Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
View of
Toledo
c. 1597
by
EL GRECO
The
Metropolitan
Museum
of Art,
New York
This is the Teachers Book for a KISS Level One workbook. There will be nine of these
books, one each for students in grades three through eleven. (Students who have started KISS in
one grade should not repeat Level One in the next grade. Eventually, they should be able to pick
up with whatever KISS Level they were working on in one grade in the KISS book for the next
grade. Although the instructional materials are the same, the texts of which most exercises are
based change with the grade levels.)
This book contains some suggestions for teaching KISS Level One and the analysis keys for
the exercises. The keys in this book have been numbered to match the students workbook. Note
that in the printable books, instructional materials (and special notes for teachers) appear in green
text in the table of contents. The red text in the ToC leads to the background materials that are in
the Master Books.
Ed Vavra
Oct. 28 2012
Contents
Exercises in brackets have no analysis keys.
Introduction for Teachers and Parents.................................................................................
6
Parents.................................................................................6
Applying KISS to Students Own Reading and Writing...................................................................7
4
Ex. 1.d - Based on The Queen of the Pirate Isle, by Bret Harte...................................60
Ex. 2 - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar.......................................61
Ex. 3 - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar.......................................61
Ex. 4 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri...........................................................................62
Ex. 5. - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri..........................................................................62
Ex. 6 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri...........................................................................63
Ex. 7 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri...........................................................................63
Predicate Adjective or Part of the Verb Phrase? (Background for Teachers)...................65
Ex. 8 - Based on The Nightingale From Stories from Hans Andersen.....................66
[Ex. 9 - Writing Sentences with Complements]...........................................................66
Ex. 10 - A Passage for Analysis, From Chapter 22 of Heidi by Johanna Spyri............66
Ex. 11 - Just for Fun: Tongue Twisters.........................................................................67
KISS Level 1.4. - Coordinating Conjunctions and Compounds.......................................
68
Compounds.......................................68
Notes for Teachers..........................................................................................................................68
5
Notes for Teachers........................................................................................................................107
8
Consider the typical instructions about subjects and verbs. Students are given some basic
definitions and are then asked to underline subjects once and verbs twice. But consider the
sentence:
Swimming is good exercise.
Swimming fits the typical definition of a verb, and thus many students would underline it
twice. But in this sentence, it is not a verb; it functions as a noun and is a subject. Or consider the
sentence:
They went to the store to buy some bread.
Here again, buy fits the typical explanation of a verb, but in this case, it functions as an adverb.
Or consider still another:
The way to win a mans heart is through his stomach.
Win fits the typical definition of a verb, but in this case to win functions as an adjective to
way.
As you will learn if you stay with KISS, verbs can function as nouns, adverbs, or adjectives.
When they do so, they are called verbals. Those verbs that students are really expected to
underline twice are called finite. Defining a finite verb for beginners is extremely difficult-the definitions require an understanding of other grammatical terms. But the ability to recognize
finite verbs can be gained relatively easily by studying examples, or, in KISS practice, short
exercises.
The details of verbals are the focus of KISS Level Four, but some exercises (starting in
KISS Level 1.2) do attempt to help students recognize verbals just so the students do not
underline them twice. Here in KISS Level 1.1, our objective is to enable students to identify
verbs in the first place. This is one of the most difficult parts of studying grammar, for two
reasons. First, there are thousands of verbs in the language; and second, the same group of letters
can be either a noun or a verb -- or something else. Just think of words like look, feel,
smile, xerox, and even like itself.
Thus, in KISS Level 1.1 our objective is to help students develop a basic sentence sense
by giving them relatively short sentences (in short exercises) until they can almost automatically
underline finite verbs and their subjects. Remember, however, that students are expected to make
certain types of mistakes--such as underlining a verbal. On the other hand, once they have been
9
taught that am, is, are, was, and were are always finite verbs, students should NEVER
fail to underline them twice.
Most textbooks provide a wide array of suggestions for identifying nouns and pronouns (for
subjects) and for identifying verbs. There is, however, little if any evidence that any of these
explanations are effective. See Methods for Identifying Subjects and Finite Verbs, below. If
they help, use them. You may find, however, that the sheer number of suggestions (and
exceptions within them) can be overwhelming. The objective of instruction (the game, so to
speak) ought to be the analysis of sentences. In many cases, however, far too much time is spent
on explanations of how to identify nouns, verbs, etc. There is a better way.
Start instruction, not with the parts of speech, but with the analysis of sentences. If you are
beginning in primary grades, you and your students have lots of time, so you can begin with very
simple sentences. You can limit instruction to just two or three of these exercises every week
until all (or at least almost all) of the students can do them almost without thinking. In the
process, you can teach students to identify nouns and verbs. The verbs, of course, they will be
underlining twice. But, instead of all those gimmicks for identifying nouns, students need simply
learn that nouns (and pronouns) are the words that function as subjects (or, when you get to
them, as objects of prepositions, etc.).
As always in grammar, terminology causes problems. At this point in their work, students do
not need to know terms such as tense, helping verbs, or auxiliary (another word for
helping). They should, however, learn the term phrase. A phrase is simply a group of
words that work together as a unit, but do not include a subject and (finite) verb pattern. At this
KISS Level, for example, students should learn to underline all the words in a verb phrase (such
as would have been walking). Exercises three through six focus on the various types of
helping verbs. But the purpose of the category names is to make sure that students are at least
exposed to the verbs that create various verb phrases. How often, for example, will students run
across ought? On the other hand, young writers will use was going to and kept on
fairly often. Thus, if we want students to be able to analyze their own writing, we need to pay
some attention to these verbs.
One of the problems in the grammar books is that they do not all agree on what is (and what
is not) a helping verb. Some books, for example, include need and dare among helping
10
verbs--for reasons that are not given. But if need is a helping verb, why isnt want? The
KISS Approach to this is, of course, alternative explanations. In sentences such as
He needed to go to the store.
He wanted to go to the store.
KISS allows students to consider needed to go or wanted to go as the finite verb phrase,
especially in this KISS Level 1.1. (Exercise five, Other Helping Verbs, focuses on this
question. In it, you should probably accept either explanation as correct. If a student underlined
wanted twice and does nothing with to go, that is fine. It is, of course, also fine if they
underline wanted to go twice.)
You may or may not want to use the instructional material for Exercise # 5. It describes
start, continue, stop, like, love, hate, want, and try as helping verbs. Instead,
you might want to have them use the instructional material for exercise seven, Verbs as Subjects
or Complements, in KISS Level 1.3 Adding Complements. The question here is, how much
new information can you give your students without overwhelming them? You will almost
certainly find that what students need here is practice. For justification for this approach, see the
essay on Jerome Bruners spiral curriculum in the Background Essays.
Exercise seven (Fill-in-the-blanks with Verbs) is as much an exercise in vocabulary as it
is an exercise in learning to identify verbs. It probably works best as an in-class activity. Give the
students time to work alone to fill in the blanks, and then have them share their choices with the
rest of the class. You might want to write the verbs on the board as the students give their
suggestions. That way, you can have students discuss which words are most effective. Exercise
eight is a short passage for analysis, and exercise nine is just for fun.
The most important things:
1. Focus students attention on how much they are learning.
2. Grammar should be meaningful and make sense. Students should understand why they are
learning it. (See the KISS psycholinguistic model.) And as students are learning it, the definitions
and exercises we give them should be sensible and useful.
3. Have fun! You may be surprised by the enjoyment that many students get out of simply
seeing how much they have learned.
11
Additional Methods for Identifying Subjects and Finite Verbs
Find the Verb First
Different peoples minds work differently, and some people seem to find it easiest to identify
subjects first and then the verb that goes with them. If you are stumped, try that, but it may be
easier to identify verbs first. Several methods for identifying verbs have been proposed.
Individually, none of them seem to be successful, but each may help.
The first is the definition of verbs as words that show action or state of being. The
definition is basically true, but it is probably too vaguewhat is meant by show, and by the
even vaguer state of being? In
She plays baseball.
plays shows action, but in
She made three excellent plays.
it names what she made. The difference is that in the first example, plays predicates action,
whereas in the second it answers the question She made what? But this means that one must
understand the concept of predication, and be able to apply it to a particular sentence, before one
can use this part of the definition.
As for state of being, I never knew what that meant, and still dont. (And I love
philosophy.) Fortunately, the verbs that show state of being are limited in number and almost
always used as finite verbs. They can simply be remembered:
am, is, are, was, were
Note that these words are extremely common. Students will do themselves a favor by
memorizing the small list. A little practice and some common sense should help students
recognize a few other common finite verbs:
can (when it does not mean the thing)
may (when it does not mean the month)
might (when it does not mean strength)
must (when it does not mean necessity)
will (when it does not mean desire, or the legal document)
Suffixes such as ing and ed help to identify many words as verbs, but not every
word that ends in ing is a verb.
12
Another simple way to check to see if a word CAN BE a verb is to use it to fill in simple
blanks to make acceptable sentences:
She/They ______.
She/They ______ it.
Generally speaking, only words that can function as verbs will make sense in the blanks, but that
does not mean that the word functions as a verb in the sentence you are analyzing.
Another way of telling if a word can function as a verb is to test whether or not it can have
number and tense. Grammatically, number refers to the difference between one (singular) and
more than one (plural):
He walks.
They walk.
13
They would be working on the road for a long time.
She is going to go to the store.
He ought to read this book.
Bill has to do his homework.
As you will see in Level Four, verb phrases can be analyzed into smaller pieces, but at Level
Two, the students primary objective should be to identify all the verbs in a phrase as a part of the
phrase.
Sometimes the words in a phrase are separated from each other:
Would they like to come to supper?
She has often said that they would.
They do, in this case, have to go to court.
Finding Subjects
Always work one pattern at a timefind the verb, find its subject(s), and then find its
complement(s). I have seen many students who underline a verb here, another one there, then
perhaps a subject from a different pattern somewhere else. Such students never know when they
are done, and they almost never do a good job. Work systematically, sentence-by-sentence, one
pattern at a time.
If you find the finite verb first, you can use what they teach in middle and high school to
help you find its subject. Unfortunately, most textbooks dont give students everything they need.
The books say, Find the subject by making a question with who or what. If the sentence is
Sharon likes hamburgers.
students are supposed to ask the question Who likes hamburgers? which will give them the
subjectSharon. This works fine for baby sentences, and even for some sophisticated ones.
But what happens with:
Some of these concepts are difficult.
We ask the questionWho or what are difficult? And we get the answer concepts. We tell
that to the teacher, and were told that were wrong. (Thanks a lot.) Actually, this scenario does
not happen very often, because most teachers use exercises in grammar books, and the grammar
books avoid such sentences in their exercises.
And there is another problem:
14
It was the manager who caught the thief.
We ask Who was the manager? and we get the correct, if meaningless, it. We then ask Who
caught the thief? Obviously it was the managerbut thats the wrong answer! Manager is the
meaningful answer, but the grammatical subject of caught is who.
Because of these problems, in addition to the who or what + verb question, we need two
additional rules:
1 If a verb is outside a prepositional phrase, its subject cannot be inside one.
In our first example (Some of these concepts are difficult.) this rule eliminates concepts
from consideration, and in effect forces students to the only word left, some, which is the
subject. Prepositional phrases between subjects and their verbs are fairly common, so students
ability to identify prepositional phrasesKISS Level 1.5will make Level Two easier.
For practical purposes, if students are working at Level Two, they can ignore anything and
everything in prepositional phrases as they look for subjects and verbs. Only one prepositional
phrase in two hundred involves subjects and verbs, a percentage so low that it is not worth
worrying about until students get to clauseswhere the construction will become clear. (Again,
one thing at a time!)
2. The complement of one verb can NEVER function as the subject of another. There
are NO exceptions.
This rule, firmly based on our psycholinguistic model of how the human brain processes
language, resolves the second problem. In our example (It was the manager who caught the
thief.) manager is a predicate noun after was, so it cannot be the subject of caught. In
most cases, as in this one, students will be left with only one word, usually who, which, or
that which functions as the subject.
A Psycholinguistic Approach to Finding Subjects
The basic sentence pattern of any sentence is subject / verb / optional complement. We each
figured this out for ourselves, as babies, and to this day our brains still expect the same basic
pattern. Generally speaking, our brains will take the first noun phrase as the subject of a
sentence. As we grew older, however, we mastered a few exceptions. An important one involves
words that denote time:
15
Sunday, we will watch the ballgame.
Sunday is my favorite day of the week.
English uses nouns that denote time as adverbs to indicate when the action of the verb will take
place. (This is one of the additional constructions explored in Level Five.) As a result,
readers/hearers have to wait until further into the sentence before deciding whether or not the
time-word is the subject. In the first example, as soon as a reader/hearer perceives we, we is
taken as the subject, and Sunday is processed as an adverb. But in the second example, the is
after Sunday confirms that Sunday is the subject of the sentence.
As explained in KISS Level One, prepositions never function as nouns. As a result, when
readers/hearers perceive a preposition at the beginning of a sentence, they expect the object of
that preposition before the subject of the sentence:
{In the winter}, they go sledding.
The initial preposition, in this case in, devours winter such that winter is not eligible to be
the subject of the sentence. So the next thing named, in this case they, is. We will learn about a
few other grammatical constructions that have this effect. But even without a conscious
awareness of those constructions, students may be able to use this rule and their knowledge of
English to help them identify subjects. With the exception of nouns that denote time, the brain
will tend to take the first free noun or pronoun as the subject of a finite verb. Questions
(Whom do you want?) are an exception to this rule. Other exceptions are explored in KISS Level
2.1.2 - Varied Positions in the S/V/C Pattern
16
17
6. "Grandfather [DirA], our milk is the best [#1] {in all the world}." |
7. Heidi and her grandfather were back {on the Alp}. |
8. The grandfather was still {with the children}. |
9. Peter brought the letter (DO) up {with him} next morning [NuA]. |
10. Clara is so much better (PA). |
11. The following days were happier (PA) still {for Clara}. |
12. And now I am so hungry (PA) ! |
13. Mr. Sesemann always brought many lovely things (DO) home [NuA] {with him}. |
14. Your hands are as warm (PA) {as toast} [#2] ! |
15. Heidi was always busy (PA) {with the strange child}. |
Notes
1. In cases like this, many grammarians consider the plus an adjective as functioning as a
noun. Hence, the best could be considered a predicate noun here. Alternatively, best can
be considered an adjective to an ellipsed milk. That would make the ellipsed milk the
predicate noun. Note that the following prepositional phrase modifies the adjective best.
2. Some grammarians prefer to explain as toast as an ellipsed subordinate clauseas toast *is
warm*. In KISS, this is an acceptable alternative explanation. Note that in either case, the
second as construction modifies the first as, which modifies warm.
18
5. A young child does not have to undergo many dangerous experiences (DO) {in life}. |
6. It's going to walk {round this loch}? |
7. {In those trenches} they had had no warm hearths (DO). |
8. Well [Inj], a valuable dog will have owners (DO) somewhere. |
9. The one driving force {of her life} was wakened (P), | and it was leaving her (IO) no
peace (DO). |
10. Never before {in her five years} {of life} had she been out alone {at night}. |
Note
1. Most grammar textbooks would describe What simply as an interrogative pronoun, but note
that it simultaneously functions as the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) to do. The
infinitive functions as the direct object of are trying. With students working at KISS Level
1.1, I would also accept trying to do as the finite verb phrase.
19
10. Only once {in a while} could they see a glimpse (DO) {of the dog}. |
11. But it might need some help (DO). |
Notes
1. Some people may see her as a direct object, and at KISS Levels One and Two I would
simply accept that. At KISS Level Three students will begin to see clauses that function as
the direct object, as in It would warn her that danger is approaching. Once they can see
that clauses can function as the direct object of warn, students will probably better
understand why her would be an indirect object.
