Joining of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastics

for Automotive Applications

Gordon Kelly
Department of Aeronautical and Vehicle Engineering
Royal Institute of Technology
SE100 44 Stockholm, Sweden

TRITA-AVE.2004:25
ISBN 91-7283-824-8

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

iii

Abstract
The introduction of carbon-bre reinforced plastics in load bearing automotive structures provides a great potential to reduce vehicle weight and fuel consumption. To
enable the manufacture and assembly of composite structural parts, reliable and
cost-eective joining technologies must be developed. This thesis addresses several
aspects of joining and load introduction in carbon-bre reinforced plastics based on
non-crimp fabric reinforcement.
The bearing strength of carbon bre/epoxy laminates was investigated considering the eects of bolt-hole clearance. The laminate failure modes and ultimate
bearing strength were found to be signicantly dependent upon the laminate stacking sequence, geometry and lateral clamping load. Signicant reduction in bearing
strength at 4% hole deformation was found for both pin-loaded and clamped laminates. The ultimate strength of the joints was found to be independent of the initial
bolt-hole clearance.
The behaviour of hybrid (bolted/bonded) joints was investigated both numerically and experimentally. A three-dimensional non-linear nite element model was
developed to predict the load transfer distribution in the joints. The eect of the
joint geometry and adhesive material properties on the load transfer was determined
through a parameter study. An experimental investigation was undertaken to determine the strength, failure mechanisms and fatigue life of hybrid joints. The joints
were shown to have greater strength, stiness and fatigue life in comparison to adhesive bonded joints. However, the benets were only observed in joint designs which
allowed for load sharing between the adhesive and the bolt.
The eect of the environment on the durability of bonded and hybrid joints was
investigated. The strength and fatigue life of the joints was found to decrease signicantly with increased ageing time. Hybrid joints demonstrated increased fatigue
life in comparison to adhesive bonded joints after ageing in a cyclic freeze/thaw
environment.
The strength and failure mechanisms of composite laminates subject to localised
transverse loading were investigated considering the eect of the specimen size,
stacking sequence and material system. Damage was found to initiate in the laminates at low load levels, typically 20-30% of the ultimate failure load. The dominant
initial failure mode was intralaminar shear failure, which occurred in sub-surface
plies. Two dierent macromechanical failure modes were identied, fastener pullthrough failure and global collapse of the laminate. The damage patterns and ultimate failure mode were found to depend upon the laminate stacking sequence and
resin system. Finite element analysis was used to analyse the stress distribution
within the laminates and predict rst-ply failure.

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

Dissertation
This thesis contains an introduction to the research area and the following appended
papers:
Paper A
Kelly G. and Hallstrom S., Bearing strength of carbon bre/epoxy laminates: Eects
of bolt-hole clearance, Composites Part B, 35, p331-343, (2004).
Paper B
Kelly G., Load transfer in hybrid (bonded/bolted) composite single-lap joints, To
appear in Journal of Composite Structures.
Paper C
Kelly G., Quasi-static strength and fatigue resistance of hybrid (bonded/bolted)
composite single-lap joints, Submitted for publication.
Paper D
Kelly G., Eect of the environment on the durability of bonded and hybrid (bonded/
bolted) composite single-lap joints, Submitted for publication.
Paper E
Kelly G. and Hallstrom S., Strength and failure mechanisms of composite laminates subject to localised transverse loading, To appear in Journal of Composite
Structures.

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

vii

Division of work between the authors

Paper A
Kelly performed the experiments, numerical simulations and wrote the paper. Hallstrom supported the work and contributed to the paper with valuable comments
and suggestions.
Paper E
Kelly performed the experiments, numerical simulations and wrote the paper. Hallstrom supported the work, assisted in interpreting the results and made valuable
suggestions regarding the structure and content of the paper.

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

ix

Contents
Preface

Abstract

iii

Dissertation

Division of work between the authors

vii

1. Introduction
1.1. Materials for structural automotive parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Joining techniques for composite
2.1. Mechanical fastening . . . . . .
2.2. Adhesive bonding . . . . . . . .
2.3. Hybrid joining . . . . . . . . . .

1
5

laminates
6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3. Localised transverse loading in composite laminates

20

4. Future work

21

References

23

Paper A

A1A24

Paper B

B1B14

Paper C

C1C19

Paper D

D1D18

Paper E

E1E23

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

1.

Introduction

Polymer composite materials are being used in a wide range of structural applications in the aerospace, construction and automotive industries due to their light
weight and high specic stiness and strength. A variety of materials are being
used ranging from lower performance glass bre/polyester, used in small sail boats
and domestic products, to high performance carbon bre/epoxy systems used in
military aircraft and spacecraft. One sector where the use of composite materials is
still evolving is the automotive industry. Composite materials oer great potential
in reducing vehicle weight, thus increasing fuel eciency and reducing CO2 emissions. It is estimated that a reduction in vehicle weight of 100 kg would reduce fuel
consumption by approximately 0.3-0.4 litres per 100 km [1,2]. In addition to weight
reduction, the number of individual parts can be signicantly reduced making the
high-volume composite car concept cost-eective. Current use of composite materials in high-volume automotive structures is limited to secondary exterior structures
such as body panels, wheel housings or energy absorbing bumpers. Body panels
are commonly made from sheet moulding compound (SMC) which is based on thermoset matrix reinforced by discontinuous glass bre. Bumpers and front panels have
been made from glass mat thermoplastic (GMT) which is commonly discontinuous
glass bre reinforced polypropylene. Both SMC and GMT composites are based
on a randomly oriented, discontinuous glass mat reinforcement with a maximum
bre volume content of around 30%. Both can be compared with the fast stamping processes used to manufacture semi-nished sheet metal parts. Their structural
eciency is typically low being only slightly higher than steel in the case of plate
bending. However, the advantages of good formability, high energy absorption and
resistance to corrosion makes GMT and SMC appropriate for exterior automotive
components. A typical example of a composite automotive structure is the Ford
Explorer Sport Trac cargo area illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The Ford Explorer Sport Trac with SMC cargo area.

The Ford Explorer Sport Trac features a scratch-resistant, corrosion-proof SMC

cargo area with integrated liner and side panels which have allowed for a reduction

G.Kelly

in weight of 20% in comparison to a sheet steel solution.

However, there is a greater potential to utilise the benets of polymer composite
materials in automotive structures. Introduction of bre reinforced plastics in the
body structure could decrease the mass by 50-67% compared to current metallic
body structures. In comparison, the potential of alternative materials such as high
strength steel and aluminium are 25-35% and 40-55% respectively [3, 4]. Reducing
the weight of an automotive body structure can, in theory, lead to a secondary
weight reduction of other key systems. The chassis, gears and brakes can be designed
lighter [5] and the potential exists to utilise new, alternative power-train systems.
Carbon bre reinforced plastic (CFRP) oers high specic stiness and strength
in comparison with materials such as steel and aluminium. CFRP parts are currently
used in signicant volumes in high end sport vehicles which are produced in volumes
under 500 units/year. A typical example of the use of lightweight materials in load
carrying automotive structures is the CFRP monocoque and engine carrier of the
Porsche Carrera GT. The vehicle design, oor panel and passenger cell are shown
in Figure 2. The composite parts are made from layers of carbon preimpregnated
with an epoxy matrix. The layers are laid up in a mould before being sealed in
a bag and placed under vacuum. The sealed part is then placed in an autoclave
where it is subjected to a specied temperature and pressure cycle required to cure
the matrix material. The passenger cell also incorporates sandwich structures where
layers of composite material are placed on either side of a plastic or aluminium foam
material to provide an extremely sti and lightweight part. The engine carrier at
the rear of the car is bolted to the passenger cell to form the main load carrying
structure. The external body panels are bolted to the chassis structure and are nonstructural parts. The manufacturing process is labour intensive and not suitable for
high volume production.

