THE EFFECTS OF MOTIVATION AND C HOICE MAKING ON THE BEHAVIORS

OF

STUDENTS WITH SEVERE DISABILITIES

Research on the topic of self-determination and choice making as an approach to

reducing problem behaviors in children with disabilities and autism is a topic that has
increased in popularity since the late 1990s. There seems to be a trend of decreased
problem behavior, correlated with increased choices for children with disabilities. This
study will look at the effects of self-determination and choice making on the problem
behaviors of a sample population of severely delayed adolescents who are diagnosed with
autism.
The Self Determination Theory states that humans are innately motivated to perform
tasks with accuracy and competency. In order to achieve this autonomy, students must be
able to make choices and set goals. Choice making for students with severe disabilities
must be presented using modalities that can be understood by the student throughout the
school day, during routines and classroom activities. The problem/target behaviors we
are looking to address are hitting, scratching, pushing, grabbing, biting and spitting
towards others and as self-injurious behaviors.
The study will focus on four students who are diagnosed with autism and have severe
cognitive delays and behavioral disorders. All of the students are considered non-verbal,
although two of the students are echolalic. One out of the four is legally blind and an
English language learner (whos native language is Spanish). Each student must be
addressed individually using different means of communication. Many of these students
are visual learners and need hands on work, visual cues (picture symbols) to illustrate
points, in addition to verbal reinforcement. The visually impaired student requires

tangible symbols and verbal direction in both Spanish and English. Students with severe
disabilities

have limited communication skills and often are not able to express their

needs and wants beyond basic necessity. They are not often given the option to express
their opinions or preferences during activities throughout their day. The inability to
effectively communicate is a frustrating experience for many individuals with severe
disabilities, which can often result in aggressive behavior towards peers, staff and
caregivers.
Research has shown that giving school age students with severe disabilities the
opportunity to make choices and communicate throughout the day will reduce the
frequency of aggressive behaviors. I often witness my students interacting with other
teachers and staff members who will ask them a question and answer it for them,
resulting in the students aggressive behavior and negative consequences for the student.
This cycle reinforces their continued negative experiences with communication. I would
like to determine if choice making for students with severe disabilities has short
term/long term effects on aberrant behaviors. I will determine if there can be a
connection made between studies done teaching self-advocacy skills to pre-school age
children, young school aged children and young-adults. I am interested to see if the
mastery of these skills is affected by age and/or if the learned, aggressive behaviors are
less likely to change as an individual ages. Is there a threshold or age limit for which
those foundational skills can truly be absorbed to cause behavior extinction? If so, what
are the effects on the older population and how much can the behavior be modified if it
cannot be replaced or extinct?

Decreasing aberrant or problem behaviors and providing effective teaching methods for
students with severe disabilities well help improve the quality of life for these students.
A better understanding of self-determination in adolescents with severe disabilities will
help educators to better understand their students and how to reach them, which will in
turn, allow for more effective teaching. This matter is important to me because I see the
struggles that my students go through on a daily basis due to their inability to
communicate. It is important to provide choices and allow young adults to take control
over some aspects of their daily lives and increase their independence.
Much of the research focused on choice making and self-determination has been done
involving young children, ages two through eleven. However, there was little to no
research concerning young-adults with autism and/or severe cognitive delays, ages 16-21,
who exhibit the same severe aggressive and self-injurious behaviors. The purpose of this
research is to document the effects of self-determination, and use choice making as
motivation to decrease target behaviors of students with severe disabilities. The focus
will be to provide meaningful choices that will innately motivate the students.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Promoting choice making opportunities (and teaching choice-making skills, when
necessary) are a key component of promoting and enhancing self-determination.
Enhanced self-determination has, in turn, been linked to more positive adult outcomes
for students with disabilities (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehymer & Swartz, 1997)
and more positive perceptions of quality of life for adults with disabilities
(Wheymeyer & Swartz, 1998) Shogren, Fagella-Luby, Bae, Wehmeyer (2004).
Learning to make choices can extend to areas of major life concerns such as
vocation, residence, and consent to medical treatment, as well as relatively minor but
cumulatively significant day-to-day decisions such as choice of recreational activities,
partners for social activities, food, clothing, music, seating, and scheduling (Shevin,
Klein (1984). When working with students with severe disabilities, choice making
skills must often be taught. The students must be familiar with their choices and
sometimes the choice options will be taught before the actual task of making the
choice is taught. Successful fostering of choice-making will require both systematic
teaching of new skills and provision of opportunities to practice those skills in the
classroom and in the natural settings at home and in the community. The age and
competence of the child are critical factors to consider when selecting real-life
experiences for the classroom (Shevin & Klein, 1984).
The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) states that humans are active, growthoriented organisms, who are self-motivated to seek optimal challenges and new
experiences (Murphey, 2012, p234). In other words, people have an innate drive to
engage in activities. Humans are motivated by, intrinsic motivation, an internal drive