2. Night here explains not what it might live, but how long it might live. Thus it is not a direct
object but rather a noun used as an adverb.
3. Alternatively, up can be explained as an adverb. (See KISS Level 2.1.5 - Phrasal Verbs
(Preposition? Or Part of the Verb?) Note that at KISS Level 1.1, students are expected to be
confused by these.
4. Students working at KISS Level One will probably consider did seem to worry as the verb
phrase here. Whether or not seem is a helping verb here is a matter of debate. Once they
get to verbals, some people will prefer to see did seem as the finite verb and to worry as
a verbal (infinitive) that functions either as the direct object of, or as an adverb to, did
seem. Thus either explanation should be accepted.
20
4. *You* Stop trembling. [#4] |
5. The footpath begins to go steeply and abruptly {up the Alps}. [#5] |
6. And now you want to hand over the child (DO) {to this terrible old man}. [#6] |
7. Grandmother would love to see you (DO). [#7] |
8. I hate to rob her (DO) {of this pleasure}. [#8] |
9. A small, white goat, called Snowhopper [#9] , kept up bleating {in the most piteous
way}. [#10] |
10. Clara must try to stand longer this evening [NuA] {for me}. [#11] |
Notes
1. Some grammar books list kept and/or kept on among helping verbs. Alternatively,
asking can be explained as a verbal (gerund) that functions as the direct object of kept.
On may be considered part of the finite verb phrase or as an adverb. For more on this see
KISS Level 2.1.5 - Phrasal Verbs (Preposition? Or Part of the Verb?).
2. Gossiping can be explained as a gerund that functions as the direct object of started.
3. To hear can be explained as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of would
like. This explanation would make something the direct object of the infinitive.
4. Trembling can be explained as a gerund that functions as the direct object of Stop.
5. To go can be explained as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of begins.
6. To hand over means to give, so the over can be considered as part of this infinitive, or it
can be explained as an adverb. See KISS Level 2.1.5 - Phrasal Verbs (Preposition? Or Part
of the Verb?). The infinitive phrase would be the direct object of want, and child
becomes the direct object of the infinitive.
7. To see can be explained as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of would
love. You becomes the direct object of the infinitive.
8. To rob can be explained as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of hate.
Her becomes the direct object of the infinitive.
21
9. Snowhopper is a retained predicate adjective after the passive gerundive called. The
gerundive phrase modifies goat. See KISS Level 5.7 - Passive Voice and Retained
Complements.
10. See Note 1.
11. To stand can be explained as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of
must try.
4. I could manage very well alone {with three}, | but [Adv. to "might not have" if there
were more (PN)], I might not have time (DO) to kill them all [#3] [Adv. to "to kill"
before they ran away]. |
5. Down, Caro [DirA] ! |
[#4]
22
4. I have marked this as a main clause because what precedes it means You get down. On a
quiz, I would not count this if students did not so mark it.
5. Alternatively, ashamed could be explained as part of the finite verb here.
6. The phrase hero to flight can be explained in a number of ways, but perhaps the simplest is
to consider hero the indirect and the infinitive to flight as the direct object of the
infinitive to have put. (Note, by the way, the interchangeability of the phraseto have put
to flight such a great hero.) The entire to have put phrase functions as an adverb to
ashamed.
1. [DO [#1] "I don't know anything (DO) {about him},"] snapped Mary. |
2. The wind itself [#2] had ceased | [#3] and a brilliant, deep blue sky arched high {over the
moorland}. |
3. [DO [#1] "He does look rather better (PA), sir [DirA],"] ventured Mrs. Medlock. |
4. Mary flew {across the grass} {to him}. |
5. The wind swept {in soft big breaths} down {from the moor}. |
6. She put her hand (DO) {on his shoulder} and smiled the mist (DO) {out of her eyes}. |
7. [DO [#1] "I never thowt much [NuA] {o' thee}!"] he harangued. |
8. The train whirled him (DO) {through mountain passes and golden plains}. |
9. One morning [NuA] the rain streamed down unceasingly. |
10. Sometimes the stream made a sound (DO) rather {like very low laughter} [Adv. to
"made" as it bubbled {over and round stones}]. |
23
11. The afternoon was dragging {toward its mellow hour}. | The sun was deepening the
gold (DO) {of its lances}. |
Notes
1. For an alternative explanation of the clause structure, see KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or
Direct Object?
2. "Itself" is an appositive to "wind." See KISS Level 5.4.
3. Note that the two main clauses are joined by "and"--without a preceding comma.
They started merrily {up the Alp}. | A cloudless, deep-blue sky looked down {on
them}, [Adv. (cause) to "looked" for [#1] the wind had driven away every little cloud (DO)
{in the night} ]. | The fresh green mountain-side was bathed (P) {in brilliant sunlight}, |
and many blue and yellow flowers had opened. | Heidi was wild (PA) {with joy} and
ran {from side} {to side}. | {In one place} she saw big patches (DO) {of fine red
primroses}, | {on another spot} blue gentians sparkled {in the grass}, | and everywhere the
golden rock-roses were nodding {to her}. | {In her transport} {at finding such treasures
[#2]
}, Heidi even forgot Peter (DO) and his goats (DO). | She ran far ahead {of him}
and then strayed away off {to one side}, [Adv. (cause) to "strayed" for the sparkling flowers
tempted her (DO) here and there]. |
Notes
1. See also KISS Level 3.2.2 - So and For as Conjunctions.
24
2. Treasures is the direct object of the verbal (gerund) finding. The verbal phrase functions
as the object of the preposition at. If students have not yet studied prepositional phrases,
they will probably be very confused by this.
Because it is a funny show (PN).] | And it has horses (DO) {in it}. | And I like horses
(DO). | It is {about two cousins} (PN). | They have to get along {with each other}. |
Their names are Andy (PN) and Matthew Lawrence (PN). | Andy works {on a farm}.
| Matt is a rich guy (PN) [Adj. to "guy" who lives {in Washington D.C.}] | Matt has to
go work {on the farm} [Adv. to "has to go" because he got {in trouble} {at his house}] |
and he has to go {to the farm} and help them (IO) work [#2]. | Andy and his mom are
going to lose the ranch (DO) [Adv. to "are going to lose" if Matt doesn't help them (IO)
get money [#3].] | But Matt has no clue (DO) {about what to do [#4]}. |
Notes
1. In discussing clauses with students, I would point out that this is a fragment, but it is an
acceptable one. It modifies the first main clause in the passage, and it is separated from it
because the writer wanted to raise the rhetorical question, "'Why?' might you ask?" The
easiest way to "correct" this fragment would be to precede it with something such as "It is
because . . ." But that would add words that are basically repetitious.
2. "Work" is a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of "help."
3. "Money" is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) "get." The infinitive phrase functions as
the direct object of "help."
4. The verbal (infinitive) "to do" functions as an adjective to "what," which is the object of the
preposition "about."
25
Notes for and from the Pennsylvania 2000-2001
Writing Assessment Handbook Supplement
This is a sample based on Prompt #2 for Style with an assessment of 1. The handwriting
is legible. There are a few spelling and punctuation errors.
The reasons given in the Supplement for the assessment of 1 are:
There is minimal word choice in this paper about horse sense. The frequent use
of And and poor control of sentence formation critically detract from the tone
and voice. (p. 34)
Because errors are corrected in the versions used for exercises, and because this received a 1
for style, the following is a more accurate transcript of the text:
My favorite show is horse Sense. Why might you ask. Because it is
a funny show. And it has horses in it. And i like hourses. It is about
two cousins. have to get a long with each other. And there names
are Andy and Mathew larwence. And Andy work on a farm. And
Matt is a rich guy how lives in washiton D.C. And Matt has to go
work on the farm. Because he got in trouble at his house and he
has to go to the farm and help them work. And Andy and his mom
are going to lose the ranch if Matt dont help them get money. and
Matt has no clue what to do.
Ex. 9 - Just for Fun - Why the English language is so hard to learn (# 1)
1. The dump was so full (PA) [Adv. to "so" that it had to refuse more refuse (DO)]. |
2. He could lead [Adv. to "could lead" if he would get the lead (DO) out]. |
3. [Adv. to "didn't praught" If teachers taught,] why didn't preachers praught? |
4. [Adv. to "does eat" If a vegetarian eats vegetables (DO),] what (DO) does a
humanitarian eat? |
5. [Adv. to "dove" When *the dove was* [#1] shot at (P),] the dove dove {into the bushes}. |
Note
26
1. This is an example of a semi-reduced clause.
KISS Level 1. 2.
Adding Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Adverbs and Phrases
Notes for Teachers
In KISS Level 1.1, students learned to identify the basic subjects and verbs that are the core
of every sentence. In KISS Level 1.2 exercises one (a & b), two, three, and four enable
students to identify nouns and pronouns and to see that the words that function as subjects are
called nouns or pronouns. These are basic identification exercises. More advanced questions
about pronouns are explored in Level 1.6.
Once students can identify nouns and pronouns (as well as verbs), Exercise five turns to the
identification of adjectives and adverbs. Most textbooks include the KISS functional approach
to teaching adjectives and adverbsadjectives modify nouns and pronouns; adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. But the textbooks then focus on adverbs ending in -ly,
and/or explanations that adjectives and adverbs have comparative (better) and superlative
(best) forms. The textbooks then drop adjectives and adverbs and move on to something else.
In essence, students are taught the definitions, but they are never taught how to identify
adjectives and adverbs in real texts. Thus the definitions are never used, and students forget
them.
KISS reverses the typical textbook descriptions. Instead of adjectives modify nouns and
pronouns, KISS phrases the idea as A word (or construction) that describes a noun or pronoun
functions as (and therefore is) an adjective. This may not seem to be a major difference, but the
normal textbook definition actually assumes that one knows what an adjective is, and then it tells
one what it does. The KISS explanation, on the other hand, enables a person to look at a word in
a sentence and then determine that it is an adjective because it modifies a noun or pronoun.
Getting students to look at the question in this way prepares them to be able to identify all the
constructions that they will learn that also function as adjectivesprepositional phrases, clauses,
gerundives, and infinitives.
27
In learning to identify adjectives and adverbs, students should learn the two basic rules and
then do a few exercises based on them, exercises in which they draw an arrow from the adjective
or adverb to the word modified. It will, however, become extremely boring and repetitive if you
have students continue to identify all the adjectives and adverbs in everything they analyze. Once
students become comfortable with the concepts, you should probably stop requiring them to
identify every adjective and adverb in the texts they are analyzing. Obviously, students questions
about the function of a particular word should be addressed, but otherwise the only exceptions to
the preceding suggestion are 1.) exercises that focus on the logic or style of adjectives and
adverbs, and 2.) assessment quizzes.
Exercise six introduces the concept of phrases and explains that a noun phrase consists of a
noun plus the adjectives that modify it and a verb phrase consists of a verb plus the adverbs that
modify it. The instructional material for this exercise also explains the related concepts of
modification and chunking.
The seventh exercise concerns the adjectival function of possessive nouns and pronouns. (In
part, this exercise shows students that words like its and their function as adjectives, as
opposed to the subject/verb function of its and theyre.) Textbooks disagree on whether
possessive nouns (Bills) are nouns or adjectives and whether possessives such as his and her
are pronouns or adjectives. Some textbooks do explain that grammarians disagree here, but the
underlying problem is the assumption that a word has to fit into one part of speech or another.
Many nouns, for example, also function as adjectives, and grammarians rarely discuss them
(town hall, garden tools, weather report). There is, therefore, no reason why possessive nouns
(Bills) cannot be considered as possessive nouns and/or as adjectives.
The problem about his and her is caused in part by the misperception that there must be
one (and only one) explanation in any particular case. A look at why grammarians disagree may
clarify the problem and explain why students should be allowed to give alternative explanations.
In a sentence such as That book is his, some grammarians will see his as a pronoun that
functions as a predicate noun. Other grammarians will see his as an adjective modifying an
ellipsed book. Still others will explain his as a predicate adjective. All three of these
explanations make sense, so by what right do teachers (or grammarians) claim that only the one
that they prefer is correct?
28
The next three exercises have a double function: 1.) reinforcing the identification of
adjectives and adverbs, and 2.) extending students vocabulary, and thus writing style. They are
most effective if students share their answers in class. The eighth exercise asks students to fill in
the blanks with adjectives and/or adverbs. The ninth and tenth exercises, which explain
synonyms and antonyms, ask students to think of synonyms (or antonyms) for a short list of
adjectives, and then to use the words in a short sentence.
A Note about Style
Some teachers instruct students to use more adjectives and adverbs; others tell students to
use fewer, and instead to use nouns and verbs that are more descriptive. Stylistic exercises on
adjectives and adverbs are important, but they should be based on real texts. Descriptive nouns
and verbs are usually better than non-descriptive, but the opposing instruction suggests that
some teachers are attempting to impose their own stylistics prejudices upon their students. A
better approach is to have students analyze short paragraphs in which writers use numerous (or
no) adjectives and/or adverbs. Discussion can focus on the effects of the use (or lack of use) of
adjectives and adverbs. By actually teaching students how to identify adjectives and adverbs in
real texts, KISS enables students to make their own decisions about the use of adjectives and
adverbs.
Exercises eleven (a & b) can be used as simple identification exercises, but they are
intended to be used as exercises in the logic of adjectives and adverbs. If you use them as such,
and if you have used other texts that deal with the kinds of adjectives and adverbs, you will
probably note a problem. Many texts treat the kinds (classes) of adjectives and adverbs as boxes
into which an adjective or an adverb can be dropped. For example, they present adverbs of time
and adverbs of degree, as if an adverb has to be one or the other. But in a sentence such as They
never eat chocolate, never denotes degree in time. Thus it can be seen as both an adverb of
time and as an adverb of degree. The more you study the logic of adjectives and adverbs, the
more you will probably agree that it is an extremely complex question.
That is, however, no reason for ignoring the question, even with very young students. The
foundation of the KISS Grammar approach to logic is David Humes argument that thought is a
matter of perception plus three categories of logical relationshipsidentity, extension in time or
space, and cause/effect. (For more on this, see An Introduction to Syntax and the Logic of
29
David Hume in the Background Essays.) Put somewhat differently, we can say that words
denote Humes perceptions, and the logical relationships denote the ways in which adjectives
and adverbs modify words. Thus, in They searched everywhere, everywhere modifies
searched in respect to space.
The logical relationships in KISS Level One are limited basically to identity, extension in
time or space, and adverbs of manner. (For Hume, who uses an Aristotelian concept of cause,
manner is a cause.) The reason for focusing on these is that weak young writers often fail to
include details of time, space, and manner. Bringing these logical relationships to the students
attention may improve their writing.
The exercises on logic have a double function. For one, they foreshadow (and thus prepare
students for) the KISS exercises on the logic of prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, etc.
(You will probably find that logical details of time, space, cause/effect are more frequently
expressed in prepositional phrases than they are in simple adjectives or adverbs.)
These exercises are also intended to apply directly to the students writing. Most textbooks
tell students, for example, that adjectives add information about the words they modify, but
these texts usually fail to point out that many adjectives add information by limiting other
possible interpretations. They went to the brown house means that they did not go to the white
house, the yellow house, or the pink house with purple polka-dots. In other words, many
adjectives restrict the meaning of the nouns they modifythey make the sentence more specific,
more exact.
The preceding may seem too simplistic to need teaching, but as a college writing instructor,
Ill note that many college Freshmen fail to notice the differences among:
Lawyers are greedy.
A few lawyers are greedy.
Some lawyers are greedy.
Many lawyers are greedy.
Most lawyers are greedy.
All lawyers are greedy.