Figure 2: The CFRP monocoque structure in the Porsche Carrera GT.

In addition to the use of lightweight composite materials in high end sports vehi-

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

cles, technologies are being developed to allow these materials to be utilised in higher
volume road vehicles. However, the current use of large structural composite parts
in passenger cars has been limited to concept vehicles. European automotive manufacturers have presented demonstrator parts which have been developed to prove
technologies and concepts. The BMW Z22 concept car has a CFRP occupant compartment and aluminium space frame structure. The body structure comprises of
approximately 20 components including the CFRP side frame as shown in Figure 3.
The side frame is manufactured using a liquid moulding technique. The weight of
the occupant compartment is reduced by approximately 50% in comparison to a
steel-based construction [6].

(a) BMW Z22 concept car.

(b) CFRP side frame.

Figure 3: BMW Z22 concept car with carbon bre reinforced plastic side panel.

The CFRP oor panel shown in Figure 4 was developed within the European
Union nanced research project TECABS [7] (Technologies for Carbon Fibre Reinforced Modular Automotive Body Structures). Automotive manufacturers within
the project consortium include Volkswagen, Renault and Volvo. The demonstrator
part was designed and manufactured with the number of parts and weight reduced
by 30% and 50% respectively utilising technologies which allow for 50 units/day
production. The part utilises technological advances in heavy tow carbon bre,
preform technology and resin transfer moulding (RTM).
An example of lightweight construction in series production is the CFRP roof
structure of the BMW M3 CSL. The roof structure is manufactured in three stages
with the rst stage involving the preforming of carbon bre fabric as shown in
Figure 5(a). The second stage involves the resin injection process (RTM) where the
preformed fabric is placed into a closed mould and resin is injected into the material
under pressure. Finally, the part is cured in a heated mould before being removed
by a robot and coated with clear paint (see Fig 5(b)). The CFRP roof is 6 kg
(50%) lighter than the conventional roof and due to its location, it lowers the cars
centre of gravity. In addition to the roof structure, the M3 CSL includes additional
lightweight components made from composite materials. CFRP is used for the front
apron, doors and side trim, air intake, central console and diusers. Glass bre
reinforced plastic (GFRP) is used for the rear bumper support, front seats and the

G.Kelly

Figure 4: CFRP oor panel demonstrator part developed within the TECABS project [7].

support structure for the through loading facility. The rear lid with the integrated
spoiler is made from SMC. Altogether, the integration of the lightweight structural
components has led to a reduction in vehicle weight of 200 kg in comparison to the
M3 series production model [8].

(a) Preform manufacture for the CFRP

roof.

(b) Automated part removal from the

RTM mould.

Figure 5: Series production of the CFRP roof in the BMW M3 CSL.

The introduction of load bearing composite parts in automotive structures places

new demands on materials, manufacture and assembly processes. In order to realise
high-volume production of composite automotive body structures, new material and
manufacturing concepts will have to be utilised. The following section presents the
current most promising material system for production of structural automotive
parts in bre reinforced plastics.

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

1.1.

Materials for structural automotive parts

The introduction of high performance reinforced plastic components in automotive

structures will be signicantly dependent upon the raw material costs and the manufacturing process. While Formula 1 cars and luxury sports cars can motivate the
use of materials and technologies developed within the aerospace industry, new systems will have to be developed if polymer composite materials are to compete with
metallic materials in the production of high-volume vehicles. A potential solution
to manufacture composite automotive structures involves the use of liquid moulding
techniques together with non-crimp fabric (NCF) reinforcement. Non-crimp fabric
reinforcement is manufactured from bre tows which are placed side by side to form a
layer. The layers are subsequently stacked on top of each other and stitched through
their total thickness. The resulting mat commonly consists of 2 to 4 layers and can
be easily handled and draped. The manufacturing of multi-axial reinforcement from
non-crimp fabric material is illustrated in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Manufacturing of multi-axial non-crimp fabric reinforcement.

Non-crimp fabrics also provide additional advantages such as unlimited shelf-life,

high deposition rates and relatively low cost. However, there is a general concern
that the mechanical properties of laminates made from non-crimp fabrics are lower
in comparison with laminates made from pre-preg material. A number of studies
have been conducted [915] and comparisons made to pre-preg laminates. Further
research is required in order to quantify the dierence in material properties based
on relevant base data.
A liquid moulding technique which can be used to mass produce large, complex,
composite parts is resin transfer moulding (RTM). The process involves the infusion
of a reinforcement mat with low viscosity resin which is injected under pressure.
The dry (unimpregnated) reinforcement is commonly pre-shaped and oriented into
a skeleton of the actual part known as a preform, which is inserted into a matched
die mould. The mould is then closed, allowing the resin to be injected. Heat is
applied to the mould to activate polymerisation mechanisms that cure the resin and

G.Kelly

solidify the part. Once the part develops sucient handling or green strength, it is
moved or demoulded. Several benets oered by the RTM process are :
good laminate surface quality
ability to manufacture large, complex shapes
integration of ribs, cores and inserts
use of a wide range of resin systems and reinforcements
controllable bre volume fraction
A major challenge in the design of structural automotive parts made from bre reinforced plastics is the joining and load introduction aspect. This can arise
through joining composite parts to metallic space-frames, or in attachment of secondary structures such as seat mountings and suspension systems. Introducing loads
into composite laminates has been found to be more complicated than in metallic
materials due to material anisotropy, poor interlaminar strength and the absence of
local stress relief such as plasticity. While a number of load attachments and joints
can be integrated into the components which are manufactured by RTM, the need
to join or attach secondary structures is unavoidable. Thus, the development of
joining techniques for composite structures is necessary.

2.

Joining techniques for composite laminates

The joining of composite laminates has been traditionally achieved by mechanical

fastening or adhesive bonding. In selecting which method to adopt, the following
aspects should be considered:
Structural/material constraints - material thickness, dissimilar materials, load
type, load level, stress concentrations, operating temperature and environmental exposure.
Design/aesthetic constraints - weight, disassembly and need for smooth external joint surface.
Manufacturing constraints - assembly time, cost, surface preparation and hole
drilling.
A qualitative comparison of mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding of composite laminates was presented by
Astrom [16]. In addition to adhesive bonding
and mechanical fastening, hybrid joints combining both techniques oer alternative
design possibilities. Joints can be designed where the adhesive and bolt share the
load with the load transfer distribution depending on the joint design and operating
environment. Limited published literature exists on the topic of hybrid joints in
composite laminates. This has resulted in a lack of knowledge regarding the load
transfer in the joints and the strength and fatigue life. Paper B and Paper C in
this thesis are aimed at addressing this through characterising the load transfer,
strength, failure and fatigue life of hybrid single-lap joints with CFRP adherends.
A summary of the important factors aecting the design of mechanically fastened, adhesive bonded and hybrid joints are presented in the following sections.