based on interest and satisfaction. Extrinsic motivation, involves external rewards or

punishments. According to SDT, action emanates from within (Murphey, 2012,
p234) and all human beings are intrinsically motivated to engage in activity. There
are many theories that make up the SDT, one of which states, any event that provides
the need to experience activities as self-endorsed and enacted by choice, will
enhance intrinsic motivation (Murphey, 2012, p 234). According to SDT, humans
have multiple motives for performing activities including intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. Previous research shows that giving students with severe disabilities the
opportunity to make choices will motivate these individuals to perform and positively
benefit their behavior. Amotivation is also considered under the SDT theory, when a
person performs activities passively or with minimal effort, but are regulated by
factors that are beyond the individuals control such as lack of competence and/or
when a person does not perceive contingencies between their behavior and the desired
outcomes (Muprhey, 2012, p236). Therefore, it is important, when working with
persons with severe disabilities, to provide meaningful choices and activities that are
appropriate for the cognitive and physical abilities of the individual, in order to rule
out a state of amotivation. Under the SDT theory, the Basic Psychological Needs
Theory (BPNT) states that three basic psychological needs must be met in order to
experience positive outcomes (Murphey, 2012, p 236). One of these criteria is
autonomy, the need to experience activities as choice-fully enacted (Murphey,
2012, p234). Research across several life domains, including sports, education,
exercise and business has provided empirical support for the veracity of the basic
needs approach within SDT (Murphey, 2012, p237). The results from each of these

different areas have shown the same prediction of positive consequences involving
performance of tasks. I would like to apply the principles of the basic needs approach
and the self-determination theory to an intervention approach to reduce the
challenging and aggressive behaviors in older, school age individuals with severe
developmental disabilities.
According to the Causality Orientation Theory, which is another component of SDT,
individuals have varying degrees to which they are intrinsically motivated, known as
autonomy orientation, as well as varying degrees to which they are extrinsically
motivated, known as controlled orientation. An individuals tendency to rely on
controlled orientation or autonomy orientation is dependent upon their development
and social interactions throughout their development. Causalities operate at a more
global level and concern an individuals consistent and stable pattern of thinking
pertaining to seeking out, selecting, and interpreting the initiation and regulation of
behavior (Murphey, 2012, p237). Research on this theory shows that individuals
who are more oriented towards intrinsic motivation, also known as autonomy
orientation, are likely to exhibit more adaptive behavior and have better psychological
health. In comparison, individuals who are more oriented towards extrinsic
motivations, also known as controlled orientation, will exhibit distinct associations
with various indicators that are not indicative of general well-being and optimal
functioning such as higher social anxiety and increased levels of aggression
(Muphey, 2012, p237). In accordance with this theory, the motivation behind an
older individuals ability to perform a task has been pre-determined by their
development and experiences with the world around them throughout their

development. The reduction of aggressive behavior will be determined by their

learned patterns of thinking and their orientation towards extrinsic motivation or
intrinsic motivation. Thus, according to this theory, choice-making as a motivation
will only be effective on the behaviors of those who have autonomy orientation, or in
other words, those who are oriented more towards intrinsic motivation.
The components of self-determination have roots during the early years, and adults can
facilitate this development (Doll, Sands, Wehmeyer and Palmer, 2000) (Palmer,
Summers, Brotherson, Erwin, Maude, Struop-Rentier, Wu, et al. (2013). Earlier
introduction of concepts related to self-determination may prevent overdependence, a low
sense of self-efficacy, and external locus of control (Palmer, et al. (2013). The earlier
that these skills can be taught to the individual with severe disabilities, the better their
outcomes for exhibiting adaptive behavior later on in life. Research shows that the
benefits of teaching individuals with disabilities to exercise choice in their activities, is
significantly related to increased social interaction and higher levels of task persistence
(Palmer, et al. (2013). My research will attempt to apply the methods that have been used
to teach self-determination skills to young children with severe disabilities and use them
to teach young adults the skills necessary for self-determination and in turn increase both
task independence and persistence and decrease maladaptive behaviors.
Data Collection will be taken through antecedent behavior consequence (ABC) charts,
frequency observation charts and teacher anecdotal. Two parties, teacher and
paraprofessional will collect data, in order to ensure accuracy and dependability.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

a.

