Assignment 4

Name: Abhiram Sridhara, UCID: as2488, Course: TQM

1. Discuss the eight principles of the ISO 9000 standard
The Eight Principles: ISO 9000s Basis
The ISO 9000 QMS is based on eight principles from total quality
management (TQM):
1. Customer Focus: Understand the customers needs, meet the
customers requirements, and strive to exceed the customers
expectations.
2. Leadership: Establish unity of purpose and organizational
direction and provide an environment that promotes employee
involvement and achievement of objectives.
3. Involvement of People: Take advantage of fully involved
employees, using all their abilities for the benefit of the
organization.
4. Process Approach: Recognize that things accomplished are the
results of processes and that processes along with related
activities and resources must be managed.
5. System Approach to Management: The multiple interrelated
processes that contribute to the organizations effectiveness are
a system and should be managed as a system.
6. Continual Improvement: Continual improvement should be a
permanent objective applied to the organization and to its
people, processes, systems, and products.
7. Factual Approach to Decision Making: Decisions must be based on
the analysis of accurate, relevant, and reliable data and
information.
8. Mutually Beneficial Supplier Relationships: Both the organization
and the supplier benefiting from one anothers resources and
knowledge results in value for all. These eight principles will be
recognized from your study of TQM and from Dr. Demings
Fourteen Points.
They represent the total quality philosophy to which the organization
must adhere in order to develop the cultural environment necessary
for an effective, conforming QMS.
2. Discuss Pareto Charts

He had the insight to recognize that in the real world a minority of

causes lead to the majority of problems. This is known as the Pareto
Principle. Pick a category, and the Pareto Principle will usually hold. For
example, in a factory you will find that of all the kinds of problems you
can name, only about 20% of them will produce 80% of the product
defects: Eighty percent of the cost associated with the defects will be
assignable to only about 20% of the total number of defect types
occurring. Examining the elements of this cost will reveal that once
again 80% of the total defect cost will spring from only about 20% of
the cost elements.

All of us have limited resources. That point applies to you and to me,
and to all enterprises even to giant corporations and to the
government. This means that our resources (time, energy, and money)
need to be applied where they will do the most good. The purpose of
the Pareto chart is to show you where to apply your resources by
distinguishing the significant few from the trivial many. It helps us
establish priorities.

3. Discuss fishbone diagrams

In his book Guide to Quality Control, Ishikawa explains the benefits of
using cause-and-effect diagrams as follows:
Creating the diagram itself is an enlightening, instructive process.
Such diagrams focus a group, thereby reducing irrelevant discussion.
Such diagrams separate causes from symptoms and force the issue of
data collection.
Such diagrams can be used with any problem.

The cause-and-effect diagram is the only tool of the seven tools that is
not based on statistics. This chart is simply a means of visualizing how
the various factors associated with a process affect the processs
output.
The same data could be tabulated in a list, but the human mind would
have a much more difficult time trying to associate the factors with
each other and with the total outcome of the process under
investigation. The cause-and-effect diagram provides a graphic view of
the entire process that is easily interpreted by the brain.

4. Discuss Histograms
Histograms are used to chart frequency of occurrence. How often does
something happen? Any discussion of histograms must begin with an
understanding of the two kinds of data commonly associated with
processes: attributes and variables data. Although they were not
introduced as such, both kinds of data have been used in the
illustrations of this chapter. An attribute is something that the output
product of the process either has or does not have. From one of the
examples (Figure 6), either an electronic assembly had wiring errors or
it did not. Another example (Figure 30) shows that either an assembly
had broken screws or it did not. These are attributes. The example of
making shafts of a specified length (Figures 11 and 12) was concerned
with measured data. That example used shaft length measured in
thousandths of an inch, but any scale of measurement can be used, as
appropriate for the process under scrutiny. A process used in making
electrical resistors would use the scale of electrical resistance in ohms,
another process might use a weight scale, and so on. Variables data
are something that results from measurement. Using the shaft
example again, an all-too-common scenario in manufacturing plants
would have been to place a Go No Go screen at the end of the
process, accepting all shafts between the specification limits of 1.120
and 1.130 in. and discarding the rest. Data might have been recorded
to keep track of the number of shafts that had to be scrapped. Such a
record might have looked like Figure14, based on the original data.