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

2.1.

Mechanical fastening

Mechanically fastened joints, where two or more components are joined using bolts
or rivets have been the subject of intense research during the last 30 years. The theoretical and experimental research has mainly focused on high performance joints
tailored to the aerospace industry. Signicant contributions to the development of
mechanically fastened joints in composite laminates have been published in symposium proceedings [17], comprehensive texts [18] and literature reviews [1921].

Single-lap joint

Double-lap joint

Single-strap joint

Figure 7: Mechanically fastened joint congurations.

Typical mechanically fastened joint congurations are shown in Figure 7. The

most commonly used joint conguration is the single-lap joint. While the structural
performance of the joint may be poor as a result of the eccentric load path, the
joint is cost-eective and relatively simple to manufacture. This makes the singlelap joints attractive to the automotive industry and therefore the main part of this
thesis is devoted to this joint conguration.
There are many factors which inuence the behaviour of fastened joints in composite materials. These factors have been highlighted by a number of authors [2022]
as :
1. Material parameters - bre type and form, bre orientation, resin type, stacking sequence and bre volume fraction.
2. Design parameters - joint type, laminate thickness, geometry (width, hole
diameter, edge distance etc.), load direction and loading type.
3. Fastener parameters - fastener type, fastener size, fastener material, fastener
pattern, clamping force, washer size, fastener/hole t.
Relevant material, design and fastener parameters which are of interest when
joining composite laminates in automotive applications are investigated in Paper A
of this thesis.
Laminate bearing strength
The laminate bearing strength is a key factor governing the design of mechanically
fastened joints. The maximum load which can be transferred by the fastened joint

G.Kelly

is governed by the ultimate bearing strength (bu ) of the laminate, which is dened
as
Pu
(1)
bu =
dt
u
where P is the ultimate failure load, d the hole diameter and t the thickness of
the laminate. A common test used to determine the bearing strength composite
laminates is the pin bearing test, as shown in Figure 8. Relevant test standards
which describe procedures to perform material bearing strength tests are ASTM [23]
and ASTM D5961/D5961 M [24]. The pin bearing test essentially involves replacing
the fastener by a pin in a double lap joint conguration. Measurement of the load
and hole deformation is used to characterise the bearing strength of the material.
The bearing strength can be determined by measuring in the stress at 4% hole
deformation as outlined in [23] or by using the 2% oset strength procedure outlined
in [24].

washer

pin

Laminate

Figure 8: Pin bearing test set-up to measure material bearing strength.

There are several factors which inuence the bearing strength of composite laminates. The joint geometry, laminate stacking sequence, clamping load and bolt-hole
clearance have been shown to aect the laminate bearing strength. The eects of
each of these factors are discussed in the following sections.
Geometrical eects

Geometrical parameters such as the bolt hole diameter d, laminate thickness t, width
w and edge distance e have been shown to signicantly aect the strength of bolted
joints in composite laminates [2530]. The commonly adopted terminology for joint
geometrical parameters is illustrated in Figure 9.
The bearing strength of a composite laminate has been shown to vary with the
ratio of edge distance to bolt diameter ratio (e/d ) as shown in Figure 10. At lower

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

Bearing plane

Figure 9: Geometry related terminology for bolted joints in composite laminates.

values of e/d, the laminate fails in shear out mode where the high shear stress
concentration at 90 to the bearing plane results in the material behind the hole
being displaced. Shear-out failure can occur at larger end distances in laminates
containing a high percentage of bres in the 0 direction. At larger end distances,
the material fails in bearing mode where compression loading leads to elongation of
the hole. At higher values of e/d, the bearing strength remains essentially constant.
800

Shear-out Failure

600

Ultimate Bearing Strength b (MPa)

700

500

Bearing Failure

400
300
200

[0/45/90/-45] s
?
[0/45/90/-45]
s
?
[0/45/90/-45]
s2
?
[0/45/90/-45]
s2

100
0

3
e/d

pin-loaded
clamped T=5Nm
pin-loaded
clamped T=5Nm
5

Figure 10: Eect of the e/d ratio on the laminate bearing strength (from [30]).

The eect of the width to diameter ratio (w/d ) on the bearing strength is shown
in Figure 11. For small values of w/d, net-section failure occurs with the laminate
fracturing in a direction perpendicular to the direction of applied loading. As the
w/d ratio is increased, a transition to bearing failure mode occurs. At higher values
of w/d, the laminate bearing strength remains unchanged.
The necessary values of e/d and w/d to achieve bearing failure have been shown
to be strongly dependent upon the laminate stacking sequence. Collings [25] determined the required ratios for a number of dierent stacking sequences for CFRP
laminates as listed in Table 1. Similar results for the [0 /90 ] and [0 / 45 ] lami-

10

G.Kelly
800

600
Net-section Failure

Ultimate Bearing Strength b (MPa)

700

500

Bearing Failure

400
300
200
pin-loaded
clamped T=5Nm
pin-loaded
s2 clamped T=5Nm

[0/45/90/-45] s
?
[0/45/90/-45]
s
?
[0/45/90/-45]
s2
?
[0/45/90/-45]

100
0

4
w/d

Figure 11: Eect of the w/d ratio on the laminate bearing strength (from [30]).

nates have been shown by other authors [20, 31]. However, these values are dependent on the relative proportions of plies in each direction and may therefore dier
depending on the tested laminate.
Table 1: Required w/d and e/d ratios for bolted joints in CFRP [25].

Stacking Sequence
[0 /90 ]
[45 ]

[0 / 45 ]
[0 /60 ]

w/d
>4
8
4
4

e/d
>5
>4
4
4

Eect of stacking sequence

The laminate stacking sequence allows the designer to tailor laminates for applied
loads and this possibility has been used extensively in the design of composite joints.
Stacking sequence has been shown to inuence the strength of joints signicantly
with regard to both strength and failure mode. Collings [25] in his early work
reported that while stacking sequences had a lesser eect on the shear-out and netsection strengths, the bearing strength was sensitive to stacking sequence. Subsequent research has shown that all failure modes are dependent on stacking sequence.
Arnold [22] and Hamada [32] expressed the importance of 0 plies on the bearing
strength with Hamada proposing that the strength was dependent on the degree
of interlaminar fracture versus bre buckling in the 0 plies. The pseudo-clamping
eect obtained through employing plies at 90 to the load direction at the outer
surfaces, has been shown both experimentally [22, 33, 34] and numerically [33, 35]
for both GFRP and CFRP laminates. Applying 90 plies at the outer surface acts
in reducing interlaminar normal stresses and impedes delamination. In contrast to

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

11

the consensus in the published literature, Hamada [32] found that the highest joint
strengths were achieved through adopting 0 on the outer surfaces of the laminate.
The role of 45 plies in diusing the load path in bolted joints has been reported
by a number of authors [22, 27, 32]. This has led to the current belief that ecient
joint design is only achieved when quasi-isotropic stacking sequences are used. HartSmith suggested the stacking sequence design guideline illustrated in Figure 12.
The diagram has resulted from the authors comprehensive experimental research
on joints in carbon bre-epoxy laminates. Hart-Smith [27] also reported the eect of
reducing stress concentrations through use of glass bre strips around bolt holes in
CFRP. Through locally substituting 0 CFRP bres by softer GFRP strips (about
four hole diameters wide), experimental evidence has shown the improved strength
of bolted joints in these hybrid laminates.