Lawyers implies all, and the failure of many students to make these distinctions may reflect
a much more significant problem with current political discourse. We have, for example,
30
conservatives complaining about liberals and liberals complaining about conservatives as if
our political discourse is a war between two monolithic sides. It is not, and to treat it as such
severely hampers rational political debate.
On a less political note, some students frequently write a topic sentence such as The
symbols in The Lost Phoebe emphasize the conflict of appearance vs. reality. That statement is
simply not true. Some, many, perhaps most may do so, but the implied all do not. For
many college instructors, a students failure to make such distinctions automatically results in a
grade below A.
The twelfth exercise is a Passage for Analysis. This should be as much an exercise in
style as it is in analysis. You can supplement this exercise in numerous ways. Select a short
passage from what your students are reading. Have your students select passages (so that they
know that you are not cooking the books). Perhaps best of all, have your students analyze and
discuss a short selection from something that they themselves have written.
*****
The preceding discussion assumes that the students are beginning the KISS approach in
primary or middle grades. In working with college students, I may spend five minutes, in class,
explaining what adjectives and adverbs are, and then tell students that I will not expect them to
identify any of them. There simply is not sufficient instructional and homework time to cover
everything, and these students know that in the old man, for example, the and old form a
phrase with man. And they know that in He ran quickly, quickly goes with ran. The
concepts (adjective and adverb), however, appear when the students add prepositional
phrases, clauses and verbals to their analytical toolboxes. Basic work on adjectives and adverbs
makes the understanding of clauses and verbals much easier for students, but until our schools
adopt a systematic sequence for the study of grammar, middle and high school teachers can only
do so much.
Additional Exercises
The workbooks originally included additional exercises. Among them were separate
exercises on descriptive adjectives, on adjectives of quantity, on comparative adjectives (and
adverbs), on sentence-combining, on sentence de-combining with adjectives, on sentencebuilding with adjectives, and on sentence-building with adverbs. These can be found in the on-
31
line collection for KISS Level 1.2. In the primary grades, spending three to six weeks (at two or
three exercises per week) on adjectives and adverbs may not be much of a problem. But if you
are starting in later grades, do you really want to devote that much time to adjectives and
adverbs? Do students really need exercises that name the types of adjectives? Do they need to be
taught how to create comparatives? Probably not.
A Note about A, An, and The
Some textbooks use the term articles for a, an, and the, and consider them a
separate part of speech. Some modern linguists also consider these three words as a separate part
of speech and call them determiners. A focus on these three words is important for non-native
speakers, but few if any native speakers have problems with them. Traditional grammars make
the distinction between the definite article (the) and the indefinite articles (a and an.) Im not
sure that these different labels add anything to native speakers understanding of English, so
KISS simply considers them as adjectives.
32
These sentences contain a few constructions that students are
expected to get wrong. Be sure to remind them of that and focus their
attention on how much they get right.
1. She (PRN) had succeeded {in bringing herself (PRN) [#1] down} {to her [#2] usual
height}. |
2. "What (PRN; DO) do you (PRN) mean {by that (PRN)?" [ [#3] said the Caterpillar
(N), sternly]. | "*You* (PRN) [#4] (PRN) Explain yourself (PRN; DO)!" |
3. The judge (N), {by the way (N)} [#5], was the King (N; PN) | and he (PRN) wore his
crown (N; DO) {over his great wig (N) }. |
4. She (PRN) waited {for some time (N)} {without hearing anything (PRN) more [#6] }. |
5. Oh [Inj] , my poor little feet (N) [DirA], I (PRN) wonder [DO who (PRN) will put on
your shoes (N; DO) and stockings (N; DO) {for you (PRN)} [#7] now, dears (N)
[DirA]
]? |
6. "*You* (PRN) Let us (PRN) get [#8] {to the shore (N)} | and then I (PRN) 'll tell you
(PRN; IO) my history (N; DO). |"
7. She (PRN) looked up, | but it (PRN) was all dark (PA) overhead; | {before her (PRN) }
was another long passage (N) | and the White Rabbit (N) was still {in sight (N) }.
|
8. "Mouse (N) [DirA] dear (N) [DirA]! *You* (PRN) Do come back again, | and we (PRN)
won't talk {about cats (N), or dogs (N) either }, [Adv. to "won't talk" if you (PRN)
don't like them (PRN; DO) ]!" |
33
9. "That (PRN) 's the jury-box (N; PN)," [ [#3] thought Alice (N) ]; | "and those twelve
creatures (N) [#9] ( [ [#10] some (PRN) were animals (N; PN) ] and [ some (PRN)
were birds (N; PN) ]) I (PRN) suppose [DO they (PRN) are the jurors (N;
PN) ]." |
10. "It (PRN) matters a good deal (N) [NuA] {to me (PRN) } [#11] ," [ [#3] said Alice (N)
hastily]; | "but I (PRN) 'm not looking {for eggs (N) }, [Adv. to "not" as it (PRN)
34
9. You will have a hard time finding an explanation for "creatures" in most grammar textbooks.
KISS explains it as an (unusual) appositive to the following "they." See KISS Level 5.4 Appositives.
10. Rhetoricians call constructions enclosed in parentheses like this "parenthetical
constructions." Instead of adding that additional term, KISS considers them to be a form of
interjections. Note that in this case "some" renames "creatures" and thus is also processed as
an appositive to it.
11. This "to me" is an interesting prepositional phrase in that, although it could be considered as
an adverb to "matters," it can also be seen as an indirect object after a verb that does not take
a direct object.
12. There are at least two ways of explaining "them raw." One is to consider it an ellipsed
infinitive phrase -- "them *to be* raw." In this perspective, "them" is the subject and "raw"
is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed infinitive "to be." The infinitive phrase is the direct
object of "don't like." The second way is to consider "them" the direct object of "don't like,"
and to view "raw" as a post-positioned adjective to "them." For more on this, see KISS
Level 5.5 - Post-Positioned Adjectives.
was no other cloud (N, PN) all {round the sky (N) }]; | and he (PRN) trembled [Adv.
to "trembled" as it (PRN) touched the cliff (N, DO) below [#3] ]. | And [Adv. to "broke"
and "parted" as it (PRN) touched,] it (PRN) broke, and parted, | and {within it (PRN) }
appeared Pallas Athene (N), [Adv. to "appeared" as he (PRN) had seen her (PRN,
DO) {at Samos (N) } {in his dream (N) } ], and [#4] {beside her (PRN } a young man (N)
more light-limbed
[#5]
{than the stag (N) } [#6], [Adj. to "man" whose (PRN) [#7] eyes (N) were
{like sparks (N) } (PA) {of fire (N) } ]. | {By his side (N) } was a scimitar (N) {of
diamond (N) }, all [#8] {of one clear precious stone (N) }, | and {on his feet (N) } were golden
35
sandals (N), [Adj. to "sandals" {from the heels (N) } {of which (PRN) } grew living wings
(N) ]. |
Notes
1. See KISS Level 3.2.2 - So and For as Conjunctions.
2. For an alternative explanation, see KISS Level 2.1.3 - Expletives (Optional).
3. Below is a preposition with an ellipsed object (it). The prepositional phrase clearly
modifies cliff, even though its meaning is adverbial. This happens as a result of ellipsis. It
means the cliff *which was* below *it*. The adjectival clause is reduced to just the
preposition. [Note that most grammar textbooks never get near this type of construction.]
4. This and joins the two subjects of appearedPallas Athene and man.
5. Light-limbed is a Post-Positioned Adjective, a reduction of the adjectival clause*who
was* light-limbed. See KISS Level 5.5 - Post-Positioned Adjectives.
6. Alternatively, than the stag can be explained as an ellipsed adverbial clausethan the stag
*is light-limbed*.
7. Whose, like his in the next sentence, is a possessive pronoun that functions as an adjective
(just as possessive nouns do).
8. All can be explained in at least two ways. For one, it can be explained as a pronoun that
functions as an appositive to diamond. Or it can be seen as an adverb (completely) that
functions as an adverb to the following prepositional phrase.
36
4. Mary and Jane said [DO they would serve {on the committee}]. |
5. The captain told the men (IO) [DO that they must be ready (PA) {at dawn}]. |
6. The leader insisted [DO that he had given the correct command (DO)]. |
7. Jack had the measles (DO) | and he was very sick (PA). |
8. Anna washed and ironed her dress (DO). |
9. The train is coming. | We can hear it (DO). |
10. Mother promised Jean (IO) and Jerry (IO) [DO that she would take them
(DO) {to the fair}]. |
Notes
1. Time can be explained as a Noun Used as an Adverb [See KISS Level 2.3.] or as the object
of an ellipsed preposition At.
1. He did not often get such a treasure (DO), | and therefore [#1] his face was beaming |
and he laughingly dropped the money (DO) deep [#2] {into his pocket}. |
2. Heidi looked thoughtfully {at her fresh, new bed}. |
3. The strong wind nearly blew her (DO) {from her seat}. |
4. Suddenly she heard a loud, sharp scream (DO). |
5. Heidi suddenly wiped away her tears (DO), [Adv. (cause) to "wiped away" [#3] for she
had had a cheering thought (DO) ]. |
6. Blue and yellow flowers graciously greeted her (DO) {at every step}. |
37
1. Heidi could hardly tear herself (DO) away {from the pretty kittens}. |
2. They both played happily {with the two graceful creatures}. |
3. Sebastian obediently pulled the dirty street-boy (DO) {after him}. |
4. The grandmama, {with her kind and loving way}, immediately befriended the child
(DO). |
38
[#1]
7. The slowly setting sun was shedding a golden light (DO) {over everything}. |
8. She would look {at the beautiful pictures} and read all the stories (DO) aloud {to
Clara}. |
9. Grandmama would quietly listen and explain something (DO) here and there. |
10. Sebastian was placing footstools (DO) {in front} {of nearly every armchair}, | and
Miss Rottenmeier walked {with great dignity} {about the house}, inspecting
everything [#2]. |
Notes
1. Although most grammars (including KISS) explain unfortunately as an adverb, consider how
close it is to an interjectionit interjects the writers evaluation of the not.
2. Everything is the direct object of the verbal (gerundive) inspecting. The gerundive phrase
functions as an adjective to Miss Rottenmeier.
39
40
Complete Analysis Key
was the most dangerous thing [Adj. to "thing" that a young man could possibly
undertake ]] }. |
3. The bridal gift [Adj. to "gift" which [#6] I have set my heart (DO) {on presenting} {to
the beautiful Hippodamia}] is the head (PN) {of the Gorgon Medusa [#7] } {with the snaky
locks}. |
4. You must bring it (DO) home [NuA] {in the very best condition}, {in order} to suit the
exquisite taste [#8] {of the beautiful Princess Hippodamia}. |
5. The only good man {in this unfortunate island} {of Seriphus} appears to have been the
fisherman (PN). |
6. Medusa's snakes will sting him (DO) soundly!
7. The three sisters were really a very frightful and mischievous species (PN) {of dragon}. |
8. The teeth {of the Gorgons} were terribly long tusks (PN). |
9. Every feather {in them} was pure, bright, glittering, burnished gold (PN), | and they
looked very dazzlingly. |
10. Not only [#9] must he fight with [#10] and slay this golden-winged, iron-scaled, longtusked, brazen-clawed, snaky-haired monster (DO), | but he must do it (DO) {with
his eyes shut [#11] } . |
Notes
41
1. Expect some students to have problems identifying this what as the subject of was. A
section of Level 1.6 explores pronouns as the subjects of verbs in multi-SVC patterned
sentences in more detail.
2. That possessive nouns function as adjectives is the focus of exercise seven.
3. This So can be explained either as an adverb or as a coordinating conjunction. See KISS
Level 3.2.2 - So and For as Conjunctions.
4. I see while as referring to time, and thus answering the question spent what? If someone
prefers to see it as answering the question how much? and thus explaining it as a noun that
functions as an adverb, I would accept that.
5. Considering is a verbal (in this case, a gerund) that functions as the object of the preposition
in. The following what clause is the direct object of considering, and thus this
prepositional phrase continues to the end of this sentence.
6. This which functions simultaneously as the subordinating conjunction and as the direct
object of the gerund presenting. Presenting functions as the object of the preposition
on.
7. Gorgon Medusa can be considered a specific name, or, perhaps preferably, Medusa can be
seen as an appositive to Gorgon. See KISS Level 5.4 - Appositives.
8. Taste is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) to suit. The infinitive phrase functions
as an adjective to order, in the prepositional phrase that functions as an adverb (of
purpose) to must bring.
9. Not only . . . but (also) . . . functions as a coordinating conjunction.
10. This with is an ellipsed prepositional phrasefight with *the monster.
11. Eyes shut is a noun absolute that functions as the object of the preposition with. See
KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes.
42
43
Complete Analysis Key
PERSEUS was the son (PN) {of Dana}, [Adj. to "Dana" who was the daughter
(PN) {of a king}]. | And [Adv. to "put" when Perseus was a very little boy (PN) ], some
wicked people put his mother (DO) and himself (DO) {into a chest}, and set them
(DO) afloat {upon the sea}. | The wind blew freshly, and drove the chest (DO) away
{from the shore}, | and the uneasy billows tossed it (DO) up and down; [#3] [Adv. to
"tossed" while Dana clasped her child (DO) closely {to her bosom}, and dreaded [DO
of "dreaded" that some big wave would dash its foamy crest (DO) {over them both [#4] } ]].
| The chest sailed on, however, and neither sank nor was upset;
[#3]
[Adv. to "sailed"
until, [Adv. to "floated" when night was coming], it floated so [#5] {near an island} [Adv.
(result) to "so" that it got entangled (P) {in a fisherman's nets}, and was drawn (P) out high
[#6]
and dry [#6] {upon the sand}]]. | The island was called (P) Seriphus (RPN) [#7], | and it
was reigned (P) over {by King Polydectes}, [Adj. to "King Polydectes" who happened to
be the fisherman's brother (PN)]. |
Notes
1. Because they have not yet studied prepositional phrases, most students will probably mark
Dana as the subject of was. The use of pronouns as subjects in multi-SVC patterned
sentences is the focus of an exercise in KISS Level 1.6.
2. Expect students to be confused by upset. It can be viewed as part of a passive verb phrase or
as a predicate adjective. See Predicate Adjective or Part of the Verb? in KISS Level 1.3.
3. In this short passage, Hawthorne twice used semicolons to separate subordinate clauses from
their main clauses. You probably will not find this discussed in most grammar textbooks.
The semicolon before until is interesting because it tends to throw the subordinate clause
back over the verbs sank and was upset to the first verb in the sentence, sailed.
44
4. Both can be explained as a pronoun that functions as an appositive to them. See KISS
Level 5.4 - Appositives. Or it can be considered a post-positioned adjective to them. See
KISS Level 5.5 - Post-Positioned Adjectives.
5. The adverb so modifies the following prepositional phrase. (You will probably have a hard
time finding this explained in most grammar textbooks.)
6. High and dry are retained predicate adjectives in an ellipsed infinitive construction after
the passive was drawn. The active voice version would essentially be The nets drew it
out *to be* high and dry. Thus high and dry are predicate adjectives that describe it
(the chest) after the ellipsed infinitive. See Retained Complements in KISS Level 5.7 Passive Voice and Retained Complements.
7. Comparable to high and dry, Seriphus is a retained predicate noun after the passive
was called. The active voice version would be They called the island *to be* Seriphus.
45
1. Expect students to be confused here. They will sense that the answer to Made what? is not
example, nor clear, but rather example clear. They will not, however, know how to
explain this. In KISS Level Four, they will learn that example is the subject of, and clear
is a predicate adjective after the ellipsed infinitive to be. The infinitive phrase functions as
the direct object of made.
