece by the wake o f h t o t l e and carriedforward for uae in Roman law by the worka of &em.
Aristotle did not d e h e citizenship like the English did in the English common Iaw in which they
did not give any relevanq to the ci&mhip of the chiid's parents, provided the parenh were not
diplomats or military invaders. Aristufle included in the definition of a * d W 'a peraon "ofwhom both
the parents are citkns." (1) It is this ddhif5on which waa handed down through the millennia through
the law of nations and which the Foundera and Framers adopted fbr the new republic. W e a h see that
the then Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS)in Minor v. Hatx~mm~
88 U.S. (21WalL) 162
(1875) (Minor)
(decided &r the Fourteenth Amendment waa adopted in 1868)Held that
children
Born in a coulaihy of pmefits w h were it8 c i t h became t h e m e l w , upon their birth, citizens &o. These
were nartiues or natural-Borneitizem, as disdkgubhd from at& or foreigners" informed that a gemon
who became a citizen by being born in the muntry to "citizennparents w a known
~
iu common law with
which the fiamers were &miliar as a Un&uraI-borficitizen.'' How do we know that the Founders and
framers looked to Aristotle'a view of citizenship?We learn from the historical r e a d that Supreme Court
Justice James Wilson wrote in 1791:U'&waEly speaking,'suys the great political a u h r i t y , Arkhtle, 'a
citizen is one partaking e w l y ofpower and of azebrdinafion.' .. In W h n ' s view, "a citizen of
PsnnsyIuaniQ k he, who h a resided in the state two years; and, within that time, has puid a state or
county tax or he is beityeen the ages of t w e a y om and twenty two years, and the sola of a d b n P James
Wilson, 1st mmmentariea on the Constitution. Here we cIearly see Wilson refemkg to what could d y be
a "naturalborn
as "$heson of a citizen-"
We also know that the Founders and Framers studied Raman law. The Framema were well read in
the Roman and Greek clasim as ia expounded upon in their writings in the Federalist Papers. Jefkrmn

Gtkrafl

l Aristotle also gave ue a dehition of a %turd born C i k " In Tolitics, Book Three, Part 11, Ariame, writing in
350 B.C.E.,as bandated by Benjamin dowett, gave ue his -tion
of ciiizensbip:

Tart I'

But in prackb a c' '

a m c i h e n others
~
others on
going further back; say to two or three or more ancestors, TBis is a ahoa and p r d d dehitim but there
are some who raise the further quedon: How this tbird or fourthmcwtor came to be a citizen?Goof
Leontini, pwtiy became be was ixi a d S d & , p d y in irony,said- Mortars are what is made by the
m o r t a r - h r s , m d the ciof b&ea axe &aee who are made by the magbtrates; for it ie their trade to
make Lmbsaeans.' Yet the question is really simple, for, if according to the defitian just given they s h a d
in the gmment, they were citizen$,This is a better defmtion than the other. For the words, ' b m of a
father or mother who is a d w ' ceuknot possibly apply to the h t inhabitants or foundera of a state.

~ i e a ~ a t e r ~ d ~ i n t h e ~ o f ~ e w h b a v e b s e n m & u t i z e ~ l s ~ a d ~ ~ a s
CleMenes at Athem after the expulsion ofthe manta,for he e m W d in tribe@many me*,
bath
strangem and slaves. The doubt in these cmea @, not who L,but whether he who bought to be a ~ t h x
andthere willstillbe a k h r b g t h e &ah, whet&eracertainactisorLnotanadofthe state;fbrwhat
ought not hbe ie what id3 fake. NOW,
there are some who hold
and yet ought not to hold &ice, whom
wo describe
ruling, but d k g unjustly. And the c i h n w m d e w by the fact of his holding some kind of
rule or &he who hoLds a judicial or legislative ofbe fuEUa our dehitiw of a citizen. It is evident,
t h d r e , that the ci-m about whom the claubt has m h n muat be called &&arm?
...
J / & m i m . m i t . e d u l ~ / p olit&.htd

e.

Exhibit A

Page 4 of 16

DEPUTY C E R K

and other Founders had a love for Roman history and education. The Founder8 and F'ramerar were great
admirers of Cioero and read many &his works. It is not inconceivable that they would have read this
English &adation of The A.opoml and seen the & w e "mbumlBorn C i h ? W e shows that thy
did not need to borraw the claw h m E-h
common la$^ "natural born subject? Rather, they had
souroes that they read which contained the exact elawe, "~~m#umi
born Gtian," w W clause also had its
own meaning wbich was =rent h m that of an English "mumiborn subjecp which allowed chjldrsn
born in the King?sdominion and under his a b g h m to aliens to be English "@ud born subjects."
A dehition of a "mtund born Citizennwas
provided by the world-renowned, Erner de Vaftel in
hia
Law of N a t i o a Section 212 (bndon 1797)(1st ed NeuchateI 1768).Vattel had a great
Muence on the Founders and Framers in their comtituti~gthe new republic and writing the
Con~titution.See, for e m p l e , J.S. Reeves, The InAwnce of the Law of Nature U ~ u Inikmah~tal
n
Tau
the ~nii5-d
States, 3 h . J . ht'l L.647 et. q.
passim (1909) Warn1 exerted euch a profound p o l i t i d
ixlfluence that it is often pointed out that hie theories sewed aa the backbone for American independence)
b e A Cmey, David B.Rivlrin, Jr. and Darin R. Badram, U n b f u lBeIIimrem~
Under Inte&~taE
D
Law. *
h .
(COW
U.S.
co~stitutioaalanalysis, *Vatkt b highly important. He wasprobably the imikmahml b
c
r
w met%
most
widely r e d among the framers"). In
Va-1 contimed bbe practkdy applied in our nation for well
over 100 years after the birth of the republic; F.S. Ruddy, me A w ~ t a m
of Vat&&G r o w Swiety
Papem (1972)(Vattel was mainatream politicalphhwphy during the wriiing of the Constitutioa
-waL
was significantly the most cited legal source in America jurisprudencebetween 1789 and
1820). The Founders and Framers ahdied and were greafly influencedby V a W RG.Natslson, _Tine
449 and 69 (2010)("LVattelwas p&b&
the Fosncibs'fauorite authority on
interntabnu! h w . . . ."and bis, hatise,
was their favorite).
What Minor said about a u ~ t u mborn
l Citizenn was m&ed
in U
.
S
.
,
169 U.S.
649 (1898)(abowledghg and c o d r m h g EViinor'e American common law dehition of a *matrsm&Bom
citizen'' but adding based on the Fagbh common law that since "'[qke!
chiid of an alien, if born in the
cauntry, h a much a citizen as the mtural-born child of a citizen, a d by operatian of the sum primipbe
birth in the muntry]" (bracketed information ~uppIied),a child barn in the United Statea to domiciled
alien paren8 was a Fourteenth Amendment " e k n of the United Stafe~").
TbiEs American common law
definition of a *natural born Citizennhas-never been changed, not even by the Fourteenth Amendment
(only wes the clause "citizen of the United S ~ t e s and
" does not mention "maturd born G k " )or by
W O ~Kim
P Ark, and thm&m still prevails today. Both those U.S. Supreme Court: cases
a "n&ud
born Citizen" as a child born in a country to p m n b who are c i h m of that country.
2 1 b m a n l a w ~ d ; T e x M E N ~ S A , Tthsachild ahauld be held as a foreimer. if either ofthe mar ents
xas soQBut if bothm a t s were Romans and married. children alwava obtained the rank of the hther,
(pasequuntar liberi, Liv. iv. 4.) and ifmarried, ofthe mother, Uipiaa" Alexander Adam, Roman antiqui&s:
or,An account ofthe manners and mwtorns af the Romans 210 (6thed. corrected 1807). Cicero wrote in A Propod

'The Colophoniam dRim Homer as their own h e Denizen, t h e Chians d d e n g e him as theira, t
b Salaminians3
demand him again for their own, but the S~~
a ~ s e rhim
t
to be their natural born Cihen; and themfcm have
also dedicated a Temple to him in their Town of Smyrna There me a p e a t many b e d s at Daggerdrawing among
themelves, and contend for h h P

A Pmposal For Printing in E

n
g
w The Select Orationa of Mwrcus TdEw Cicrero, A m d i n g to the 188t O x f d
Editinn 17 (Henry Eelbeck t m ~London
.
1720).

Exhibit A

Page 5 of 16

tAFRAR COUNW, GA. SUPERIOR COURf

DEPUTY CLERK

In the matter ofRome's COUDd'etat over the "Accursed"Unieed States ofAmericq

by Eric Jon Phelps with edits by Chrhtopher Earl Strung (2014)

On March 4,1933 Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) assumes the Office of Preeident of the
United States, and with his Inaugural Addrew seizes and gives ALL Proper& and per.eronsas
collateral for the debt of the United States in national "consecration*to its prime Creditors, the
Vatican State and Crown's City of London, m d as Commander in chief FDR issues
Procla~tion2038 on March 6,1933, ae the Military Conqueror as if he were "Augwtus
Caesar" of the American Republic, d e c k i n g a s t a t e of National Emergency based upon
The 'Trading With tbe Enemy A& of October 6,1917(40 Statute Law 411);

Congress at the demand of every Govemr on March 9,1933 passes the C%mergencg
Banking
Refief Act" (12USC 954, thereby Amending the notorious World War 1 Statute Trading With
the Enemy Act" of October 6,1917,(60 USC App. 5@))(TWEA) ,and then FDR issues
Proolamation 2040 on March 9,1933,dso c o k e d by "EmergencyBanking Relief Act''
(I2 USC 9%) and bringing the TWEA inland, imposing Military Government
This Amended WWI Statute in fact regarda dl *PEBSONW
the United States* as
seized proper& of the hderal government to be treated as an "enemf and "enemydf or
"belligerentsand rebels"by the Conqueds Mditary Government.

These "belligerentsand rebels" are publicly residing inthe Several States Now considered
to be "conqueredterrttories."
m

B y 1939 all American Common Law Civil Process will be gone. In its place will be Roman
Civil Law W i a l Process imposed on all "PERSONS"(natural and
subject to
the Conqueds Be facto Equity Jurisdiction ofthe (cUnitedStates."

This Martial Process will apply to all Public Waited States Citizens?
Thie Martial Process cannot apply to Private "Citiaens of the United States," Privately
reaidmg on the land at Common Law, while holding Private State Citizenship pursuant to
Section 1 of the 14th Amendment.

"The Emergency Banking Relief A&''

@BRA)

(48 Statute Law 1)

This Act amrnpIished the De- of the Society of Jesus in "the Compds" Great Conspiracy
against the Liberties of the United States set forth in Samuel Morse'a Nineteenth century
masterpiece, Poreim Conspiram A m i n s t the Liberties of the United States (1835). Just as the Order
had brought the British Admiralty bosseasing both a criminal and civjl jurisdiction unlike American
Admiral@ with only a civil jurisdiction) inland in the days ofJesuit-ruled King Charlee Stuart I of
England thereby attempting to do away w i t h the English Common Law on the land, the Jesuits
accomplishedessentially t h e same thing here in America with this wicked Act aided by the
"Roosevelt Court."

Exhibit A

Page 6 of 16

In the passing of this A& which the emotionally distressed Congress never read, the fobwing must
be undergtood:

1. The Trading With the Faemy Act: as passed o r g b l l y in 1917and amended in 1918,was
ma& to apply tO any *enemy"ofthe United States.
2. The "enemywas d e h d to IM U m y individual,partnership, or other body ofindividuah of

any mtionaliQ,resident within the territory ofany nation with which the United States i~ at
war."

3. Other enemy "individuals"w e e d e w as "natives,citizens, or subjects of any nation with

which the United States is at war, other than ci$izensof the UPifed States." Them
*citizensof the United States" in 1917 held Private dizemhip of the United States without
having been reduced to the inferior cikkemhip status of being propem of and sure* far the
State-created Public "citizen of the United States,* which public citizenshig status was
impowl on March 9,1933.

4. The Trading With the Enemy Gct" also dehed the term "person." A Upermnnwasudeemed
to mean an individual, partmehip, a s d t i o n , company, or other unincorporated body of .
indhiduab, or corporation or body politic.* T h e r e h in 1917 a %rsonn could mean both a
natural permn/Private Citizen of the United States and an d c i a l persun/Public citizen of
the United States in privilege.
5, Therefore, a *pmmnnas defined by the Trading with the Enemy Act" DID INCLUDE a
*citizenof the United Stateg," wbich at the time was a Private "citizenof the United Statesf

6. The "Emergency Banking Relief Act" of Ma& 9,1938,amended the Trading Wifh the
Enemy AcP of 1917 (previouslyamended fourken times &om March 26,1918,to March 10,
1930), bringing the Trading With the Enemy Act" inside the United Statee applying it to "any
place subjeet to th.ejurWiet&wt themof' [ail the State8 within the United S t a k ] when
previously, mder the Trading With the Enemy Act: all a d o n e " ~ c u t wJao1l9
d

within the United Stutes" were d u d e &

7. The qmergenq Banking ReWAcE"d&ed

any "personnto mean *anindividual,

pmtnemhip, asmiation or corparatiod The term %emnuwas d e w fo mean aPublic

"citizen of the United States." The term "personnexdude8 a Private "citizenofthe United
Shtes."

8. Therefore, the 'Trading with the Enemy Act" defined a +reon" to include a h
the Unitsd States. T ~ ?Emergency
B

b Citizen of

. .

R e l i e f M Ya e d a Upemaonn
b be an ar+

Page 7 of 16

W M R COUNTY, Ok SUPERIOR COURT

Chmage 4. The provision exoluBing the TWEA of October 6,1917,as amended h

regulating transactions executed wholly within the United States is eliminated. AN
foreign and domestic trmswtionrr of "any person within the United State89 is to be
investiga*d, regulated or prohibited.
1917-Hmd

he may require m y such person engaged in any such transaction to furnish

1933-%r
any plaw mbjek to the fruisdl&m
md the President mag require
any person engaged in amy transaction referred k~in this suMivIsion to Parnish
Chancre & The "new jurisdiction of the United Stakes* established by the emergency war
powers mil3tary government of the United Stakes under P r o c h t i o n 2040 approved and
conffrmedby the EBRA amending fhe TWEA, now e h n d s fo dl states and terribries.

1917-"under oath, complete information relative thereto, including the production

198&"der oath, complete information relative thereto, including the production
1917dCCof
any books of amount, contra+

le&rs or o&er papers, ha connection

1988-(Lofm y brooks of account, contracts, l e a s or ofher papers, in connection

1917-C'therewith in the custody or control of such person, either befom or &ex

1933-%herewith in the custody or cont.roI ofsuch person, either before or after

1917-usuch transaction is (30mpIeted.

Iga&--%uchtransaction is completed.

1933-Whoever w i l l f d y violates any of the provisions of this subdivision or of rrny

license, order, r u l e or regulation h u e d therennder, shall, upon conviction,be

fined not more than $10,000,or,if a na*d

perso* may be imprisoned for not

more than ten years, or both; and m y officer, directur, or agent of any
corporation who bowirrgly pdcipates in such violation may be punished by a
like dne, hprimnment, or both. Aa used in this subdivision the term ipereon'
-rms an indivfdual, partnership, nssociation, or corg~ration.~
Wnd of Statute]
Exhibit A

Page 11 of 16

R COUNTY, Gk SUPERIOR COURT

SPA BOOK

C h a n a 6- New pedties are imposed for viola*g the mended TWEA extended into the
Unibd States affecting "anyperan within the United Stat#" (natural or e c i a l )
"subject to the jurhdkthn #hereof,"namely, to the newly imposed, nondviUan,
emergency war powers, Wid jurisdiction of the United Sta*s.
N o t e uParson" as bfimd under the TWEA is identical to a GGPerson''
d e h d in the EBRA,
However, an individual natural "Person"under the TWZA was a Private C i b a of the
United States under Sechn 1 of the 14" Amendment. The natural &Persod'under the

EBRA amen*

the TWEA and thereby extending the TWEA into the United State8 is a

Public "US. citizenntreated Eke a corporation in corn-

privilege.

NCitizenship Status and Jurfsdiatian of the United Stmtes

I. Private Citizenship of the United S t a b , Section 1,14*Amendment

?.dl p e m m born or naturalized in the United S t u w and abject to the jurisdiction

thereof, are e i h s ofthe United Sates d of the State wherein they maidan
A An individual ib3 8 n a k d "pr&onP

B. That individual namd "pemnnis "born QP nahrulized in the United Sta6es" (the
geographic KUnited Stated' composed of the states in union under the Constitution of the
United state^).

C. That individual natural "pemanis "su4ject to thejurisdidora themof,"the jwdiction

of the United Stam.
D. The yur&xZ-

thereof (jwkE&on of*

United States)is the mnstitutiondly-

e s t a b b d , c o ~ i ~ ~ ude jure,
~ ~chihn
- ~jurisdiction
d , of the United States &at
began on h k c h 4,1789,and that ended onMarch 6,1933,c o h e d and appmved on
Maxh 9,1933,by the Emqgenq B
e RdkPAct.

E. The citbmbip of the "citizenof the United Skates" is private, not public.
F. T h d r e , the Private "citizenoftheUnited Steatea" under Section 1 of the 14th
Amendment is a *penma. subject to ~ h e f u ~ i eof~the
o nU n i W Sta$cw-* That

..

jwkdktion is a civilian judsdkkbn.

Exhibit A

Page 18 of18

la. Public Citizenship of the United States,Section 1,14~Amendment

k A corporation is a *pemnP'under S&i0111,14~Amendmeat*

B- A corporation is a " c i t b n " under S d o n 1,14fi Amendment.
C . A corporation ie created by a stak f ~ the
r benefit ofthe public.
D. A corporation i~ a public "&ken of the United Stges.=

E. By operation of law, the CertScate of five Birth, on the day it was 6 M with a public o&
of the dptate of natural birth, created an individual corpomtdtzmt entie>a Public "citizen
of #he United SEcstes; its pxobeing the Private *citizenof the United Stuteg"

F. On March 6,1933(approved and m-ed

on M m h 9, f933, v i a the EBW, all

regkteredpropew (land, labor and buaineese~)were seized as "boo* of waf by
Pnrrtlamation 2039 of President F r d d h D.Roosevelt acting under the World War I
~tatutoryauthorits of the T r a h g W d the Enemy Act" of October 6,1917,as amended
14 times up to and including March 10,1930.

G. On March 6,1933 (appmd and mafirmedon M b A 9,1933,via the EBRA), the

cumtitutional, limited, &&re, cEPiIiangovernment of the United Stam was ousted and
replaced with a statutory, udhited, & fato, militw T e n t ofthe United States.

W. On March 6, 1933 (approved and c o d r m e d on March 9,1933,via the EBRA), the civilian
yurkdict2on of ghe United S t a W under Section 1 ofthe 14th Amendment was removed
and replacedwith the military ~ u r k d k Z b n
of the UniMd S $ a W under the
"Ernergexlcy Badtdxlg Rehef Act'' now codified as 12USC 96a based upon the military
%dhg W~ththe Enemy Act" now c-d
a 50 USG App. 5(b).
I. Therefore, the Public * c i h f tof the United Stat& under Seetion 1 of Ehe 14th
Amendment is a "pemm ,subject to the ju&dic#ioa of the United Sgated' under
the "EmergencyB-w
ReliefAct" (12USC 9M) baaed upon the %ding With the
Enemy ActP (50 USC App. Ei(b)). That jmidi&m h a military jurkliction impming
martid process in every adon, state and federal, c i d and mimhd

..

FXMAL CONCLUSION

The Prink "eiZixenof the UniZed StraW8" is a "ermn* subject to the constitutional, dejum,
peacetime, jurisdiction of the Uniid Sh*s under W o n 1 of the 14th Amendment.
~ ofthe United
~
Statee
nis a civilian jurisdiction using civilian process
to gain inpsraonum jurisdiction.

That peacetime j

Exhibit A

Page 13 of 15

On the other h a d
The Pub& "citizen of the United States" is a "pps0nnsubject to the shtulmryf d8 @to, warthe
jurisdiction of the United States under the "Emergency Banking Relief Act" (codi&d ag 12USC 95a)
based upon the
"Trading With the Enemy Act" (m&d
50 USC App. B(b)). AU actions,
federal and state, crjminal and civil, using m&
process to confer in personam jurisdiction of the
emergency war powerB courtrs are founded upon these two statutes.