How can I incorporate choice making during academics and activities to

reduce the occurrence of aggressive behaviors?

b.
Will making choices during academics/activities increase task
performance motivation?
METHODS
The study will take place in a 12th grade, 6:1:1 in a district 75, self-contained,
occupational training high school. The class is composed of students who range in age
from 16 21 and are diagnosed with autism. Four out of the six students have severe
behavior disorders, aggressive tendencies and behavior intervention plans as part of their
IEPs. All of the students are considered to be non-verbal, although two of the students
are echolalic. Three out of the four students are functioning on a prekindergarten
academic level and cannot write or identify numeric quantities. A classroom of students
with this vast range of varied abilities poses a challenge for unified classroom instruction.
All of the students are on a prekindergarten academic level and cannot write or identify
numeric quantities. Student A, is a 20 year old male student, diagnosed with autism, who
is easily frustrated and known for punching, spitting, scratching and grabbing people
around him when this frustration threshold is reached. One He is functioning on a first
grade academic level for writing and math. Student B is a 21-year-old male, whose
behaviors include hitting, grabbing and throw chairs and desks at people near him,
unprovoked. The function of his behavior is often escape or task avoidance. Student C, is
a 16 year old girl who is diagnosed with multiple disabilities including autism, behavioral

disorders and blindness. She will often hit, push, bite, scratch and throw items in her
vicinity when frustrated. She often exhibits these behaviors when asked a question or
when give a task that she finds difficult. Student D is a 20-year-old male, diagnosed with
autism, and has difficulty transitioning between physical locations. His behaviors are
mostly self-injurious including biting his own arm and falling to the floor, but he has a
history of biting others as well.
The choice making intervention will involve making choices during routine events, both
within activities and between activities. Choices will be provided to the students
according to their preferred mode of communication and ability level. All students, will
be verbally prompted in addition to a secondary prompt. Student C, will use tangible and
verbal prompts in order to answer questions during choice making, due to her visual
impairment. Students B and C will use picture symbols, actual objects and photographs
in addition to verbal prompts in order to make choices, due to their inability to answer
questions verbally. Student A will mainly use verbal prompting, due to his ability to
verbally answer most questions. However, he will also be prompted with actual objects
in order to rule out echolalia.
The choice making intervention will take place in three ways:
1. Order of Choice - Allow students to choose the order in which they perform and
assigned task during a classroom activity. The student will be prompted using the
actual steps of the task (photos or actual objects) to decide what they would like
to do first.
2. Choices between Activities - During routine instructional events when students
were familiar with the options presented to them. Choices between preferred

activities will be offered to students based on previous preferences (ie: pattern

making, sorting, peg stacking, looking at books, etc.). This will ensure that the
choices are familiar and preferred by the student.
3. Choices within Activities The students will be able to choose the way they
perform an activity.
Within Activity Choice Examples
a) Would you like to paint or color this sheet? Would you prefer to glue or tape?
b) Would you like to do the weather forecast on the Smart Board or on the magnetic
board?
c) Would you like to complete your personal schedule on your desk or the large
classroom schedule on the wall?
Order of Choice Examples
a) What would you like to do first? Yoga or the schedule?
b) What would you like to do next? Schedule or weather report?

Choice between Activities Examples

1. Choices between preferred activities
Would you like to have a snack or put together a puzzle? (choices dependent on
student responses)
a. Which snack would you like? Cookies or chips? What kind of
cookie/chip? Vanilla or chocolate? BBQ or plain?
b. What do you want? Puzzle or Magnets?
2. Instructional choices between activities
Which job would you like to do today in the garden?
a) Dig holes, water plants, planting flowers? (Actual objects will be used to
prompt, student responses will be either verbal or pointing/taking the
object representing the job they would like to perform.)