1. A tall girl, with light hair and rosy face, was clearly leaning on Heidi, whose dark
eyes sparkled with keen delight.
2. When Clara had looked a long time at the cloudless sky above and all the rocky
crags, she said longingly: "I wish I could walk round the hut to the fir-trees.
3. A beautiful bunch of wondrously blue gentians stood as if they had grown there.
4. A cool morning breeze fanned their cheeks, and the spicy fragrance from the firtrees filled their lungs with every breath.
5. Day after day the sun shone on a cloudless sky, and at night it would pour its
purple, rosy light down on the rocks and snow-fields till everything seemed to
glow like fire.
6. A strong wind was blowing, which at this moment violently closed the shop-door.
7. They had been sitting quietly for a few hours, drinking in the beauty about them,
when Heidi suddenly began to long for the spot where so many flowers grew.
8. Near together in big patches the bluebells were nodding gently in the breeze.
9. The poor boy was mightily bewildered, for he had dreamt that the rolling-chair
with the red cushions stood again before his eyes.
10. He had carefully gathered a glorious bunch of deep-blue gentians.
46
Adjective to man
Adverb to ate
Adverb to ate
Adjective to men
Adverb to plodded
Adverb to plodded
Adjective to shack
Adjective to problem
Adverb to clearly
Adverb to explained
Adjective to eyes
Adjective to eyes
Adjective to eyes
Adverb to saw
Adverb to move
Adverb to ran
Adverb to fast
Adverb to ran
Identity
Time
Manner
Identity
Manner
Space
Identity
Identity
Degree
Manner
Identity
Identity
Identity
Degree
Manner
Space
Degree
Manner
47
19. his
20. not
Adjective to father
Adverb to see
Identity
Degree
Whose?
How much?
Note
1. At this KISS Level, I would simply accept bird as the direct object of saw. If you are
having students identify subjects and verbs, expect them to have trouble with move. When
they get to KISS Level Four, they will learn that bird is the subject of the verbal
(infinitive) move. The infinitive phrase is the direct object of saw.
Ex. 11.b. Based on The Queen of the Pirate Isle, by Bret Harte
Note that unlike most of the analysis keys, in this one the adjectives and adverbs within
prepositional phrases are color coded as individual words.
1. I first [1] knew her (DO) {as the Queen} {of the Pirate [2] Isle}. |
2. {To the best} {of my [3] recollection} she had no reasonable [4] right (DO) {to that [5]
title}. |
3. Her personation {of a certain Mrs. Smith} was never [6] perfectly [7] appreciated (P) {by
her own circle}. |
4. Wan Lee's [8] silent, stolid, mechanical [9] performance {of a Pirate's duties} had been
their one delight (PN) and fascination (PN)! |
5. [DO [#1] "*You* Go {to bed} instantly [10] {without your supper},"] she said, seriously [11].
|
6. Thither [12] they solemnly [13] proceeded {along the ridge} {in single [14] file}. |
7. The eyes {of the four [15] children} became rounder (PA) and rounder (PA). |
8. The continual [16] traffic had gradually [17] worn a shallow gully (DO) {into the face} {of
the mountain}. |
48
9. She felt very [18] lonely (PA) [#2], but was not [19] quite [20] afraid (PA); | she felt very
melancholy (PA), but was not entirely sad (PA). |
1. first
2. Pirate
3. my
4. reasonable
5. that
6. never
7. perfectly
8. Wan Lees
9. mechanical
10. instantly
11. seriously
12. Thither
13. solemnly
14. single
15. four
16. continual
17. gradually
18. very
19. not
20. quite
Adverb to knew
Adjective to Isle
Adjective to recollection
Adjective to right
Adjective to title
Adverb to perfectly
Adverb to was
appreciated
Adjective to performance
Adjective to performance
Adverb to Go
Adverb to said
Adverb to proceeded
Adverb to proceeded
Adjective to file
Adjective to children
Adjective to traffic
Adverb to had worn
Adverb to lonely
Adverb to quite
Adverb to afraid
Time
Identity
Identity
Identity
Identity
Time Degree
When?
Which?
Whose?
What kind of?
Which?
When? How often?
Manner Degree
Identity
Identity
Time
Manner
Space
Manner
Identity
Identity
Identity
Time; Degree
Degree
Degree
Degree
Whose?
What kind of?
When?
How?
Where?
How?
What kind of?
How many?
What kind of?
When? How much?
How much?
How much?
How much?
Notes
1. For an alternative explanation of the clause structure, see KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or
Direct Object?
2. Some people will justifiably see lonely as an adverb here, but note that later in the sentence
we find felt . . . melancholy, and melancholy is not an adverb. Thus the preferred KISS
explanation here is to consider both lonely and melancholy as predicate adjectives in
palimpsest patterns. See KISS Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.
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{In the humming heat} {of a midsummer afternoon} the little boy Jody
[#1]
listlessly
looked {about the ranch} {for something} to do [#2]. | He had been {to the barn}, had
thrown rocks (DO) {at the swallows' nests} {under the eaves} [Adv. to had thrown" until
every one {of the little mud houses} broke open (PA) [#3] and dropped its lining (DO) {of
straw and dirty feathers}]. | Then {at the ranch house} he baited a rat trap (DO) {with stale
cheese} and set it (DO) [Adv. to "set" where Doubletree Mutt, that good big dog [#4] ,
would get his nose snapped [#5] ]. | Jody was not moved (P) {by an impulse} {of cruelty};
[#6]
| he was bored
(P)
{with the long hot afternoon}. | Doubletree Mutt put his stupid nose
(DO) {in the trap} and got it smacked [#5], and shrieked {with agony} and limped away
{with blood} {on his nostrils}. | No matter [#7] [ where he was hurt (P) ], Mutt limped. | It
was just a way (PN) [Adj. to "way" he had]. | Once [ [#8] when he was young (PA)],
Mutt got caught (P) {in a coyote trap}, and always {after that} [#9] he limped, even [#10]
[Adv. to "limped" when he was scolded (P) ]. |
Notes
1. Jody is an appositive to boy. See KISS Level 5.4 - Appositives.
2. The verbal (infinitive) to do functions as an adjective to something.
3. How most grammarians would explain open is an interesting question. (Youll have a hard
time finding some explanations in textbooks.) In KISS, this is simply a palimpsest pattern
with broke written over became. See KISS Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.
4. Dog is an appositive to Doubletree Mutt.
5. Expect students to be confused by this. Obviously, he is not going to get his nose. Thus
nose does not make sense as a direct object. At KISS Level 5.8, most people will probably
prefer to consider nose snapped as a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of
would get.
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6. If you happen to be using this exercise with students who are working at KISS Level 3.1.1 Main Clauses, note how this semicolon separates two main contrasting main clauseswhat
he was not, and what he was moved by.
7. This No matter construction is idiomatic (learned as a phrase rather than developed as a
grammatical construction. We can analyze it as an ellipsed noun absolute that functions as an
adverb to limped -- [Where he was hurt] *being no matter *of relevance, Mutt limped.
See KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes.
8. This clause can be seen as adverbial to Once, and Once is adverbial to got caught, or the
clause can be seen as directly adverbial to got caught.
9. After that functions as an adverb to (limits) always.
10. Note how even modifies the following subordinate clause.
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complement of one verb can never be the subject of another verb. As you will see as you get into
the analysis of complicated sentences, this guideline is extremely important.
Distinguishing the Types of ComplementsThe Grammarians Secret
Traditionally, grammarians have focused on categorizing words, not on analyzing sentences.
Because verbs are so central to the language, the grammarians have given them a lot of attention.
One of the things they have done is to put them into three categoriestransitive, intransitive, and
linking. Following the grammarians, the textbooks have uselessly tortured students with
definitions of transitive and intransitive, and with lists of linking verbs. I say uselessly
because most college Freshmen cannot identify a verb in the first place, and because even many
teachers find the categories to be confusing. (Im thinking of the teacher on NCTE-Talk who
advocated the teaching of grammar and asked why we no longer teach transient and
intransient verbs.) KISS skips this whole problem by simply using the methods that the
grammarians used to derive the three categories in the first place.
Grammarians noted that some verbs take indirect and/or direct objects -- Our cat brought us
(IO) a mouse (DO). They named these verbs transitive. They also noted that some verbs are
not followed by words that answer the questions Whom? or What? (She runs every day.)
They named these verbs intransitive. And they noted that some verbs take predicate nouns or
predicate adjectives. (She is a teacher (PN). She is smart (PA).) They categorized these verbs as
linking. Because most grammar textbooks do not teach students to identify complements in the
first place, they cannot use this method for teaching the three categories of verbs. But KISS does,
and thus KISS can.
The three categories of verbs are more important as vocabulary words than they are as
analytical tools, so KISS basically ignores them, opting for the sentence patterns instead. But if
you do want to teach students the differences among transitive, intransitive, and linking verbs,
begin with the normal KISS process for distinguishing complements, and then give the students
the information in the preceding paragraph.
Distinguishing the types of complements is not really necessary in order to understand the
syntactic connections in a sentence. It is, however, very important for helping students
understand the logic of sentence structure. Most important of all is an understanding of predicate
nouns. A predicate noun in some way equals the subject. (That is how KISS teaches it. See the
52
instructional material.) Students, however, often use the pattern improperly. One student, for a
simple example, wrote, The practice room is the only time I can get away. But a room is not a
time. Thus the primary reason for having students distinguish the types of complements is to help
them keep the logic of their writing clear.
I might note, by the way, that S/V/PN patterns are also the expected beginning sentences of
formal definitions. In upper level courses, some students lose a lot of credit because, when asked
to define a term, they will explain what it does, where it is, why it works, but they never give the
instructor the required information regarding what it is.
If you are working with randomly selected texts, tell students that there are some
complements that you expect them to miss. Among these are infinitive phrases:
Gerald wanted Bill to leave.
Students will clearly see that the answer to the question Gerald wanted what? is Bill to
leave, but Bill to leave is not a simple complement. Thus they will be confused. Similarly,
they will be confused by clauses:
Geraldine hoped that Sunday would come soon.
When they first start exploring for complements, students will be looking for single words. The
clause will confuse them.
I would strongly suggest that you not try to teach them infinitives, clauses, etc. at this point.
If you do, you will be following in the footsteps of most grammar textbookstrying to teach
everything at once and effectively teaching nothing. On the other side of the question, students
should be expected to identify all of the single-word complements in any sentence:
Susan played baseball (DO) in the morning, tennis (DO) in the
afternoon, and soccer (DO) in the evening.
Technically, such compounding is the focus of KISS Level 1.4, but most students should have
little trouble with the underlying idea, even though they may not remember the term
compound at this point.
Emphasizing the Analytical Process
and
Teaching Students How to Think Better
Many students strongly resist learning to use an instructional sequencea set series of
questionsto arrive at the answer to a problem. This has been noted by Arthur Whimbey in
53
Blueprint for Educational Change, by Jane Healy in Endangered Minds, and by many others.
Failure to master the very idea of using a process to figure out the answer to a problem accounts
in large part for the problems that students have with math. (Remember how math teachers
typically insist that students show their work?) As Art Whmiby notes, strong students break
any task down into steps; weak students think that one either knows the answer or one does
not.
In Endangered Minds: Why Children Dont Thinkand What We Can Do About It, Jane
Healy discusses the following question (p. 189):
40
35
25
15
As the figure notes, Only 6.4% of the 17-year-olds could solve multi-step problems like this
one.
54
The point here is that simply understanding the importance of solving multi-step problems is
a foundation stone of a good education. In some cases, as in math and in KISS Grammar,
students can actually be given the specific series of steps. Note that in the math problem above,
however, that students have to figure it out for themselves. By giving students the specific steps,
and by forcing students to learn and use those steps, KISS can both make such problems easier
and help students understand the importance of using steps to solve problems.
In the teaching of writing, the writing process has been a major focus for the last two
decades. Most weak writers believe that writing a paper is a one-shot deal. One simple sits down
and writes it. Good writers, however, know that good writing requires a processbrainstorming,
tentative outlining, drafting, revising, perhaps more brainstorming, revising again, and finally
editing. It is, however, one thing to teach the process; getting students to use it is something
entirely different.
Some of my college Freshmen have explained that resistance to process results from
laziness, irresponsibility, or the distraction of too many college parties. Some educators have
argued that our educational system itself reinforces the belief in factsthe right answers.
Perhaps many students logically use this focus on facts to justify their resistance to learning a
process. After all, if the answers are what are important, why waste time and effort learning a
process? A process is not an answer.
I have belabored this point because in KISS Level 1.3, students should be encouraged to
learn the first of several processes (sets of steps) that make grammar much easier to understand.
If, in other words, you can convince students to learn and use these steps, you may be able to
convince them that other processes (in math, writing, etc.) can also be very useful. In still other
words, you may be able to teach students how to think better.
The How
As noted above, KISS Level 1.3 is the first of many KISS Levels that really depend on
students learning how to use a multi-step approach to getting the right answer. In fact, this
level includes two steps, the second of which itself is a series of steps. The first step is to identify
complements as complements. To identify complements, students need to memorize and learn to
use the following:
To find a complement of a verb, ask the question whom or what? after the verb.
55
Note that the question must be whom or what? Other questions, such as how? when?
where? or why? will identify adverbs, but not complements.
The second step is to identify the types of the complements. The instructional material for
students includes some examples, but the sequence itself is:
1. If nothing answers the question Verb + whom or what?, the pattern is S/V. [STOP:
You have your answer.]
2. If the word that answers the question describes the subject, the pattern is S/V/PA.
[STOP: You have your answer.]
3. If the word that answers the question is a noun (or pronoun) that renames the subject
and the verb implies an equality or identity between subject and complement, the
pattern is S/V/PN. [STOP: You have your answer.]
4. If a word or construction answers the question is not a predicate noun or predicate
adjective, it has to be an indirect or direct object. An indirect object indicates the
person for or to whom something is done. [STOP: You have your answer.]
5. Any other complement has to be a direct object.
Remember that complement is simply one word which can be used instead of repeating the
five possibilities: Zero Complement, Predicate Adjective, Predicate Noun, Indirect and/or Direct
Object. Note too that the sequence is an exercise in Boolean logic that can also be illustrated as a
flow chart.
Ideally students should start by studying the instructional materials for both identifying
complements and for identifying their type. Personally, I would not ask students to memorize the
instructional material before they start doing exercises. Simply let them use the instructional
material as they do the first few exercisesmost students will probably absorb the sequence in
this way. At some point, however, you may want to give a quiz to see if they have it. The answers
to such a quiz can be short-handdescribes subject = PA etc.
Because some students have trouble both with multi-step procedures and with limiting the
question for a complement to whom or what? you may want to separate instruction into two
parts. Thus, you can have the students simply label complements as C in a few exercises. Once
students are fairly comfortable with identifying complements as complements, give them the
sequence for identifying the types of complements.
56
In either case, you will probably find that all students will learn faster if you review two or
three exercises in class. Indeed, some students will not learn to use the procedure unless you use
it to review some exercises in class. Many students also like to use the KISS Grammar Game.
(See An Overview of the Types of KISS Exercises, in the Background Essays.)
Empress upon students the importance of working systematically. Systematic thinking is
another skill that many students lack. Students should first find the verb, then the subject(s) of
that verb, then any complements for that verb. Then they should check for any other verbs in the
sentence. If there is one, they should underline it, find its subject(s) and its complement(s). If
there are none, they should go on to the next sentence. (Once they add prepositional phrases to
their analytical toolboxes, students should begin by finding all the prepositional phrases in a
sentence first, and then the verb/subject/complement patterns.)