That wartjme jurisdiction of the United State8 is a military jurisdiction using martial procem to
gain inpersonam jurisdiction.

You are either a Comtitutiond Privaw %ithenofthe United States"

Or
You are a Statutory PubIjls:"citizenof the Unibd Stated'

You are either a ''&F~Q&'

under Section 1 of the 14* Amendment

You are a "permfinunder the commercial "]EmergencyB e g Relief Act" (1933)

(12 USC 96a)
Based upon the martial'Trading With the Enemy Ad? (1917)
(50USC Agp. 5@))

You are either mbj& to a

-B

''jtsrisdietionof the United Stated'

Under Section 1 of ehe Id* Amendment

You are subject to a martial "jurisdietbnof the United Stcaw'

Under the "Emergency Banking Relief Act* (1933)and
The ?Erading With the Enemy Act" (1917)
(12USC 95a and 60 USC App. 5@))
You are one of the Savereirrcn Peode of the unitedStates of America

You are one of the 0011aueredpeoxrle of the United States of America

The End
Exhibit A

Page 14 of 15

LAMAR COUNTY. GA. SUPERIOR COURT

DEPUTY CLERK

That for the reasons expressed above, notwithstanding whether a natural person is born within a
State of the United States of married citizen parents, the-Executor and Beneficiaries of this EXPRESS
DEED IN TRUST TO THE UNiTED STATES OF AMERICA are of a singular class separate and apart
from those who are either naturalized or born a citizen, and are unable to certify as eligible for POTUS
one of the conquered weo~leof the United States of America as long as the dejure citizen of the United
States remains the surety-indenture for the Debtor trust with beneficial interest in the surety, for that
natural person is the property of the United States and is a slave unable to fulfill the duties of POTUS.
Therefore, the Executor and Beneficiaries are bound by their registered status as private citizens
of the United States with their bonafide status as a natural-born Citizen within the duties and
obligations of this DEED in TRUST to only certify a candidate is eligible based upon the foregoing and
shall seek equity relief of a chancellery court for attempt to USURP the POTUS to the contrary.
That the Beneficiaries for this DEED in TRUST are private citizens of the United States in respect
to the debtor trust entity registered with the United States Secretary of the Treasury with acceptance
confirmed for each respective package by Certified Mail with numbers for their account in regards to
the period ending before the fEng of this DEED in TRUST and that the undersigned Beneficiaries are
certified natural-born Citizens capable of rendering a decision as to the status of a POTUS candidate.
That Executor and Settlor (SETTLOR), who privately is of equal beneficial interest to the
Beneficiaries or any member of the class defined above in the execution of the obligations of this DEED
in TRUST, is Christopher Earl Strunk in esse Sui juris private citizen of the United States, the
secured beneficiary agent of the Debtor Trust transmitting utility TMCHR;ISTOPHEREARL
STRUNKO as duly registered with the United States Secretary of the Treasury with account #jl9db
ZU@BdAccrual #70103090000192293013 and 70123460000358729106and located at 593 Vanderbilt
Avenue PMB 281 Brooklyn, New York zip code excepted 11238 Cell Phone:
Email:
1
_
,who upon his acceptance will duly serve this Trust publicly without beneficial
interest until further written notice unanimously approved by undersigned Beneficiaries and be
reimbursed for his time and expense acceptable to the Beneficiaries.

The undersigned Beneficiaries hereby enact this EXPRESS DEED IN TRUST and appoint the SETTLOR:

Dated:

Eric Jon ~ 6 se in esse ~ u i f u r i s

private citizen of the United States,
the secured beneficiary agent of the Debtor Trust
transmitting utility q R I C JON PHELPSO

Exhibit A

Page 15 of 15

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haaraina meltlng, crr earmar&p &goldos d v a coin Q hllim r~ w a u w . . .? and

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hmrdhg. or curmarking ofgold oa sIhrar ~QLUla bullion m curran-, dnha~cbgproclaim. urdcr, dimat and

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anqendtd. Dnring such h l d a j , emepting au hmeinafter provided,nosucbbunkkg hdtnbion rabrmch
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12 USC %
95ai- Regulation of transactions in foreign exchange
d*
-of gold and silver; property transfers; vested interests,
hu
enforcement and penalties
W.
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'

SEARC

lIlV

US Code

m
NO-

Updates

Authorities (CFR)

I-

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Parall1

USCPre/im is a preliminary release and may be subject to further revision before it is

reieased again as a final version.
-

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Current through Pub. L. 1 13-9. [See 1
.
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(1 1 Durina the time of

designate, and under such rules and regulations as Re may prescribe, by means of
instructions, licenses, or otherwise(A) investigate, regulate, or prohibit, any transactions in foreign exchange, transfers
of credit or payments between, by, through, or to any banking institution, and the

importing, exporting, hoarding, melting, or earmarking of gold or silver coin or

bullion, currency or securities, and

(B) investigate, regulate, direct and compel, nullify, void, prevent or prohibit, any
acquisition holding, withholding, use, transfer, withdrawal, transportation, imporration
or exportation of, or dealing in, or exercising any right, power, or privilege with
respect to, or transactions Involving, any property in which any foreign country or a

'

national thereof has any interest,

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States; and any property or interest of any foreign country or naddnal thereof shall vest,
when, as, and upon the terms, directed by the President, h such agency or person as may
be designated from time to time by the President, and upon such terms and conditions as
---,+hePresident may prescribe such interest or property shall be held, used, admlnlstered,

Ilquidated, sold, or otherwise dealt wlrh in the interest of and for the benef~of the United
States, and such designated agency or person may perform any and all aas incident to the

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accomplishment or furtherance of these purposes; and the President shall, in the manner
hereinabove provided, reauire anv Person to keeg a full record of, and to furnis k under
oath, in the form ofreports or othewse, complete information relative to anv act or
transaction referred to in tNs subdivision either before, during, or after the completion
thereof, or relative to any interest in foreign property, or relative to any property in which
any foreign clounw or any national thereof has or has had any interest, or as may be
otherwise necessary to enforce the provisions of this subdivision, and in any case in which
a report could be required, the President may, in the manner hereinabove provided,
ryequire the production, or if necessary to the national security or defense, the seizure, of
any book of account, records, contraas, letters, memoranda, or other parrers, in the
custody or control of such person.

(2) Any payment, conveyance, transfer, assignment, ar delivery of property or interest

therein, made to or for the account of the United States, or as otherwise directed,
pursuant to this section or any rule, regulation, instruction, or direction issued hereunder
shall to the extent thereof be a full acquittance and discharse for all purposes of the
obligation of the person rnaednq the same; and no person shall be held liable In any court
for or in respect to anvthins done or omitted in aood faith in conneaion wlrh the
administration of, or in pursuance of and in reliance on, this section, or any rule,
reguiation, instruction, or direction issued hereunder.

(3) As used in this subdivision the term *United States" means the United States and any
place subied to the iuHsdiction thereof: Provided, however, hat the foregoing shall not
be construed as a limitation upon the power of the President, which is hereby conferred,
to prescribe from time to time, definitions, not Inconsistent with the purposes ofthis
subdivision, for any or ail of the terms used in this subdivision. As used in this
subdivision the term 'person" means an tndlvidual, partnership, association, or
corporation.

-.

(4) The authority granted to the President by this section does not include the authority
to regulate or prohibit, directly or indirectly, the importation from any Country, or the
exportation to any country, whether comrnercia1 or otherwise, regardless of format or
medium of transmission, of any information or informational materials, including but not
limited to, publications, films, posters, phonograph records, photographs, microfilms,
microfiche, tapes, compact disks, CD ROMs, artworks, and news wire feeds. The exports
exempted from regulation or prohibition by this paragraph do not include those which
are otherwise controlled for export under section 2404 of titte 50, Appendix, or under
section 2405 of title 5QyAppendix to the extent that such controls promote the
, nonproliferation or antiterrorism policies of the United States, or with respect to which
-- ' acts are prohibited by chapter 37 of title U.

UIhas no control over and does not endorse any external Internet site that

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Table
- Pard11
'

USCPrefim is a preliminary release and may be subject to further revision before it is

released again as a final version.

Current through Pub. L. 11 3-9. (See Public Laws for the current Congress.)
,

?-

he actions, regulations, rules, licenses, orders a n d e r e t o f o r e or

hereafter taken, promulgated, made, or issued by the President of the United States or
the secretary of the Treasury a c e Marrh 4. 1933, pursuant to the authority conferred by
section %of chis title, are approved and confirmed.

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PROVISIONS OF FEDERAL LAW

NOW IN EFFBCT DELEGATING TO TH3
EEcmTvE~ O m m Y a m O
MTmE O F N A T T O N A L ~ C Y

REPORT
OF T I E

SPECIAI, COMMITTEE ON
T E m m O N OF THE NATIONAL EMERGENCY
UNtrnD STATES smm

-MION

SPECIAL COMMIlTlB ON TH13

OF THE NATIONAL EMJ3RGENCY

CHARLES Mac MAlTWs, Jr., Mqland

GLEFORX)P.CASE, Mew Jersey
JAMES 3. PKARSON*Kausas
cuFFoRDP.HAEJSEN, Wyomiag
WUUMG-PmLLER,&f~r

THOMAS A. DINE,ProfkrsiaaolsQ@

FOREWORD

Withthemeltingof~eoold~ilt-~~~~detente~~SovletUnion~~
t h e s t a b l e ~ o f o w 2 0 ~ d n r a t i a n ~ ~ N ~ d S M l t h ~ aend
nd
oft h e
U . S . W v ~ h t h e m h ~ - h k n o p r e s e a r & W ~ U M ~
G o v ~ t o ~ t o h c t i ~ n u n d e r a n e %. .e x l c y ~ .

gov~@b,b~endwqiawhich&U~~S~canmeetfrrhrre
-cy
situsti~fl~
with speed and e f k t i m m s but without d m q d- m m t of
copl$ESsional o v e m 9ndmnlrOL
~

In.accmdmm w i t h a maamdate, the Spacial coinmi-im

cunjdonwi# t.h h&ve
h c h , q m t mnstktional authorities, as well as former high OW
of this
Govemueat-is now engaged

Note 1: S . b.
9,93d Gong*, 13 k.

A firat and nooessary s ~ was

p to bring togdm the body of statutes, whioh have been
~ s s 8 b y ~ s , ~ ~ ~ p o w e r s z r p w f h e ~ ~ h x l t i m e s o f
national emergency.
'Jihis hm been a most d E d t Cask. Nowhere in i
b Govmmnt, in either the Executive or
Legislative branches, did did exist a a I e k m g of all mergmcy m m . Many
wae a m that there had b m a delegation of an mannous mount of p o w but, of how
much power, no one hew. h order to correct this situation, the Special Cmmittez staff
was instructtd a0 w d with the Execxh bran& the L i h q of Congress, md
Hmowledgdle Iegd auhmitie8 to compile an d.m&ive list of delegated mmgmcy
powem.
wwhich contains a list ofdl prmkbm ofFederal law, except
fhe most trivial, c m f k m i q e x t m m k q powers in time of n a t i d emergency, was

W s SpeciaI Chmdt-teestudy,

compiled by the s@ under lhe direction of S M Director Wrllim G. Milk, and Mr.
Thomas A Dine; utilizirag the help of the Gemid AcGwmting Office,the ~~Law
Division of the Library of Congress, the Dqmhmt of J h , h Department of Defense.
a

The Special Committee is grateful ftz ihe assistance providd by Jack Goldkbg of the
OEce of Legal Come& Depmtmm of Justice; Lester S. Jays- the director of the
Cmpssional bearch Savice of the Library of ;
Joseph E. Ross, h&
of the
American Law Division of CRS;and especially Raymond CeIada ofthe Ameri- can Law
~ ~ ~ d h i s a b l e ~ b , C h a r l e s ~ DWamlP ae u~l A~m S
m t.m n g

of the G e m d Amounting M c e ; Linda Lee, Patrick kctam, R

O
W Moore, W
sawyer, AuAudreyHaby, MaKthaMeChm, andDavid J. Kyte.

i EL

The Sprxial Committee will also publish a kit of Execlrtive Ordm, hued pmumt to
s t a t u t ~brollght into fnrce by declared states of
at a later date.

EMERGNCY POWERS STJCCUTES:

PROVISIONS OF mBRAL,uw
NOW IN EFFECT DELEGATING TO THE

EXECUTIVE ~ 0 I U ) ~ A R Y A ~ O ~

m n m OF N A T I O N A L ~ G E N C Y

Mr. MATHUS (for Mr. C

X
I
l
R
w as m - c h h m of the Special Committee on the
Teenofthe National Emergency, euthe fo-

W~iroward'JT&@kpropermleofthe~%~~,their&Wba
v
h dhetrhlly-oppmed philosophia of the psi-.
In his autobiography,
Roosevek asserted his "stewadship EheorymW

MY viewwas that everyExem& oIicer,.wa a skwdofthepeoplehmdadiveIy and

~lytododhe~for~~Iednatto~antentbZfwiththenegativemerir
of hephg his ld&s mbmaged in a napkin.-Mybelief was that it was not only [the
~t'sl~~~~~do~tbingthattheneedsof~eNsltimdemandedunle85~uch

ectimwasforbidaIslbythe~~mbytheIaw9.Underfi~mofde
power I did and caugtd ra be done many lihgs not previously done by the President rmd the
heads of depm-hmis. I did not usurp pop~erbut I did p a t f y broaden the use of executive

pm.hotherworda,Iacted~Phecommon~u~ofanmpeoplew~d
whafevcr maswe was necessary, d m pmmbd by direct constitutional or bgislatkve
protnibition+

h s e v e l t campad this principle of "stewardship" to what he called the J x h - L i n c o l n

theory, and m e t e d it to the b o r y s t s c r i i to Waam Howad Tlaft.
Rooseyelt'a idea on the limit of psidentid auhrity and m p o m.d ..
d @ were vigrm,usIy
- .
disputed by Tafk In lectures on tPle p m i d a q 4 Z i v e r e d ato-C
ia Uni19l&Taftrestmndedthat:"...t h e W i . & f i e l d o f a c t i o n ~ t ~ w ~ ~ v e t o ~ ~ r c e c u t r v e
onecan~~1Zmit.AM~canex~enow1werwhicb~t~
traced to some medk mmt of ~ower."h d he mutimedthat ". .such q e d k grants
muat be

. - or in my act of Congress pass& in pursuzrnce ah&

in the F a l e d Consatuaon,
There is no &ed
residuum of power which he can e x d e because it seems to him to
be in the p a b h . ~ "
ei*

In recent years, most scholars have interpreted the Roomelt-Tdt dispuEe in Roosevelfs
favor,h the prevailing academic view, Roosevelt L described w "activew,nexpmiodstH,
and "strong."The historical rdly, in fact, does not a l E d such a sharp dishdim either
between hactions of these two Residents, or between their Mysig of the pmbIm of
emergency powers, TM, in his -1uding

muds

to his Columbia le&ms, said :

malect or
Thus, wen T& was
~ t o e m p l o y e m a ~ e n c y p o w a w h e n t 6 e a e e d a m s e , b uhedidnotwishto
t,
go
beyond his own narrower, o a n s ~ v m
e+
w
1 of what was mmnt by mmhhtmd and
legal bounds. Thus, the dispute was ova w b those b o d lay, m&er h u the nature of
the office imlf.

public in limes of emergency w le

T&'s successor, Woodrow Wilson, was no less d o u s in obmGng what he thought the
Comitution demanded Faced with the &gencia of World War I, W h found it
necessary to expand executive emergemy powexst emmmusIy. In m y mpect$ this
eqansion o+wers in wartime was based on p r e d m t s set by LinmIn decades earher,
Unlike Lincoln, however, Wlwn relied heavily on Congress for official m a n s of
authority no matter how broadly these might be.
W k ' s exercise of power in ~e First WmId W
ar pmvided a model for future Pmidmts
and their dxkors. I h h g the pnqadmess period of 1915-1916, the submmb -1s
in
the opening months of 1917,and the period of direct h o l v e ~ e n of
t U.S. armed h
from &xil 1917 to Novmiber 1918, Wilson Mpowers as sweeping as LinooIn'~.
Because govmmmid agencies were mure highly
aad their jurhktiw wideq
presidential powem were considerably more e-ve
than ever before. Ye& p e h p ,
became of WIlsmls saqnhus &tention to o
w pior conge&&
concurrencethere
was only one signikant mgressioaal &&age to W-s
wartime measures.

--

That challmge came in Fdmaq-Maroh 1917, following the severance of dipImtic

rd&ions with Gemmy. A p u g of Senators successfully fdihtered a bill a d d z i n g the
am& ofAmerican merchant &ips. In reqmm~ncordsAnmican historian Frank Freidel
in his book Roosate&: bke Appremticeship - &&ant
Secretatv of f
h Naw F m .
the
guthcirkation h a Conmss. Romevelt, kpaiient for dm., was imitated became Wilson.
waited a fkw days before i m p h m t h g the statute.

Lincoln had drawn mmt heavily upon his power as C m m a m k - i n e W&on ex&
m q m q power on the basis of old stahtes and sweeping new legislation-thus drawing
on cungmsioml delegalion as a source of authority TBe most s i g d i w n t Who&
inn~vatiionswere economic, including a wide may of defense and war agencies, modeled
tosome~tuponBritish~

p d e n t s . In AWE 1916 j& prim to the United S W entry into the war, Congress at
W h ' s b e k t established a C o d of N & d Defeme-phdy advisory. In 1917, a
War Industries Board, aiso nMvely WE& began operating. The ineffectiveness of a
economic & W o n led ~ I i c a n -Pa
s Cmgms - in the winter of 1917-1918 to
~ d a ~ w W a r ~ & ~ h W i n h ~ ~ ~ ~ C o n . g r e s
plroposing legislation d
e
m him almost total economic pwer and, wm before
legislative approval, ztuihorked the War Industries B d to exercise extensive powers.
end.r Cn - M ~ o n ' s m ~ h O v - A & b @ l 9 1 8 . ~
legislation exkudd lk mmmnic aufhorty ofthe Gwemmentm numerous directions.
h relinquished bis w a r h e authoriw and asked Congress
to r e p a l the emergency m,
enacted ta @t moxe ef3kdveJ.ythe the. Only a foodcontrol m u r e -and@ + - @
Enemy Act were r & k L This procedure
of termbating emergency powem when the partEculslr emergency iM has, h fact,

Following the allied victory, W

ended has not been consistently foRuwed by his snmeswm.

The next major d e v e l i~n the
~ use of executive emergency powers came under
Franklin D. RooseveIt. The Grext Depressionhad M
y waaken lbe country by the time
of Roosevelfs huguralion and amfronted him with a totally diffexenE crisis. This
mqency,
u d h those of the past, presented a nondiimy h t . The Roosevelt
.
admm&&on, however, conceived the economic crisis to be a c a l m n i w
- I G&y.hhis
a
w
s
e
v
.
inaugural d m s , bsevelt
- -said:
- "
fo-awar-

.
lt

Many of the manbas of the hosevelt administdon, indwhg FD-R himself, were
vetmans of the economic motribtion of World War I and drew upatx their a p e r i m to
combat tbe new sihtim T ' h first New Deal agmcies, indeed, bare strung resemblance to
wartime agencies and m y had the tam -"
in their tifla-such as the Federal
.
E m a g a c j ReliefAdmmimb'onand theN&nal. E h m p c y Cmmil.