Figure 12: Selection of ply stacking sequence for brous composites [28].

It has also been reported [36] that plies of similar orientation should be dispersed throughout the laminate and not blocked in order to achieve higher bearing
strength. Thus the most ecient laminates, considering all possible failure modes,
have a dispersed quasi-isotropic stacking sequence. Cross-ply laminates have been
studied in tension by Marshall et al. [35] and in bending by Chen and Lee [33]
with both papers concluding that [90n /0n ]s laminates exhibit higher ultimate joint
strength compared to [0n /90n ]s laminates.
Lateral clamping load

The eect of lateral (through-thickness) load around the bolt hole has been shown
to be benecial with regard to joint bearing strength [20, 2528, 30, 31, 35, 37, 38].
Collings [25] assumed the stress induced by clamping to be constant over the washer
area and given by
T
zz =
(2)

0.2 d 4 (D2 d2 )
where T is the applied torque, D is the outer diameter of the washer, d is the hole
diameter and 0.2 is a torque coecient determined by Stewart [39]. Strength im-

12

G.Kelly

provements for 3 mm thick CFRP laminates of up to 170% were found for a constant
lateral pressure of 22 MPa [25]. It was noted that little further improvement was
achieved through increasing the lateral pressure. In contrast, Smith et al. [31] found
that for 1 mm CFRP laminates covering a range of stacking sequences, pressures
greater than 35 MPa were required to achieve maximum bearing strength. Akay [40]
supported the latter ndings in a study on various woven and unidirectional CFRP
laminates. Slightly dierent behaviour was discovered for aramid bre reinforced
plastic (AFRP) laminates with Akay and Kong Ah Mun [38] reporting that bearing strengths could be increased by approximately 100% by mere nger-tightening
(1-2 MPa) in comparison to the pin-loaded condition. Transition from bearing to
tensile failure was also noted upon applying nger-tight lateral pressure. Similar
transitions have also been noted for CFRP [40] but at signicantly higher lateral
pressures (>25 MPa) depending on the stacking sequence.
Bolt-hole clearance

The clearance between the bolt and the hole signicantly inuences the behaviour
of mechanically fastened joints. Several authors have investigated the eect of bolthole clearance on the behaviour of mechanically fastened joints in composite laminates [4148]. In general, increased clearance was found to reduce the contact area
between the bolt and the hole thus increasing the stress levels. However, it is dicult to compare the results from dierent authors as the problem is non-linear being
dependent upon the applied load, friction and the bolt-hole contact area.
The majority of the published work in this area has considered the pin-loaded
joint representing a double-lap joint conguration. However, the eect of bolt-hole
clearance in a single-lap joint is potentially more important as the clearance allows
the bolt to rotate in the hole. Bolt rotation has a detrimental eect on joint performance as a result of the reduction in the bolt-hole contact area. Ireman [47] investigated the eect of dierent design parameters on the strength of a CFRP/aluminium
single bolt, single-lap joint using a three dimensional nite element model. While
clearance was found to decrease the joint strength, the laminate thickness, friction,
clamping force and bolt conguration were found to have a stronger inuence on the
joint strength. The eect of clearance in single-bolt, single-lap joints has been investigated by McCarthy et al. [48]. CFRP joints were manufactured with clearances
ranging between neat-t and 240 m. The 2% oset strength, ultimate strength and
ultimate strain were determined according to ASTM D5961/D5961M [24]. Increased
bolt-hole clearance was found to decrease the joint stiness and increase the ultimate failure strain. The eect of clearance on the 2% oset strength and ultimate
strength was found to be small for the clearance levels considered. An alternative
denition of strength was derived based on a decrease in the joint stiness.
Bolt-hole clearance can signicantly aect the load distribution in multi-row
joints. A neat t between the bolt and the hole will ensure that the load is transferred
immediately. In contrast, the load transfer is delayed in clearance t joints until
contact has been established. Stanley et al. [49] investigated the load distribution
in multi-row single-lap joints concluding that relatively small amounts of clearance
can have substantial eects on the bolt load distribution.
With mass production of modular composite automotive structures, the manu-

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

13

facturing and assembly tolerances will become important parameters which will have
to be considered in the design process. While larger tolerances may be advantageous
for automated manufacture and assembly operations, knowledge of the subsequent
eect on the mechanical properties of fastened structures is necessary. The eects
of bolt-hole clearance on the bearing strength of carbon bre epoxy laminates was
investigated in Paper A.

2.2.

Adhesive bonding

Adhesive bonding has been used for many years as a method of providing high
strength structural joints. Kutscha and Hofer [50] and Kutscha [51] reviewed much
of the early research in this eld prior to 1969 including many of the classical analytical methods. Lehman and Hawly [52] also provided one of the earlier papers
analysing and comparing dierent joint congurations. Oplinger [53] and Vinson [54]
have since provided general reviews of the technology of adhesive bonded joints in
composite structures. The science of adhesive bonding encompasses many elds such
as surface physics, chemistry and mechanics. Research in these elds has led to the
proposal of dierent theories which describe the mechanisms governing adhesion.
The theories are presented in the comprehensive text by Kinloch [55].

Single-lap joint

Stepped-lap joint

Double-lap joint

Scarf joint

Figure 13: Adhesive bonded joint congurations.

A wide variety of joint congurations are possible when bonding composite structures. Figure 13 illustrates the most common joint congurations. The single-lap
and double-lap congurations are the most commonly found joints in practice and
are applicable for joining relatively thin adherends. The more advanced steppedlap and scarf congurations are used to transfer high loads in joints with thicker
adherends. The manufacture of stepped-lap and scarf joints is more complicated,
requiring low machining tolerances.
The most extensively studied joint conguration in terms of experimental and
theoretical research is the single-lap joint. The joint is illustrated in more detail in
Figure 14. The joint is commonly used due to its simple design and easy assembly
in a similar manner to the mechanically fastened single-lap joint. Figure 14 also
highlights the stress distribution in the adhesive as a result of in-plane loading.
The highest stresses occur at the ends of the overlap as shown. As the load is not
collinear in the joint, a moment is generated at the overlap and the joint rotates
when deformed. This rotation induces additional peel stresses on the adhesive which

14

G.Kelly

can reduce the strength of the joint signicantly. Methods to limit or overcome peel
stresses and increase joint strength are discussed in a later section discussing end
eects. Additional factors aecting the strength of bonded joints are discussed in
the following sections.
x=0
Load path through the joint
Undeformed joint

Deformed joint

45

Shear stress
Peel stress

40
35

Stress (MPa)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
15

-10

0
x (mm)

10

15

Stress distribution in the adhesive

Figure 14: Structural behaviour of bonded single-lap joints.