A systematic approach to ones task is a key characteristic of good thinking. It will also
make it much easier to understand sentence structure. If you do not emphasize systematic
thinking, you will find that many students will underline a verb here, a subject three sentences
further into the text, etc. In essence, they will be looking to identify individual words rather than
patterns. Pattern recognition is another major skill of good thinkers. Dont forget to remind the
students that there are mistakes that they are expected to make at this level.
Another Problem Predicate Adjective or Part of the Verb Phrase?
If you have students analyze randomly selected texts, including samples of their own
writing, you will run into another problem that is rarely, if ever, discussed in grammar textbooks.
Consider the following two sentences:
1. He was worried about the game.
2. The Eagles were defeated by the Patriots.
In (1), worried describes the emotional state of He more than it denotes any particular
action. But in (2), were defeated denotes a specific action performed by the Patriots. Thus
some grammarians would consider worried a predicate adjective, whereas were defeated
should be considered as a finite verb in the passive voice.
In effect, the two constructions, S/V/PA and passive voice slide into each other, and thus
how you should explain it depends on how you interpret the sentence. Passive voice is, I should
note, an advanced question (KISS Level 5.7). But at Level 1.3, the problem is that some
57
students will mark both worried and defeated as predicate adjectives. At this level, therefore,
I would gently nudge students toward considering these predicate adjectives that are based on
verbs to all be part of the finite verb. Once students learn about passive voice, they can begin to
deal with the passive voice or predicate adjective problem. (This is, you may have noted,
another application of Jerome Bruners concept of the spiral curriculum.)
The Sequence of the Thirteen Exercises in KISS Level 1.3
Exercise One (a-d) present students with sentences that have a mix of complements. If you
can get students to remember and use the analytical process, you should be able to skip exercises
two through six, each of which focuses on a specific type of complement.
Exercise seven (Verbs as Subjects or Complements) introduces students to relatively
simple sentences such as Swimming is good exercise. or They like hiking. Technically,
Swimming and hiking are verbals (verbs that function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs), but
students do not need to know that yet. (Distinguishing finite verbs from verbals is the focus of
KISS Level 2.1.6.) But even very young students, if they analyze their own writing, will run
across sentences in which a verbal functions as a subject or a complement. Thus the purpose of
this exercise is to introduce the idea. In sentences such as Swimming is good exercise, most
students will automatically guess that Swimming is the subject. Thus this exercise simply
confirms that they are right.
Exercise eight is on the predicate adjective or part of the verb problem. Nine invites
students to write sentences using various types of complements. Ten presents a passage for
analysis (as opposed to isolated sentences). Eleven is a Just for Fun practice exercise.
Remember that the on-line section for this KISS Level includes additional exercises (most of
which are used in other grade-level books). Another excellent way of teaching students is to have
them make similar exercises for their classmates, preferably based on what they are reading.
Finally, to end this KISS Level, have students analyze a short passage of their own writing.
58
59
9. Boy Meets World teaches people (IO) important lessons (DO) {about life}. |
10. {On the way} back [#2] {to our camp} I heard a threatening growl (DO). |
Notes
1. Some people will see late as an adverb here, and I would accept that response. It depends on
whether one sees late as answering the question What? or When?
2. Back clearly modifies way, so it is an adjective to it.
60
Ex. 1.d - Based on The Queen of the Pirate Isle, by Bret Harte
Note that this exercise challenges students by giving them multiple S/V/C patterns in the
same sentence, even before the students have studied compounding in Level 1.4. Praise the
students who do not simply stop after identifying one pattern.
61
62
9. New York and London are very big and wonderful cities (PN). |
10. Julius Caesar was a very famous Roman general (PN) and emperor (PN). |
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7. Heidi [DirA], *you* bring the goats (IO) some salt (DO). |
8. She had gone {to the housekeeper} and told her (IO) all (DO) {about Heidi}. |
9. You might bring her (IO) some soft white rolls (DO) {of bread}. |
10. The child told him (IO) now {about all the happenings} {of the day}, and especially
{about the wonderful fire}. |
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Note: Verbals as subjects and complements are relatively rare, so some of the sentences in
this exercise were made up. For example, I did not find a single infinitive that functions as a
subject in the text of Heidi.
1. Bringing Grandmama soft rolls [#1] {of bread} pleased Heidi (DO). |
2. The children had planned to take (DO) her [#2] {by surprise}. |
3. He could not help thinking (DO) {of the policeman}. |
4. To sit alone day [NuA] {after day} made Peter sad [#3]. |
5. Clara's greatest wish is to be (PN) able to walk [#4]. |
6. Climbing the mountain [#5] up {to the hut} was difficult (PA). |
7. She wanted to see (DO) the happiness [#6] {of her son}. |
8. Heidi really liked living (DO) {on the mountain} {with her Grandfather and the goats}. |
9. Her favorite activity was going (PN) {up the mountain} {with Peter and the goats}. |
10. To live here {in the Alps} would be very good (PA) {for Dr. Classen}. |
Notes
1. Grandmama is the indirect and rolls is the direct object of the gerund Bringing.
2. Her is the direct object of the infinitive to take.
3. Expect Peter sad to somewhat confuse students. Most grammarians consider peter to be
the direct object of made and sad to be an objective complement. You can use this
explanation if you wish, but KISS offers an alternative that eliminates the need for
objective complement. In the KISS explanation, Peter is the subject and sad is a
predicate adjective to an ellipsed infinitive to bemade Peter *to be* sad. The entire
infinitive phrase is then the direct object of made. For more on this, see ellipsed
infinitives in KISS Level Four.
65
4. To walk is an infinitive that functions as an adverb to the adjective able. Able functions
as a predicate adjective to the infinitive to be. Thus, the entire to be phrase is the
predicate noun to is.
5. Mountain is the direct object of Climbing.
6. Happiness is the direct object of to see.
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consider all of the sentences in these exercises as passive voice. (In KISS statistical studies, they
are all counted as passive voice.) Lets give students credit for their intelligence and address the
question.
eagle was floating {above the rocky crags}. | The children felt [#1] wonderfully happy
(PA) [#1]. | Now and then one [#2] {of the goats} would come and lie down {near them}. |
Tender little Snowhopper came oftener {than any} [#3] and would rub her head (DO)
{against their shoulders}. |
67
Notes
1. Some students will feel that happy answers the question felt how? and not felt what?
Tell them that they are good thinkers. The problem here is that happy is an adjective. KISS
therefore explains this as a palimpsest pattern, with felt written over were. (See KISS
Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.) Tell the students that they are expected to run into some
problems and that they will study palimpsest patterns in KISS Level Two.
2. Expect some students to consider goats the subject. Again remind them that they are
expected to make mistakes and that they will be studying prepositional phrases in KISS
Level 1.5. (Now you see why KISS insists on the importance of students being able to
recognize prepositional phrases.
3. Alternatively, than any can be explained as an ellipsed subordinate clausethan any *of
the other goats came*.
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1. This can be explained as a Noun Used as an Adverb, but some people might feel more
comfortable if they assume an ellipsed "At" here, thereby making it a prepositional phrase.
69
Some textbooks add either ... or and neither ... nor to the list, but these are simply
emphatic (either) and negated (neither) version of or. And and or are sweet little
words that always and only behave as coordinating conjunctions. But is the bad boy of the
group -- it also functions (relatively rarely) as an adverb (meaning approximately) or as
preposition (meaning except). For students, this presents a problem. We tell students that when
it means except, but functions as a preposition. The problem is that it also usually means
except when it functions as a conjunction. We can see this best, perhaps, by considering the
logical functions of these words.
The Logic of And, Or, and But
And, or, and but are what philosophers would now call logical operators in
whole/part logical relationships. And joins parts into a logical whole. In Bill, Toni, and
Mary went fishing, the and creates a whole group. Thus we can replace Bill, Toni, and
Mary with They. Or divides a group into parts -- Bill, Toni, or Mary went fishing. But
extends this whole/part logical relationship to imply both a whole and an excepted part of that
whole. Bill and Toni went fishing, but Mary didnt.
Another way of looking at this is to consider the compounded subjects as individual
sentences:
Bill went fishing, and Toni went fishing, and Mary went fishing. =
They went fishing.
As noted above, if we form a group from individual parts, we can combine the sentences and
substitute They for the subject. If, however, we divide or separate the parts of the whole, each
part has to be named:
Bill went fishing, or Toni went fishing, or Mary went fishing. =
Bill, Toni, or Mary went fishing.
Look at what happens, however, when we use but to make an exception to the implied
whole.
Bill went fishing, and Toni went fishing, but Mary didnt. becomes
Everyone but Mary went fishing.
The coordinating conjunction has become a preposition.
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The preceding is important for two reasons. First, teachers should expect students to have
problems with but, and they should understand why. Second, the logical relationships
discussed here are fundamental. At the college level, many students study logical fallacies, either
in a composition or in a philosophy course. And, or, and but, as noted above, are what
philosophers call logical operators. They are fundamental for understanding many, if not most,
of the logical fallacies. [For more on this, the web version includes a link to a study of The
Logic of Compounding Main Clauses in The Yellow Dwarf.]
So and For as Coordinating Conjunctions
Some readers may have been taught that so and for are also coordinating conjunctions.
In KISS, they can be, but they can also be subordinating conjunctions. Unlike and, or, or
but, so and for (when used as conjunctions) imply a cause/effect, not a part/whole logical
relationship. We therefore need to look at so and for with the other subordinating
conjunctions (such as because and since) that denote logical connections other than
part/whole. This double perspective on so and for is the focus of KISS Level 3.2.2 - So
and For as Conjunctions.
A Brief Overview of the Sequence of Exercises
The objective of the first exercise is simply to remind students that in analyzing sentences,
they should include all the parts of a compound. Exercises two through six focus on writing
style. Exercise two and exercise three focus respectively on compound finite verbs and
compound complements because these are the two parts of a sentence that are most often
compounded. Their objective therefore is to nudge students toward compounding. Exercise four
asks students to write sentences with compounds. Five is a sentence combining exercise; six asks
students to de-combine. Exercise seven provides students with a real-text short passage for
analysis. Exercise eight (Treasure Hunt and Creating an Exercise) invite students to explore
texts to find examples of compounding.
If you are pressed for time, you might be able to skip this sub-level altogether or have the
students do just one exercise on mixed compounds.
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises
1. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (PA, PN, IO, or DO).
71
Once the students have started on prepositional phrases, change this to:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (PA, PN, IO, or DO).
Probable Time Required:
It depends on your students. The concept itself is simple, so as soon as your students start
getting all the members of compounds, move on. (Remember that they should be expected to get
all the compounds in everything that they analyze from this point on.)
You may want to do one or two simple exercises, then add prepositional phrases to the
students analytical toolbox, and then come back to these exercises.
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9. Dickon has brought the fox (DO) and the crow (DO) and the squirrels (DO) and a
new-born lamb (DO). |
10. {In India} she had always been too hot (PA) and languid (PA) and weak (PA) to
care [#4] much [NuA] {about anything}. |
Notes
1. In KISS Level 4, open is explained as a predicate adjective in an ellipsed infinitive
constructiondoor *to be* open. That makes the entire door open the direct object of
pushed.
2. Remind students that KISS exercises are designed to present them with things they have not
yet studied. They may be able to figure some of them out, but they are expected to make
mistakes.
3. At this KISS level, I would accept coming to see as the verb phrase and me as its direct
object. In KISS Level 4, students will learn that me is the direct object of the verbal
(infinitive) to see. The infinitive phrase functions as an adverb (of purpose) to are
coming.
4. Expect students to be confused here. In KISS Level 2.1.6, students will learn to distinguish
finite verbs from verbals. To care is a verbal (infinitive) that functions as an adverb (of
result) to too.
3. Lassie sank, plunged a moment [NuA], and then fell {on her side}. |
4. The two old people brought Lassie (DO) {into the warmth} {of the hearth} and laid
her (DO) {on the rug}. |
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5. Lassie accepted these men (DO), but responded {to none} {of them}, nor went
[Adv. to "went" where they could touch her (DO)], nor answered any (DO) {of
their commands}. |
6. The people did not move suddenly or shout noisily or throw things (DO) [Adj. to
"things" that hurt]. |
7. The dogs, then the men, tumbled out, and raced away {after Lassie's tracks}. |
Note
1. Out can be considered part of the verb or as an adverb. See KISS Level 2.1.5 - Phrasal Verbs
(Preposition? Or Part of the Verb?).
4. The room had a bright light (DO) and a warm fire (DO) {in it}. |
5. And how thin (PA) and weak (PA) you grew {in the beautiful blue cave} {in the side}
{of the ice}. |
6. North Wind swept the people (DO) all {into their homes} and the bad smells (DO)
{out of the streets}. |
7. The wind down below [#2] was making waves (DO) {in the ripe grain} and ripples
(DO) {on the rivers and lakes}. |
8. He kept picturing {to himself} the many places (DO), lovely and desolate
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, the hill
[#3]
sides (DO) and farm yards (DO) and tree-tops (DO) and meadows (DO) [#4]. |
9. He could hear the straining (DO) {of the masts}, the creaking (DO) {of the boom},
and the singing (DO) {of the ropes} {with the roaring} {of the wind}; [#5] also the surge
(DO) {of the waves} {past the ship's sides} and the thud (DO) {of the waves} {against
the hull} {of the ship}. |
10. So {on a certain day}, Diamond's father took his mother (DO) and Diamond (DO)
himself [#6] and his little brother (DO) and sister (DO) and Nanny (DO) and Jim
(DO) down {by train} {to "The Mound."} |
Notes
1. This for phrase can be described as adjectival to hay, straw and oats, and/or as
adverbial to kept.
2. Down and below here function as adjectives in that they describe the wind. A more
technical explanation involves the ellipsis of a subordinate clause that would describe
windThe wind *which was* down below *them* . . . . See KISS Level 5.5 - PostPositioned Adjectives.
3. Lovely and desolate are post-positioned adjectives to places.
4. When they study appositives (KISS Level 5.4), some students will prefer to explain
(hill)sides, yards, tree-tops, and meadows as appositives to places.
5. This semicolon (and the following also were probably used to separate surge from
wind. Without the semicolon, it would be very easy to read surge as another object of
the preposition
ofof the wind and the surge.
6. Himself is an appositive to Diamond.
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1. He did not speak. | But he kept his eyes fastened [#1] {on the ground}. | [6.5 w/mc]
He did not speak, but kept his eyes fastened [#1] {on the ground}. | [12 w/mc]
2. The grandfather milked a full bowl [#2] {from the white goat}. | He cut a piece (DO)
{of bread} {for the child}. | And he told her (IO) to eat [#3]. | [8.3 w/mc]
The grandfather milked a full bowl [#2] {from the white goat}, cut a piece (DO)
{of bread} {for the child}, and told her (IO) to eat [#3]. | [23 w/mc]
3. The grandfather put {into the bag} a piece (DO) {of bread}. | And he put in a slice
(DO) {of cheese}. | [9 w/mc]
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The grandfather put {into the bag} a piece (DO) {of bread} and a slice (DO) {of
cheese}. | [15 w/mc]
4. Her face was as red (PA) {as a lobster} [#4]. | Her neck was as red (PA) {as a lobster}
. | And her arms were as red (PA) {as a lobster} [#4]. | [8.3 w/mc]
[#4]
Her face, neck and arms were as red (PA) {as a lobster} [#4]. | [11 w/mc]
5. She has Adelheid's fine limbs (DO) and black eyes (DO), | and she has curly hair
(DO) {like Tobias and the old man} [#5]. | [9.5 w/mc]
She has Adelheid's fine limbs (DO) and black eyes (DO), and curly hair (DO)
{like Tobias and the old man} [#5]. | [17 w/mc]
6. Sunshine had come again {into the blind woman's life}, | and it made her days less
dark and dreary [#6]. | [9 w/mc]
Sunshine had come again {into the blind woman's life}, and made her days less
dark and dreary [#6]. | [17 w/mc]
7. The days are so long (PA), | and they are dreary (PA). | [4.5 w/mc]
The days are so long (PA) and dreary (PA). | [7 w/mc]
8. Miss Rottenmeier yawns {behind her book}. | And Mr. Candidate yawns {behind
his book}. | [6.5 w/mc]
Miss Rottenmeier and Mr. Candidate both [#7] yawn together {behind their
books}. | [11 w/mc]
9. A boy had a barrel-organ (DO) {on his back}. | And he had a curious animal (DO)
{on his arm}. | [8.5 w/mc]
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A boy had a barrel-organ (DO) {on his back} and a curious animal (DO) {on his
arm}. | [15 w/mc]
10. She has curly hair (DO). | She has black eyes (DO). | And she talks {in a funny
way}. | [5 w/mc]
She has curly hair (DO), black eyes (DO) and talks {in a funny way}. | [12 w/mc]
Notes
1. One can explain eyes as the direct object of kept and fastened as a gerundive that
modifies eyes. (See KISS Level 4.) At KISS Level 5.8, some people will prefer to see
eyes fastened as the core of a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of kept.