In his &st hqmrhnt official act, Roosevelt proclaimed a National B d Holidav on the
71-

TTradiaP.W& the Emmv Act - itself a

WilliaaaE-Lmdbdmmwritm

of cower. Mew

Tmdum with

h e Enemy Act had. horn. M

bv j&

abmeetthe-~f*
0 f " ~ e s H f o w h i G h ~ m o f
e x d v e pmm might be applied. And b in doing, h~ helished a pattcm that was
followed hqumtly: In time of crisis the Redent ahodd lltilize my &&tory d a & y
readily at hand, reof ib o d g M p p e s , with the k n expectation of ex post
fa& coagmsgimal concurrence.

with F a x , -then, extensive use of delegated powas exedsed under an a m of

t aspect of the pmideacy. C d t a n t with this hetopmeat
s-i
of n
~
~ It h a, m e a
" term used to evoke
public md congressid approbation, OWbaring little a c t d relation to events.
Roosevelt bmh-Enrstcq Rex&& G.
has described the manner in which Roosevelt
used declmtio118 o f d i f m

mi& has b e a m a '

hw been a h e a n h g of

The W t e d emergemyn wa a creature of Romwl~shaghation, used to

makeitseemtbmrthewasaoing~~hewas.He~dn~~b~any
more furor
was necessaq. The qd@&
djective had no limit.ing force~

a whole B ~ ~ O
of m
N e r s ta the Commander-k-ChieE far mcm t l m ~

had had

RDoseveIt and hisr successor, JhEy S. Tnrmstn, invoked formal mlEs of emergeacy .lo
justify extensive delepdo~sof rmthority during actual

* of

wat.

m e Korean war,

howeveg by the fact of its never having b m m officially declared a "wartt as such by
Cmgm$ further diluted the concept of WM
cmtitukd c k c m s w dciently critical
to warrant the delegation of extraordinary authority to the Aesidmt

A t $ l e m d o f f h e ~ r e a n w a t , ~ v e r , ~ o ~ ~ ~ o f ~ ~ ~ w a s n
Itisnot~et~Thismaybeprimariy~w~~of~CoMWw
atmosphere which, mtil recent years, made the immimt threat of hostilities ran accepted
~ofw~ylifqwithn~~cy"thenwmaI~~of~.In~,~isfo
p m d d purposes, Jmmanmt state of elnmmnm PmidentXl have ex&cd
numemas

p
r
r
w
~
m
o
g
t
l
~
~
b
~ o f ~ O n a l ~ c y . H ~ o f ~ b a v e ~ f a l l ~ ~ , ~ ~ b b a & d r

Besides the 1933 and &man war mqacies,~

two 0 t h states of decked national
emapcy muin in *e.
On March 23, 1970, adnmted by a mikc of Postal
Senice employees, P d d a t Nion decked a n a t b d emmgmoy-~The
following year,

mh@

Note 1: See Appendix g. 594.

2:-Ibid

3 Bid, p. 5%.

15,1971, Mixm proclaimed mdm emergmcy,k Mder which he inqmed shingent impart
controls in order to meet an bkmational monetary &s8 Becaase of its general 1e-,
however, thsrt procMm a d d serve as s u t k i m t autlmity to use a mbstmtial
pprki~nofdl~emxgencyst;attltesmw~thebmks..

O v e r ~ ~ o f ~ ~ ~ Z s r s t 4 0 ~ , t h e n , ~ ~ h e r v e h a d a ~ l e
~ o ~ - ~ g I y ~ a n d m e ~ ~ - r s m g e o f ~Indeed,
p o w e r s .
at their fullest e&mt and during the height of a mi& these '@rogatiyen powers a m fo
be v k t d y u d h k d , c d b & g hdtc's pemptbm. Baa-- cowmiti and tbeboblle
are maware d the esht of emergency powem there has never been mv notable
b

d Shmc~ult
~0~

During the New Deal, f

h S q m m Court initially struck down much of Roomelt's
emergency economic -1egbIatimPchecfer v. U
.
295 U.S. 495). Howeveq
politicalpemma, adxtngeinpammcl,
fo-@
m
m
dkmd this course of daisions QKMBv. J i & Lauqhh -2 Gorp., 301 U.S. 1). Since
1987, the Cwrt has ha extremely ~
1to in-a ~
any
t
deIegaiom of

~~~

ec0no~pwastothoPresidcnt1lspperrmthetthiswillnotcbangcin~efooreeseable
future.

In a significant

case M
P i f m Sheef & T
&

y mn&hg the issue of wartime emergeacy powers,

Co. v. Sawyer (343 U.S. 579), the Coutt refugd to allow the
President d y
kdid d b h d -erS
8 &. The ~ O I I h
involved presidential seizure of me1 plaxlts in a m a m a qpmntIy directly at odds with
congressW policy, J&
B U S phxrality opinion sp-y
acknowledges that if
Cangress de1e.gaks powers to the Md&hr use dmhg an emergency those powers are
absolutely valid within mmtimioaal. &ts
on Cmgres' own power to do so.
~opini~~l~app~~~onthispoint,Itshouldben~kh,WaaJI
sfahfesia. this compilation are precisely these kinds of spec& c m g m s h d debgations
of power-

The 2,000-year-oId problem ofhow a leghhtive body in a d e m d c republic may extend

e x t m r d h q powers fbr use by the executive during times of gr& crisis and dire
ernagemy - but do so in wavs assuring:both &at such necessaw wwers will be t e d m k d
resolved in this countw. Too few are aware of the exishme of emere;enqy
powers andtheir extent,d i h e m b l e m h never been suumlyfaaed

B - SUMMNXYVIEWS OF THE P R E S m STATUS

O F ~ ~ P O ' W E STATUTES
R S
A Peview of the laws passed since &e first saate of national mmpmy was decletrsd in
of hwmakbg. It h is
showiug that & Congress,
1933, rev&
a consistmt
through its own actims,
awesome magnitudes of power to the e x e v e

~~

oshsibly to meet the problem of governing effectively in times of great crisis. Since
1933, Cangress has passed or recod%& over 470 sifl~ant statutm delegatkg to bu=
h i d e n t powers hat had h e n

the prero@ve and m p s i i t y of the C m g e a sin= the kghnhg of the Republic. No

dmge can be sustained that
E x d v e binch has usurpd powers belonging to the
LRgklative b a d ; on &e contmq, the &er
of power has been ia m r d with due
process ofnormat t e ~ ~procedures.
v e

Itis~W~~timethat,when&ehdeensiomsofthecoldwarm@~g

w a y ~ r e l t l t i v e ~ ~ ~ i S n o w ~ p o l i c y , ~ ~ ~ ~ s
qualiw, and and ofwhat has beomne how11as emergency powers 1egisMm. Bmgmcy
powers make up a reMve1.y small but impartant body of skdxtes - some 470 s
~
~
t
provisions of law out of the total of teas of thouin& W have been gassed or d e d
since 1933. But emergmy powers hm me of such s i g i b n c e to civil fibdea, to the
q d m of domestic a d foreign ammeme, and the general
of the U.S,
Government, h t , in mic~copm,they refleet dmhant trends in -the political, economic,
and judicial life in the United States,

~~

Anumber of conclusioxls can be dram &om the S p e d Camnittee's study and adyak o f
mwpncypowers1awsnowineBct C o ~ h t s i n m o s t ~ t r e 9 p e c & , e x c e p t f o r
~M~offlmr&b~andthc~gassageofbills,pamittea~Executive
branch to draft and in Zarge measure W
the laws." This hw occurred despite the
d t u t i d responsilnlity COM
on sby Mcle I Section 8 of the
CumtiArtion which
that it is Congress that k a k e s all Laws .."

Most of the statuEes perhhhg to emer%ency powerswere p e d in times of exlmne &IS.

Bills drafted in the Executive branch were sant to Congress by the =dent
and, in the
case of the most ~iguifimt
Iaws that ate cm fhe boob, were approved with only the most
~ r y ~ ~ ~ e w a n d V i r t l l P r l landemtian
y r n c of their effect on civil liberties
or the delicate &mime of the U.S. Gcmnment of divided prrwers. For example, the
e 0 ~ l o m i ~ m e s s u n s t h a t w a e p a s s ~ d i n 1 9 3 3 p u ~ u a n t t o t h c pm
~ o fd
~ ~ ,b
1933, by Mident Roomelt, asserbg that a state of nation4 emergency now exist&
wereenactedin&em&~dentc'
~hwasatotaIofonlyShomof
debate in both houses. There were no m d t k e repuds; indeed, only one copy of the bill

.c9

was av-le

an the floor.

~ p ~ ~ f ~ a n d ~ t e ~ W o n w e t a q W ~ W o x l d W m I I w h e
another group of laws with M
y s i g n i h d and fxr mcbing implidom was passed. It
wasfepeatsdduringthe~warand,again,inmastrecentmemory, durhgthedebate
on tSle Toxrldn WResolnti~flpmodonAugust 6,1064.
On m i o n , IegisMve history shows that during the limited d e w s W did take place, a
few, but very few, objectioas were raised by k m t m s and Cungremmen tlaat expnwsd
serious conamus about tfiB lack of pruvidm for coqpaional oversight Their q e e c h e ~

n 1933 was lhe Emmggxw B

Act
- based ur~on%xti01151b) of the T m h With the Enemv Act of 1917. The pmvhians
gave to M & n t Roawelt, with the full approval of the Congmss, the autbmity

For
d

1 on ofthe

(1)Ihrring~timeof~rn~any~~ofnatiOnalemqa~
M b y ~ M ~ h ~ t m a v . ~ a x l y a g e ~ 1 c y t h a t h e ~
'd&gmk, or ~~,
and Mder such d a and rqphtions as he m y
p c r i i by mami of ~~,
licenses, or o t h h e -

(A) investigate, regdate, w prohib$ any tramactions in foreign

exchange, trzmfm of credit or payments b a e a n , by, throagh, w
toanybanEdng~tution,and~immrrtinp.
m h o m k g ,
m
e or a m d i n g of gold or silver ooin or bullion, currency or
sdtie8,

and

@I hvesfigate, regdate, dired and compel, nullify, void, prevent or

phibit, m y ac@&ion,
howithholding, me, tmder,
withdrawl, lmqmhdion,irmportatonor w o n of, or dealing
in, or e x d i m y right, power, or privilege with I-ESPH$ to, or
tmsactims involving, any property in which m y farei&I1country
ara~dtj,ereofhasmyin~

United States; and my property or inof m y foreiga country or national

thereof shallvest, when, as, andzq#mtbekmm, directedbetheMin
d~arpersonasmaybeQBigaatedMtimetotimebythe~
andpsuchtemsandccxdtbmas~Mdentmay~~~interest
o r p r o p e r t y m b e ~ z a , ~ ~ ~ 8 0 i d , 0 1 : ~ e
deaitwithintheinterwk of and fbr fheka&of&eUnited S t a b , and such
designated ageucy or pason may perform my and all acts incident to the
acmmpkhment or furtherance of thefiepurposes; and the President shall, in the

~here~eprovided,r#pliremypmntokeepa~recol.d&and
tofizmlshMdero~inthef~lrmofreportsm.oEh~e,~1ete~on
re~vefo~y~m~actiw~.tohthis~Vision~befm,
during or
the comp1hn &ereof, or dative to any htemt in foreign
propdq, or xelaitive to my property in which any foreip country or my
natiod th-f
has or has had auger inkre&, m as may be o k m i s e necessary
to enfbrcetheprovisions ofthis ~ ~ r m d any-inwhichareport
i n
couldberequired,fhePresidentmtry,inthemarmer~pro~
receive fie pmduction, or if necessary to fhe national security ar defense, the
seifllte, of any book of acmmt, reeds, coma&, Ie~ters,
or
otherpapers,inthe ~ y o r ~ I o f ~ p e x 9 andtheb3ident,mas;
o n ;
in the mamw k e i d m v e provided, take other and f m t h meastaes not
incmsi&nt herewithfor the m f i i e n t of &is subdivision
Iz)Any payment, c m v q m m , tmufer, ~ ~ e 2 or1 delimy
f
of pperly or
i n ~ ~ m , m a d e t o o r ~ ~ a c c r n m t o f orasothemise
~Uni~S~
iheckd, pursuant to this &divisim m any rule, regulation, inskudon,

r r r ~ ~ e d ~ s h a l l t o t h e a t e n t ~ f b e a f u l l ~ ~ ~
discharge far all pusposes of the obligation of the person making the same; and
no person &dl be held liable in my court fm or inrespect to a@hg b e or

&m&~&inco&mwiththe~&&arin~e
o f d i n m ~ ~ n , ~ ~ v i s i o n , o r s m y r u l ~ ~ o n , ~ o n , m
direction issued h e m d a

To cite two M e r examples:

Inthecontsr.t ofthe waapowm issue d&elong&&
dv 10 U.S.C. 712is ofiqmhuce:

10 U.S.C. 712. Foreign gov-:

of ~ e pdecade
t
overnational

detail to assist.

the Psesidmt,

(a) Upon the application of fhe country can-

m y detail mmbm
oftheArmy,Navy,A3Forcq a n d w Cwpstoassistinmili~

whenever he cmsidm it in the pubzic

mtars-

(1) any republic in Norh America, C

~
~
c

W America, or

(2) the Republic of Cuba, Haiti or Q&

DO&

I
BDd

~)Suajectto~epri~~~~of~SecPetaryofthemilitary
department colla m d x x d&d& under this section m y
aeptmyoffi~efrvrm~courrtrybwhi&heis&tailedHe%
entitIedto&fordservicew~m~~~s~with
the m e d forces of the United States. Arrangemen& may be made

b y t h e ~ t , w i f h c a u n t r i e s t owhichsuchrnembersaredetailed
t o ~ ~ f u n c t i ~ ~ ~ ~ w n d e r ~ ~ n n , f o x r e i m ~ e n t ~ ~
Unites states or ofher sharing of the Gost of performing such
-fimctium*

T h e ~ e ~ e ni nta n
, swerto~byfheSpecialC~ooncerning~
provision, has stakduhat it has only been usedwith regad to Lath Americq and inhprds
its agp%&%ty as being k i t e d to mmOOmbaEant adxkm. However, the language of
Section 712 i wi& open to other iuixqx&&m. It could be amtmd as a way of
a t d i n g cnnsWb milimy assislance to any foreign cou11tTy. Shce Congress has
delegated this power,
c d d be made against the need fior fUrther mngm&onaI
m m i na, lime ofmionzlz emergencycy

~~

The rep& of ollmest dl o f b Emergency Detention Act of 1950 was a umlrdve

EeMSsary step, but the

following^^^^:

18. U.S.C. 1383. Rearhiom in militmy areas and zones,

Whoever, milmy to the m&idimapplicable thmto, enters, remains in,

l m m , or commits any act in any militaq area or military m e prescribed
uilda the suthority of an Executive order of tbe President, by the Seaetary of
the Amy, or by any miMary conxmder dcsigmkd by the Secretary of the
Army,shan,hitifitappearsb*m
(9)

h d d b e known of the existence and extent of the ~trktionsor ordm a d

that his act w a ~in vioMon &ereof, be fuied not more than $5,000 or
imprisoned not mbre than one yeas, or bath.

18 U.S.C. 1383 does not appear on its face to be an e m q a c y power. It was used as the
basis fm intenmat of J a p m s e - h e in World War IL Although it seems to be cast
as a permanent power, the LegkMve history of the section shows that the mtua was
intended as w W d War II emergency power d y , and was not to w l y in ''mrml"
peacetime c h m W a m s Two yean ago, the Emergemy Dckntion Act was repealed, yet
18 U.S.C. 1383 has almost the saw effect.

Another pdnmt cpestbn mung many, that the Special Committee's work has revealed,
oan~emsthe s#utmy authority for domestic mWce by the ]FBI. A c c d h g to some
experts, bhe a&*
for domcstk surveillance appears to be b d upon an Executive
Order issued by President Roosevelt during an emqemy pmiod, If it is correct that no
it is mwmable to suggest
h statutory authority &,
the qqmpkte
committees enact proper statutory authority for the FBI with &qu& provision fix
oversight by Chgcess.
whatthese examples ~ m d w h a t ~ ~ M e o f e m e r g e n c y p o w ~ ~ i s t h a t

mostofthesehbonotpvi&for~~ovexsiglitor~oa~aretwo

ressons~hichranbesddmdastowhy~iaso.F~Esw,3an~fmwthetthe
tempmry states of mmgmcy decIared in 1938,1939, I9&, 1950,1970,and 1971 would
k m m what are now regard& ~Uectiyelym M
y irbuallyent states of mmgmcy (the
1939 and 1941 magmcies were termitlated in 1952). Forty yerrus can, i no way, be

~~

de&ed aa a tern-ency.
Second, the varhs
who drafted these
laws fbr a varietgr of reasons were u&&d&ly not concerned h u t pmvidhg for
congressional review, ommight, or temhdion oftbese delegated pow& which gave the

-dent

-om

powers aad amiility to me thosepowers.

The intense anxiety and sense of mkis wrms mmhed in ~

pclamatha

of Tmmm"s 1950

.-

Wherw recent events in Korea and elsewhere d t u t e a p v e tbmt to the

~ o f ~ ~ d d i t n p e r i I ~ e ~ o f ~ s ~ d t h o s e o f t h e
United Nidjwls to pmvmt aggression and mned d,
and
Whereas world CongUesE by commmkt ImperUm is the goal of the forces of
a g g a s b that have been locwedvpon the worId; and
Wh-,
if the goal.ofcamm%t imperialism were to be acbieve4 the people
of~co~wouIdao1ongera;ljoy~~fulldriohlife~ba~withOod's
help built for ~ l v e and
s their childmq they wouZA no longer enjoy tbe
b I ~ o f t h e ~ o f w ~ i n g a 9 ~ s e ~ d y & ~ e , ~ f t s e d o m
ofreading~~towhat.theychoose,therightafh~eecb,bcl~
thexightto&ticizeW&~~~ttochoo~etho~whowillmn-

duct fheir Goveammt, the right to engag h l y in ~~IIective

?x&hg,
ighttoengaphlyintheirawnb-enaergrisqdthemy*
U
s andrighiswhi.chareapattafryurwayoflife;a d

the

N ~ , ~ ~ & l h~ o yf t Sh e . U ~ S t a t ofAmerica,
e s
d o p r o c ~ t h e d ~ o f a n a t i d ~ e a c y , ~ & ~ ~ E E i e
military, navd,erirp a
n
d
c
i ofthirccauntrybe
~
~
-s
as
~y~possl'ble~~end~wemayb&ktorepd$ny~dall~
against olrr mtional security and to fulfill our q ~ 1 8 1 i t i e in
s ttxe effm
being made through the United Nations and othmrbe to bring about 1g
-

P-Immdcitizensto&azmited~farthesdtydwe1l-~gof
our beloved country ajud to place its needs fbmmost in &o&
md action that
the
moral and mataial strength of ehe Natian may be redied for the
dangers which threaten us.

Isummonourfanmm, o u r w o f k e r s i n i n d u s t x y , a n d o u r ~ m n e n t o ~ a
mighty produdion effort to meet the ddkme mquhments of the Nation and to

t h i s ~ d ~ e ~ a l l w ~ t e ~ ~ e n c y a n d t o s u b w ~ ~ d l ~
htm& to the common good.
~ s l m m u n z e v e t y ~ a s l d ~ ~ ~ m withaspiritof
a a C e ,
n d g b d b ~ s s whatever
,
wcri&a mnecmayforb w e b oftheNation.

1 mmnw all S b i e and local I d e m and offickhto cooperate fully with the
milibuy and civilian defense &eg
of the United States in the &national

I s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l o y a l t o t h e ~ p h u p o n w h i c h o n r N ~ o n h
~bkeep~~withoutEendssmdallies,and~be~inourdevotim
to the p e a d d purposes for which the United Natiw was founded.
I a m c o ~ d e n t W w d m 6 e f a h e ~ ~ ~ t ~ U S w i t b ~ e m d
dekmktion, Stpong in the faith that we can fheby "secare the Blessings of
Liberty kt ourselves and our PosbiQ."
Inwitness w h g I have hemum setmy hand andcaused the SeaI ofdm
United
States
of
M c a
to
be
a%ixed.
Done at the City of Washiugh this 16th day of December (1090 am.) in the
year of our Lord rimken hundred and fifty, and of the lhdepmb@eof the
United States ofAmerica fithe one hmdred and s w ~ - ~

DEAN ACHBSON,
S e c e t l y ofsate

The hei@bml sense of d s h of the cold war so evident in Truman's proclamation has
f o ~ l eased.
y
The legislative shorkocontained in this body of laws can be
wrmted on the bash of rational study aad inquiry.

In the view of the

Specid Chumittee, an mergemy does not now exist. Congress,

therefore, should act in the'near future to termhate offidally the stat= of national
emmgaq now in e%

At the m e the, the Specid Committee is of the view that it is essential to provide f h ~
means for the Executive l x ~act eiktively in in ~~.
It h reasaeable b have n body
of laws in readiness to delegate to the Resident powers to use in times ofreal
n a t i d emergency. The @on
ofthe mmmhg opinion given by Justice Ja&m in f i e
Ymgstown Steel case with re@
to amrgaq powers provides souncl and pahm
guiiiebes for the m n h t m m ~
of such a body of emergemy laws kept in readiness to be
d in times of extram crisis. Justice Jacbon, a p p d n g the majority opinion that the
nPresiMspower must stem either &om an sct of Cungress or from tbe Constitutionitself'
wrote:

The tqrpeal, howeveg that we declare the

existence of inbmt powers a

m ~ s i ~ ~ e t o m e e t a n ~ & ~ t o d o ~ m a n y ~ w o u l d b e ~ e ,
although it is smmthbg the f b ~ f a t kamitted
s
They lrnew what emeqmcies
WEE, h e w the presmes they engmder for authoritative action, hew, too, haw
they afford a ready pretext for OIL We may also suspect W l b y
suspected that a m q p c y paw- would tend to kindle anergemcia. Aside k t n
suspension of the pfidege ofthe writ of habeas corpus in h e of rebellion or
invasion, when the public sz&y may require it, they made no errpress p d m
for e x d e of extmodimq a d &
because of a crisis. 1 do not think we

~gh~y~soamead~work,and,ifwecdd,Imnotconvin~it

wwld be wise to Bo so, although m y modem n&.ons have f & a y

~ ~ b ~ ~ ~ e o o n o m i c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n O r m a l b a l S l n c e b e t w e e n .
liberty a d mthori@. Their experience with -cy
powers miy not be
irrelevant to to argument h m that we should say that the Executive,, ofhis
own volition, can invest himcfwitb zrndefined cmagency powers.

~y1~~FirstWoxldW~,~theW~~~on,des'~B
to secure her lhxiies in t
b Westem miilia, However, the msident ofthe
Repubk withontmnummce oftheRei&stag, was mpweredeemporarilyb
w e n d any or all. individual rights if public
and &were seriously
disturbed or
'lhis proved a w o n to every govemmat,

~i~~ofapinion,andin13~~~ofrightswasiwoked
on more than 250 omuims. F'
HitIer p d e d Merit Von

~ b d d a o c b @ d ~ f h ~ W S e W d E S b d
The French Republic provided fix a v e q different kind of emergency
g o v m m d knom as the "mte of seige." It a
d &om the Genxlafl
e m e r g a c y d i ~ @ ~ l y i n ~ e m e r g e n c y ~ ~ n o t b e

assumedatwin

by the Executive but could only be g m b d as a p a r l h m h y m w e . And it

&dnot,asin~y,~thawrspmi~~orabrogationof~w~~a
legal institution governed by special Legal rules and tennimble by
par-aw.
Great Britain also has fought Both WorIcI W m
a sort of tempomy
dictatomhip m a h i by legidation As P~~
is not bound by wrim
constitutid limitations, it e m b W a crisis govsimply by
delegation to its h4hhtm ofa larger masme thanusud of its own unlimited
pow= which is exembed zmdg its s u p d s k n by m t w r ~
whom it m y
di9miss, This has been d d the "high-watermark in the vosunen& of

liberty: but, as Churchill put it, '??stands cubdim of these

d e r e d Wbexties, ad its most sacredduty d be to restore them in hi^
f d b x when victory faas Mowned our exertions and our g e r s e v ~ c e . "Thus,
~ t a r y c o n ~ k m a emergencypowers
de
~
l
e

This contmparary fhxdgn gnerim may tr&incmcZusiveas to the wisdom of

lod@gemergencypowers~.ina&pv~ent,~it~~
=-cy
P~twitb~govenrmeneontywhep~
control is lodged elsewhere
in the Executive who exewhe8 &em ? k t is
thesafeguard&atwddbemdli3iedbyouradoptioaofthe "
~
p
o
~

"

f ~ m u l a . N o ~ i n m y ~ ~ e c ~ 1 ~ m e t h a t s u c h ~ a r e w ~
by any real mcessity, although such powers would, of cow4 be an executive
cmvenience.

In the pmtical working of our G o v m we wlready have evolved

technique.wirthin the hmework ofthe Codtntion by which normal executive

powas may be cunsiderably expa&A to meet an ern-,
Congress may
andhasgmtedexbmihqauthmiti~whichlie~ind~but
may be calIed into play by the Executive in war or upon pchmtim of a
national v e n c y . Xn 1939,upon cmgmssid mqmii, the Atbmey h e r d
listedninety-xlint m c h ~ s t a t u t o r by-of
y ~
w
a
r
wartime executive powas. Thy were invoked &om t h e to time as need
appeared. Under this procedure we retain Gw-t
by leew-special,
tempomy law, perhips, but law nonetheless. The public may h w the extent
and limitations ofthe pow- that mbe erasan8 persuns aEWd may be
~d~tlles~atuteoftbeirri~and~.
hviewof~~e,~9p~dsafetywithwhichCo~s~grantaad
has gcmkd Imge emergency puwm, &y
ample to em&race this crisis, I
am qdk d q m m d with the qpm& 6haa we &odd &m possession of
them withont statute. Such p e r eitber has no beginning or it has no ead, If it
&,itdmbmit~nole~res~ImnotaI~~itwouIdphmge
tm &&12tway into dictatorship, but it is at least a step in flaat wrong dkctiaa

~ I h a v e n o i l l u s i ~ ~ a n y ~ w b yCozlrtcankeeppowerh~
this
hands ofCmgma ifit is not wise m d a n d y i n e l y i t s problems.Amids
~

Ifnot good h,
there was worldly wisdm in the maximatlribukdto Napoleon
WThetoob beIongtothemanwhomwehn" W@rmay~yWpowerto
leg&& for
belongs in the hands of Cangfess, but only Congress

~~

icselfcan prwentprrwafhl slipping through

hgers.

The essmce of om
00is "leave to live by no man's leave,
u n d e m d the law" - ta be governed by those bpermd farces whbh we call
~w.OurGo~emmentis~MtedGofulfin~conoeptso~ashumanly
posslile. The Executive, except for momm&W and veto, has no
legislative power, The exemthe action we b e h a oigimibs in the
individual will of lhe PmiW and represmb an ~~e
of mhrity without
law, No one, p d q s not even the President, h o w the Iimits of the p m he
myseekto~~inthis~ceandtha~e8~~ott~&elimit
of their rights. We do not h o w today what powers over labor or property would
be chimed t~ flow from Gavment possession if we should Ieit, what
fighb to coqmWi011 would be claimed or reco&ed,
or on what
contingency it woufa end.With all its defects, &lays and in-co~wenimce~,
men
have &covered no kchiqw for long preserviug &e govmmat except that
the Executive be uada the law, and that the law be made by pashnmtary

&h%dom.

W~ththese @ d e b and against the background of experience ofthe last 40 yam, the
-EasIrthatremaiasfm~S~~tteeis~~-inclosecoop~011~d
the Standing Committees of-the Smite and all Dqmbnen.ts, ConmMw1s, and A@=
of