Factors aecting the strength of bonded joints

There are many factors which aect the strength of adhesive bonded joints. In
the following sections, the most important factors aecting the strength of bonded
single-lap joints in automotive applications are discussed.
Overlap length

The overlap length of an adhesive joint denes the length by which the adherends
overlap one another. The overlap length is an important design parameter which
inuences joint rotation, the adhesive stress distribution and ultimately the strength
of the joint. Increasing the overlap length will serve to reduce the rotation of the
joint. The eect of the overlap length on the stress state in an adhesive joint has been
studied by Hart-Smith [5658] and Grant [59,60] within research programs aimed at
developing design philosophies for aircraft construction. Hart-Smiths work within
the PABST (Primary Adhesive Bonded Structures) program and ESDU (Engineering Science Data Unit) programs based on Grants work at British Aerospace have

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

15

served to provide guidelines with regard to overlap lengths in adhesive joints together
with analysis techniques for several common joint congurations. The eect of overlap length on the adhesive shear stress in a single-lap joint is shown in Figure 15.

50
45

Shear Stress(MPa)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

-15

-10

-5

10

15

Overlap length, L (mm)

Figure 15: Shear stress distribution in a bonded single-lap joint.

The magnitude of the shear stress in the adhesive is shown to increase with
decreasing overlap length. The stress in the central region of the overlap is low
with the peak stresses occurring at the ends of the overlap. In the case of short
overlap joints, the adhesive may yield along the entire bond line when the maximum
theoretical load has been applied. Increasing the overlap length allows for an elastic
trough to develop at the centre section of the joint. The length over which the bond
yields is constant and dependent upon the load being transferred. Further increase
in the overlap length serves only to increase the size of the elastic region and reduce
the stress at the centre of the joint. The design philosophy adopted by Hart-Smith
in the PABST program was that the adhesive should never be the weak link in the
structure. The elastic trough region is deemed essential if the joint is to overcome
the eects of creep and the plastic zones are designed to be long enough to support
the ultimate load under the worst operating conditions. A combination of moisture
and high temperature provide the worst operating conditions for adhesives due to
the softening which takes place. It was recommended that the minimum operating
stress (in the elastic trough region) be no greater than 10% of the adhesive shear
strength. While an overlap length to adherend thickness ratio of 8:1 is suitable for
laboratory lap-shear testing, a ratio of 80:1 was chosen in the PABST program as a
design criterion for aircraft structures.

16

G.Kelly

End eects

Critical regions exist at the ends of the overlap region in bonded joints. The maximum stress occurs in these regions as illustrated in Figure 15. Several authors [6164]
have modied the adherend or adhesive geometry at the end of the overlap as a
means of increasing the joint strength.
Adams and Harris [64] investigated the modication of the overlap ends in aluminium/epoxy single-lap joints. The performance of joints with square edged adherends (basic design in Fig. 16), rounded adherends and adhesive llets were compared. The joints with the square edges demonstrated the lowest strength with a
strength increase of 28% being observed in the joints with the adhesive llet. The
highest strength was found in the joints with the rounded adherends and adhesive
llet where a strength increase of 60% was observed in comparison to the square
edged joints. The strength predictions from nite element analysis were found to be
in good agreement with the experimental results.
An additional problem which can be alleviated through tapering the adherends
at the ends of the overlap is that of peeling stress. Hart-Smith [61] showed that
proling the adherend could reduce the peel stresses, change the failure mode, and
hence increase the joint strength. The author noted that the taper must be continued to a ne edge if the benets are to be gained. Adherend tapering may be
dicult to accomplish in practice for thin adherends. Hildebrand [63] and Adams et
al. [62] investigated various joint designs for single and double-lap joints respectively. A selection of alternative designs for the ends of the overlap region are shown
in Figure 16.

Basic design

Adhesive fillet

Inside taper

Outside taper

Inside taper and adhesive fillet

Figure 16: Alternative modications to the end of adhesive lap joints (Redrawn from [62]).

The possibility to modify to the ends of the overlap depends on the adherend
thickness, the manufacturing process and cost. In general, adherend tapering may
be dicult to achieve but ensuring a well proled llet is essential in the design of
a good adhesive joint.
Eect of the surface ply bre orientation

One factor which can easily be overlooked when designing joints is the orientation
of the bre direction in the surface ply. The surface ply bre orientation has an
important inuence on the resulting joint strength. Ideally, the bre orientation of
the surface ply should be aligned in the direction of applied loading. However, when
manufacturing large complex shapes with a minimal number of preforms, the surface

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

17

bre directions may be dictated by part manufacture considerations. As joints may

be required at dierent locations in the same structure, the surface bre directions
may dier resulting in non optimal surface bre directions for some bonded surfaces.
The load-displacement response of bonded joints with surface bre directions
in the loading direction and perpendicular to the load direction is illustrated in
Figure 17.
14
12

Fracture load (kN)

10
Surface ply parallel
to the load direction

8
6
4

Surface ply perpendicular

to the load direction

2
0
0

0.5

1
1.5
Grip displacement (mm)

2.5

Figure 17: Eect of the surface ply orientation on joint strength. Single-lap joint with
CFRP adherends [0/45/90/-45]s and Epibond 1590 A/B adhesive.

When the surface bre direction coincides with the loading direction, the strain
on the surface of the laminate is limited due to presence of the bres. The strength
of the ply is also highest in the bre direction. Hence, the reduced strain and
high strength act to transfer the load from the adhesive into the laminate in an
ecient manner. In contrast, the surface strain in the loading direction of joints
with the surface ply aligned perpendicular to the direction of the applied load is
higher due to the absence of any reinforcement with the strain being governed by
the matrix mechanical properties. The strength is also signicantly lower which
results in fracture and delamination of the surface ply at relatively low load levels.
As shown in Figure 17 for the case of a single-lap joint bonded with Epibond 1590
A/B epoxy adhesive, the surface bre orientation can result in a decrease in strength
of approximately 50%. A possible alleviation of the surface ply orientation problem
in complex structures made using a limited number of preforms is to use a woven
fabric on the surface of the laminate.
Surface preparation techniques

Surface preparation of the adherends is of critical importance when adhesive bonding. Polymers are low surface energy materials and adhesives do not bond easily
to polymer surfaces. The adhesion is also aected by the additives contained in

18

G.Kelly

many industrial materials including plasticisers and anti-oxidants. Release agents

used during manufacture also serve to contaminate the bonding surfaces. A number
of techniques to improve the bonding of polymers and polymer matrix composites
have been developed. These methods essentially remove or modify the low molecular weight layer which exists at the surface of many polymeric materials. It is also
benecial to modify the surface topology to allow capillary action by the adhesive
on the surface. Several of the most commonly used surface preparation methods
for polymer-matrix composites are solvent wiping and abrasion, corona discharge
treatment, cold plasma treatment and use of peel ply during composite laminate
manufacture. The surface preparation technique adopted for the laminate in this
thesis was solvent wiping and abrasion.