2. The best way to explain bowl may be as a Noun Used as an Adverb, but I would also accept
it as a direct object of milked. (It depends upon whether one sees it as meaning how
much or what.)
3. To eat is a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of told. Her functions
simultaneously as the indirect object of told and as the subject of to eat.
4. Some grammarians will probably claim that as a lobster is actually an ellipsed subordinate
clauseas a lobster *is red*. Either way, the construction connects to the previous as.
Note how the uncombined version is more emphatic.
5. Some people will see this prepositional phrase as adjectival to hair, and others will see it as
adverbial to has. Reasons here can become very technical, so KISS accepts either
explanation.
6. Expect students to be confused here. They will sense that the direct object of made is days
less dark and dreary, but will not know how to explain that phrase. In KISS Level Four they
will learn that days is the subject of and dark and dreary are predicate adjectives to an
ellipsed infinitive to bemade her days *to be* less dark and dreary. The ellipsed
infinitive construction is the direct object of made.
7. Some grammarians will consider both to be an adjective, and others will see it as an
appositive. [See KISS Level 5.4.]
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He can turn cartwheels (DO), stand {on his head}, ride see-saw (DO), throw
snowballs (DO), play ball (DO), crow {like a cock}, eat bread (DO) and butter (DO)
and drink sour milk (DO), tear his trousers (DO), wear holes (DO) {in his elbows},
break the crockery (DO) {in pieces}, throw balls (DO) {through the windowpanes},
draw old men (DO) {on important papers}, walk {over the flower-beds}, eat himself sick
[#1]
1. Traditional grammars consider himself to be the direct object of eat and sick to be an
objective complement. KISS allows an alternative explanation, thereby eliminating
objective complements. Thus sick can be considered a predicate adjective after an ellipsed
infinitive (*to be*). Himself is the subject of that infinitive, and the infinitive phrase is the
direct object of eat.
2. Some grammarians will probably consider well to be functioning as an adverb to be;
others will consider it a predicate adjective. Thus either explanation should be accepted.
Note, by the way, that the initial can carries across all the verbs.
I have many arms (DO) | and they are mighty (PA), all; [#1] |
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they no longer need it. Level 1.5 is devoted to "simple" prepositional phrases in the sense that it
avoids complexities, such as the "to" problem that are the focus of KISS Level 2.2. Once they
learn to identify prepositional phrases, students should always begin the analysis of a sentence by
placing the prepositional phrases in parentheses. Otherwise, as sentences become more
complicated, they will incorrectly mark the object of a preposition as the subject or complement
of a verb.
Determining Your Objective(s)
Your primary objective should be to work with students until they can put parentheses
around every simple prepositional phrase in any sentence. If you do not have the time to do more
than that, you shouldn't have any problem moving on to higher KISS Levels. As the following
overview of the exercises in KISS Level 1.5 suggests, you should be able to skip the exercises
devoted to writing and logic.
Consider, however, the style of students' writing. In the 80s and 90s, for example, English
educators placed great stress on trying to get young students to write longer sentences.
Unfortunately, these educators had little sense of how writing "grows" naturally. Nor did they
pay much attention to prepositional phrases. The odds are, however, that young students'
sentences increase in length because the better writers include more details by adding more
prepositional phrases. Eventually, I hope to study this statistically by exploring samples of
students' writing from the documents from state assessment reports. Many states put scored
essays written by students in these documents. It will thus be possible to calculate the number of
prepositional phrases (per main clause) used by the students who received high scores compared
to those who earned low scores. Meanwhile, you can consider this yourself simply by looking at
these samples. For more on this, see the booklet on KISS Level 6.5 Statistical Stylistics.
An Overview of the Exercises in KISS Level 1.5
Exercises 1 through 6 focus on identification.
Exercise 1 asks students to fill in the blanks with prepositions and then identify the
prepositional phrases. The primary objective is to help students recognize words that can
function as prepositions. Note that you can have your students create additional exercises for
their classmates. They can select a short paragraph and replace the prepositions with blanks.
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Exercises 2 a & b have students identify the phrases and their functions as adjectives or
adverbs. In other words, in these two exercises students will be looking beyond simple
identification to exploring how phrases chunk (connect) to the other words in the sentence. These
two exercises (and the two later exercises on logic) ask students to draw an arrow from the
preposition to the word that the phrase modifies. I would not, however, ask students to draw
these arrows in any other exercises. Once students have learned that prepositional phrases chunk
to other words in the sentence, drawing arrows to the words that phrases modify becomes
busywork and also clutters the analysis. Questions, of course, should always be addressed, and
the Analysis Keys to the KISS exercises include notes on interesting or unusual cases.
In most cases, seeing how prepositional phrases function as adjectives or adverbs to other
words in a sentence is relatively easy, but sometimes it is not. Denise Gaskins, a member of the
KISS list, offered the following suggestion for the difficult cases:
1. Read the sentence with the prepositional phrase.
2. Read the sentence without the prepositional phrase.
3. Identify where the meaning changes between the two sentences.
In the sentence, They had posted the first positive numbers in over a year, the word that
changes meaning is first. Without the prepositional phrase, it seems to mean the first ever,
which is quite a bit different from the original sentence. Therefore, the phrase modifies first.
Accepting alternative explanations is very important in dealing with prepositional phrases.
Consider the sentence:
The ground was soon wet under the oak tree.
Some people will see the phrase "under the oak tree" as modifying the predicate adjective "wet."
Others will see it as modifying the verb "was," and still others will see it as identifying what
"ground" is meant (and thus as an adjective to "ground"). One might easily argue that it modifies
all three. Thus any one of these answers should be accepted. The important point is that each
explanation meaningfully connects to another word or phrase in the sentence.
Exercise 3 is a joke that shows how prepositions without objects often function as simple
adverbs.
Exercise 4 presents an alternative explanation that lets students see that some prepositional
phrases can function as indirect objects--"They gave the award to James."
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Exercise 5 - Compound Objects of Prepositions. In a sentence such as "They played with
Bill and Bob," many students will place parentheses around "with Bill" and miss the compound
-- "with Bill and Bob." This exercise reminds students to watch for compounds.
Exercise 6 - Separated Objects of Prepositions. As students become more mature writers,
some of their prepositional phrases will have compound objects and the objects themselves will
be modified or otherwise elaborated. The result can separate the later complements from the
preposition. In analyzing these sentences, students can become confused. To make the analysis
clearer for them, I allow them to write in *ellipsed* prepositions. For example:
I have worked {for Bonanza} {in both Lock Haven and Williamsport PA,}
{*for* Burger King} {in both Omaha NE and Williamsport PA}, {*for*
McDonalds} {in Birmingham AL}, {*for* Taco Bell} {in Winchester VA}, and
{*for* Papa Johns Pizza and Joeys Six Pack and Deli} both {on Washington
Boulevard} {in Williamsport PA}.
Exercises 7 through 13 all focus on writing and logic.
Exercise 7 asks students to write sentences that include prepositional phrases with
compound objects.
Exercise 8 - Rewriting Adjectives as Prepositional Phrases - is, as its name suggests,
aimed at helping students improve their syntactic fluency.
Exercise 9 - Sentence-Combining and Prepositional Phrases - builds on the sentencecombining that students did with adjectives and adverbs in KISS Level 1.3. To adults, these
exercises may seem simplistic, but a major complaint of many college professors is that students
write sentences in cement. They are, in other words, complaining that students never change,
never combine (or de-combine) a sentence once it has been written. These little steps in KISS
Level One are intended to accustom students to the very idea of revising what they have written.
Exercises 10 (a & b) - The Logic of Prepositional Phrases - introduce students to David
Humes three fundamental logical categoriesidentity, extension in time and space, and
cause/effect. Humes three categories underlie almost all of the KISS connections between
sentence structure and logic. (For more on this, see the essay on David Hume in the Background
Essays.) As the next exercise suggests, this material is also intended to help students write better.
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Exercise 11 - Adding Prepositional Phrases of Time and Space - asks students to apply
some of what they learned from the preceding two exercises. Teachers often tell students to put
more details into their writing, but details is a very abstract concept. Much of what teachers are
looking for can be supplied by prepositional phrases that logically identify other words, or add
information about the time and place in which the students stories are set. Once students can
identify prepositional phrases and see what the phrases modify, the idea of adding details by
adding prepositional phrases is much more concrete. Logic can be a complicated question, but,
following Bruner's idea of a spiral curriculum, it can also be very simple.
Exercise 12 a & b - Style - Left, Right, and Mid-Branching Phrases - shows students
how adverbial modifiers can easily be moved "left" (before the S/V pattern), "right" (after the
S/V pattern) or "mid" (between the subject and verb) to add variety to, and shift focus in,
sentences.
Exercise 13 - Style - Sentence Models for Writing with Style - are short selections that use
prepositional phrases in interesting ways. It will take some time to find additional exercises for
different grades, but consider the following from E. B. White's The Trumpet of the Swan:
Louis liked Boston the minute he saw it from the sky. Far beneath him was a
river. Near the river was a park. In the park was a lake. In the lake was an island.
On the shore was a dock. Tied to the dock was a boat shaped like a swan. The
place looked ideal. There was even a very fine hotel nearby.
Students are asked to analyze the passage and then try to write a similar passage on a topic of
their own. Note also that this passage is a beautiful example of parallel construction. The second,
third, fourth, fifth, and sixth sentences each begin with an adverbial prepositional phrase,
followed by the verb, which is followed by the subject.
Exercises 14 (a & b) - Passages for Analysis - help students to see that what they are
learning applies to real texts.
Exercise 15 - Write, Revise, Edit, Analyze -- Describing an Event is the same in each
grade level. Students are asked to write a description of an event, revise it (especially by adding
prepositional phrases), and then analyze their own writing.
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
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2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (PA, PN, IO, or
DO).
Probable Time Required:
For many students, this will require a lot of practice. In part, it depends upon how quickly
they can learn to recognize the words that can function as prepositions, and how quickly they can
learn, and learn to use, the directions for identifying prepositional phrases.
1. We went {on the ship} and sailed {through the bay} and {toward the ocean}. |
2. A pleasant path lies {near the grove} {by the meadows}. |
3. A missionary had lived {among Indians}. | He talked {to us} {about their habits}. |
4. They walked {along the river bank} {until late} {in the afternoon}. |
5. The travelers drew {near the city}, | and many beggars swarmed {around them} and
asked {for alms}. |
6. {During the dinner}, an impolite boy left the table (DO) {without permission}. |
7. The picnic was held (P) {near a grove} {of pines} {beside the lake}. |
8. We rowed our boat (DO) {up the stream}, {against the current}. |
9. Sam jumped {on the train} and was quickly carried (P) {into the city}. |
10. The ancient prophets looked {past the present} {toward the future}. |
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6. The fern seeks the shade (DO) and shuns the sunshine (DO). |
7. Cotopaxi is the highest and most terrible volcano (PN) {in the world}. |
8. The strong and stalwart oak tree catches the dew (DO) {in its many dainty cups}. |
9. Cluck-a-luck sat {on a high fence}, and crowed, and tumbled backward, and broke
her neck (DO). |
10. Strains {from a distant guitar} floated languidly and dreamily {to my ear}. |
1. {By day} [Adv. (when?) to "must run"] again must you run {through the forest} [Adv.
(where?) to "must run"] {as a Fawn} [Adv. (under what condition?) to "must run"]. | ["The
White Fawn"]
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2. {For this reason} [Adv. (why?) to "changed"] I changed myself (DO) {into the little
rabbit} [Adv. (how?) to "changed"] , and ran {to you} [Adv. (where?) to "ran"] {in my
distress} [Adv. (why? and/or under what condition?) to "ran"] . | ["Prince Chri"]
3. "We will lead our children (DO) away, quite early {in the morning} [Adv. (when?) to
"early" or to "will lead"], {into the thickest part} [Adv. (where?) to "will lead"] {of the
wood} [Adj. (which?) to "part"] ." | [Hansel and Grethel"]
4. Then he picked up a sack (DO) {of jewels} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "sack"] , and
slipped {out of sight} [Adv. (where?) to "slipped"] {behind a piece} [Adv. (where?) to
"slipped"] {of rock} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "piece"]. | ["Snow-White and Rose-Red"]
5. {Beyond himself} [Adv. (under what condition?) to "commanded"] {with fury} [Adv. (why?)
to "Beyond himself"], Chri commanded his foster-brother to send soldiers to bring
Suliman [#1] {to him} [Adv. (where?) to "to bring"] {in chains} [Adv. (under what
condition?) to "to bring"], {like a criminal} [Adv. (how?) to "to bring"]. | ["Prince Chri"]
6. The Fairies endowed the little Princess (DO) {with beauty, and virtue, and health} [Adv.
(how?) to "endowed"] . | ["The White Fawn"]
7. Then he fetched a sack (DO) {of pearls} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "sack"] [Adj, to "sack"
that lay {among the rushes} [Adv. (where?) to "lay"] ], and hobbled off and
disappeared {behind a large stone} [Adv. (where?) to "disappeared"]. | ["Snow-White
and Rose-Red"]
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8. So {in a carriage} [Adv. (How?) to "departed"] {like a large dark box} [Adj. (what kind of?)
to "carriage"], shut up [#2] {with her Lady} [Adv. (under what condition?) to "shut up"] {in
Waiting} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "Lady"] and {*with* her two Maids} [Adv. (under what
condition?) to "shut up"] {of Honour} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "Maids"], Girofle and
Longue Epine [#3], Princess Desire departed {for Prince Guerrier's Court} [Adv. (to
where?) to "departed"]. | ["The White Fawn"]
9. The Queen's attendants were {in a serious state} [Adv. (under what condition?) to "were"]
{of anxiety} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "state"] {at the prolonged absence} [Adj. (what kind
of?) to "anxiety"] [#4] {of Her Majesty} [Adj. (whose?) to "absence"] . | ["The White Fawn"]
10. The beard was fixed (P) {in a gash} [Adv. (where?) to "was fixed"] {in the tree trunk}
[Adj. (which?) to "gash"] , | and the tiny fellow was hopping to and fro, {like a dog}
[Adv. (how?) to "was hopping"] {at the end} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "dog"] {of a string}
[Adj. (what kind of?) to "end"]. | ["Snow-White and Rose-Red"]
Notes
1. Suliman is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) to bring. That infinitive phrase
functions as an adverb (of purpose) to the infinitive to send. Soldiers is the direct object
of to send, and foster-brother is simultaneously the subject of to send and the indirect
object of commanded. The direct object of commanded is the to send infinitive phrase
(including its subject).