~~~vebranch-whi~hoftheh~mwmlForcemi~beofuseinafiture
emergency. Most kprbnt, a legislalive formulaneeds to be devised which will provide a
regdm and c o m h b t proby which my emergency p r o v i s h are called into fbrce.
It will also be necessary to esbibliah a means by which Congress can exemhe effective
oversight over such actiuns as are taken pummt to a
ofnational emqency as well as
providing a re&
and mmhtmtprocedure fm the hmiuation of such grants of authority.

COMPILING THE TEXTS OF EMERGENCY POWER STATUTES

From the mbet of its worl&,the SpeciaI C m m d k faced thepblem of clmmmg,

with
reasonable accuracy, the number, nature, and extent of emmgaq sW&s passed by
Con~ssincel933which&~~p~~Ehe~dePltin~ofnisis
o
r
~
~
~
~
.
I
a
w
~
~
t
,
m
~
emergency pow- were either out-of&
or inadqmte for IIE Special Cmmit.bts
purposes. It became qpm&too, that the United S b k s Govemmmt bas hen
~ a n ~ e l i e v B d ~ o f ~ o f 4 0 y e e t r s ' ~ o n . D u r i n g tanh i s p ~
enormous body of laws d d h g wiih severe ewmmic crisis d America's resplrnseto h e
wars had b e a passed by Coagresa though an odmoe;t ummtked proc-s of g m d d

@m$iv9:.
*

h ~ p a s t , t h e a n l y w a y t o ~ ~ m g i l e a d ~ a s e f u l t o ~ w o u I d ~ ~
going through every page of the 86 volumes of t h Statum~t-hrge.
~
Fortrmately,the WU.
Code (1970 edition and one suppImmt) wm put on;to a n p u k capes
~
by the United S a t a
AirForcein~so-called~~~hii;hktoc;atedatamilitary~intheS~of
Calm. The Special Camnittea
w d & g in clonjaaa;tion with ths Justice
D
e &e h i of C,and d
h &nerd h t i n g Mice, devised several
program forcomp*
smches. Thesepgmm werehedon awide q&mn ofkey
w ~ m d p h r a s ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ n ~ p r o ~ a f f a w , w h i c h M e
powers. lhmples of some
words are ''IaiOnal emgalcy," "war," "naeional
d b e , " "*On,"
W'm m x d m , " & c . T " h a ~ ~ & @ t o p h a ~ ~
printolrt of dl proviiona of the U.S. Code lhat pertain to a &ate of war or national
a m g m c y , d b d in s e v d & o m n d c h a t i a Atthis pint,& Special Committee staff
and the st& of the Anmican Lsrw Divisian, Library of Congress, went through the
prhtmis, separekd out all those pmvisim ofthe US, Code most dmartt to war or
national emergency, and weeded out those provisions of a a r i d ox extremely remote
n a t u r e . ~ o s e p ~ ~ w ~ m ~ ~ t e r ~ d t h e d t s w e r e p u
together in a Ihidbasic tist 0fU.S. Code citations.

ing C0mdt.m of ths U.S. Senate and Eowe of Rqmsmt&ves and, where applicable,
Reports of SenatR and House Confaenm.

h ~ o n , t h e ~ ~ s i n C e ~ e ' p u b ~ o f ~ 1 9 7 0 C ~ w e r e ~ m
r e l w a n t c i ~ w e r e ~ t o t b e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t h e a . & ~ e t g a i n s
exiseing affichl catalogs: That of the Bprfmerd of Defeme* "Digest of War and
Emeqpcy LegisMan A B k b g the lkparbeht of Defemew; that of thei Once of
m q m e r n n i n g , '"Ouidto t o ~ e w y P u w e r s C o ~ b y b w 9 i n ~ o n
Jmuary 1, 1969"; and, the 1962 House 3udiciq
synof m m g e ~ o y
powm, TroofFederal Law inEE6GEin Time of N a t . i d Emmpcy."
The task of compiling a d o g of emrgmcy p o r n statutes, kxehre, has been
immemmbly assistedby use of compmteq but c m p k x s could not replace the need far a
and very W m hand ear& of all ofthe volmm of the U.S. Code, ehe
Stablmat-Large, and Senate and House Reports. The fbllowiq cmpil;ationis intended to
be used as a worbing list of the mast =levant emeqpcy pmvisim oftbe law. The S p e d

~~ca~mottK:~Wevery~~tco~nrmaybeoalZpdintousedusinga
time of war or nati~3.demergency is in the following corqdatixl. However, the Specbl
Commitheb e B m &at the most &ignificant pmishs are herein caaged.
The com*tion

is o r @ d as fbuows:

1. A s u m m y of all the U.S. Code citations in order of their ~

~ in the c
Code, and spec- Public Laws with the Congress and the year they were

emtded.
2 The texts of US. Code citations and Arblic Laws with e x p m notes and
sncfinraaterialfrom~md)ITouseReportswbich~~~s'
primasy intent m m x d q these provisions of law.

1. Sevenh.blesth&listdousbreakdm oftheusagcoftheUnitedSWes
code.
2. The four p

3.Ambjcckindex.

c ofniaiid~mergemynow
~ in affect.

P W C LAW 944XLSEPT. 14,1976

FUEc Law 94412

.-94&

I=onpss

of Rqm-

Be it
F*'k!d
be cited

of

&

d w , m ~ ~ q * P J -

TITLE I-TEBMLVATIXG m S T I X G D X ~ J A R E D
E-Gmm3
dm. 101. [ a ) Au pr,tp- atid aathositi~
the f&den&
mtty 0 t h d e w or en) l o p of the Fe ml Omemment, or my
exm~tinl;igp11e5'! as d e ited in section 105 of W e 4 t3mitRd States

1601*

Ccde. as a 4 of the eJCiSt~nwof m y deebtion of wthd emarp t ' F in eflw on the date cf -fenaet3llent af this Att wPe t . W d d e am
yeam from the date of mcb ~ m d n r ? l l tS d hminazian &dl noG
Sw'u c t i o n k or p d i n g p n d h g not fin=& #n(1) arq
cldeil or detwmiwd on such ikk:
(2) mp d m or p m w d h g M on m y act w m i t t d pdor
to mch
jor
(3) my 11ghts or d ~ ~&&
f bm t u d or palti= thsE wera
hcnrrtd prior tostt& dnte.
(b.1 For th pnof this seetion. the words %ay ~ & h m
d er- u h r
gmw in*&kt3 ~ I I RSmn~m3declmtion o$ emergemy made by -g
die Prnlbt.

-r<

ma.-

~ ' m E I ~ - ~ ~ L A l i ~ ~ T I OF
O XFlJTEKE
S
XATIOXAL
E31EBGmt3ES

Sm. Wt

f a ) 1Vfi w w c t to Arte d Conpsi sn&&&g the ~

the pdud of a nationat1 e m q m q T nf an
OP d m O r d j p q po-F, the Ppesid~t
is a n t h o r i d to
nnthmal emergenc;V. .Such pwhmation &aft i m d i t e l y be trrms~&&dto the Conand p n H W in the F d d &@star(b ) An3 pmrisians nf Ia w wnfcrring powem and anthorit;ies to @
eierriwd rllrrinrr a wtiansl t ~ r p c &dl
y
be &P&VP!
and mqun
i t s efiecf (1) ~ I $ Twhen the P m i h t [in nmord~nm65th mbsece~asl
IR)OF ~ l i ~ @fic.~~np
e rmticrna~-wq, pnd
{S). anly in a r e a d m rr& this Act. Pu'o law mactea aftma0 data
d aoartmant. of thb &t d~allsupem&t;l& title udes f dam so in
qwxific tmm, mferrb to WJ%e, and &Awing that the new Jaw
au &&a
rovf%unsd&~hth
*n n r b 1 m.gmeS dednnd
tha M&
P X P ~ ~ Rdwmg
?

e~

K.

&

in s-rdnith
- (1) Conp= term-

~ R - S ~ S If&e emergency by o o n o d

$%=*

=b-

/-

~ 0 f W t i d

h E + & n

nd *a

m v a e t i a n ~ ~ o r p ~ p ~ n o t , ~ -

d u d d r r r b ~ m date;
d

@ ) m actionorprnckding~onrnyrotaomolittcdpri~~
tosoch&;or
t~ mrn
tc) m~*mtpo
or a& thitf;mttbd

i m d p n m t o d dBte
@) Hot In* than six months &r

c n k t h X emergaq is
d ~ c l m dm
, d not later than ~ I end
E of encb sh-montB perid therethat saJl mn~~gpmfr
continm~,each Hoaw of
&dl
mmt t~ d k a
on s m m m m m k m d u t b to d e d

90 STAT.

US

mi-

Em.B01,

A&
h=,-

(a) Se&m &#(a) uf tha h m i g d m mi

(0US.C.1$81{a ) is^^
(1 nb the &of pampph (91, b~ stribing out

i n m L g j n ~ i e u ~ a w ; ~
n) b w
h 10).
(b)
~ s T ( -ifc ~
n

La

aTmxkd-

rlij WOII
3737 02

WAG. I51 ;

(el

the

stu-

or" m d

M 8-

a =wed (41

A% q I*S, R ht.m;
~ ((11 eof tits
j 10, united st& ~ a d e ;

h w mm

30 U.3.C. 3431-1436)

q &x&ms~EW, #388(t), and 8813 of tfUe 10,Unihd St*

[8)

Gde

is

90 STAT. I258

LEGBUrnZ WsToR'P:
H O U S E a E F O B T ~ ~ ~ o a t h e 3 ~ ~
-75:
m
T Ha W-IltB
on -t
Ophns).
MNG-OMAL

w.

VotI%Z~97~Septdar~dimd@fi~
Smmh amowled.
Y ~ I=
L ~wcil; a7, -~&wI a d
81. BOW
in
d
g
.

WEEKLY CcwPiUfION Fn2BiD-D.I% 1% No.38 (197dk &pt. 14 b d d d d

G d e r Code 98-505 GOV

CRS Re~ortfor Conaress

m

Received through the CRS Web

Updated September 18,2001

Harold C. Relyea
Specialist in American National Government
Government and Finance Division

National Emergency Powers

Summary
The -dent
of the U M States has wmibbb &powas &at m y be
~ e d i n d w e v e n t f h a t & e ~ m i s ~ b y ~ ~ , o r ~
c h m w k w s (other than n&md &asks, war, or near-war situations). Such

p o m m a y ~ ~ ~ ~ o r h n p l i e d b y ~ e C o ~ o a , ~ ~ b y t h e ~
Emmth to be pmidbZemm&&dly, or i&md
or specifiedby statute.
M u @ I e ~ C ~ ~ & a ~ ~ d e l e g h o f a u ~ i &
regad wa the past 200 years.
~ m , h o w e v e r a M a n d ~ ~ & M d e n exeacise
t i n of
~
emergemypowas. W & ~ - ~ o f ~ h a b e a a ~ n l a ~ , t h e M W i o n
makesnoall~fbr#e~ofanyafits~omgdlxringa~

-.

D i o ~ - t h e ~ ~ w l e @ y o f t h e ; d o f

~ c y p o w e r s m e ~hd&Mtbejnoii.chyandCrmp~
~ b .
a s c o - e q u a Z ~ ~ r e s t r a i n t h e ~ e c u c u t i v e ~ ~ p aSocan
wers.
pllblic W
o
a Furhemure, since 1976,fhe W h a s b m N&toc u k b
p
r
o
c
d
d
~
m
~
~
~
~
~
?h
National Bf
Act (SO U.S.C. 1601-1651)e h n k b % mmadifiedsomu
s t a t t i t o r y ~ o f e m ~ ~ , ~ tdectarefomdythe
h e ~ t a

~ o f a a o t ~ e m e r g e n s y a n d t o ~ p e c i f y ~ t ~ ~ ~ , ~ ~

bythe d e c h d m , w o a l d b e a s e d , a n d p v i d e d C w I p e s s a m e a m t o ~
t
h ~~s
dechmkn and the activated rnbeing sought. The

developmentof~re~~ry~and~~td?ch~onsofnati~
~areTevidinthisreport,whichis~astsents~.

Contents

NationalEmmgemyPowm.ASelecEedBiigraphty ................... 19
k t i c b ..................................................
19
Boob

.............*.................--........
............................................

Doclmem

19
20

List of Tables
Tetble I. Decked BTathml

1976-2001

................... 13

National Emergency
.Powers
.

Until the crisis of World War I, Pmidmts u t Z d emmgmcy powers at their

own dismtkm Praclamatiions amomced the exembe of m i p c y authady.
H o w e v e r ; d u t i n g W a d d W t r r I a n d ~ ~ v e s h a d ~ t o ~

a ~ ~ y o f s E a n d b y ~ s t u ~ w h i c h ~ ~ ~ t h e
i s s a a n c e o f a p r o c a~conditionofmthd
~
emergency. Somedimes
s l x c h ~ ~ 3 ~ ~ ~ m a ~ o f c r i s i s ~ n s p e c i f i c p o l i c y ~ ~ ;
they placed no lidtation whatmmx on the p r o m u m m e These

~~

~~ofstand-by~m~remaLaed~b~~enntil~era
ofdseVietnamwar. h 1 9 7 6 , C ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f h ~ p a s s a g e o f t h e
N a ~ ~ A c t .

Ekckground and History

The eKercise ofemeqpq powers had long been a c m m m of& classical
p o X M ~ , i n c ~ h & ~ ~ ~ ~ p h i l q h e r J o I m h b ,
w h o h a d a ~ i ~ m ~ q ~ > n & F ~ F ~ i a t h e U n i t
Ae d S ~ .