Fatigue behaviour and environmental eects

The performance of adhesive bonded joints has been investigated extensively during
the last 30 years which has led to an increased understanding of the joint behaviour
and factors aecting joint strength. However, signicant challenges remain to develop theoretical models to allow prediction of the behaviour of aged joints and joints
subject to fatigue loading. The eects of temperature and moisture have been shown
to decrease the strength and fatigue resistance of adhesive bonded joints [6579].
The environment can alter the properties of the adhesive, the composite laminate
or the adhesive/adherend interface. The combination of elevated temperature and
moisture is particularly detrimental with moisture diusing into the material at a
faster rate due to the increased mobility of the polymer chains.
One practical problem of conducting environmental tests is the long exposure
times which are required. In order to overcome time constraints, laboratory ageing
conditions are commonly modied to allow for shorter ageing times. In order to
predict the long term performance of adhesive bonded joints, accelerated ageing is
often performed by subjecting the joints to more severe conditions than would be
expected in normal service. The ageing of adhesive bonded joints may be accelerated
by environmental conditions such as mechanical stress, high temperature, moisture
and aggressive media. While providing a useful guide to the long-term behaviour
of joints, care must be taken to ensure that accelerated ageing does not introduce
additional factors such as dierent failure modes than those encountered during
service.
The strength and fatigue resistance of CFRP single-lap joints with a structural
polyurethane adhesive were investigated in Paper D. Accelerated ageing of the joints
was performed in dierent environments considering the eects of constant and cyclic
temperature and humidity levels. The eect of environmental ageing was found to
decrease the strength and shorten the fatigue life of the joints signicantly. Both the
polyurethane adhesive and carbon bre/epoxy laminates were aected by ageing in
cyclic freeze/thaw and hot/wet environments.
Currently there are no generalised models developed due to the vast range of
adherend and adhesive materials available. The joint congurations, environmental conditions and material history are also factors which make prediction of joint
performance a signicant challenge.

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

2.3.

19

Hybrid joining

An alternative method to mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding is hybrid joining which combines both techniques. Previous investigations of hybrid joints in
composite laminates have focused on aerospace applications and not considered the
technique to oer any signicant benets except for limiting damage propagation in
adhesive bonded joints [8082]. However, the combination of mechanical fastening
and adhesive bonding has potential advantages in production of automotive structures with the parts being xed in position during the bonding process, allowing
the joined part to continue to the next stage in production without having to wait
for the adhesive to harden. Another important factor is the behaviour of joints during crash loading. Bonded joints with relatively short overlap lengths can debond
causing separation of the parts. Hybrid joining provides an alternative method to
absorb energy during crash loading and can limit part separation.
A hybrid single-lap joint is illustrated schematically in Figure 18. The distribution of load between the adhesive and the bolt is related to the relative displacement
between the adherends. The adhesive provides the stiest load path and thus transfers the majority of the applied load. However, as the joint deforms and the relative
displacement between the adherends increases, load is transfered to the bolt. The
aim of Paper B was to investigate the parameters which govern load transfer in hybrid joints and identify joint congurations where the technique is viable. A nite
element simulation model was developed and used to predict the load distribution
in hybrid joints. A parameter study highlighted the eect of the joint geometry and
adhesive material behaviour on the load transferred by the adhesive and the bolt.

Bolt
Adherend
Adhesive

Figure 18: Hybrid (bolted/bonded) single-lap joint.

In addition to predicting the load transfer in hybrid joints, it is important to

characterise the strength and fatigue life of hybrid joints. The strength, failure
modes and fatigue life of hybrid joints were investigated in Paper C. It was shown
that the joints could be designed to have greater strength and fatigue life in comparison to adhesive bonded joints. However, it was found that benets were only
obtained in joints which allowed for load sharing between the bolt and adhesive.
The relative strengths of the bolted and bonded joints was also shown to inuence
the ultimate failure mode and fatigue life.
In Paper D, hybrid joints demonstrated extended fatigue life in comparison to
adhesive bonded joints when the joints were subject to environmental ageing.

20

3.

G.Kelly

Localised transverse loading in composite laminates

Attachments in CFRP structures often require that loads are introduced into the
laminate in the transverse or thickness direction. This is arguably the most dicult
load case for composite laminates, given the poor interlaminar and through-thickness
strength of the material. Localised transverse loads are commonly avoided in composite laminates and this is reected in the volume of published literature.
Important contributions regarding this topic have been made by Waters and
Williams [83] and by Banbury et al. [84,85]. Waters and Williams [86] conducted an
early experimental investigation of bolt push-through failure in composite laminates.
The authors investigated the response and failure modes of a wide range of composite
laminates. Clamped circular specimens of diameter 25.4 mm and 50.8 mm were
loaded in the transverse direction through a countersunk fastener. The characteristic
failure modes were found to be intralaminar bre failure in the vicinity of the bolt
hole and intralaminar and interlaminar matrix failure in the laminate interior. It was
also concluded that the strength of transversely loaded composite laminates could
be improved through the use of tough resins, high-strain bres and low modulus
adhesive interleaving.
Banbury and Kelly [84] conducted a two part study investigating the pull-through
strength of carbon bre reinforced epoxy laminates made from woven fabric and
unidirectional tape pre-preg material. The authors provided a detailed investigation of the observed failure modes and discussed the mechanisms responsible for
pull-through failure. The internal damage pattern in the laminates was likened to
that observed in composite laminates subject to low velocity impact. Failure was
attributed to a critical level of matrix strain which was independent of the laminate
and fastener geometry or material type for a given resin system. The authors also
conducted a two-dimensional axi-symmetric nite element analysis to simulate the
fastener pull-through tests [85]. A progressive damage model based on the maximum
strain criterion was used to predict failure in the laminates although no consideration was given to interlaminar failure modes. The results from the model were
consistent with the experimental observations and the predicted failure loads were
shown to be in good agreement with the experimentally determined values.
The introduction of localised transverse loads in composite laminates based on
non-crimp fabric reinforcement was investigated in Paper E. The eect of the laminate stacking sequence, resin system and specimen size on the strength and failure
mechanisms were investigated experimentally. In addition, a three dimensional nite element model was developed to analyse the stress distribution in the laminate
and predict the rst-ply failure load.
There is currently no widely accepted test method for evaluating the performance of transverse load introductions. Two dierent methods are suggested in the
Composite Materials Handbook (MIL-HDBK-17) [87], however, it is acknowledged
that these methods may not be representative of actual load introductions. The rst
method is an adaptation of MIL-STD-1312 Test 8 and this method is suggested for
screening purposes only. The second proposed method is similar to that employed
in Paper E and this method is more suitable for design purposes.

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

4.

21

Future work

Localised transverse loading remains a challenge in designing automotive structures

using laminated composite materials. The work performed in Paper E highlighted
that damage initiates in composite laminates at low load levels. The propagation
of damage during fatigue loading and residual strength are topics which need to be
explored. The attachment of secondary structures may involve loading the laminate
in the thickness direction. Future research in this area should focus on transferring
the load into the plane of the laminate with a tailored geometry or bre reinforcement
architecture. Textile reinforcement with bres in three directions oer a potential
solution to this problem.
Future automotive structures will be modular and incorporate a variety of different materials, each tailored to meet the required structural demands. The development of technologies for joining multi-material structures combining metallic,
plastic and composite parts will be necessary. Adhesive bonding and hybrid joining are attractive methods to join such structures in a cost-eective manner. As
a continuation of the work presented in Paper B and Paper C in this thesis, the
next step would be to apply the outlined principles on joints with dierent adherend
materials.