DATA COLLECTION

Data collection will be taken by two independent observers in order to ensure accuracy.
The data collection sheets will be a frequency observation chart, using the students target
behavior and tracking the frequency of occurrence over 15 minute intervals for a 6 hour
day. The second data sheet will indicate the routine task, time of day and the choice
made by the student. The data will be reviewed and scanned for patterns in times of day,
task being performed, and frequency of target or problem behavior at that time.

RESULTS

30
25
20
15
Frequency of Target Behavior

10

BASELINE
INTERVENTION

5
0

Due to excessive absences, Student Bs results were discounted. The study focused on
the remaining three students Student A, C and D.
Prior to the intervention and baseline data collection, students were taught choice-making
skills, which they were given opportunities to practice, one period of the day for about
five months. Due to the severity of developmental delays and levels of autism expressed
in this particular population, it was necessary to teach the students how to make choices
before the research could take place. Throughout the teaching process, the students held
the same jobs and responsibilities, but were given slightly varying choices of preferred
activity as the routine progressed. The students were presented with a menu of

laminated photographs representing choices of activities, such as peg boards, sorting

tasks, puzzles, magnets, rattles, etc. The student preferences during this activity were
tracked and each month, the choices varied slightly, giving the students an opportunity to
explore new options. Many of the students were not familiar with the process of choicemaking prior to this exercise. In the beginning of the routine, the students aggressive
behaviors spiked and as a result, they were not able to complete the activity. After about
4 months, the students responded to the choice activities and became familiar with what
was expected of them during this time. It was necessary to teach the students how to
make choices before taking baseline data for the action research project. When
something new is introduced to students with severe delays and autism, behaviors tend to
spike as frustration levels rise during the process of learning something new.

The baseline and intervention data were taken over a period of four consecutive weeks,
two weeks for the baseline and two weeks for the intervention. The data was collected
throughout the school day during times of choice and of no choice to determine whether
just adding more choices throughout the day would decrease aggressive behaviors
overall. Many of the choices were offered to the students during the same times of the
day throughout the study. This ensured that the students were familiar with their choices
and were able to comprehend what was being asked of them.
Overall, there was a noticeable reduction in aggressive behaviors throughout the
intervention and on a daily basis for all students. In fact, during the choice-making

intervention periods of the day, there were little to no behavioral outbursts at all. All
behavioral outbursts were displayed during times of no-choice.
Order of Activity Choice Results
When offering choice through order of events, the students always picked the order of
events that had been previously been established as part of a classroom routine. For
example, in the morning, the students always eat breakfast, prepare the daily schedule
and weather forecast, and end with a yoga routine. When the students were presented
with which order to perform the events of the morning, they always chose that particular
order or the order of their known routine. However, when the students were presented
with an activity and asked which they would like to do first, it was often confusing for
them. All of the students in this study are non-verbal, so options were always provided
using visual cues or tangible items. When presented with an unfamiliar activity and an
option of order, they often chose both options (using two hands at the same time pointing
to both options), which is an indication that the students were not comprehending what
was being asked of them, due to their unfamiliarity with the activity. The students were
only able to make choices about order of events when choosing between known
activities, and the students consistently picked the same order of events that had been
previously established. The order of events choice-making intervention was not an
effective option, but might work better for students who are more cognitively aware and
capable. There was little behavioral outbursts throughout the order of events choicemaking interventions.
Within Activity Choice Results

When the students were offered within-activity choices on how to perform an activity, the
students responded one of two ways. If it was a familiar task, they chose the option that
was most familiar to them and if it was a new task, they often did not respond or did not
know how to respond. If they were given an art activity and asked if they wanted to
paint it blue or red, they were able to choose the color because they were familiar with
the color options. However, when students were presented with more options and asked
how they would like to perform the task they often did not respond or responded using
both hands (pointing to or grabbing both visual cues presented to them). The students
seemed to want or need instructions and had little interest in choices of how to perform
activities or tasks.

Between Activity Choice Results

When students were offered choices between instructional activities, the students were
able to remain on task longer and perform the task with more efficiency. Allowing the
students to participate in the instructional process through choosing their own
performance tasks increased student independence over all during instructional time.
There were no behavioral outbursts during instructional choice.
In contrast, when students were offered between-activity choices of preferred items or
tasks, there were more behavioral outbursts. For example, when offering a choice

between two preferred activities or to preferred snacks, the students often chose the last
item presented. To rule out echolalia, actual activities or snacks were presented. When
the students were handed their choice, the students (in some cases) became upset and
wanted the other item in addition to their choice. Making a decision between two
preferred items was a challenging activity and during this time behavioral outbursts were
more frequent.

