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^ \ K KDKYILKg^O K \ Y HK K$K > Y ^z gK V @ ^ [ T GK Y K GK  $T \ T Y Y KW$ [ T  zY[  ?\K7T T ^ \ -K ^Y KDY Z Y TWV Y K K KDY^ >O [ K;PK^ \ KDYXK\ ^K IL[ K, Y Y K"V I K?\ []YXZ7\ K K Y  gKT K [ VK YXK":Z [? $;Y^ K ILzK A[ _  Z K?\ [ K$ Y?T [ \
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Y V K I [T K  ['TW V^ ! T .7 T [(K ^ M Y [ V K / TW:V $  K [ [ ^  K X VgVK7Y \\ Y K Q ^K z*^  [   ^K7\g[ K"IK;V [ YJV K K [ K =K V K K*^ $ KY Y K ^Y +[ 4K .K Q ^47Y z[ ZX \ KK?_\
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Section 1.4. Historical Background


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[TWV  Y V K&K $+ RY TT K dyKS Y Y ^ K^ T 5TWV> Y ?Z b  [ L/ ^ K ^.^[K _ [$ V ;K ?K T *K P`TWV$ K T \ K [ K TWV^ T Z ^K T LY KD^.Y^T [ K V T [ [zV;[^ZTK ^([ .V  O K \ Q \ T TWV wT K \ ?&KgTQ O ^^ $4 [X[ ['5 g gK OSO, ;#K"IK K?K \ Y []^ Z$4z[0K"K K K*V V*4}Y^[ [ZX$ \ K VK^
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Chapter 1. Introduction

 

 

 






 
  
  

 


 

 
 


 

 


 
  

 

  






 

 

 


 

 

 

 



 
 







  
  
  
 


 
 

 
 

  

 



 

 





 



    







 











 

 


 



 

 

 

 

 

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aK Y ^ ^ KzY K K"K T V K YX\ ^ Y ^yY T  T K K \ Y [ Z T[ TWV VL[ ^ V [ YITKK Z ZX\[ KK";K \ KV K  V [ [g VK^  [ \ T [TWV T ) [ KY TILT K[ K V;Y TWV^ LTW^\ V K&  TWZ V \ [ TWV K 7^|;T ^  YOoV P[[ $ VY ^w$ KDT  Y?K ^T Y $ T7\ ^ K T K V ^ [KD\ $KY Y V  YX\;^$4[NY [ V Y 5 ^
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TzY[ I Z  T K?[7\ILLK TW^yV TWV K )KV?\ TTY  ^K Z zT[ P`[ K \ K K K7 V _\ Y$K8V Y z ^ K [Y [Y^ K   O[ ;[ gV V K [ KYX\Y;+g; Y[^|  ^ K T Y YXY \WTVLOW[ > ^ V K g[e: /[LK ^KNK \ T  T ?K TV KG ) O zV?K TJK\YXK\WK7Y O \oK\ z_ K KV 7Y T ^ z['zK [T  [Y K7 \T [ T [V^
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K7\ K K z K V T K?^D\_ [ TWV [KDXY V ^ [ Y V Y K7\ K \ K zK &^ K  V \ ^^ O K / *^  P`K  '[  ^ KILK YX\ ;gY -5[  &Y $ Y ^ Y Z KILK V  [ 
 KK \ KT  ?T ^NT  V [ ;K K"YX[ \WO  +dzK[ \  K7\ / T Y VY N.K^ 4Z ZgY \ Y"KTWVL ^ [ V K KDK Y z[]\ Y VL^ K Y V K K $4KDKK V Y 9K Y z[K \  T ^ $T YX\[ ^  Y V K
 KDK7KYZ7Y K VK g^ Y^ Y VL[ ^ VK YXfZ O K '  K"TWK[ V ;K T P K K DO K ^ V [ [\ TK `T *K TW) V 4}Y Y NT K[ZgV\ K _K Z VL! [^y^ T K [ ^|^ V K KK $4K KD$4K YXK"V N\K V+ ! K^ SK \[ T  zV ?[KT  \ K Z Y YXV Y \WOW^ > K:Y K V/TWV^ ^ [][Y \$4T <K K  $ Z ?Y T Y^ K
Y K [TK ;VK  zT YXK \ ^T [YX \ $^wTY  K \ +Y S T [H V  ;S Y H / K  ?KT .K K 4 Z7K) T z \ KTWV V YX$ \ T K *^  \ ^K O KDY Y V^ K [K T K V [
H ^T $Y ^ zK V T [ V K  KDY \ T K _JT T ^0V [ \ KY %$ K V K\ T  ?T  zK YX\  [ $ ^ Y ^ Y ^ Z Y Y V 



 




 

 




 


 


 
 






  



 

 
 

 



 



 

 

 

  

 



 

 




 

  

 



 

 

 

 

 





 

 

  

 

 





 



 

 

 


 

 
 

 


  

 
 
 
 
 
    


 