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

23

References
[1] Woisetschlaeger E. Keine monokultur. Automobil Entwicklung, September 2001.
[2] Friedrich H.E. Leichtbau und werkstonnovationen im fahrzeugbau. Automobiltechnische
Zeitschrift, March 2001.
[3] Gjostein N.A. Technology needs beyond PNGV. In Basic Needs for Vehicles of the Future,
New Orleans, Louisiana, 1995.
[4] Eusebi E. Composite intensive vehicles - past, present and future. PNGV Symposium on
structural material challenges, 1995.
[5] Parr T., Wallentowitz H., Wohlecker R., Wynands D., and von Zengen K-H. Leichtbaupotenzial eines aluminium-intensiven fahrzeugs. Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, March 2003.
[6] BMW on the road to carbon car. Reinforced Plastics, April 2001.
[7] Technologies for Carbon-Fibre Reinforced Modular Automotive Body Structures (TECABS).
Competative and Sustainable Growth Project: G3RD-CT-2000-00102.
[8] BMW takes carbon ber technology to the next level. Automotive Engineer, November 2003.
[9] Bibo G.A., Hogg P.J., and Kemp M. Mechanical characterisation of glass- and carbon-bre
reinforced composites made with non-crimp fabrics. Composites Science and Technology,
57:12211241, 1997.
[10] Wang Y., Li J., and Do P.B. Properties of composite laminates manufactured with E-glass
multi-axial non-crimp fabrics. Journal of Composite Materials, 29(17):23172333, 1995.
[11] Hogg P.J, Ahmandnia A., and Guild F.J. The mechanical properties of non-crimp fabric
based composites. Composites, 24(5):423432, 1993.
[12] Dexter H.B. and Hasko G.H. Mechanical properties and damage tolerance of multiaxial warpknit composites. Composites Science and Technology, 56:367380, 1996.
[13] Godbehere A.P., Mills A.R., and Irving P. Non-crimped fabrics versus pre-preg CFRP composites - a comparison of mechanical performance. In 6th International Conference on Fibre
Reinforced Plastics (FRC94), University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1994.
[14] Drapier S. and Wisnom M.R. Finite element investigation of the compressive strength of
non-crimp fabric based composites. Composites Science and Technology, 59:12871297, 1999.
[15] Drapier S. and Wisnom M.R. Finite element investigation of the interlaminar shear behaviour
of non-crimp fabric based composites. Composites Science and Technology, 59:23512362,
1999.
[16]
Astr
om B.T. Manufacturing of Polymer Composites. Chapman & Hall, London, UK, 1997.
[17] Kedward K.T. Joining of composite materials, ASTM Special Publication 749. American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1980.
[18] Matthews F.L. Joining fibre-reinforced plastic composites. Elsevier Applied Science, 1987.
[19] Poon C. Literature review on the design of composite mechanically fastened joints. Technical
Report AENOE5, National Aeronautical Establishment, National Research Council, Canada,
1986.
[20] Godwin E. W. and Matthews F. L. Review of the strength of joints in bre-reinforced plastics:
Part 1 Mechanically fastened joints. Composites, 11(3):155160, 1980.
[21] Camanho P.P. and F.L. Matthews. Stress analysis and strength prediction of mechanically
fastened joints in FRP: a review. Composites Part A, 28(6):529547, 1997.

24

G.Kelly

[22] Arnold W.S., Marshall I.H., and Wood J. Optimum design considerations for mechanically
fastened composite joints. Composite Structures, 16:85101, 1990.
[23] ASTM D 953-87 Standard Test Method for Bearing Strength of Plastics. American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1987.
[24] ASTM D 5961/D 5961 M Standard Test Method for Bearing Response of Polymer Matrix Laminates. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1996.
[25] Collings T.A. The strength of bolted joints in multi-directional CFRP laminates. Composites,
8(1):4355, 1977.
[26] Kretsis G. and Matthews F.L. Strength of bolted joints in glass bre/epoxy laminates. Composites, 16(2):92102, 1985.
[27] Hart-Smith L.J. Mechanically fastened joints for advanced composites - phenomenological
considerations and simple analysis. Douglas Paper 6748, Douglas Aircraft Company, 1978.
[28] Hart-Smith L.J. Design and analysis of bolted and riveted joints brous composite structures.
Douglas Paper 7739, Douglas Aircraft Company, 1986.
[29] Chutima C. and Blackie A.P. Eect of pitch distance, row spacing, end distance and bolt
diameter on multi-fastened composite joints. Composites Part A, 27(2):105110, 1996.
[30] Kelly G. and Hallstr
om S. Bearing strength of carbon bre epoxy laminates: Eects of bolt
hole clearance. Composites Part B, 35(4):331343, 2004.
[31] Smith P.A. and Pascoe K.J. The eect of stacking sequence on the bearing strengths of
quasi-isotropic composite joints. Composite Structures, 6(1):120, 1986.
[32] Hamada H., Haruna K., and Maekawa Z. Eects of stacking sequences on mechanically
fastened joint strength in quasi-isotropic carbon-epoxy laminates. Journal of Composites
Technology and Research, 17(3):249259, 1995.
[33] Chen W.H., S.S. Le, and Yeh J.T. Three dimensional contact stress analysis of a composite
laminate with a bolted joint. Composite Structures, 30:287297, 1995.
[34] Quinn W.J. and Matthews F.L. The eect of stacking sequence on the pin bearing strength
in GFRP. Journal of Composite Materials, 11:139145, 1987.
[35] Marshall I.M., Arnold W.S., Wood J., and Mousley R.F. Observations on bolted connections
in composite structures. Composite Structures, 13(1):133151, 1989.
[36] Arnold W.S. PhD thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Paisley College of Technology, Paisley, Scotland, 1989.
[37] Stockdale J.H. and Matthews F.L. The eect of clamping pressure on bolt bearing loads in
glass bre reinforced plastics. Composites, 9:3438, 1976.
[38] Akay M. and Kong Ah Mun S. Bearing strength of autoclave and oven cured kevlar/epoxy
laminates under static and dynamic loading. Composites, 26(6):451456, 1995.
[39] Stewart W.C. Metals engineering design. ASTM Handbook Second Edition, 1965.
[40] Akay M. Bearing strength of as-cured and hygrothermally conditioned carbon bre/epoxy
composites under static and dynamic loading. Composites, 23(2):101108, 1992.
[41] Naik R.A. and Crews J.H. Stress analysis method for a clearance-t bolt under bearing
conditions. AIAA Journal, 24:13481353, 1985.
[42] Naik R.A. and Crews J.H. Stress analysis method for a clearance-t bolt under bearing
conditions. In AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS 26th Structures, Structural Dynamics and Material
Conference, number AIAA Paper 85-0746, Orlando, Florida, USA, 1986.
[43] Eriksson L.I. Contact stresses in bolted joints of composite laminates. Composite Structures,
6(1):5775, 1986.

Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications

25

[44] Hyer M.W., Klang E.C., and Cooper D.E. The eects of pin elasticity, clearance and friction
on the stresses in a pin-loaded orthotropic plate. Journal of Composite Materials, 21(3):190
206, 1987.
[45] DiNicola A.J. and Fantle S.L. Bearing strength of clearance t fastener holes in toughened
graphite/epoxy laminates. In Composite Materials:Testing and Design Vol.11, pages 220237.
ASTM STP 1206, 1993.
[46] Lanza Di Scalea F., Capello F., and Cloud G.L. On the elastic behaviour of cross-ply composite pin-joint with clearance ts. Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, 12:1333,
1999.
[47] Ireman T. Three-dimensional stress analysis of bolted single-lap joints. Composite Structures,
43(3):195216, 1998.
[48] McCarthy M.A., Lawlor V.P., Stanley W.F., and McCarthy C.T. Bolt-hole clearance eects
and strength criteria in single-bolt, single-lap, composite bolted joints. Composites Science
and Technology, 62(10-11):14151431, 2002.
[49] Stanley W.F., McCarthy M.A., and Lawlor V.P. Measurement of load distribution in multibolt composite joints, in presence of varying clearance. Plastics, Rubber and Composites,
31(9):412417, 2002.
[50] Kutscha D. and Hofer K.E. Feasibility of joining advanced ight vehicle structures. Technical
Report AFML-TR-68-391, US Air Force, US, 1969.
[51] Kutscha D. Mechanics of adhesive bonded lap type joints: survey and review. Technical
Report AFML-TDR-64-298, 1964.
[52] Lehman G.M. and Hawley A.V. Investigation of joints in advanced berous composites for
aircraft structures. Technical Report AFFDL-TR-69-43, 1969.
[53] Oplinger D.W. Proceedings of the fourth army materials technology conference - advances in
joining technology. 1975.
[54] Vinson J.R. Adhesive bonding of polymer composites. Polymer Science and Engineering,
29(19):13251331, 1989.
[55] Kinloch A.J. Adhesion and Adhesives: Science and Technology. Cambridge University Press,
1987.
[56] Hart-Smith L.J. Adhesive bonded single lap joints. Technical Report CR-112236, NASA,
Langley Research Center, 1973.
[57] Hart-Smith L.J. Adhesive bonded double lap joints. Technical Report CR-112235, NASA,
Langley Research Center, 1973.
[58] Hart-Smith L.J. Adhesive bonded joints for composites - phenomenological considerations. In
Technology Conferences Associates - Conference on Advanced Composites Technology, 1978.
[59] Grant P. Stress and strength analysis of bonded joints. Technical Report 50(R)P, British
Aircraft Corparation, 1976.
[60] Grant P. Analysis of adhesive stresses in bonded joints. In Symposium: Jointing in fibre
reinforced plastics. IPC Science and Technology Press Ltd., 1978.
[61] Hart-Smith L.J. Design and analysis of adhesive bonded joints. Technical Report Report No.
6059A, McDonnell Douglas Company, 1972.
[62] Adams R.D., Atkins R.W., Harris J.A., and Kinloch A.J. Journal of Adhesion, 29, 1986.
[63] Hildebrand M. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 14, 1986.
[64] Adams R.D. and Harris J.A. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 7, 1987.
[65] Ashcroft I.A., Hughes D.J., Shaw S.J, Abdel Wahab M.M., and Crocombe A.D. Eect of the
temperature on the quasi-static strength and fatigue resistance of bonded composite doublelap joints. Journal of Adhesion, 75, 2001.

26

G.Kelly

[66] Adams R.D., Coppendale J., Mallick V., and Al-Hamdan H. The eect of temperature on the
strength of adhesive joints. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 12(3):185190,
1992.
[67] Parker B.M. The durability of adhesive bonded carbon bre composite. In Composites
Bonding ASTM STP 1227. ASTM, 1994.
[68] Brewis D.M., Comyn J., and Tegg J.L. The durability of some epoxide adhesive bonded joints
on exposure to moist warm air. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 35(1):3539,
1980.
[69] Gledhill R.A. and Kinloch A.J. Environmental failure of structural adhesive joints. Journal
of Adhesion, 6:315330, 1974.
[70] Bowditch M.R. The durability of adhesive joints in the presence of water. International
Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 16(2):7379, 1996.
[71] Fernando M., Harjoprayitno W.W., and Kinloch A.J. A fracture mechanics study on the
inuence of moisture on the fatigue behaviour of adhesively bonded aluminium-alloy joints.
International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 16:113119, 1996.
[72] Ashcroft I.A., Digby R.P., and Shaw S.J. The eect of the environment on the performance
of bonded joints. In Joining and repair of plastics and composites. IMechE, 1999.
[73] Ashcroft I.A., Abdel Wahab M.M., Crocombe A.D., Hughes D.J., and Shaw S.J. The eect of
the environment on the fatigue of bonded composite joints: Part 1 testing and fractography.
Composites Part A, 32, 2001.
[74] Abdel Wahab M.M, Ashcroft I.A., Crocombe A.D, and Shaw S.J. Diusion of moisture in
adhesively bonded joints. Journal of Adhesion, 77:4380, 2001.
[75] Gilmore R.B. and Shaw S.J. The eect of temperature and humidity on the fatigue behaviour
of composite bonded joints. In Composites Bonding ASTM STP 1227. ASTM, 1994.
[76] Mackie R.I and Su N. The eect of ageing and environment on the static and fatigue strengh
of adhesive jonts. Journal of Adhesion, 42:191207, 1993.
[77] Briskham P. and Smith G. Cyclic stress durability testing of lap shear joints exposed to
hot-wet conditions. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 20:3338, 2000.
[78] Ferreira J.A.M, Ries P.N., Costa J.D.M., and Richardson M.O.W. Fatigue behaviour of
composite adhesive lap joints. Composites Science and Technology, 62:13731379, 2002.
[79] Knox E.M. and Cowling M.J. Durability aspects of adhesively bonded thick adherend lap
shear joints. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 20:323331, 2000.
[80] Hart-Smith L.J. Bonded-bolted composite joints. Journal of Aircraft, 22(11):9931000, 1985.
[81] Hart-Smith L.J. Design methodology for bonded-bolted composite joints. Technical Report
AFWAL-TR-81-3154, Douglas Aircraft Company, 1982.
[82] Chan W.S. and Vedhagiri S. Analysis of composite bolted/bonded joints used in repairing.
Journal of Composite Materials, 35(12):10451061, 2001.
[83] Waters W.A. and Williams J.G. Failure mechanisms of laminates transversely loaded by bolt
push through. Technical report, NASA Technical Memorandum 87603, 1985.
[84] Banbury A. and Kelly D.W. A study of fastener pull-through failure of composite laminates.
Part 1: Experimental. Composite Structures, 45(4):241254, 1999.
[85] Banbury A., Kelly D.W., and Jain L.K. A study of fastener pull-through failure of composite
laminates. Part 2: Failure prediction. Composite Structures, 45(4):255270, 1999.
[86] Waters W.A. and Williams J.G. Failure mechanisms of laminates transversely loaded by bolt
push through. NASA Technical Memorandum 87603, 1985.
[87] Composites Material Handbook 17. US Army Research, 1999.