2. Shut up (enclosed) is a gerundive that modifies Princess Desire.
3. Girofle and Longue Epine are appositives to Maids. Consider how confusing this
passage is to students who have trouble understanding appositives. And note how far one has
to go into the sentence before hitting the subject.
4. Some people may prefer to see at the prolonged absence as adverbial to were in that it
also answers the questions When were they in that state? and Why were they in that
state?
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5. The grammatical error here is, of course, essential to the joke.
Ex. 4 - From
Suggestion: Have the students discuss the acceptability of the revised versions. Do they
sound like acceptable English sentences? (Many do, but some raise questions.)
2. {At last} she had found a splendid chance (DO) {for Heidi} (IO). |
At last she had found Heidi a splendid chance.
3. Heidi might bring a lovely present (DO) {to the grandmother} (IO). |
Heidi might bring the grandmother a lovely present.
4. "A gentleman {with white hair} sends his regards (DO) {to you} (IO), Mr.
Sesemann [DirA]." |
A gentleman with white hair sends you his regards, Mr. Sesemann.
5. She talked {to Heidi} (IO) [#1] and amused her (DO) {in various ways}. |
[This one cannot be rewritten as a single-word indirect object.]
6. Brigida now showed Heidi's feather hat (DO) {to the old man} (IO) and asked him
to take it [#2] back. |
Brigida now showed the old man Heidi's feathered hat and asked him to take it back.
7. Clara gave many messages (DO) {to him} (IO) {for Heidi} [#3]. |
Clara gave him many messages for Heidi. [Note how, out of context, either version entails
an ambiguity--were these Clara's messages to Heidi, or were they messages that Heidi
wanted sent?]
Notes
1. Many grammarians would probably prefer to explain to Heidi as an adverb, but in KISS,
either explanation is acceptable.
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2. Expect students to be confused here. It is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) to take.
Him is simultaneously the indirect object of asked and the subject of the infinitive. The
infinitive phrase is the direct object of asked.
3. This phrase modifies messages.
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Lets face it, humans are smart and economical. If something is understood, we dont take
the trouble to spell it out. Consider the following sentence from Sherwood Andersons The
Egg:
The local freight train came in and the freight crew were fed.
Its obvious that the train came in to the station, but the last part of the preposition and the rest
of the phrase are simply ellipsed. Students can deal with sentences such as this by considering
the preposition as part of the verb phrase or as an adverb, but it might be a good idea to spend a
little time discussing them in terms of ellipsis.
Sometimes two prepositional phrases are combined and the object of one can be considered
as ellipsed They walk {to and from school.} I would not expect students to spell out the
ellipsis here I note it simply because some people are temporarily confused by it. Note also
that phrases with compound objects can be considered in terms of the preposition and
conjunction being ellipsed They went to school and the playground equals They went to
school and to the playground. Here again I would not expect students to discuss ellipsis, but
sometimes ellipsis can help students better see the relationships among words. This happens
when objects of compounded phrases are themselves modified
They went to school where they practiced for a play
and the playground where they played baseball.
In analyzing cases such as this, most students find it much clearer if they add an ellipsed
preposition
They went {to school} [where they practiced for a play]
and {*to* the playground} [where they played baseball]. |
Confusion May Result from Separating Compound Objects of Prepositions
Separated objects of prepositions may confuse readers. Fortunately, the problem is rare, and
it probably appears most frequently in complicated texts. But one of the purposes of teaching
grammar is to help students navigate the sentence structure of such texts. The following example,
which is very complex, also illustrates the often associated problems of vocabulary and context.
Consider the function of the bold and the proof in the second sentence in following
passage from F. M. Cornfords From Religion to Philosophy: A Study in the Origins of Western
Speculation (Dover Publications, 2004, 183):
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The two theories make their appearance at the same time, and both alike belong to
the scientific tradition. Plato, who condemned both alike as atheistical and
immoral, devoted the argument of the Republic to the refutation of political
Atomism and the proof that the State is natural, and, if reconstructed on ideal
lines, might embody the same principle of Justice that rules through every part of
the cosmos.
Which preposition (to or of) governs the object proof?
The question is crucial because it makes the difference between two distinctly opposing
interpretations: Plato devoted the Republic to the proof . . . . or Plato devoted the Republic to
the refutation of the proof. . . . Obviously, Cornford, as he wrote the sentence, knew which he
meant. But readers, in addition to having to deal with the vocabulary, must also call on their
previous knowledge of the subject matter, and even then they may not be sure. Although I have
read a fair amount of and about Plato, Im still only guessing when I say that Cornford probably
meant and to the proof. Had Cornford added the preposition, readers would not have to guess.
Two lessons can be drawn from this passage. First, in reading difficult texts, students should
always remember that their difficulties may not be their faultthe sentence structures may be
ambiguous. Second, in writing, be careful that separated objects of prepositions dont confuse
your readers. In case of doubt, insert the intended preposition before the compound objects.
As a final note, the sentence from Cornford is similar to what linguists call garden path
sentences. The origin of that label might be interesting to trace. For many people, cul-de-sac
might be more meaningful. The idea is that sentences are understood to lead us to a meaninga
place. A garden path (cul-de-sac) leads, but to a dead end. Thus it forces readers to turn around,
go back, and look for a different way. Wikipedia.org, which gives a nice explanation of them,
includes the following example: The old man the boat. In garden paths, we initially read the
text other than the way intended by the writer. Thus, readers will tend to process man as the
subject. The result is that the sentence does not make sense. In our example, we must go back
and figure out that man is being used as a verbThe old (people) man the boat. Note that
the Cornford example is not really confusing in this way. Some people will interpret it as to the
proof and others may interpret it as to the refutation of the proof without ever sensing the
syntactic ambiguity.
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2. {At the distance} {of a mile or two} {from the village} we came {to a pretty, low house},
{with a lawn and shrubbery} {at the front} and {*with* a drive} {up to the door}. |
3. One mile {of such traveling}, {with a weight to draw [#2] } and {*with* no firm footing},
would take more (DO) {out of us} {than four} [#3] {on a good road}. |
4. They are always talking {about "keeping the horse [#4] well {in hand}" } and {*about*
"holding a horse [#4] up,"} just [Adv. to "are talking" as if a horse was not made (P) to
hold himself [#5] up]. |
5. {By this time} we were well used (PA) {to the roar} {of heavy guns}, {*to* the rattle} {of
musket fire}, and {*to* the flying} {of shot} {near us}; | but never had I been {under
such a fire} [Adv. to "such" as we rode through {on that day}]. |
6. Then came up a broad-faced man, dressed [#6] {in a great gray coat} {with great gray capes
and great white buttons}, {*in* a gray hat}, and {*in a blue comforter} loosely tied [#7]
{round his neck}; | his hair was gray (PA), too; | but he was a jolly-looking fellow
(PN), | and the other men made way (DO) {for him}. |
Notes
1. Me is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) understand. The infinitive phrase is the direct
object of the verbal (gerund) making, which functions as the object of the preposition
of.
2. The verbal (infinitive) to draw functions as an adjective to weight. The comma after
traveling leads me to explain the with phrases as adjectival to mile, but I would also
accept them as adverbial to traveling.
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3. Alternatively, than four can be explained as an ellipsed subordinate clausethan four
*miles* on a good road *would take out of us*.
4. Horse is the direct object of the verbal (gerund) keeping which functions as the object of
the preposition about. The following phrase is the same construction.
5. Himself is the direct object of the infinitive to hold. The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb to was made.
6. The verbal (gerundive) dressed modifies man.
7. The verbal (gerundive) tied modifies comforter.
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2. It was the second morning (PN). | The frog came up {with the little box}. | [6.5
W/MC]
{On the second morning} the frog came up {with the little box}. | [12 W/MC]
3. The gentleman and all his guests had left. | They went {for the hunt}. | [6.5 W/MC]
The gentleman and all his guests had left {for the hunt}. | [11 W/MC]
4. They dropped the golden box (DO). | It went {to the bottom} {of the sea}. | [6.5
W/MC]
They dropped the golden box (DO) {to the bottom} {of the sea}. | [11 W/MC]
5. There {on guard} {at the gate} was one {of the frogs}. | He had a gun (DO) {on his
shoulder}. | [9 W/MC]
There {on guard} {at the gate} was one {of the frogs} {with a gun} {on his shoulder}. |
[17 W/MC]
6. Jack had the mouse (DO). | He put it (DO) {into his pocket}. | [5 W/MC]
Jack put the mouse (DO) {into his pocket}. | [7 W/MC]
[Note that this could also be combined as Jack had the mouse and put it into his pocket.
But in order to put it, he must have had it. Thus the compound verb is, in essence,
redundant.]
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7. Then they ran off. | They had the castle (DO). | They went {at full speed}. | [4.3
W/MC]
Then they ran off {with the castle} {at full speed}. | [10 W/MC]
Exercise 10 - The Logic of Prepositional Phrases
The teaching of logic is as troubled as is the teaching of grammar. Just like the pedagogy of
grammar, that of logic is mired in terminological questions. And, just as the linguists who
dominate the teaching of grammar love to teach advanced topics and to ignore the basics, so
do the professors of logic. But logic can be simple. This is somewhat illustrated by the
instructional material (below) on What Prepositional Phrases Can Add to a Text. This type of
instruction has long been included in grammar textbooks. For reasons explained in the
background essay (An Introduction to Syntax and the Logic of David Hume), KISS prefers
Humes three categories (identity, extension in time or space, and cause/effect) -- which are even
simpler than what is usually taught.
1. {In a small village} [#1] {like Greenall Bridge} [Adj. to "village" -- What kind of village?] ,
everyone knew the business (DO) {of everyone else} [Adj. to "business" -- Whose
business?] . |
2. {For a long time} [Adv. to "was" -- When?] there was nothing (PN) {but the sound} [#2]
{of their breathing} [Adj. to "sound" -- What kind of sound?]. |
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3. Hyne's small, thin figure {in its checked coat, riding breeches, and cloth leggings}
[Adj. to "figure" -- What kind of figure?] halted {for a moment} [Adv. to "halted" -When? How long?] {near the door} [Adv. to "halted" -- Where?] . |
4. She faded {through a gap} [Adv. to "faded" -- Faded where?] {in a hedge} [Adj. to "gap" -What kind of gap?] and shot away {from the road} [Adv. to "shot" -- Shot away
where?] up {into the bleak back-country} [Adv. to "shot" -- Shot up where?]. |
5. {Without pausing} [#3], he went {past the shops} [Adv. to "went" -- Went where?] {on High
Street} [Adj. to "shops" -- Which shops?] , {through the village} [Adv. to "went" -- Went
where?] {to the little lane} [Adv. to "went" -- Went where?] going [#4] {up the hillside}
[Adv. to "going" -- Going where?], {up the lane} [Adv. to "going" -- Going where?] and
{through a gate} [Adv. to "going" -- Going where?], {along a garden path} [Adv. to
"going" -- Going where?] , and then {through the cottage door} [Adv. to "going" -Going where?]. |
You might want to ask students why Knight used so many phrases that indicate where?
Some students may think that there are too many, but they do have an effect on readers.
What, for example, do they suggest about he? (For one thing, they suggest that he
knew exactly where he was going, and probably why.) [This question is, of course, better
when the sentence is viewed in context.]
6. {Throughout the long winters} [Adv. to "would argue"-- Argue when?], {at the small inn}
[Adv. to "would argue"-- Argue where?] {by the loch} [Adj. to "inn" - What inn?] ,
McBane would argue {for hours} [Adv. to "would argue" -- How long?] [DO that his
Mr. Freeth was one (PN) {of Britain's greatest landscapists} [Adj. to "one" -- One
what?] ]. |
Notes
1. Placed where it is, and separated from everyone by a comma, this phrase would probably be
explained as adverbial to knew by many grammarians. But by the time that readers get to
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it, knew will already have a subjecteveryone. Thus is answers where? to knew,
but it also explains which everyone is meant. Note how the two phrases, if they were
placed after everyone and not separated by commas, would be taken as adjectival to
everyone. If they were separated by commas (everyone, in a small village . . . , knew . . . .)
the first phrase would more likely be considered as adverbial to knew.
2. But explains what kind of nothing in the sense of stating a specific exception to it.
3. Without pausing is clearly adverbial to went, the the question it answers is a matter of
opinion. Some people would say When? In another sense, it answers the question How
long? (Very quickly). The important point to emphasize is that the phrase adds details about
the location in time. [Pausing is a verbal, in this case a gerund that functions as the object
of the preposition.)
4. Going is a verbal. It is a gerundive (verbal adjective) that describes lane.
3. The cottage stands {under three great oak trees} [Adv. (where?) to "stands"]. | ["Little Red
Riding Hood"]
4. The cradle was ornamented (P) {with rubies and diamonds} [Adv. (how?) to "was
ornamented"]. | ["The White Fawn"]
5. Then, {for the first time} [Adv. (when?) to "saw"], the Princess Desire saw the light
(DO) {of day} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "light"] !!! | ["The White Fawn"]
6. The king's daughter should not die, but fall asleep {for a hundred years} [Adv. (how
long?) to "fall asleep"] . | ["Sleeping Beauty"]
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7. {In the evening} [Adv. (when?) to "returned"], she returned {to her attendants} [Adv.
(where?) to "returned"]. | ["The White Fawn"]
8. Suliman had often dared to tell the Prince (IO) {of his faults} [Adv. (what?) to "dared
to tell"] [#1] . | ["Prince Cheri"]
9. How cheerful (PA) everything is {around you} [Adv. (where?) to "is"] {in the forest}
[Adv. (where?) to "is"]. | ["Little Red Riding Hood"]
10. The two sisters went {to the brook} [Adv. (where?) to "went"] to catch fish [#2] {for
dinner} [Adv. (why?) to "to catch" and/or Adj. (what kind of?) to "fish"]. | ["Snow-White
and Rose-Red"]
11. The Wolf, however, ran straight {to the house} [Adv. (where?) to "ran"] {of the old
grandmother} [Adj. (whose?) to "house"]. | ["Little Red Riding Hood"]
12. So she roved about {by herself} [Adv. (under what condition?) to "roved"], and poked
{at all the rooms and chambers} [Adv. (where?) to "poked"]. | ["Sleeping Beauty"]
13. Then, {with three waves} [Adv. (how?) to "caused"] {of a wand} [Adj. (what kind of?) to
"waves"], the Fairies caused a high tower to spring [#3] up. | ["The White Fawn"]
Notes
1. Dared to tell of his faults raises some technical questions. Of all the questions normally
associated with adjectives and adverbs, of his faults most closely answers What? But it
is what? in the sense of about, i.e., a generalization rather than what? in the direct
sense of a direct object. You might want to use this one as a chance to show students of the
gray areas in the
rules of grammars.
2. Fish is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) to catch. The infinitive phrase functions
as an adverb (of purpose) to went.
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3. Tower is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) to spring, or, if you prefer, to spring up.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of caused.
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He wrote an excellent paper about fishing, for example. [5]
Phrases such as for example, or in other words, indicate the purpose of what follows, and
many writers use these phrases as transitions near the beginning of the sentence.
Mid-branching phrases are of particular interest for two reasons. First, be careful about
pushing weak writers to use mid-branching. Many weak writers, especially young ones, are still
developing the connection between subject and verb. Words that separate the two may be more
confusing than helpful.
Second, have older, more experienced writers seriously consider the effects of heavy midbranching. Both Joseph Williams and Richard Lanham, two well-respected writers on style,
suggest that even experienced writers should not separate subjects from their verbs by inserting
long mid-branching modifiers.