~ ~ ~ o f a ~ o f l a w s a n d n o t o f m e n , h b ~ e d f b a t
occasionsmayeaisewhentheexdvemustexerta~~tionin~
qdal-ar
" ~ ~ f ~ r w ~ ~ I ~ p o w e r p r o

m ~ l a w ~ n o ~ s a q r w Ek~didnotregardthigpraogativeaa
n ~ e a y

l j m i t e d t o ~ e , o r e v ~ t o ~ m o f ~ ~ l r g IItwasd3icientifIbe
ency.
~licg0od"migbtbea~by~mercise~

1943, pp: 203-207; Edward S. Corwin, Tlie RdiW:

fm&
(New Y& New York hi~ersity

and P m , 1787-1957,
19% pp. 147-148.

F~~~wae~expressedpriorto~e~fwadingofthe
Repnblic. Betwecn1775and1781,theCr " ' Icoqp-sspassodasukofacts
and resdves
count as the
of emergency a u f h d ~ .These
~
illsmments d d t a h m s t ~ l withh#on
y
OftheReM'tati0~
war.

~~

Atlh -antid
C0mm~tionof1787,
-powers,as
such,failedto
much a W m dmiq the corase of debate over dm charter for the m w
govemmmt It may be argued, homer, that the panting of emergencypcrwe~sby

-a

~eis@Cifitlh~leI,soection88~1~to~forthecmm
Defense and grmd W e m n t bc m m a e c b , itswar, armedfom, andmilitia
p ~ ~ ~ , B X l d t h e ~ ~ d p r o p e r " c ~ ~ i t t o E o m t c h l a w s a s
are required to fuliill fbe executions of "the w
qPowers, and all o h r Powers
v e s t a l b y e ~ o n i n t h e G a ~ o f t h e U n i t d S t a t e or
s ,inmy
Deperrtmemtwm-f.*

Thereisez-ofdM.uztirmthathasdh-d
impMpowers,Pcihich~beiwokedin~to~spondto
m
~
~
Loch seems to have d c i p t e d Ibis przdce. -F
Pmidmts have
taken an emaction which they assurd to be mmlitutionally
pm&sibZe. ~ h t h e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e m e ,
empowers has bean 8 ~ ~ 1 e w~dqmdmiit
hl
upon k Chief Ewu&ivegs
view
ofthe@ddd o h .

o
t

a
e

Pthe Resident who most Czeady articuhbi a vim of his &ce k

coxlfolaaity with fhe Lockem p d m wets M o r e -1t
D m - what
c.a .m e t o b ~ t h e c ' ~ n f h e o r y o f ~ ~ ~ , R o a ~ t w r o ~ o f h i s
~ a p w I h e ~ ~ ~ a r r t c a t i v t p o w e x w a s l i m i ~ & b y ~ c

dCtionsand~%~inthe~~onarimposedbytheC~s
under its d t u t i a d powera.* It was his view '%at evay executive &oer, and
above all emy =emlive
in high podion,was a stma16 afthepeople," and
he 'cdechdto adopt the view that what was kperdveIy n e c m for the Nation
c o u l d n o t b e b b y t h e M W d a s h c o d M ~ ~ c d d o n
todoit" I a d e e d , i t ~ ~ s e v e I t ' s b e l i e f ~ & t h e ~ " i t w a s n o t w l y h

r i @ b u t h i s ~ ~ d o ~ h t ~ ~ o f t h e N a 4 m ~ d ~ s d

acti0n~rnddenby~C~~~arby~~~

Qpposd to this view of tfie praidaq was RmsewIt's fopper S e a d a q of

W~r,personal.chaimfor,and~succ~asChief~W~Howard
Taf~H e v i e w e d t h e p r d d e d d o E c e i n m m ~ w m q ~ ' " f h a t t h e
~ d e n t c a n ~ n o ~ w ~ h ~ t b e ~ ~ ~ ~ t r a c e d t o s o m
~ c ~ o f p o w e r a x j ~ y ~ W a n d ~ I u d e d ~ s u c h ~ p t ~
proper and necessaxy to its exercise." In his view, such a "s;pecihc g m t rrtust be
See J. Reuben Ch& Jr., corlrp.,E-Legislatfm
Pmed Priw to Dmentkf 1917
h
m
f
o
r the Public Use,Ben& or
Dealing with ithe ControI and T a w of
We&ws Pm&k&Bdmathm mrdhwtiw Odem l%era&r, to m d ~
Jammy 31, 1918, to Whkh b A&d a RqmW of Analqpa ~ l a f i o Since
n
1775
(WG f O , 1918), pp. 201-228.

~ ~ i n k F ~ C d ~ ~ m i n m a c t o f ~ p a s s e d i n p m ~
tkeof. ~

i S ~ T e f f f ~ " n ofpower
o ~ which he can
~x~beckseitseem
tohimtobeinthepnblic
s
ktemt... P
"

F i n a l l y , ~ ~ - t h e ~ t u E. .i ~ b n t d h g ~ i t s ~ ~ ,
cwihtrons ThaResidEdis
for

there are statutory grarrrts of power

l
l
t
h
o
h
d
b
y
~
t
o
~
~
~
o
r
meed the problems of governing e M v d y in times ofa i p c y . Sametimes these
laws are a& -fo
duration. Tb hunmic Stabilktion Ad of 1970,far
example,allowgdfhe~deQttaimpoge~wage~pricec~Zsfm~ut

t h r e e y e a r s ~ i t ~ ~ ~ a I I y i n 1 T9 h7 e4 s. t~ a t u t e ~ t h e ~ t
emergencyautho&yto~a~in&enatiw'sec~.

Of course, amy of these iaws rn

. .

a v d a b l e f o r l b e I k s i d m f s ~ m h ~ g t o r t TheDehse
n~.

~ c t i 0 ~ i A c t , ~ a d o p ~ i n 1 9 5 0 t o p n c i ~ d ~ ~ k ~ ~
0 f ~ ~ ~ ~ I a s y 0 f t h i S t y p e 0 f ~ ~

~ , t h x e a r e v ~ ~ ~ b y h w b i c h ~ ~ ~ p o w e r s
o n c e f h e P r e d e n t f o r m a I I y ~ a n a t i o n a I ~ ~ f hIn1973,
em
a Senale s p e d commitbee studying m q p c y pow- prrblihd a compilation
i d d f y i q srmre 470 pmv5si01ls of federal law delegahg to the e x e m h
e&amdkyrn~hxl.time~fnatiOnaI~.~
Thevastmajorityafkm
of the md-by kinunfil activated by the President, H w m , formal
procdmw for invoking these au&ori.&s, a c m for~their use, and reg&%

W m Howard T&, Ow ChwMzgWae und Hb P m (New Ymk CoImbia

lhbesity kss, 191% pp. 13P140; k a direct respom b T h e d m Rnowdtas
~ o f ~ ~ g o w e r , ~ W ~ H o w a r d T a f l , ~ e ~ ( N e w Y &
C h k -S
S m , 1916), pp 125-130.

'

64 Stat.798; SO U3.C. &p. 2061 et seq. (1994).

their adidion and applidm wae

Emergencies Act of 1!376?

~~ a while ago by the National

The Emergency Concept

XMyhg upon e t i d m h d y or c o n & d
delqptiions macfe at
Y a x i 0 ~ 8 ~ o v e r ~ p a s t 2 0 0 y e a r s , ~ ~ ~ ~ u ~ ~ m a y
certainpowersinthe~~~con~~ofthenatiunis~medby
crisis, e x i m , m mergmcy chmmkms. -is
a d d

Inthesimplest ' ' ~hgofl&eterm,thedicti~de&wanemerg~

'
or i
h multhg state that calls for
as an s t n u n f o r c s e e n combhtiofl of
jmrnedhb action"" In the midst of the crisis of fhe k t hpmsion, a 1934
SnpmeCo~~orityopinianc~m~in~ofar~lencystnd
xelatiue' "
@
o
m a s w e t l a s q u h h c e t o a ~ ~ ~ @
f t r m n ~ f l o o d , o r ~ & ~ n ~ ~ I y s u b j e c ~ Aneminetlt
t o ~. .~ n . "
comfilasdmlar, the lateE d d S. Carwin, qklilled
candxtrons
a s ~ ~ ~ ' k t h i c h h a v e n o t ~ ~ g h o f ~ ~ 0 r ~ b ~ o T
t h e i r k $ n g m t ~ a c o o r d i n g t o m I e . " U m i n g ~ d ~ ~ ~
on emergency powmi in 1973, a political s & h t d e s d e d an e m q a c y m the
f o k w i q bmla: *=Itdemtes the existum o f d h nfvaryhgnaitare, inkmi@
and duration, wfiioh am p c d v l e d to thaeaten H e or weU&eing beyond tolerable
&n13
~~~~u~~~
0fc.mdihs suddenly
, -".

~~

"m

g t h e d e ~ o f ~ b ~ t o ~ o ~ w e l Z - ~ ~ t b a t w h i c b i s

as n O m d R "

~ a r e ~ p s a t l e a s t f o l l r ~ o f a n T~ bch yt i ~s ~ 1 ~
~ t e n m p o r a l ~ ~ . a n ~ i S s u d d e n , ~ & ~ d u r a t i ~ n ,
T h e ~ d ~ ~ p o ~ g m v i i y a n ~ i b ; d e m g c l ? o u s d ~ t o ~
dwell-.
Thethird,intermsof~vemme&lml~&au&oti@,ihmatter
ofpen=eptian:who d k e m this phenmum? The Comtitutimmqbe guiding on

t h i s ~ o n , b u t n o t a l ~ ~ l u s iFv e~ . t h e r e i s f h e e ~ o f ~ ~ b y
de&ihn,an~~immediaXeaciw,butis,aa~zmanlicipa~~
therefore, as CoI7lrrinnotes, catmot alway~be "deah with a c c d b g to mle." Fxom

90 Stat. 1255; 50 U-S-C.1601-1651.

11 R

m &i,@qg mtd-

As*

v. BI&&II, 290 US. 398,440 (1934).

' 3 U . S . C C g l ~ ~ ~ '"C or n t h e T ~ o f t h e N a f h d E r ~ ~ ,
hearings,93* &n&, lS sess., Apr. 11-12,1973 (Wa&@bn: GPO,

N & d E-cy,
rgn), p. 277.

heso h p l e factors atise hdynamics of natiwal anerg-

powe~s.~
The
~ c a n b e s e e n i n t h e ~ ex&ofemergencypowers.
o f ~

Law and Practice

&o
f
1 7 9 2 , ~ t s o f ~ ~ ~ V ~ d &
b h..~ ~ o p g o ~ t f r e c o ~ o f a M e x c i s e t a x o n ~ ~ r e b e I l i o w ~ , C a n g r e s s ~ ~ m ~ f k t h e c o l l l i n g
. f O r t h ~ f t h e m i l i ~ b o ~ ~ ~ aSection
n d 3~oflfhis
~ . ' ~
datuteqniredthat a p & b W p I a m a t i m b e L ~ t o mto~cease
~
theiractivity.17 I f h o ~ p ~ ~ ~ w u l OnAug~t17,
d b e ~ ~ .

1
7
9
4
,
~
W
~
~ ThehquwyPontiaued.
~
a
p
~
~
The P m i d e a t t h e n t o o k c o m m a n d o f ~organizedto
~
put downtherebllia~~~

Here was tjhe hghubg of st

~~ ofpoky

and hplenwnhtion

h!ms--ww-

---*er

for-asebythePresidentinahofamxgeag.
h k d q a
proclamation, the Chief E x m m h IIOW
Congress that he was making use of this
po~~erandalso~edotheraEected~ofhis~~m
ovalhenext l
O
o
~
,
C
~
~
~
~
a
forresponding~to~,economic,d~m~.~th
o f y e a r s , ~ , ~ e d o f ~ ~
b r o u ~ t t h e ~ ~ t ~ t o v e r ~ ~ ~ r i t
to engage in e m q e w y a&m.

n
8
~
I
a
w
isspan
b y ~ ~ L ~
y r m d ~ o n o f

Bythetime ~ b n ' s ~ @ f m h 4 , 1 8 6 l ) , & e v m s t a ~ o f t h e l o w e r

South had anaormned &eir secession I~TO
II
the WO;the ~ p x o v i s i w a l
gommmnt had been m t & W @&may 4, 1861); J d h m Dwris had b m

e l e c t e d @ ~ 9 , 1 8 6 1 ) d H d a s @ d e n t d t h e c ~ ~ e ~ 18,
1861); d a n a m y w a s b e i n g ~ l r y t h e s e c & ~ .LhmhhadaMewler
two months to consihhis come o f d m
~ t h e ~ ~ ~ o ~ , ~ s w a s n o t i n sFor
e s s i o n
reasons ofhis own, L h o I n d d q e d dEngaq&d mseting of the legislature,bnt
s o o n v e n a r r a d i n r o ~ ~ ~ d e s i ~ p o Z i cOnAQril19,he
y s p ~

'' 1Stat.2m265.
'Wis autkity may psmtly be frnxnd at 10 U.S.C.334.
l8 See JD- R i c k d m ~ed, A Compihion ofthe M
w and
~ P
of the
P m i f k m , vol. 1 (NewYork Bureau ofNahml Uaatm, 1897), pp. 14PI54.

H s u e d a ~ o n ~ ~ a b ~ o n ~ ~ o f & s e c e ' s ' W sQt ar~ ,n1 9s t

. .

"am~~thertomga&d~~~nt.nqta~theCanstrtn&on~thelawof
~ m e x o e p t ~ ~ g o ~ 1 t w a s ~ $ 1 e r d e c ~ ~ w ~ f :
Congress, ofcourse, hadnot Been given an a p p d t y to condm a deckation of

war.

%na~t~,fbeMPresidentmderedthendditinnof19vesselstotbena~'%r
purposes ofpublic d e & m ~ ~A' &art time later, t
b blochie was exkddto the
ports ofVirginia and Narth C m k f 2
be enlarged
By a p m c l m a of
~ Mxy 3, LiumIn o r d d that lhe reby 22,714 men, Wit navy m
o
m
e
l be incteased by 1&,000, and &at 42,032
~ o 1 d e m be
s aeoommdabd for thnx+year terns ascxvkm Such a dixective, of
matmy R e p m i a h and S m t a q hBtxus@Cqgess is
course,

~ a ~ b y ~ l e I , ~ 8 , o f l h e ~ ~ " t o d s e m d
q p m t annie~.~

Z n h i s J d y m e s s a g e t o t h e ~ ~ ~ ~ I n w ~ ~ t h a t ,

w h l i e k a c ~ ~ x e ~ t O ~ ~ ~ l l o f ~ ~ f o r r ; e s ~ & b e 1 ~

~ " ~ t ~ m ~ , w ~ ~ * l e ~ o r ~ m ~ r r p o n l m d e
whatappearedtabe apcrpu3rmrand a
p
~ thea,asnow,
b that
~
~
C o n g r e s s w o n l d ~isbe~eved,"bmb,"that110thinghas~
~ ~ ~
done beyondtbe c & d
c c r m m ofGmgms.'"
h d d , Cmgres s u b s a p e did bgishtively anthorize, and*&
approve,
f h e ~ t * ~ a C t i ~ n ~ ~ ~ h i s ~ g ~ f m c e s ~ ~ a s l d w o u l d d
t h e s a m e ~ c a n a e m i n g s o x n e o t h ~ f ~InOhewseof
l e ~ ~ .
~In,fheopinianofecho~andq~isKthat~~~norfheS~
RdeIlLd T h e ~ a c t i a w

court-any--npone

oftheChiefExecutivewemeithea~or~by~,andwere
eitheracceptedor, becauseof ahnostno oppmhmivtormkjudgment, went ltlrply
~ r r t ~ c e b y t b S n p r e m l B C m Thahsidentmadeaquickrespansetothe
rt
m ~ a t ~ a r e s p o n s e ~ ~ s o r ~ c o ~ m i g h t ~ x e j ~ i n

~ J a m e s c J . - ~ , ~ m a l ~ U r p d e r L i n c o h ~ ~ ~ o f
IJXuok hess, 1951kalso seeW-E.
Binlrtey,,Presirlefffrmd Gongms(NewYd A J f d
A
1947), p ~124-129;
.
L.Rassim, Ca~tpD~WOR&P, 23323.6; a n d w e W
ilson,C o ~ o n uGmmmmtiA
l
the WnitedStdi~
(luewY&
chlumbia univedty
1907), p. 58.

m,

law,butw~ch,~Ss,bad~madein~;rmdwith~~ofpop~
qqmd. SimiIPlr contrrwersy would arise concaning the emmgaq actions of
P r e s i ~ W o o d r o w W i l s a n a n d F ~ D . R o oB~ tc i t h m e n ~
~~eemergencypompyith~gard~warld~,d~~Italsoused
mergemy authmi@to d d wi& the &eat D e p m s h Their
actions,
~ a , m ~ q p o M ~ & ~ & ~ a n d a S g h ~ o
rrpprovalmtbpartofbothCongmsandtheplxblic.

Furhemare, -the

Wilsrrn andRoosevehpsidm&, amajorpromhd

develqment occrrrred in the exetch a
f
~
p o h p roo c W &~
todeclareaddemxg~and~actmrteall~~~&d
delegating m W t y to the -dent
dPring a%&& emmpmy.l ~ : & i t M
n a t b d ~ ~ h m d o h i ; W
%sued
m b
y
w
d
m
t Whnirm FeWzi~y5k
1917" P r o m ~ o n t h e z u 1 ~ o f a s t a $ r b e e s t a ~ a h e U & S ~
Shipping Board, the p t o c ~ t i m
cancemed water
'onpolicym It was
si%rb&yL~

'

9 g 4 d ~ ~ h a d & y O f 0 k ~ ~ , r m ~ 3 ,

1921."

aw@mypmckWion-

E % x i d & ~ B : h d t ~ t h e

qudomible authority o f t h e T ~ w i t h t l k ~ A c t o f 2 9 b
17~
declPsdasGcanod*bhnk*f
mdhaltdarmjmclassofhancd~
bycbbgtbebmh. ~ w b e q n t t y g a v e s p e c S c ~ q g m t k t h a
~

-9.3' Upon sigting this legidation brb law, the M d e n t b u d a secaed.banking

~ ~ ~ u p w ~ ~ t E i * o f t a e ~ ~ w , ~ ~ ~ h o l i d a

dit~4t~deterrninedtM~Mtytianswemap&~eof~~
in a c c O l . d a n c e d n e ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~

N a on Septeniber 8,1939, h i d e n t Rooseveltpromulgateda proclamation

a f ' ~ ~ e a n e r g e n c y , ~ o u g h qmE&hgtamhad
the
w memhghl1egaI

s i g d ~ a n c e .~~ t t w o y e a r s ~ a n M a y 2 7 , 1 9 4 1 ; h e ~ r t ~

"71&&&'
national -?
This action, howemr, actually did not make any
~ n e w p o m ~ l e t o t h e ~ ~ e i n ~ o n ~ t h o of
s e a c t i w ~
by the 1939 p ~ x : h t i o f l . The P r e s i M s p
w in making the second

proc~~wrts~bappriae~Americanptopbofthe~gconflidin

Europe andgrowingtemimsi n h
--two
~ ~ t r - ~ . e W d - p & m a t ion fsa g c m d cmWm of national
e m e r g e n c y ~ ~ ~ r m t i l : ~ 4 7 , ~ ~ o f t h e ~ ~ o f l a w f H s y
bsd----ae
~ m 1 9 5 l , ~ - m o

P,gq44q7

d e c r n w ~ o f ~ htbspringofh%11~year,theS~k
~ ~ ~ y . ~
r & & d t h e m d p ~ % d J a p a a& c a u s s & ~ ~ a c t h ~ ~ f h e m d EIfi/pd/
of
W o r Z d W a r I I f o r t h e ~ S t a t w , ~ ~ ~ t o ~ ~
ermgaqpwbh
i t m y , t b an-E m e r g &It awas
G ysuPbseaq*w e r s ~ ~
.
,
_
j ths
i emqpq
Act Y-

ba~/noE

strpphkd by & Emagmq Powers Cudimdm Act, which bpt selected

~ ~ r m s i n ~ I l n t i l A n g1953?8
u s tB y ~ ~ ~ A @ i l 1 9 3 2 *
ksident l k r y S. TmmEin t e m h h i the 1939 and 1941 n & d emqacy
decrhatims, Ieaviug qmative only l h e emmho&es c
o by ~
statlmg ~

h 0 ~ p r o c ~ 0 1 l ~ o f ~ ~ ~ ~ 3 l S o w o a l d b e
b f o r e ~ m c e a g a h t s a n e d i t s a ~ o n t o t h e sFacedwithapostal
e~.
strike, hsident Rid& M.Mixw declared a d a d emerg~ncymMarch 1970:'

~~~mtou~elmitsof~ReadyRes~massis?inmo*tlre
A~~emergencywasIprodlajmedby~Nac~nmAugust
1971t o c ~ I ~ ~ o f p ~ a n w ' l 'r 'y' I gt k. q d y c w $ l i n t m d @

a g r ~ m t t p H w i s o s a n d ~ ~ Z ~ ~ o n s a m e ~ ~ . ~

Congressionaf Concerns

"

61 Stat. 449.

36

65 Stat. 451,

"&Stat S$;exkdedat66Stat.%, 137,and296.