 
 
 




 


    
 




 



 

 



   



 

 

 

 





 

 





 

  


 

 

 


 




 

 





 





 

  

 

 

 

 

 
  




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K.Z7? 4 [KDT TW^ YXV "\ T _+G[ A KV + [K(TY  Y T K Y\ KVVY I TWz MV KY V T >YXK \ ?^ Yb:.I/ OT T !K / ^ V Y V Y KZ [Y [?^|I^*K K ^ z $ K Y T V Y _ [ K T `K K K.4 Z7V[K $ z T zT K ^ K T.V  YX^ \ ^  .\ KY V "T K _ ^ K Y[T ^.V ^&; TWV[z  K [ K7 \ ^^w_JT  Y V [\ Y Y T KK
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Section 1.5. Numerical Simulations
















 



 




  

 



 

  
 

 
 

 




 

 

 



 




 

 



 
 
 


 

   

 



 

 






 

 
  

 

 

 

 

  



  

 

 







 
   

 


  



 


 



 

  

 

 

  









 

 



 






 






 

 

 






 

 

 

 
 
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 



    
    
   
 

 

 

 

 

  
 



 

   

 
  




 


 


 




  


  

 



 





 


 



  

 

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 [ KYX\ ?T $  [ VK ^ KDYY V "$4K K ;KK V K T ^[ KDV Y K  K K ^ K T ^YIY KV K.K*44}Z7YK NT Zgz\ K,K V $ YXK\]Z K [[K ^ YX[ \  Y \ Y T [ VL^K Y V ZO K  ^ T ^ [$$ Y VV Y [ Y VK
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^Yz.[^&Y K  ; TWVZ K T [YXT \]V TK V YX\"K K K*T 4}Yz [  [ TW V K?YK \TZ [ YVK I O T T UMY Km VK*Y ^.K )P^& \N^TWZ V K T [ $ K V [[]Y  \ TWKVV [K V Y KDT[Yz V K[$KD[ + O  aY [K $ / \ K[ Km^ Y \ K[[ [YI Y ^ T +eD$O ?Y TR^^ Y z? ^ K*K [ 4X ZXK?[\ Y \V TWYV K 7?TT A ^
[ K z ^ K[$ Z V T I}Y K K7Kg\ O  Y KUY IT [r\ Y z; [K g V T YT ^T ^ ; [YX$ \PYY V K TWV K [ K* [ K K V Y[ I NT T Z7Y [ ^ Y [ V g/NKT ^ [ ILV K YILK Y T T K:YXK \P Y  ^ YX\$ T [ \
\ T [  ?T K YXzZXK Z YX[J\4 T  [$Y K7\ Y KTWV ) + V?[ T VLK ^ K u[*I}Y Y T [?VT KIL[K ,ILK []\[* zIK K<V [ Y K[YVOH^ P Y [ V V ILK  K ^ VK?^w\ T _PT /  OS;KNK YV ^|^*K  _  Y TZ 4TIL[ K7V \ [ T Y Y K^
YT ^ T Y  ^|^*[ $ z^rK TWVTWV ^ Yz K KzILK K7^ \ KD[ Y T K Y ^ ^ zK[  \ TK? \W?O(T  # V K V KDYXK \ TWV _ K K  [Y$=I T [ _ \ T  K(? T \  T  ;7T K YXz\ K  [YX$ \ T ^Y TWKDV Y T ^ K Y $4YX[\ yZ $ Y Y^ K
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A Y V O=TW# VV ??TT ^^ YY ^^ KK T K T ^ $ \ T w [K \ K . YXV?\ TWV  \ Y Y T [ VL[ ^H \ K<[  V  [ \[Y$ILKY  K 4 [7ILK ,[ Y  V[9 $ \ T  T ? T  KDTWYXVL\^yT T  K ^yTWV [$ K ^ Y K^
IK?\ [ T T ^V [ [ V TWV [ L^ Y V=T P`K K V  [' K YX\  \ Y K  O

Chapter 1. Introduction

    
 
 

 

 

 

 





  

    

  

 


  



 


 





  

 
 

 







 

 
   


 







 






 

 

 

 

 

 


 
 
  



  
 
  





 
 


 

 

 
 






 
    



 

 
 



 

 
 

 


 
 
 

  




 


  

 

 

 

  

 

 

 
 







 

 

 

  
 






 

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UZ# KK^ ^ K"K*K KX4 V  Z7Y K ^ TT [ zVKY _ V YX7K \T K^ IK -5T^ K K:K Y V T ^ K K K ^*^K zYX\ [\ ^^ VL[ ^ ^ [Y Y K K  K Y Y ? Z7[K [K ^&K A  T\ ^^ [ V [gVK^& ( Y [ -5YK Y VTWV!+ K S  TWV7Y T?[ T ^ YX~K \ V\ YY[ VVTWV Y T MX4T I[ Y K VLVV^  gC^ .KO  V >:# V   \ K :V / K O
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