ACTION PLAN

Research Question 1: How can I incorporate choice making during academics and
activities to reduce the occurrence of aggressive behaviors?
Overall there was a reduction of aggressive behaviors throughout the day. However, a
more accurate depiction of whether choices actually do affect behaviors during activities
would have been to take data throughout the day, but separate the times of day when
choices were given and when no choices were given. A chart that specifies times of
intervention and no intervention alternating throughout the day is the next step to
ensuring accuracy. A side by side comparison of choice and no choice will give a clearer
picture of the type of choices that are more effective and if the time of day and setting are
variables affecting the outcome.

Research Question 2: Will making choices during academics/activities increase task

performance motivation?
Allowing the students to participate in the instructional process through choosing their
own performance tasks increased student independence over all during instructional time.
There were no behavioral outbursts during instructional choice intervention. Further
research should include instructional choice intervention for students of different
cognitive levels to ensure the accuracy of this intervention.

Summary of Findings
Research Questions

Recommended
Action
Targeted to
Findings

Who is
responsible
for the
action?

Who needs
to be
consulted
or
informed?

Who will
monitor/collect
data?

How can I incorporate choice

making during academics and
activities to reduce the occurrence
of aggressive behaviors?

Teach choicemaking skills to

students.
Track
alternating
choice and nochoice
intervention
throughout the
day.
Provide choices
only during
betweenactivity
instructional

Teachers in
6:1:1 setting

Parents,
School
administrat
ion

Teachers,
paraprofessionals

Sept June

Journal Articles,
related service
providers

Teachers in
6:1:1 setting

Parents,
School
administrat
ion

Teachers,
paraprofessionals

Sept June

Journal articles,
related service
providers, behavior
specialists

Will making choices during

academics/activities increase task
performance motivation?

Timeline

Resources

tasks.

FINAL THOUGHTS

As I mentioned earlier, students with autism are especially sensitive to new routines and
variations of routines. In order for this action research project to be successful, it
was imperative that the students were able to understand the process of making
choices and comprehend the choices presented to them. Therefore, it is necessary
to teach the students how to select their preferences by familiarizing them with
many options available to them in the classroom and giving them the opportunity
to explore those options and generate their own opinions. Once my students
were prepared with the skills necessary to make more decisions independently,
they were able to successfully choose performance tasks throughout instruction.
Allowing the students to become a part of the instructional process gave them a
greater sense of autonomy and allowed for increased independence over all. Prior
research shows that providing students with autism and severe disabilities with
the foundational skills of self-determination and choice-making will inherently
improve their quality of life over all. For the students in this study, these skills
will carry over into their post-secondary placements and help them to succeed in
new environments with new caretakers. Development of self-determination skills
among students with severe disabilities should be included in instructional
practices, not only for young school aged students, but for young adults as well.

REFERENCES

Cole, C., Levinson, T., (January 2002) Effects of within-activity choices on challenging
behavior of children with severe developmental disabilities. Journal of positive behavior
interventions, 4(1) 29-37. Doi: 10.1177/109830070200400106

Retrieved from:

http://pbi.sagepub.com.rlib.pace.edu/content/4/1/29.full.pdf+html
Dyer, K., Dunlap, G., Winterling, V., (1990) Effects of choice making on the serious
problem behaviors of students with severe handicaps. Journal of applied behavior
analysis, 23, 515-524. Retrieved from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1286267/pdf/jaba00090-0126.pdf
Murphey, S.M. (Ed.). (2012). Motivation: self-determination theory and performance in
sport. The oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology (233-249) New York,
NY Oxford University Press.
Rispoli, M., Russell, L., Neely, L., Camargo, S., Hutchins, N., Davenport, K., Goodwyn,
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behavior in persons with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of behavioral education, 22,
66-83, doi: 10.1007/s10864-012-9164-y
Shevin, M., & Klein, N. K. (2004). The importance of choice-making skills for students
with severe disabilities. Research and practice for persons with severe disabilities, 29(3),
161-168. doi:10.2511/rpsd.29.3.161. Retrieved from: http://rlib.pace.edu/login?

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Shogren, K., Gagella-Luby, M., Bae, S., Wehmeyer, M. (2004) The effect of choicemaking as an intervention for problem behaviors: a meta-analysis. Journal of Positive
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