Figure 14 would tell us what we wanted to know if we were interested

only in the number of shafts accepted versus the number rejected.
Looking at the shaft process in this way, we are using attributes data:
either they passed or they failed the screening. This reveals only that
we are scrapping between 3 and 4% of all the shafts made. It does not
tell us anything about the process adjustment that may be contributing
to the scrap rate. Nor does it tell us anything about how robust the
process is might some slight change push the process over the
edge? For that kind of insight, we need variables data. One can gain
much more information about a process when variables data are
available. The check sheet of Figure 12 shows that both of the rejects
(out-of-limits shafts) were on the low side of the specified tolerance.
The peak of the histogram seems to occur between 1.123 and 1.124 in.

If the machine were adjusted to bring the peak up to 1.125 in., some of
the low-end rejects might be eliminated without causing any new
rejects at the top end. The frequency distribution also suggests that
the process as it stands now will always have occasional rejects
probably in the 2 to 3% range at best.

5. Discuss control charts for variables.

Control charts are the appropriate tool to monitor processes. The
properly used control chart will immediately alert the operator to any
change in the process. The appropriate response to that alert is to stop
the process at once, preventing the production of defective product.
Only after the special cause of the problem has been identified and
corrected should the process be restarted. Having eliminated a
problems root cause, that problem should never recur. (Anything less,
however, and it is sure to return eventually.) Control charts also enable
continual improvement of processes. When a change is introduced to a
process that is operated under statistical process control charts, the
effect of the change will be immediately seen. You know when you
have made an improvement. You also know when the change is
ineffective or even detrimental. This validates effective improvements,
which you will retain. This is enormously difficult when the process is
not in statistical control because the process instability masks the
results, good or bad, of any changes deliberately made.

In evaluating problems and finding solutions for them, it is important to

distinguish between special causes and common causes. Figure 27
shows a typical control chart. Data are plotted over time, just as with a
run chart; the difference is that the data stay between the upper
control limit (UCL) and the lower control limit (LCL) while varying about
the centerline or average only so long as the variation is the result of
common causes (i.e., statistical variation) . Whenever a special cause
(no statistical cause) impacts the process, one of two things will
happen: Either a plot point will penetrate UCL or LCL, or there will be a
run of several points in a row above or below the average line. When
a penetration or a lengthy run appears, this is the control charts signal
that something is wrong that requires immediate attention.
6. Discuss flowcharts and give a simple example
A flowchart is a graphic representation of a process. A necessary step
in improving a process is to flowchart it. In this way, all parties involved
can begin with the same understanding of the process. It may be
revealing to start the flowcharting process by asking several different
team members who know the process to flowchart it independently. If
their charts are not the same, one significant problem is revealed at
the outset; there is not a common understanding of the way the
process works. Another strategy is to ask team members to chart how
the process actually works and then chart how they think it should
work.
Comparing the two versions can be an effective way to identify causes
of problems and to suggest improvement possibilities. The most
commonly used flowcharting method is to have the team, which is
made up of the people who work within the process and those who
provide input to or take output from the process, develop the chart. It
is important to note that to be effective, the completed flowchart must
accurately reflect the way the process actually works, not how it should
work. After a process has been flowcharted, it can be studied to
determine what aspects of it are problematic and where improvements
can be made.

7. Explain what an FMEA is

Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) tries to identify all possible
potential failures of a product or process, prioritize them according to

their risk, and set in motion action to eliminate or reduce the

probability of their occurrence.
FMEA just tries to identify all the possible types (modes) of failures that
could happen to a product or a process before they happen. Once the
possible failure modes have been identified, the effects analysis
kicks in and studies the potential consequences of those failures. Next,
the consequences of each potential failure are ranked by
Seriousness/Criticality to the customer Probability of the faults
occurrence Probability of the faults detection by the systems
responsible for defect prevention or detection Seriousness of
consequence, likelihood of occurrence, and difficulty of detection all
work together to determine the criticality of any specific failure mode.
Comparing the criticality of all the identified potential failure modes
establishes the priority for corrective action. That is the objective of
FMEA. FMEA tells the organization where its resources should be
applied, and this is very important because all possible failures are not
equal and the organization should always deploy its resources to
correct the problems that are most critical.
There are several kinds of FMEA. Design FMEA is employed during the
design phase of a product or service, hopefully starting at the very
beginning of the project. In this way, the designers will be able to
develop a design that has fewer potential failures, and those that
cannot be avoided can be made less severe.
A second version is process FMEA. In this case, FMEA is looking at the
potential failures (errors, miscues) of a process. The process might be
that of an accounting firm, a hospital, a factory, a governmental
agency, or any other entity.
8. Provide an overview of the Toyota practical problem solving
process
Toyotas 8 Step Practical Problem Solving Process
Some of the best problem solving methods are the simplest and one of
those that continues to stand the test of time is Toyotas 8 step
method. This method also goes by the name of Practical Problem
Solving or PPS for short. In the diagram below not only can you see
the steps for yourself but you can also see how they relate to the four
phases of PDCA (Plan, Do, Check, Act).