66 Stat 330; d e n t i d at 67 Stat 18 and 131.

j8

" 66 Stat c31.

"64 Stat. A454

84 stat. 2222.

See 10 U.S.C. 673 (1970).

85 Stat. 926.

With f h convan&
~
of& 93* C c q m s in 1973,the specid cammittee was
q p n m d again with S&s. 9. Upon exploring the sabject matter af m t i d
~ ~ p o w e r however*
s ,
themis& ofthesptxid
'" ~ b e c a m e p m
bmdasmm ~

b~fonrsuch' *
' 3, issued h:19%,1950, I%@, and 197l..
T ~United
B States
w a s ~ a ~ o f ~ O d a l ~ f o u r ~ w e r , ~ ~ e r a c h p r o c ~ o n ,
the whole GOof st&&dy ddegatea mergemy powem
d t e d
C m q x & y , in 1974, with S&a 242, the study panel was rechartered as the
S p e c i a l C O m m i ~ o l l N a t-. i d ~ d D e ~ E m ~ ~ P o ~ ~
reflect its focus upanmatters Isrgerthan the f950 ~ p h h u t i w 1X
k. M
m&waspnwiddIryS.Res.
1 0 i n t h e 9 4 ' ~ s , d ~ ~ ~ m d a t e
was m
y extendedbSlym 1976by S J h . 370, Senator Chnrch and b a t m
.

Matl&co&kmthepaneL~

&U.S.

m,I*

94&

House CImu&x onthe Judiciary, N a t b d E Act, hriugs,

Mar. 6,13,19, and Apa. 9,1975 (Wdbgtmx GPO, 1979, p. 20.

4 6 ~ m e m h e r s o f ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ P . ~ , C f i f f n r d P
Hansen,Ph&pkHarE,Same~B.F~CM~~dAdlaiE~~

The special c
* " y e pxod11cedvmiom &dies dmhgits exiskmce?'
ARer
smhmmgthe. United States Code and m m d S dstabzbry cmxgmcypowers, the

--.

paneliasnti6ied470prwhim of^ lawwhich d e l e g a ~ e x h a d h q

&horn
t o t h e ~ i x l t i m e o f n a t i c m a l Notdloffhemrequiredadec~~
~.
of national meqpcy to be operative, but they
nuver@las, extmo
g
p ~ ~ ~ f o r m d ~ t ?
"

~~~

b m m t i m ~ f o n r o u ~ ~Plm-m.
began M o p i n g bgiiiti~
-hregalating anergmcy
declmti~18ixl t
b fmm smd 0hem-h adjustingthe body of statntorily d e m

&

emergency powers by abolishing mm p v b i m , r~bgtitiugothers to p-mt

s t a t u s , a n d ~ o f h s t r s m a s E a n d b y ~Tnaddition,thepamIhbegaa.
.
pmpating a mport offer& its k h g apd
~ ~
~
the state
d of
m~emergencypawersinthe~a

The National Emergencies Act

~recommdle~anwas~byS~torChuxchfor~aad
ofhem on August 22,1974, a d h a m e S.3957. It was reported h m dx Senah
Committee on Government Upmations on September 30 wihutpribIichearimgs or

See U.S.
&mate SpeciaI ~kmmitko
m N a t i d E n q m c k aad Dele@&
-Powers,A
B r i g f H ~ o r g t o f B ~ P 0 ~ 8 ~ s iUnl tohi ted W , c m m i t ~ ~
priuG 5Gd Cmg,2* sess. ( W m k g b ~OPO, 19741; U.S.
Special
C o r n m a b e e w N a t i o n a t ~ d ~ ~ ~ ~
Nd0dE-Ad,
Wd4hg., ZdS h p L 93-1170 (WGPO,1974);
P7

&

&

E c m i h Ordm in ~ o f W m m P d N a a i o f f a I ~ n c ~ r , ~ ~ 9 3 *
&ng, zd sms. (Washhghc GPO, 1974); U.S. Congnxs, Senate @xid
on
N a t i d E 1 m x p ~ i e s d ~ ~ ~ ~ R ~ , 3 p a r t s ,
cad print, 93d cm&,2"6 ses. (Wadxbgtm m,1974); US. Cmg'wS* sen&

Po-

specialr. . ' " 0 a N ~ E ~ e s a I l d ~ ~ ~ F

Emergsm'a~md Delegufed EmP m * Cmg, 2*
S94-922
CJv-GPO,1976);US.-,mw-mtheT
' "
af
IkNationaI Bmzgacy, EPowem Sktutes, 93" C q ,l*n,
S & ~ L 93-549
( W ~ G P 0 , 1 9 7 3 ) 3 U . S . ~ ~ S p e c i a l C"',mtheT-~of
t
Nathd ,
lV&od Emagmcy, 3 parts, h e , 93" Gong, I' SWL, Apr.
11-12. 24, i
dldav. 28,1973 (WGPO, 1973).

Jm

W i t h t h e c u m & q o f h ~ ~ ~ , t h e ~ a l ~ ~ i n t b e
House on Fe27,1975, becoming H R 3884, and in the Senate on M m h 6,
bwomkgS.977. H. o
.useh~~~inhrIarchemdAprifbefote~
L a w a n d G o v ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f t h e ~
s
o
u
n
0nthe3ndicky.~ T h e b i l l w a s ~ ~ - u p E m d , a n ~ 1 5 , ~
r e p ~ i n ~ f b r m t o ~ ~ c o d ~ m a 4 QOnMay21,the
v o t e .
C
4 on the Jrrdiciary, m a voice vote, reported the bin with M c d
amdmals?' ~ ~ c o u r s e o f H o u s e d e b a t e o n S e p t e Q l b e r 4 , ~ w a s

agreementtobo&thed~ameadmentgandafioor~proWgthat
~ n a l t ~ ~ m d a n t o m a ~ o n e ~ ~ t h e i t d 8 c ~ - ~
fresidmthfmmCongtressdthepablicofam n t h d o a Tlwbillwasthenpassed
on a 388-5 yea snd m y vote and sent to Phe Senate, where it was refend to &e
conmi- 0nGOvemmeat O W . "

T h e b t e ~ o n , ~ & ~ b b e l d a ~ g m K R 3 8 W
an F e b m q 25, 1976,53 The EU was mbmp&y reported on August 26 with we
substantive a
d s w d technical amdmds? T k f o h v h g day, the amendedbill
w a s p a ~ ~ e d d ~ t o t h e H o uOs ne .h ~~ t 3 1 , l h e H o a s e a ~ t o ~ e

Is See US.coqges& Senatle Committct 0 n G w m m d Opemtions, N a f i o n a Z X m

Ad, 93d -,
2"6=,
S&pL 93-1193 (WGPO, 1934).

See US. Con%pess, Hoase C c m m d k m~t

b Jtrdichy, Nh'onaZ E m q g m c b Ad,

Mar. 6,13,19, and&, 9,1975 (Washgtm GPO,1975).

hearings94* Cong.,
51 US.c m g m , Hause c o m d k e mthe
,-J
N i - d B w p l c l - e s , 94&
lS
sess., RRept. 94-238 (Wa&h@mx GPO,1975).

w,

C o n g a m m d vol,
~ 121,Sept. 4,1975, pp. 27631-27647; W ,Sept 5,1975, p.

2nd~.
f3eeU.SC m g q Senate Ommitke unGwemment
Act, bearm& 94* Cmg,2"6-, Feb. 25,1976 (W-

~~
N&onatlE-a
GPO,1976).

s O S e e U S . C o n g e e s s , S m a t e ~ m ~ ~ N a t i o n d ~ c i ~
Gang, Zd stas, S.Rept, 54-1168 (Washiagton:GPO,1976).

Aa,94'

A s ~ t h e N a ~

& t g d b y a n o ~ ~ d W : M m o f d ~ , t o a ~ s t r l t e t w o
years after the statute's approval. However, the act did not camel the 1933,1950,
1970, and 1971 oational e a n q m c y p r o c ~ a n s b e c a u s these
e
were iswad by fhe
Redent pmumt to his -le
II constitutional antbity, Nwmtheless, it did
renda0emk&ctiveby~tadormancyhe~~~theyfiad
activated, thereby Imxwmmg a new declaration to activate standby statutory

===Pcy--

Ti& Il provided a proceihm for fatme dechdms ofm f h a l ~emeqymyby

the m i d a t and pmmi'bed mqements for
m q m s b d q g h t i o x ~ .The
statute est&bhed an a d u s h e meam for declaring a national e m a p q .
F m t h e r m o r e , u n e r g e i q ~ w e r e t o ~' ~ 8 u t m d d y g t f t s r o n e y e a r

~ ~ c o ~ e d f i r ~ t b e r ~ b y t h e M ~ ~ c o u l d
~ e r b y e i i h e r & e ~ m tOri@Uy,lheprescribedmettmodfor
m ~
c u n p s s i m a l tamhation of a declared national m m g e a q was a c~mummt
resolution adopted by both huwes of Cangress. This type of m-cded YegkMve
veto" was M
y indidaial by the Supreme court in 1983P The N a t i d
~esAct~dedin1985tosab~ajointresohrtimas~~Ie
f b r d d h g anahnal.emmgmq declamti~1.~
'Whendecmanatiwlsrlmq,&MM&+te,-to

Tide~tae~andsPth~~~m~~fespoIlr9toh~gencyat
hand. C&ah pmidedztl awombbiz'i a d r e p d k g r q t k m m t s regarding
dd emergemcy dtchtims were qedM m Title IV,and the repeal and
mnthmhon of various statutmy @ions
accm@&d

ddegtling emergency powers was

in Title V.

Since the 1976 mament of the Natimd Emergencies Act, various national
~ ~ e s , ~ i n T a t r l e I , h a v e b e e n d e c I a r e itspmvkicms.
d~to
Some were aikquently revoked, while &zm remaina p e m h . All hchtioas
madepllsauanttotlreNahxdF

'~Actarei~inTable'I;their

d t i a n i s n ~ w ~ ~ ~ d ~ ~ C o d e o f P ~ ~ n s
FdemiRegisfer citation L @&d to m&le exmhtirm oftheir full k&

" 90 Stat 1255; 50 U.S.C. 3601-1651 (1988); rnU.S. Congress, Senate Commitk on
G o v e m m e a t ~ m d S p e c i a l ~ o n N a t i m a l E &Delegated
~
Powers,Ths Na#onuI~~Act @ b k Law 94-412)* SQWCB
Book:
Legksktive H-,
Tms, and Othw;DocunrW, commit&
94& m,F ass.
'

(Waskgtmr
58

GPO,1976).

Set I m m m n and Nolarmfzadonm c e v. Chdaa, 462 US.919 (1983).

" See 99 Stat. 405,448.

CRS-13

Tabk 1. Declared National Emergencfes, 1976-2001

Comp.,pp. 191-193.

3mokedbyE.O. 12451 ofDec.20,1983.

Revoked by J3.0.12525 of July 12,2985.
' RmokdbyEQ. 12707 of*. 1 3 , l M .
Rev&& by RO. 12769 ofJuIy 10,1991,
" RevoMby E.0- I2710ofApr. 5,1990.
ReMWby EO. 12867 of34 1993.
Rmked by E.O.12938 dNov. Z 1,1994.
Revoked by LO.I2932 aFOct 14,1994.
Revoked by E.0.12930 of S
m 29,1994.
Revold by E.O. 12924 ofA w 19,1994.
~ w r , k e d b ~ ~ 0 . 1 3 2of~pril4,2001.
06
Revoked by E.O.112938 of Nov. 14,1994.

'

'"RevohdinprtbyE.0.1W59ofMy

6,1995,

h i i -s ~. q o r t , i s m r s d i n l a t R1976,thespecialwmmitteecmduded"by
~
,
that emxgency kws and p m d m s in the United Stam have k e n
hiu ,*
ne~~~olon&axldthatCaxlgress~ps~eNatid~Act
t o d a ~ y ~ o a sT h~t p a~n e ll ' s tM -~t i o n , o f
co~,was~irrtolaw~theendofthe~.

O t b e r ~ s i ~ e d b y t h e s p e c i a l ~ a s ~ a ~ i n ~
fuhue,hmm,didYlothmWeUl T h e ~ ~ e x m p e , w a s ~ ~ t
~ d i s g ~ 0 f b a t h ~ o f C ~ ~ o u E
power p ~ ~ d x i r r s p e c t i v e ~ ~ w i & a v i eA w ~ ~
needfor, d p m & I e adjusfnmtoEs n c h ~A ~
c t i ~ ~ l' s i n t h h ~ p r o b i b l y
werenot-~mbiti~~~as~~wmmitteeex
AWeoftlaeFeddCid
pecbd
Dekm Act of 1950, g m h g the M d e n t or Congress power to declare a civil
defense e m q a q in the event an atlack on the United States o m m d or was
mt@ad,exphedinJuue
1 9 7 4 ~ t h e 0 nHR a~l e s ~~ t o r e p o r t
. .
a measure amtmmgthe statute+a
"

US.,

Eowe commit& on Armed SerPices,

AEdhoritik~,93n'
2* -, KhpL 93-1243
(Washbghx GPO, 1974); h m w d Press, ThkS Panel Halts Bill an war I'cmrSp
Wmhingbon Post, Sept. 19,1974, p. A5.

6t See 50 U.S.C. App. 2297 (1970);

Ederrthg CMl D@we Em-

w,

Anofher mhemml of mqpcy law accused m 1977 when action was

c o m p l e t e d o n ~ T n ~ E m r g e m Act(DBPA].a
y ~ ~ P ~ Reform
legisMan co~lhhktgthis
m d i M a p v k o p of t
h T m with fbe
acto of 1917, a ~ t h c ~ d m t t o ~ f h e n a t i ~ r ' s m ~ m a I
a n d d o m d ~ d m h g p ~ o f d e c l m d w a r a r n a ~ ~ e n The
cy.m
~ b i 2 I ~ . t h e ~ s T r e d i n g w i t h t h e ~ A c t p o wregdatethe
erto
country's k a m e s to tiPles of declared wax. la -A,
a provision conferred
a u ~ t y m t b e C h i e f ~ t i v e t o ~ ~ ~ o v e r ~ ~

~ o f 1 6 i n t h e ~ ~ a ~ ~ d o n a l ~ a n d ; ~ l i s h e d
pmedurPis g o v d q the use of this power, including close mmd'tation with
Cwgmswhcndecla&gaatttional,mergemyto~IEEPA.S n d h ~ d e c ~ n
wodd be subject to c w g r d m d regdation &tbe ~ ~ I I E of
S tbe ETatonal
lbxg&es

Acta

~ m a # w s ~ m ~ ~ ~ o f t h e s p e c i a l ~ t t e e f b r
i = o q m & d scrutiny indInd&

hrvmig~tionof e m q a q ppadnw

condncted by the exczutive

bnmdh;

63

90Stak 517; 10 U.S.C. 12302

10U.S.C. 673 (1970).

50 U.S.C. 1701-1706.
"9 I Stat. 1625.
mofMWttothese~M~PllegidarrtF&byafidmof
February 19,1976, e v e notice hat LO.9066,*ding for the ' '
t of-J

IS

'

~ i n ~ m i l i ~ .~ .~ W m I d W a x ~ w a s ~ a s o f t h e i s s n a n c e o f

thedmofWddWarIXw~31,19&
-proc-farmalfySee3CF&,1976Cm1p.,pp.S-9. C e r t a i n s r a S u t w y ~ w ~ b o t b ~ v e
o ; r d e r , ~ ~ g e a t i o n o f ~ ~ a n d z o n a a , ~ ~ b y t b e N ~
Act. See 18 U.S.C. 1383 (1976).

T h e d e v ~ ~ , d ~ o f ~ p o w ~ f r u m t h e d a y s
o f ~ ~ ~ t o t b p r e s & , ~ a t l e a s t m e h i g h I y ~ b b
trerad:~~a~~s~~to~~executiveintimeaf~wisisor~
have,sincehtimeofthelhcofnb' ' ' tion,wnmtobk=sh&mtedin
statmtoryh. T h e ~ ~ l e t o s C i v i l W a r A e s ~ i n h i s d o f
~ p o w e r h b e e n h m r . s s e d , t o ~a
b
l
e
~
m
t
h
e
perbi F n r t h a m o r a , d u e t o ~ ~ r e l i a n c e u p m r ~ ~ ~ , l h e m g e o f
thism~hascometobemom~d~eoptiollsforitsusehave
c o m e t a b e ~ ~ ~ n g h t b M a t i a n a l E ~ Sinceits
A c t .
madam@ however, the theatid Emergcmie8 Act has not b n d f A by
oonpsioaaluvemeas. N o ? l A h & e m t h e 6 d m p r t o f & & m a t e ~
C m m i t t e e o n N ~ n a l E m ~ e s ~ t h e . ~ ~ t h s l t f i n f h e r
~ ~ a n d ~ ~ n t b i s p o l i c y ~ ~ b

" s e e , f m ~ U . S . C a n r g c e s s , ~ ~ m G o v ~ ~ m b s ,
Pmkhhid-a~dRemw&AomuixdaMIity&,1
mCm&,2"6sesa,&
3,198& (W-GPO,
1 9 8 9 ; U . S . ~ , H a a s e ~ c m o ~ d ~
~
~
~
m
r
d
d
i
e
~
~
n
9P
F sws.,Apr. 18 stad Jaly 8.1983 (Wm r s , 2 PaFts,

u,

GPO,1985).

National Emergency Powers:

A Selected Bbliograpby

Fder, GI= E., 'The Waticd Emurgency Dittimrm Bakmchg tbe E x e c u ~ s

Crisis Powers with the Need far hmiabdity." S d m Calfomia LAW
m,
vol. 52. July 1979: 1453-151 1.
W v e s e , M c h d A, cVemocratkTheory andtheBmqpq Powers ofdx
President'' PraidmdiaZ W e s
vol. 9,Smmm 1979:283-289.
~AamnS.,'TPregariugfortheHourofMeed.EmergencyPowacsinthe
United States." IZeview of Polirim, vol. 41,April 1979: 235-255.

-' R e p d g for the Bow meed:TheNahal l h q p m i mAct''

mere,vol. 9, W

Shrdi&

R&tid

m 1979: 47-84.

Law:Crisis GoVemmmt Bwumes lbe Norm"

Olbio StafeLowJoacmal,vol. 39,1978:736-751.

m a ,kdmr S., "tid

I R e l y ~ ~C.,M
"Stmt~hPoiats
of&Cdtatiw: N ~ o m l ~ P o w e r s , ' '
inRalphS.Pollock, d,
Renewi-ngtheDream: NafiomlArchhas Bieenfemid
'87Lchwm on Contmpomy C o m ~ t i o a a I h s whdmm,
.
MD:U
w
Press of A m d ~ a1986,
,
pp. 75-91.
Robinson, D a d d L.,'The -on
63,W h 1974: 161-174.

ofGrb& Gowmmmkn Pale R m i m , vol.

R o s k , C h b L,"
C
o DicfatmbQ
~
~in lhe Atmk Age.." Review of
Por'itics,vol. 11, October 1949: 395418.
L., 'Eumgemk and the Pr&&my-''
February 1949: 121-144.

Sturm, Albert

Books

J-I

of Politics, vol. 11,

Jmeway,Hht, TheEwpu~mimofOi&:Wm,Po-,
W
e and Talky, 1968. 3 17p.

andtheDollar. New Y&

Kmnig, Lo& w.,l

k Pra*d&rqa d thB ckisk Powms of the t p ~ f i . O r nrke
Invusimt o f P o W to P d Harbor. New Yo& King's Crown Press,1944.
166 p.

-by,

. .
Paul L., Tka Cbm&#m in Crisis Tima 191&1969. New Yodc Harper
and-,
1972. 541 p.

RadaIl, James G., C o m W o n a l Probhw UnderLincoln.

ofminab m,1951. 596 p.

IL:Uxxivtxgity

R d hR
o
w S. and W e Whqr, F d o m and Emmgmq P
Culd War. New York: ApplehCe&+mfls,
1964. 277 p.

Rich, Bmett Maton, me *rP

BmRoc-,

m in the

d C M Disorder- WMhingm TIE

htitution, 1941, 235 p.

Hugh, m M k m m s . New Yo& m d g e U n k m i ~ k s s1984.

,
285 p.

I t o h , C b mL., C o m t i m b ~ i ~ ~New
R York:
@ ~ Hmoux&Brace, and
World, 1963. 322p.
Smith, J. Malcolm, d Cornelius P.Cotter,Powm of f h & M e n f D r r r i r r gCrisis.
Wadhgmr Pubk Affairs Ress, 1860. 175 p.

Documents
U.S. Congress, House Committee on I n Q t m a W JbMon$ Tdirog with fhe
E m y : LegisI@ve a d fiecuthe hcimw~&
C o n m i n g Regulation of
I n t w n d i d T r m s u c W in l b e of Declared National Ern-.
C d t b e print, 94&Gong., 2"Bm a W ~ ~ & $ X KGPO,1976. 684 p.

U.S.~SenakCommiteeem~t~0118andSpd~#ee
on National Enmgacies axld Dele@ B
IPo-,
2 % IVatimal
~
EAct: (Public Law 94412). Sotace Book: L@I&
History,
Texts, and &her Documen&. Com&b prhf 9 4 ~Cq., 2* MSS.
W d h g b r GPO,1976. 360p.

-SenatespecidCI

"'

~ m N a W ~ e s a n d ~ l @ e d E m ~

Powcm,A BrwfHiito~yo f E m q g m q Powers in the United StatesPby Harold

2"6SMS. WmGPO, 1974. 140
C. ] ~ ~ &
b9376
P-

w.,

-~

~ i n ~ q f W m m r d N a t t o n d E m w g eCommikeprirrt,
~ c y .

93d Cong., 2d sass. W a s h i q b ~GPO,1974. 233 p.

-N&*&

Emqgmcim and Delegatad Emmgmq Powers. S-Rept94-922,

94' Cons, Zd w s . W
GPO, 1976, 38 p.

S e n a t e S p e e i a l ~ o n t h e T ~ m o f t h e N ~ ~ ,
ErnPawm Statutes. S.R.ept 93-549,93* tong., 1" sess. Washhgmx
om, 1973. 607p.

-IIT&ond

Emergency.

93dCong., I* sm.Apr. 1I, 12, J@ 24, d

Nov. 28,1973. Waahbgton: GPO,1973. 917 p.

Juda.cm

iaw

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r US Law > US Case Law z US Suprem Court z Volume 326 r M a w a m v. Cabell - 326 US. 4 M >Case

-- ------

----

Recehre 31ustiaasFRfE
M e t B e r a ot opinlon Summafor the US Supreme Court, al US Federal Appeaate
Courts athe 50 US State Supreme Courts and Weekly k m t i c e Area Oplnbn S u r m w k NewsMkm. SukxfEw Wow
. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .

-.,

/ mlly pinion ~urnmmries 14

.Mackhamv. CaMC 326.UIS, 404 f1945)

.. -.- t
I

Case

US. Supreme Court

Marbarn v. Cabel, 326 U.S. 4CW

i:;