Imai published an almost identical 7 step process in his seminal book

Kaizen. If you compare his model and the Toyota model the
difference that you will see is the insertion of Set a Target activity as
step 3 in the Toyota model.
Step 1: Clarify the problem.
Step 2: Breakdown the problem.
Step 3: Set a target.
Step 4: Analyze the root cause.
Step 5: Develop countermeasures.
Step 6: See countermeasures through.
Step 7: Monitor the process and results.
Step 8: Standardize.
9. Explain total quality decision making process.
The decision-making process is a logically sequenced series of
activities through which decisions are made. Numerous decisionmaking models exist. Although they appear to have major differences,
all involve the various steps shown in Figure 4 and discussed next.

Identify or Anticipate the Situation

Anticipating the situation is like driving defensively; never assume
anything. Look, listen, ask, and sense. The better managers know their
employees, technological systems, products, and processes, the better
able they will be to anticipate troublesome situations.

Gather the Facts

Consider Alternatives considering the alternatives involves two steps:
(1) list all of the various alternatives available and (2) evaluate each
alternative in light of the facts. The number of alternatives identified in
the first step will be limited by several factors. Practical considerations,
the managers range of authority, and the cause of the situation will all
limit a managers list of alternatives.
This manager might identify the problem as poor morale and begin
trying to improve it. However, he or she would do well to gather the
facts first to be certain of what is behind the negative attitudes. The
underlying cause(s) could come from a wide range of possibilities: an
unpopular management policy, dissatisfaction with the team leader, a
process that is ineffective, problems at home, and so on. Using the

methods and tools described earlier in this chapter and elsewhere, the
manager should separate causes from symptoms and determine the
root cause of the poor attitude. Only by doing so will the situation be
permanently resolved. The inclusion of this step makes possible
management by facts a cornerstone of the total quality philosophy.
Choose the Best Alternative, Implement, Monitor, and Adjust
Managers should avoid falling into the ownership trap. This happens
when they invest so much ownership in a given alternative that they
refuse to change even when it becomes clear the idea is not working.
This can happen at any time but is more likely when a manager selects
an alternative that runs counter to the advice he or she has received,
is unconventional, or is unpopular. The managers job is to optimize the
situation. Showing too much ownership in a given alternative can
impede the ability to do so.
10. Explain why quality tools are important.
Quality management includes planning, processes, and acceptable,
organized outcomes. Quality management tools and some useful steps
to follow are:
Project Planning: Here you should create a project checklist as
well as a project control process. Team members can use this
planning phase to identify possible conflicts, changes, or risks
associated with the project and, at this stage, should write the
project scope.
Pareto Chart: A Pareto chart is an easy way to identify tasks
within the project and prioritize their importance. The final goal of
the Pareto chart is to determine where to maximize efforts to
obtain maximum results.
Fishbone Charts: The fishbone chart identifies faults or problems
in the process or project. It is often used as a graphic
demonstration to identify problems, their causes and effect.
Histogram: This bar chart includes project variables and identifies
root problems. It can also provide a glimpse of where problems lie
in relation to the entire project, or on how large scale they
appear.
Charts and Graphs: Visual components are often the best way to
understand your quality management process to see how well it
functions initially and throughout the project, and to evaluate

project outcomes. If quality in any project is not considered or

analyzed, outcomes could be problematic, inefficient or incorrect.
By using quality management tools, youll have better outcomes
with fewer delays.
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I give myself an A or 10/10 as I have covered all the topics effectively.