~~~~:~

I-:

i'.L

. Harkhnm v. Cabd

1 Find a lawyer

1.j

326 US. 404

'

'

CER7IORCIRI T13 W

E CIRCUIT COURT OF A R H L S

1e

FOR T ~ E S ~ O N
U DR W

- ................

.....................

1. Section 9[a) of the Trading wlth the Enemy A d albws

..

. "Any w o n not an enemy or ally of wemy.

ta whom any debt may be owing from
an enemy or ally of enemy whose prop*
or any pait thereof shd have b e r i
conveyed, transferred, assigned, d @ U v m ,or pakl to the Aim Property Custodbnn

'
,

-,.--...

wl.Riqr.

Bsnltrmlm. Brrsllwss Law. consum- Lr

~ o r rw
y

e bF ~ M P ~

BuBmess m,
CrImhal LBW, D W m , Dl
p~

m,,
.

Paw Spmcmr Bq.

ktate Plitnnina, Tax Law

of the UnRed Stapes in #re federal courts.

m,
PA
. .h.g. t.o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~ ~ I o n 9- ( -e -l p r o v ~ d ~ t h ~ n o d e b t r h a ~ b e a b w e- d u n d e r 9 ~ u n l e-s s i t ~.o. w
See b r e Lawyers
and owned by the -ant
prior to October 6,1917," nor

to sue the Custodian or the Treasurer

of the dah has been filed, or application t h d r I

t
s been made, prior
to the date of the enactment of the Settlement of War Claims Aet of 1928.*

"unless no-

lawyers bet W

d Mow!

1;

i
i;
I:

1;

tetafreefuldkdmyproffkfistfng
1
h

. Held:
. (a) The Trading with the Enemy Act became efkctiw age111 sutomatica#y at the
outbreak of Workl War I]; P. 326 U, 5.407,
The A a was designed to operate not only in World War I, but

Please Ask Your Questbn Here. e.g.,

Do I nmd a Bankruptcy Lawyer?

a h , unless repealed or

superseded, in any M u r e war. P. 326 U. 5.409.

Page 326 U. S. 495
(b) The right to sue on a debt, gmnted by

' 326 U.

5 9(a),

has not been wholly wffhdrawn. P.

S. 412.

The time IfmIHhns In 5 9(e) rdlate to M i against pmpmty seized during World
iWL P. 326 U. S. 4U.
,

(d) A
U
o
m
c
e of suR

an a d& as p r e s b l

by 5 9{a) is not inrnnsktent WHIthe

p o w gmted the ExeaitW by the 1941 amendment of 6 5(b) to vest the property of
any foreign wunWy or natlorwl thereof and to make of seized propfsW any use wtrid~

About Legal Answers

I:

3Hal3l4

1 the n*nd

Mmk--mUs41#(1866)

-hW&

::JWaUS8rprenraCartCaBer

In wartime might requim P. 326 U. S.412.

:,,

2, Resort to the pow of a bw may be had to ameDorste Ra seemlng harshnws or to

[ quam h apparent abso!&s. H o l y Ttfnctv Church Y- Mi&d 5hhs, 143 U. 5.457. P.
.-6
U. S. 409.

4. Where Congniss m d s only one s e n of a law, kWng another untouched, the

normal assumptian b that the two were d#$ned to fundion as an Integmted whole. P.
326 U. S. 411.

Cidorari, 325 U.S. 847, to nvfew the reversal of a judgment d b m k h g me mrnplaRlt

in a s u t under the Tmding wfth the Enuny A&.

: Raspondent, art A m & m

citizen, bmugM this sulk agakrst the A

and the Treasurer of the U n M Stat- to m v e r from the assGeneram dl Trk&e e Venah, an I H a n

m
of the Asslamzbni

Page 326 U. S. 406

: hsuranae company,

the unpald portkn of a dahn h r kgd s

m m d d that
company. The assets of the mqany had wital h the ADen R o w Cust~dianb l
1942, [Footnote Q and the vested assets had been d e i w r d Po hlm. The sut was
sought t o be mahhhed under 5 9(a) of the Trading with t f Enmy
~
Act (40 Stat. 411,
as amended 41 Stat. 9TI, 50 U.S.C.App. 5 9(a)), whkh abws
f.

,
'

1
n
jny p a o n not an memy or alfy of many. to whom any debt may be owing from
an enemy or aIy d enemy whose p r a m o r any part thereof shall have eomreyed,
mnsferred, assigned, delvered, or paid to the AMen Property Custodiann

..

to sue the Custodfan or the T w u r e r of the U n k d Statcs in the W e m i courts.

PetMonm moved to d k d s on the ground that the clam dW not qualify under 9 9Ie)
of We Ad. Set Q(e),whl& was added to the Aet in 1920 (41StaL 980) and m d &
m 1928 (45 Stat. 2711, proses that no debt shag be &wad under 5 9
it m
owing to and owned by the c h m t prhr to October 6,1917,' nor

'

" u n h n o t e of the daIm has been filed, or applidon h e r has been made, prior
to the date of the m a m t of the SeBbnent d War Cialms A d of 1928.'

In vkw af those pmvisbns of 5 9(e], the DkMct Court dkrdssed the compfat. The
. C h k Court of Appeals m d . 148 F2d 737. The m e is here on a p&Won fir a
writ of ceRlorari whkh we granted b e a ~ of
e the pubk bnportance of the qu-n

presented.

'

If fj 9(e) is applicable here, the suit may not be mhtahrwl, dnce the debt was not h
exfstence on m b e r 6,

. Page 326 U. S. 407

made prfor to
1917, nor had notice of the dalm bcm filed or @ppmEbnthemfor
the d a b of the enact&
of the S a e n t of War Chhm Act of 1928,45 Stat. 254.
. 4 e wouM have quite a different case if 5 9[a] and (e) had hem enact& after the
-.~tbreakof the recent wr. For we m y assume that Congres wuld set up such
barriers as it itme t o the e~~
of the dam of an am's mxlRO15agalnt the

'
I

seized property. But the doubt as to the apg6icablky of g 9{e] to the present skuatbn
mists bemuse that pmvkhn was part of the Iqhlation enacted after the outbreak of

'

. ,

: 3. A less Be& mdhg whkh effeetua statute Ls prdemd to a strfet readhg whleh
would m d e r f t InePRBauat P. 326 U. S. 409.
;

;
.
. ., .. .
. . .- .

Shm4

M ~ u . ~ l - 5 2 8 U S ~ ( 1 9 4 5 ) z . k S l i a U S ~ C a r t C ~

Enemy Act wfrw were made on

Act (55 Stat. 839, 50 U.S.tApp. Supp.
! D d s r 18, 1941, by the First War Poi IV, 3 6161, the becutbe is now armed wtth far more rsompmhenslve power mr alien . .
j
a
p
w and the property of other Ibrdgn
than h World War L Now there is
.
e Ymzlng' Or 'blbdcingm d foreign funds almd at the Immobkatbn of fb&n
ass& in the United States by prohibiting,
a*:
: amendments to

5@] of the Tradhg with the

- '.
.T <' ,,

-.
J&

Page 326 U. S.410

without a lkense, any tritnsactbns RwMng them

- a program Inl13&&

'37$
'7

after the
; Invasion by Germany of Denrnark and Noand adrrrirlseered by the Treasury.
: [Footnote 41 If the Treasury refuses a license permimng payment of aeditors out of
bbcked funds, neither the eredbr nor the owner has any remedy as a m
a
w of rlgM
'

. under the Act. It b said that to aPow aedRors of certsln aliens whoso property has
; been vested In the A b Property CusEadkrn to malntaln sub, but to dlsaliow s u b by
&[tors of a h s w h ~ s efunds a n r m d y frozm, Is to destmy oonsistancy In the
positron of aedkors undw the Tradlng with the Enemy Act. Mmwx, 9(a) p m l t s
; suits on debt dabs anly If the debt Ls one 'owing Worn an memy or ally of enemy*
whose proparty has been taken. By the 1941 amendment to 9 5fb), the vesting power
- has not been so limked, but extends to "any prop* or interest of any krefsn country
or naUunalmThe argument Is that ta construe 5 9(e) so as to pannit -ROE
of an
enmy to sue $ to dlsoimhrate without warrant against d b r s of nonenemy forelgn
nationals who am given no such remedy. Moreow, it is said that, C 9Ce) k not a
. barrier to sub, a ns of dillgigence woukl be mrted with no guarantee of any equitably

ordered priorRy h the payment of the d a l m out of the s&ed properly. B IS aka
argued that; IF these suits are abwed, the operations of the Custodbm mukl be
burdened with Iltlgatbn.

n
2 have conduded that, hwevlever merltorious these wnsfdemtions are, they ~ & c
questions of poky For Congress. W e are mncemed only wlth the r$M to sue on a debt
undw 5 9. Congress granted that right to some dahmb and withheld it from others.
Whether & choice mas wise or not is not for us to say. Tha right t o sue, expadny
granted by 5 9(a), should not be read out of the law

u n k s R b dear that Congms, by what it ker dId, withdrew Bs ear&

can fhwl no M

pmisslon. W e

i n in the 1941 legislatin that Congress, by a m d h g 5 S(b),

d s M to dekte or wholly null@ 9(a). On the contmry, the normal assumptbn b

that, wh- Congress amends only one s e t t i n of a law, k m g another untouched, the
two were deslgned to funmbn as parts of an integrated whob. W e should ghre eaeh as
full a play as possible. Motewer, we are able to fhd h the a r n c n d m to 5@1no
. suggestion or indrcaHon that Congress was m g a dfffermt staMe of h-ns
than
. w then antaimed h 5 Ne). The 1941 amendment b as sllent on that score as % Is on

the dgM to sue alRirded by 5 9Ca).

If. is m e t h t 5 5(b) g a w a bmader grant of authorRy to the E x d i v e than had

existed under the ominal Ad. [Footnote 51 As m p e c k the sekure of property, it
pmvides:

Page 326 U.

S, 412

"...any proparty or interest of any foreign country or national thereof shall v s t whm,

,and upon the tezms d M e d by the Presklent in such agency or person as may be
derilgnated Prom Uma to tirite by the P r s M a n t , and upon such terms and mnd$lons am

: the Pnesldwt may p

~ d b such
e i n t m or pmp&ty shall be held, used, adminkbed,
fiquuutd, SUM, or oehcmlse &elf wioh in the I n t m of and for the bendt of the

: WnIted 5b&s, and sususfr deslqnated agency or pason may p&rm

any and 1 a&

'

'

MmQl4

M&km~Caben-WU.S4#(lW) :JtWaUS-

fnddent to the acmrnphhment or furtherance of these

W8cs added)

k sald that the sumhat of the p-e

of saHsfylng debt dabns as a mtkr of r8ght
t of vested propL i n c o M e n t wffh the new power granted the = d i v e by 5
5[b) to make any affkmtive use of the prop*
that the national merest h tbnr!of
war might muk. But we are here mnmmd solely wkh the right to sue on a debt, not
. with the right to sue to mhlm property nor with any question cbncemilg the .
satSsfaetton of any j u d g m t whBeh may be obtalrrd. W e only hold that the right to sue
, On a debt granted by 5 9(a) has not been wholty wMtdrawn, and that 4 9(e) t!s not
appbeabk to thb class of claim. We annot see that the sBoHlanee of
'

Page 326 U- 5.413

. e s u l an a debt as prscribed by 9(a) ~ M E with

S the p o w of 5 Slb). That does not
h any WBY Gause interPerence with the &dnWtatbn of the w s t d propwty pursuant:
t o 5@). See. 9{al, tD be sure, mntains a p M i n w t k h presdes how any
* JudQment o & W
in the suit against the Custodian or Treasurer shall be smsfkd,
. [Footnote 61 and ahso a b w s s u b to &bn p r o m . [Footnote 7J Whethw those
. provlslons have been superseded by 8 5@), or whether 5 5th) mnta'i a grant of
: authorky whkb may ba sb exercised as ta prevent the redarrratlon of properly or the
payment o f the judgment or to alter the p m d u r e Mr redamatfon or m
t as
prescribed In 5 9(a), are dWIncL questlom. Here, we are dealing solely w8h the right to
. mamh a sut on a debt
a right w h i i b not shown to coWc M h 5 Sfb]. We
reserve deckbn on the other qucst3b1-1~.

--

JUSTICE JACKSON took no part [n the mnsMeratbn or dedslan d thls case.

See Vestlng Order 218, dated e b e r 7,1942, 7 Fed.Reg. 9466; V-g

Orda 463,
dated Deerher 9, 1942, 8 Fed.Reg. 1038. Far the estWhment of the o m of Allen

Property C u a d h n and the definithn of his fundions as respect the vesmg of a h

pmpew, see Exmalive Ordet 9193, dated July 6, 1942, 7 Fed-Reg. 5205, amending
Exemtlve Order 9095, d a t d mad^ 11,1942,7 Fed.Reg.1971.

'

As the Circuit C o u of
~ Appeals pohted out, that fblbwed h r n several &amsbnces:
(a) 1 2 deRned M e begfnning of Ute waP to mean "midnight ending the day on which
Congress has ddared or shall dedare war ar the aktence of a state of wzqn @) 9
302 at the F h t War PoA&, approved D m k 18, 1941 (55 Stat. 838, 8401,
assumed that the T d i n g with the Enemy A d had not been in force before Daember
8, 1942, and that it went into d%ctagain at that timer and (e) 5 5@) OF the Tmdlng

'

was a m d d December 18, 1941, by the Rtst War hwa-5 Act

Mthout any menhion of the othm parts of' the earW act. 55 St;at, 839.

with the Enemy Act

H.Rep. M0,1089, 66th Cong., 2d Sess.; S.Rep. No.273,7Oth Cong., 1st S s . , p.

29; H.Rep. No.17, 7Wh Cong., 1st Sess., p. 20. fn S.Rep. No.273, supra, it was

S&

.-.

stated :

lnder the e x m g Bw, a aeditor of a person whose preperty was seized by the Allen
. - h p e * t y c u s t o d l ~may fae a dakn and insmite pmceedings Tbr the payment of the
debt, under cabin conditkm. Inasmuch rts these ddnmts have had more than 10
years h wbbh to flk their cbim, thb pmvglon EP amended by subsedbn Ib) of sectlon
12 of the proposed bsR so as to p a n i t payment only wh- tht ctakn was tPed prior to

3IltlZOM

AlarlQtamu~-3a6UA404(i945)~~aUS~C#ltCenacr

as wall as s u b by any such person to whom a debt may be owlng fmm any ertemy or
ally d enemy whose propem/ has been seed.

revim of the dwebprnent of the Trading with the memy A& fmm sto IllceptIon tn

:.

;'
-

a ' + .

. ., ..:..

..,

'.
,

1917, early h World War

I, tueher dlsdases
dual purposes in a way that throws needed lhgM upon Its
meaning at the time of this p m d b g In 3944, late in world War n,

It adginated as H.R. 4960, June 11,1917, drafted In the farm of permanent k g l s w n . -.

Its purposes were explained by House and Senate C
~ In terms
m suted to
~
, permnmt tegkhtlan. [Footnote 2/11 &Fore ib passage, several amtndments were
' Inserted which lhited spsections of the Act to 'the present war/ IFootnote 2/21
.
; but none o f these so Med 9 9 or the ad as a what& Other s a n s wwe l b n i i by ..
referenoes made to spec#ic nathns, and stlg others by roferen~atsto s
d-.
.
: Lder ammdmenb added other pmvkbns mnfined to Wo&
War 1. However, no --.
'
general IimbHon ever has confined the Act as a whok or its main structural provlsbns
t o a sp*
war, specific natbns, o r spd a t e . in this way, the Aet has mek the
: Immdfate needs of Ws tkne and also has s b ~ dready to mtet: additional wars and
additbnal enemfes. The beginning of WorM War II in 1941 acmrdingly found

. many provisbns of the Ace, such as 4 9(e), Iftnffed by w&enoes to WorM War I,and
I
others, such as 5 9(a), not so h
h
d
,

tb terms, I
b nature, and Rs history, 9(4, IFooPnote 2/31 from its hceptbn, has
tat4 s o w to Warfd War L Es m
n to WorM War I is apparent: on Its face. IEs first
&use refers to a --in
on the alowanae of a debt "to any person who Zg a &ken
or a sub]@& of any nation which was BSSOCW
with fhe United States In the
proset.uUon of Lbe mr." These words, enacted in 1920 (41 Stat. 977, 980) and
reenaded in 1923 (42 S b L 1511, f 5141, r e i k to any nation '%ssodaPedg with us in
World War I. "Assochted" was thm a word of art. Its second &use mads, "nor, In any
m t , sfid1 a debt be allowed under this &on
unless it was odng to and owned by
the daJmant pHor to October 6,1917.*Thb rePers to the -We
date of the orlgimal
. Radhg weefi the Enemy Ad, Thk date provides a reasonable tcsr for d*
to be

/$y

allowed

Page 326 U. S. 416

agatnst property s&ad by the A b Property Custodbn in mnnectlon wRh World War I.
. rt hcrs no reasonable relation to a war beghnhg in 1941. To m q u k
to be more

~~

than 24 years old in ordw to be acceptable Is W n d reason. The k t &use reads,

b a r sAalI a debt be albvt?d under this setJon unless notice of the claim has been
has been made, pmr to the & t ~of the an-snt
of &
fiW, or appIIdon
,

SePtjement of WarCIalrnsAct oP192&'

. This dame means nothhg when appiied to a clalm, ilk the present one, wtrM was not
earned unta 1935.
-.

Section 9(e), as thus caw, prescribes a natural Bmihrtion upon dmbm to be

, b W against enemy property s e e d tn World War L As s u d ~it is reasonable. R is not
$osslbIe. however, that Congws m o r t a l l y chose this Ind-

way of saying that

AmerPoan d b r s may assert just dam against assets of debtors whose prop&
I

were s&ed in World War 1, but not against assof debtors whose properties mlgM
be heM h mstady by the A h Roperty Wstodfan as a resuft of future wars.

'

33WBl4

M & W I I M ~ - ~ U A ~ W ( ~ ~ = J ~ U S ~ C ~ ~ ~ C W &

The iegkhtlve hlstcry W b i z e s this. The orIghal trading kth the rjrwrry A ~ when
,
,':I ,.: :.
-.
. enacted, October 6, 1917 (4-0 Strrt. 4111, eontahd two khds of provisions. The : -' . - .
. g e n d structure of the Act was h terms of penraertent Begklatfon. S-n
2, in definhg . . .-+,.
rehahed from rdmmce to the war then in p m g w s or to spsdfff natkns or I,:-,
.Bd dates. For =ample, t provMed that:
, .
.
-.
- ,
The words %he beghnhg of the war,' as used herein, shdl be deemed to m
. mldnight ending the day on whWl Con$has d a r e d or shall dedam lnrsr or the -. .
existence of a state of war.'
,

'

. The w o w 'end of the war,' as used hemin, sbE be deemed to mean the date of

:! -

p r o d a m n of excfranpe of W b n s of the treaty of pea&, u n b the b # e o l t

: shah by p r o d a m n , deliwe a prior date, h whWl ease the date so p r o m shalt .. .
j be deemed to be the 'end of
-I,
1 Page 326 U. 5.417

'

the mi-'within the: meaning of th$ Act.'

(50 U.S.C. App. 5 2(c)).

, Seddons 3(a), (b) and (el dBB# in llke term wRh g e n d procedure for m d b g under
; Prestdent.lal Woense in time of war. S&bn 5(b) deatt wfffi the regukitbn of fn-n
exchange, eatn export, transhm of credit, e t Sectbn
~
6 authorked the Resident to
. appotnt an omctal to be known as the Alien P m p e Custudh. Sectfon 9 provrdsd for
. the wsertbn of property d a i and debt daim on beha of any perran not an enemy
or ally ofenemy against certain assets fn the possessbn of the Custodian.
. On the other hand, cwtaln other provisions weres Prom the begbnhg, aarmarlted as
temporary pmvisions. For example, 5 3(d) referred to eertaln censorsh$ to be
n
hbkhed "during the present war."S e n *a) r&emd to eett;aln G-n
insurance
mmpanks. Section lyb) referred t o %he presmt war." S h k Memces to ?he
present war* o a r r e d in 55 11,13, and 14.

S d o n 9 Is typbL Orfglnally it was all of' a general and p m e n t nature. 'lt has baen
amended nine times. b f b t paragraph has been presewed, with s8ght &changes, as
91a) In the form of permanent kgLsWon. On the other hand, many new subsections of
5 9, inchding 5 9(e), contain provisions s u W only to transacbkns gmwing out of
World War L The first amendment to 5 9 was that of July 11,1919 (41 Stat. 35). This
threatened to w n b e the situation. It Inswkd in the first paragraph a pmvlso referrIrtg
to (41 Stat. 36) "all property h m f b deennhd
~
by the Piesldent to have b m n held
for the bmeflt of a person who was an enemy or
of enand t o

...

"territory of any natfbn asroEiated with the United States in the pmsecution of the war
whi& was o ~ a p p k dby the rnlbry or n m f o r m s of Germany or AUSVIa-Hungwyr or
ttraTr all&,"
'

(MBsuppM.) On June 5,1920, h o w , the secand amendment (41 Stat. 977)

m-ed
thk and set tbe pattern whidn has since been fobwed. lk r e e n a d the whole
of g 9 and, In dolng so, removed from b firrt pawraph the 1919 proviso. It resEMed
that paragraph to general tmm and gave it the d ~ i g n a t b nof g 9 ( ) , which it h s
retahed, Congress, at the same tlm, a d d d several subseckions, most of wslfch
q n h d m t l =press rePerenw lo Germany and Austrb-Hunpary. . S e n 9(e] frst
-ppwmd at that time Fmm the beginning, 91e) mntahed Its p'psent dk-moec to
"any nation which
associated wMI the U n M StateS h the pTOSyt$n of the W

. and to the requkmmt that a debt, W ordar to be amwed under the seblon, must have
, k e n ' o m to snd owned by the claimant prior to Odober, 6, 1917.' WH

'

. . ..

..

YfIROi4

MalQ12anuC~-3a8U.6.4CW(f~:JdUSSlpranrCovt~

amendmenb emphasked thls r & m n of g Q(e) ka W o w War I, while p m i n g the

geneml and permanent cham of 5 9(a). rootnote 2/43 Distortion

Page 326 U. S. 419

-..
: .
.. .

. .
,

;?

the m h g of statuObw language would w u k not from h i t h g fj 9(e)

War I, but from appiying It to WorId War IL

'

to World

..

'

: E is argued that to e x h d a the defense whkh E; darned to be supplied by 5 9(e)

: against debts payable out of p r o m vested h the Custodian during WorM War II,
under g 5@],as amended by the Fmt War Powers A&, D-er
18,1941 (55 StaL.
8393, wBI result m Inequ-.
For eampk, t k urged that 5@) was amended in 1941
to pmnk vesting h the Custodian of property of 'any f o m n wrurrhy or a national
thereof." Howwer, 5 918) has not been amended eompondhgly to permit the
1 ~sertlon
of cfdmt o the payment of debts out ofthe property of a hreign natbnal, as
' dIstlngulshed Wrn mat of an "enemy or ally of enemy." From this, it I
s argued that
Congress should not be regarded as having intended to mate such fnequitmr V there
,. be such, between creditan of 'enen4iasu and those of other %reign natSonalsgthrough
: the passage d the Rrst War Powers A&, and that themfore Congms must be
. regarded as having intended that 5 S(e) ehhate zdl md8torsgdaims under 3 91a)
against propof armls and of aof enemies, unkss Rled or c8lmed b e r e
' mrch 10,1928.

:'.

...

' '

'

Thts amwnts to an argument thats b-twe

hequbble results, therefore preexisting kgis-n

Page 326 U.

subsequent kglaktbn has produced

should be rrdnterpMd so as ta

S. 420

elkninate these subsequently a-eated kquitles. If the meaning of 5 9(e) was restrleted

.e
World

War E prior to the wacbnent of the First War Powem A&, the F B ~War
,wers Act cannot change the meaning of 5 9(e) w8thwt amending it, and t does not
amend it. A suggetion that amendatory l q i s W n rrdght now be hdpful k found h bWk

recently b h d u d In Congress with the support of the A h Property Custodian. The

. hwrtngs emphasize that need. EFaomote 2/51
Furthermom, the interpretation now urged to offset Inequ&ies would meate other
Inequfties. For example, the proposed Interpi-ebtbn would mutt in an inecpdty to the
respondent in the p m t case. He is an ArneriQn -en
with an dmBttedly good daim
for about $7,000 earned h 1935, agahst an enemy corporation, assets of wh-h h the
Rands of the A h Roperty Custodian am ample to pay the dakn. The dahant f&d hk
wffhh the One year p r e s d e d in the order vesting the assof the enemy
company in the Custodbn. [Footnote 2/61 The clafmant is now met with a defense that
- he mnnot recover, because he f a W to file hk rtahn before
10,1928, whkh was
seven years b 6 m t was Bamed and burken yews before the ass& had been vested
. In the custodbn wEh whom he is asked M fife his natice. The dedsbn as to the

exfstence of in~quitisunder the 2941 amendment and as to the best way to daal with
them lay Wch Congress in 1941, and still lses thera
a tRrmlnaUon clause, and was e~presslyexduded from the 3aht
Resolution of March 3,1923.(41 Stat. 1359), whlch dedared that m a i n acts of

Page 326 U. 5.421

Congress should be mnstrued as if the war had ended and the present or then existhg
~lefgencyhad expired. g r t
A& of 1928 fFoomte U71 was
2

:- a

bum
4

In the natural wutse of events, Wodd War I claim uMmMy would have
- b m dbpused of, and yet the main structure af the A b would have remained on the
: books ready for later u
se That this was ranimphted is w i d e n d by hemtiwe Order

.. .
-

. 6694, MY 1, 1934. [Footnote 2/81 Thfs ~ikas W e d undet authority of the . . .

.. . ...ReorganWn Act d
3, 143 (47 Stat 1489, 1517). P
n 1 e x m k ;..,
?bo%hed the WRce of the Alien R.o&
Custodhn and
. .
.-wth om,rlahts p
r
w
Q
m
.. .
. .. or
er. .to
D
of
-.
s tmmkbn ofthe A t t o w r i e
- .
. . . ,.
the offife of the A h RoPertv custodh ht.0 the
a m of the Govmment. Wfthh the Department of J u t & the tlghb, p-88,
'+
-%

4
,?

powers, and duties mnfcrrad upon tha Alten h p e r t y Custodian were p l a d under the
attorney Gend, and were
ex&&
hugely through him or &

Attorney General in charge of the

On May
. 15,1939, by
Order 8 1 3 4 4 Fed.Uq. 2044, aJ power and mom mnfemd .
ldent bv 5E 9. 12.20 and 21 of the Tradha WMthe klemv A d and all
'
power and authority whkh the ResIent under that Act had therePofom ordered to be
ex-ed
through the A k n Propetty Custodian
wmd b &
ta be .
i
'

U
t
t h !
e&-m

In &charge of

- In mb status, 9CaI and o w permanent portions of

!

the Trading wRh the Enemy Act awaked the nm war. f kft A t h t form, t h m wouM
have been no InequWeE other than those whkh had exbred On World War I. The M
waukl have been admkrIstd m&as R was In Warfd War k, a
r
mthat it would have

administwed thmuah the Attorney G e n d and the Dearartmenf &Itrsthrouah 9n independent asenq. fn 1940, ak the appro& d Wodd War If, the Act
Aimudl the same m a r e h I 9(a], 9(e) and 5&) as it h d h 1928. Tha hequlllrr
discussed in this promeding .arose Iater from the substanttat expamion of 5 5b).
[Footnote 2/93

; Page 326 U. S. 423

On Oaamhr 18,1941,-me the First War

&

Po-

Act. 55 StRt. 839, No stabtow or

q
*
n
a@bk E was M
y m e k k with the fuH s t a l u t o ~powers of the ANm Property
Custodian W e d in the Athmey G%n& TBk III of the Fhst War Prim Act expmsfy
recognized the Trading wkh the Enemy Act by m d h g only I yb) of 6t. Congress
&so m r t M a1 m n s a l m y tam 'under the M i n g with the Enemy Actmwhkh
muld have been a m o a e d "It the pmvlsions of thts Act
War bwers A N and the
m d m e n t r made by R had been in
On March 11, 1942, the REsldent h u e d Btetutk Ordw 9095, 7 W.Reg.1971,

; mmhhg

u of the bq r m O f~W of the

the O R b of Alien RPaertv C m b d h n at the head of which thwe wah would
h f$eOtlW for E m e ~ c ~y

C U S b d h ~ D O bVO the~ kSw.By a m O r d 9142,

~
Apd 21, l W , 7 Fsd.Reg. 2985, expressly h g under Wm Constitution and law5 af
; the U n R d Smes, and in W h r under Titie I of the first War PoA@, the
W e n t trmdemd fbr M e wnttnuance of the p m t war and for s k months e
e
r
: the termhatton t h e w to 'the A h P m w Custodh pmvkled for by ExOrder Na. 9095,' m h h q that had been mnskrd to the Attorney General
---qxut~re order 6694 of ILY I. 193A 01 to the AssAttorney G a d h charge%
rhe c=Lalms Dhrlsbn of the Deparhnent of 3 w t k e under Bteeutive Order 8136,
15*
1939,4 Fed.Reg. Z W .

'

On 3uty 6, 1942, ExealtIve Order 9495 was a d d by E x m e Order 9193, 7

'

'

Fed.Reg. SM)S. The AWI R

o
w &sbdBn "provwed h r by
Order M.
9 0 # , ' a ~ ~ b y ~ ~ 9 1 9 3 , ~ # u s ~ ~ ' t h e ~ ~ o f # l' e ~ r a d l n ~
dtheEnsnyAFt=WashWoMWa&snd*osddtbnslpa-pM

-gpe

326 U. S. 424

through
b-hg
the erfmsbn d p o r n under 8 5tb). Thrse
adtortlaekns eerr)ed p o w to hue ~ u k b m ,
h e n m n w&h the
~ O f m p e r t y = ~ l l o n e b y ~ ~ o r d s r s ~ t ) l l s ~ [ ~ o t e Y i o ]
The Allsn ~ P W Custodfan
W
in Wkhg o w the admbbmtbn uf the Ttadlng wRh the
~~~~~~~M=pedWpennwr;Pntp~pwns,whebhe#fiorrnd~hg
S(b) or 5 9(a) ar elseulffiae.

-,

'

For m-e W m , 5 9(el

msmt a ground tar d m a l of #e
whleh depends upon 5 9Ca1, wd mo demon d the CPcuR murt uf Appcalp should be
al'mnd.

'

'

[Footnote 2/11

i TheQWobjmas of-

bll~(l)tonimg~emdapplym~Isubjeetta

property Mund wkhh the jurisdWm of the U n k d 5bbs.

...

Aaeordhg ln Amarkan

bw, o n e o f t l r a h m d b k a ~ m s e q uo~f w w k t ~put an end to d mmmzid

H.RRep. No.85,bW ang., h
t S s . 1, June 21,1917.70 summrb, the piqmsa
thbbUisrcotb~nervMernatknafrulesorprartlccb,butbdeCfneand~~
ctlm"H.R.Rsp. NPm85,
pm Z
"Ttlspumosad~BbNLto~thendesofLawrutr#
proadbAaUbmmrrrse
1
b d w m the dtkms of m
g rtatbns, arwl ta pennit, under m
l safqguards and
mbWbnsdeertainkhdsofbushesstobecarrrsdon.~
~

country pendbg tfis war."

Sm,Rsp. No.f13,6Sttr Cong., lst Sesa I, Aug. 31, f917.

The a~nfwmcem
r
t Bflvs s u d ~
Sebs., 3,6,
21,1917.

n 9fel of the T
-

MRrn. W.EE, 65th lhng., lsE

the Enemy Acfi rrs b

t amended, Auaust 24,1937 (50

U.S.C. App. 9(e)), lo a9 F88ows:

"Momw0rotherpropertyshdkretumednwany~~vredundert)dssartton

mqpaoon*baeltaenwsubjeetofwryn~nwhIch-m~vsWl~
U n l e d ~ h ~ a p ~ n o f # l e r r w r ~ s r s e h ~ n I n P a - ~ d s
~ r o c e l r l g m t o ~ o t t h @ U n l t e d ~ : ~ , ~ a n y e r m n p ~ ~
byaPorelgnmthnfortberdeast!afmny and o t h e r p r o ~ o P A ~ ~

- d ~ t r y t h e S ~ o f S ~ W t h e m m c y m d m W a n d m a s D
,&mml#w arrangemsnt obbbzbk shal be regsrded as m m t g m requhwnmt;
. n o r , i n ~ ~ H r d a t r t b a a l l o W ~ t l r k ~ u ~ A ~ # a ~ o w l n g b a n d

owed by tire dafmmt pnror ta 0 - b

6,1917, and as to &&mtboffIcr than

~ d f h e U n W ~ u u n k s s t a m c e w l t h ~ t o t h e m n a y w o t h r *

...property held by the A h Property Custodfan or Tmmrer of the Unitd

hereundq nor -1
a debt be allbwd llnder thk &on
unles~mtke of ~%e
daim .;
hes been filed, or & e n
thembr has been made, prlor to
date of ifnz
--+mtment of the S W m e n t of Wzrr W m sAct of1928 ( A d M&I 10,1928, c. 167).'

[Footnote 2/43

The later a r n e n d m b were those of February 27,

1921 (41 Sm.11471, wptylng 91

9mI2) and (3)to skuations where a w o r n , "priorto ApA 6,1917, hkrmrrled wlth a
subject or m e n of Germany or Austrfa-Hungargr;'
December 21, 1921 (42 Stat. 3511, amending 5 9(a) to pennft suits to be brought
eighteen months, i n s t 4 of sk months, alter the 'end of the w z g The amsndid
not bsrt any calendar date rebbbng to Wodd WW X, although peace had been de&tred
3uty 2,1921. The words "end of the waP must herefore be ghren thefr general m b g
applbbk to a l wars as pmvIded h the dd7niblons In 3 2, supra,'

b m b e r 27,1922 (42 Stat. l065), amending 9 9(a) to perr& s u b to be brought 30 -.

months, Instead of 18 months, after the "end of the war;'

8..

the whob 8 9. h 5 9(a), it omfftd all ,,.

thnkatlon on the tane wlthh whldl sulk mlpM be bmughk. IX added new subsertkns
espechlly adapted to Wcrkl War I dakrs, such as a resmkbn a g a b t &dm on M
a
F
l
. of d t h w of the Unlted
naturaIb:ed sAce Novmber 11,1918;

Mardr 4, 1923 (42 Stat. 15111, reen-g

May 7 , 1926 (44 Stat, 4061, addlng

Austria, Hungaty, or Austria-Hungary;

9@)(3a) and I3b) as to citizens of Germany,

4 3 r d l 10, 1928 I45 Seat. 254-279). Thk was the "Scmement of War ClaIRls A d of
.j28.* lt deaR apmsly with W o w War L IT w a o m e d with s u d ~subjects as the
"Mked mfms C o ~ l o n and
' The Trlpattae CLafms Comm'ssbn." It amended the
T n d h ~ gw b the Enemy Ad In m n y deta&s as to World War 1 etaims, and d d e d mny
new provlsluns as to those d a b . It added subsedens to 5 9. In 5 9@), it inserted
the &use whkh requbxl that notices of dalms must have been f k d or appblbns for
daQns must have bccn made before the enaQment of the 5ettMmi of War CMm Act
of 1928;
August 24, 1937 (SO Stat. 748), arnendlng 5 91e) by i n s d r t g the pmvko as to
anangemerrts whkh will be regarded as meding the requbments of recipro-1 rights.
[Footnote 2/51
.

5.1940, H.R 4840 and H.R. 5031 were lntmdud h the 78th Congress. H.R 1530
was m d u C B d h the 79th Congress, Jwlumy 16, X 9 4 5 . See Hearffrgs on H.R. 4840

before Subcommittee No. i of the CommBttee on the Judlctary for the Muse of
Representatkres, 78th Cang., 2d Sess., Serial No. 18,krne 9-35,1944.

S8e note 10 Inm.

See note 4, supra.

,dFootnote 2/81

[Footnote 2D1
The d d p m e n t of We Law s p e d y S

5 5(b), which took

place durlng

the

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l h ~ o f ~ ~ W f R e ~ u k i o n & ~ f o r ~ ~
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f Allied &-b
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say * m d * q ~ & e r ~ I ) n a m d B e ~
m

isb4llg-trnditr~~a$~rlyw5th@
t o I Q o t e d p ~ w h i & i ao f b k r & t o t J ~ ~
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~

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The
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