Although it pertains more to subordinate clauses than it does to phrases, you may want to
have your students discuss another question. Francis Christensen, a well-known writer about
teaching grammar, advocated sentence-combining exercises that teach students to make their
sentences longer and more complex by right-branching. His argument was basically that rightbranching is the norm. But in Tough, Sweet, and Stuffy, Walker Gibson suggested that leftbranching implies a more organized mind. His argument is that in order to left branch, the writer
has to already have in mind what the branch is going to branch from. In other words, Gibson
suggested that right-branching can simply result from the writers tacking one idea after another.
Even though the following exercises focus on prepositional phrases (and students have not
yet even begun to study clauses), you may find this to be an interesting question for your
students. Consider, for example, the following sentence from The Sheep and the Pig:
One day a shepherd discovered a fat Pig in the meadow where his Sheep were pastured.
Even though your students have not studied clauses, when they attempt to left-branch in the
meadow, some students will probably move where his Sheep were pastured with it:
One day, in the meadow where his Sheep were pastured, a shepherd discovered a fat Pig.
Gibsons argument is that one can easily write, One day a shepherd discovered a fat Pig, and
only then, before putting down the period, think about adding in the meadow where his Sheep
were pastured. But one really cant write One day, in a meadow where his sheep were
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pastured without already knowing what in a meadow will modify. Thus one must be able to
hold the whole sentence in mind as one begins to write it.
Note that the KISS position on this is that Gibson has an interesting idea, an idea that, in the
KISS Approach, students can explore and take their own positions on. (Christensens idea has
always bothered me because he basically forces a style on students without students even being
able to recognize subordinate clauses or consider options.)
As a final question, consider the mid-branching version of this sentence:
One day a shepherd, in the meadow where his Sheep were pastured, discovered a fat Pig.
Is the mid-branching too long? At this point, all I can say is that it depends on the intended
readers. There is a fair amount of evidence that young readers will have trouble connecting the
subject to the verb. On the other end, most experienced readers will have no trouble with it.
Unfortunately, because of the confusion over grammatical terminology, little research has been
done on questions like this. But the questions are important because, as noted above, if we push
weak writers into writing sentences like this, we may just confuse them. Dont fool with Mother
Nature.
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One day a shepherd in a meadow discovered a fat Pig where his Sheep were
pastured.
8
M
or
One day a shepherd, in the meadow where his Sheep were pastured,
5
discovered a fat Pig.
The first thing we need to note is that in the right-branching version meadow is
modified by the adjectival where clause. This defines the meadow, so we get the
meadow instead of a meadow, as we can in both the left- and mid-branching
versions. When the where clause is separated from meadow, it becomes an
adverbial clause that modifies discovered. [Note, by the way, that the original could
easily have been in a meadow where his Sheep were pastured. But One day a
shepherd discovered a fat Pig in the meadow. (without the where clause) would raise
the question What meadow?]
The first left-branching version moves only in the meadow, and left-branching
adverbial phrases of time and place are less common than right-branching, but not
enough to draw a major emphasis.
The second versions of both the left- and mid-branching options carry the where
clause with the prepositional phrase. This leaves the final position in the sentence,
which itself can be emphatic, with the word Pig. Thus Pig gets slightly more
attention.
In the first mid-branching version in a meadow becomes adjectival to
shepherd. Theoretically, it could be set off in commas. That would be unusual
attracting more attention, but also making in more likely to be read as adverbial to
discovered. The second mid-branching option raises the question of a relatively long
separation of the subject and verb.
He very quickly captured the porker, which squealed at the top (2) of its voice the moment the
Shepherd laid his hands on it.
He very quickly captured the porker, which squealed at the top of its voice
10
the moment the Shepherd laid his hands on it.
L 0
He very quickly captured the porker, which, at the top of its voice, squealed
the moment the Shepherd laid his hands on it. As usual, the mid-branching is
M
7
less common and in this case tends to put more focus on at the top of its
voice.
Left branching simply does not work in this case because the subject is also the
conjunction which, which refers to porker.
R
You would have thought, to hear the loud squealing, that the Pig was being cruelly hurt. But in
spite (3) of its squeals and struggles to escape, the Shepherd tucked his prize under his arm (4)
and started off to the butchers in the market place.
L
But in spite of its squeals and struggles to escape, the Shepherd tucked his
prize under his arm and started off to the butchers in the market place.
10
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But the Shepherd tucked his prize under his arm in spite of its squeals and
8
struggles to escape, and started off to the butchers in the market place.
But the Shepherd, in spite of its squeals and struggles to escape, tucked his
M
7
prize under his arm and started off to the butchers in the market place.
Left-branching works best here because putting the phrase at the beginning makes
a clearer and smoother transition from the squealing and from the idea of the Pig
being cruelly hurt expressed in the preceding sentence. Right-branching creates a long
string of phrases that awkwardly separates the compound verbs tucked and started.
Mid-branching makes a closer connection between the Shepherd and his spite, but,
in addition to the separation of subject and verb, it also places the noun Shepherd
between the its and its antecedent in the preceding sentence.
R
But in spite of its squeals and struggles to escape, the Shepherd tucked his
10
prize under his arm and started off to the butchers in the market place.
But in spite of its squeals and struggles to escape, under his arm the
L
6
Shepherd tucked his prize and started off to the butchers in the market place.
But in spite of its squeals and struggles to escape, the Shepherd, under his
M
2
arm, tucked his prize and started off to the butchers in the market place.
If there were a reason to emphasize under his arm, the mid-branching would do
it most forcefully simply because it is the least used branching position. The same is
true for the left-branching, but to a lesser degree.
The Sheep in the pasture were much astonished and amused at the Pigs behavior (5), and
R
followed the Shepherd and his charge to the pasture gate (6).
The Sheep in the pasture were much astonished and amused at the Pigs
9
behavior, and followed the Shepherd and his charge to the pasture gate.
At the Pigs behavior, the Sheep in the pasture were much astonished and
L
10
amused, and they followed the Shepherd and his charge to the pasture gate.
The Sheep in the pasture, at the Pigs behavior, were much astonished and
M
5
amused, and they followed the Shepherd and his charge to the pasture gate.
Moving at the Pigs behavior creates a sequence of three finite verbswere
much astonished and amused and followed. The first two of these verbs are in passive
voice. The third is in active, but with the prepositional phrase moved, it can too easily
be processed as another passive. Thus I have given it its own subject.
I like the left-branching better here because it forms a better transition from the
preceding sentence. The Sheep have been out of the picture since the first sentence, so
beginning the sentence with the Sheep is somewhat of a disconnect. The midbranching, although acceptable, puts too much focus on the prepositional phrase, a
phrase whose purpose is mainly to serve as a transition.
R
The Sheep in the pasture were much astonished and amused at the Pigs
behavior, and followed the Shepherd and his charge to the pasture gate.
10
105
L
0
The Sheep in the pasture were much astonished and amused at the Pigs
M
1
behavior, and to the pasture gate followed the Shepherd and his charge.
Left-branching simply will not work here because the phrase modifies the third of
three compounded verbs. Mid-branching would work, if there were some reason for
emphasizing to the pasture gate.
What makes you squeal like that? asked one of the Sheep. The Shepherd often catches
and carries off one of us. But we should feel very much ashamed to make such a terrible fuss
about it like you do.
That is all very well, replied the Pig, with a squeal and a frantic kick (7).
R
L
M
That is all very well, replied the Pig, with a squeal and a frantic kick.
10
That is all very well, with a squeal and a frantic kick, replied the Pig.
1
That is all very well, replied, with a squeal and a frantic kick, the Pig.
3
Both the left- and mid-branching versions would be very unusual. In this case, the
mid- is probably more normal because it keeps replied immediately after the
quotation.
When he catches you he is only after your wool. But he wants my bacon! gree-ee-ee!
It is easy to be brave when there is no danger.
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It shone,
like silver *shines* in the firelight,
like water *shines* in the sun,
like snow *shines* under the stars,
like rain shines upon the Moon!
feathers are all (PA) very well (PA) [#2] {in the spring}], but [DO of "saying" mine protect
me (DO) {against the winter}]." |
Fair weather friends are not worth (PA) much [NuA]. |
Notes
1. GerundObject of by.
2. Note the use of well (instead of good) as a predicate adjective.
and beauty (DO) {of the tapestry, beds, couches, cabinets, stands, tables, and lookingglasses}, [Adj. to "looking-glasses" {in which} you might see yourself (DO) {from head}
{to foot}.] | Some {of them} were framed (P) {with glass}, | others *were framed* (P)
{with silver}, plain and gilded [#1]. |
Note
1. Plain and gilded are post-positioned adjectives modifying silver -- with silver *some of
which was* plain and *some of which was* gilded. Plain and gilded, in other words,
107
can be seen as embedded in the phrase. Should a student include plain and gilded in the
prepositional phrase, I would simply accept it.
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future tense always requires a helping verb. The instruction, however, does not help students in
some courses where they may be directed to use future tense in some assignments.)
In addition to tense shifts, some students have problems with pronoun shifts. This
means that they shift from I, to you, to he without reason. Here again, the question is
primarily one of understanding the grammatical terms. Once they do, they usually can see and
understand any problems.
109
This exercise addresses the problem of using masculine or feminine pronouns in sentences
such as Everyone should bring his/her book. It is a question of usage rather than syntax, but
students should be made aware of the question.
Exercise # 6 (a & b) - Writing Sentences with Personal Pronouns
In these two exercises, students are asked to write sentences using various personal
pronouns, and then to label the person, number, and case of each pronoun.
Exercise #7a - Pronouns as Predicate Nouns
Pronouns as predicate nouns raise questions of usage and sometimes of meaning. This
exercise focuses on SAE (Standard American English) that students are expected to use in
formal writing.
Exercise # 7b * - Pronouns as Predicate Nouns (Choose)
This exercise, the same in every grade level, is like those (who/whom) exercises that
many of us had to do in schooland some students may still have to do. The difference is that in
KISS students should already have learned to identify subjects and complements. Thus they will
be able to understand why direct objects, for example, are in objective case. The exercise also
includes some sentences in which either objective or nominative case can be used.
Exercise # 7c *- Pronouns as Predicate NounsA Research Project
Students are invited to use the sentences in exercise # 7b as a survey, asking a number of
other people to make the choices. The students can then discuss the results and explore a
difference between formal and informal styles.
Exercise # 8a - Identifying Tenses
This is the first KISS exercise on identifying past, present, and future tenses.
Exercise # 8b - Changing to a Different Tense
For practice, students are given a short passage (or several sentences) in one tense, and they
are asked to rewrite the sentences in the two other tenses.
Exercise # 9 - Person, Number, Case, and Tense reviews the primary concepts covered in this
section.
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5. The wind blew {with all his strength} a cold blast (DO); | but the fiercer [#4] he blew,
[Adv. (result) to "the fiercer" the tighter [#4] did the man clasp his cloak (DO) {around
him}]. |
The antecedent of his is wind.
The antecedent of he is wind.
The antecedent of the second his is man.
The antecedent of him is man.
6. What a selfish dog (PN) you are! [ [#1] said the ox]; | you can not eat the hay (DO)
yourself [#5], | nor will you let me eat it [#6] . |
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The antecedent of you throughout the text is dog.
The antecedent of yourself is the you that functions as the subject of this clause.
The antecedent of me is ox.
The antecedent of it is hay.
7. The herald bade Cinderella sit [#7] down {on a stool} {in the kitchen}, and himself [#8]
put the slipper (DO) {on her pretty little foot}, [Adj. to "foot" which it fitted exactly]. |
The antecedent of himself is herald.
The antecedent of her is Cinderella.
The antecedent of which is foot. Note how this which functions simultaneously as
the subordinating conjunction and the direct object of fitted.
The antecedent of it is slipper.
Notes
1. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. For more on this question, see KISS Level 3.2.3 Interjection? Or Direct Object?
2. Shining is a verbal (gerundive) that modifies Sun.
3. Smooth and bright are predicate adjectives after an ellipsed infinitive, the subject of which
is BillowsBillows *to be* smooth and bright. This infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of the infinitive to make. The infinitive phrase functions as an adverb of
purpose to did.
4. The makes the adjective a noun, which is here functioning as an adverb to blew. The
tighter then functions as an adverb that makes an adverbial clause to the fiercer. Note the
similarity to the as . . . as and more ... than constructions.
5. Yourself is an appositive to you. See KISS Level 5.4 - Appositives.
6. Me is the subject and it is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) to eat. The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of will let.
7. Cinderella is the subject of the infinitive sit. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct
object of bade.
8. Himself is an appositive to herald. Note how it is used here to make the herald (and not
Cinderella) the subject of put.
Ex. 2 Fill in the Blanks From The Happy Prince, by Oscar Wilde
The Original Sentences
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[There are, of course, other pronouns that would be correct. For example, in number six,
It is curious could be That is curious.]
1.
The boy was tossing feverishly on his bed, and the mother had fallen asleep, she was so
tired.
2.
One night there flew over the city a little Swallow. His friends had gone away to Egypt
six weeks before, but he had stayed behind, for he was in love with the most beautiful Reed. He
had met her early in the spring as he was flying down the river after a big yellow moth, and had
been so attracted by her slender waist that he had stopped to talk to her.
3.
so cold.
4.
At noon the yellow lions come down to the waters edge to drink. They have eyes like
green beryls, and their roar is louder than the roar of the cataract.
5.
Why cant you be like the Happy Prince? asked a sensible mother of her little boy who
Alas! I have no ruby now, said the Prince; my eyes are all that I have left. They are
made of rare sapphires, which were brought out of India a thousand years ago. Pluck out one of
them and take it to him. He will sell it to the jeweller, and buy food and firewood, and finish his
play.
7.
So the Swallow plucked out the Princes eye, and flew away to the students garret. It
was easy enough to get in, as there was a hole in the roof. Through this he darted, and came into
the room. The young man had his head buried in his hands, so he did not hear the flutter of the
birds wings, and when he looked up he found the beautiful sapphire lying on the withered
violets.
8.
Early the next morning the Mayor was walking in the square below in company with the
Town Councillors. As they passed the column he looked up at the statue: Dear me! how shabby
the Happy Prince looks! he said.
How shabby indeed! cried the Town Councillors, who always agreed with the Mayor;
and they went up to look at it.
9.
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Bring me the two most precious things in the city, said God to one of His Angels; and
the Angel brought Him the leaden heart and the dead bird.
You have rightly chosen, said God, for in my garden of Paradise this little bird shall
sing for evermore, and in my city of gold the Happy Prince shall praise me.
Analysis Key
1.
[#1]
2.
The boy was tossing feverishly {on his bed}, | and the mother had fallen asleep, |
away {to Egypt} six weeks [NuA] before, | but he had stayed behind, [Adv. (cause) to "had
gone" [#3] for he was {in love} {with the most beautiful Reed}]. | He had met her (DO)
early {in the spring} [Adv. (time) to "had met" as he was flying {down the river} {after a big
yellow moth},] [#4] and had been so attracted (P) {by her slender waist} [Adv. (result) to "so"
"It is curious (PA)," [ [#6] he remarked], | "but I feel quite warm (PA) now,
{At noon} the yellow lions come down {to the water's edge} to drink [#7] . | They
have eyes (DO) {like green beryls}, | and their roar is louder (PA) {than [#8] the roar} {of
the cataract}. |
5.
"Why can't you be {like the Happy Prince} [#9] ?" [ [#6] asked a sensible mother {of
her little boy} [Adj. to "boy" who was crying {for the moon}]]. |
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6.
"Alas! [Inj] I have no ruby (DO) now," [ [#6] said the Prince]; | "my eyes are all
(PN) [Adj. to "all" that I have left [#10] ]. | They are made (P) [#11] {of rare sapphires}, [Adj.
to "sapphires" which were brought (P) {out of India} a thousand years [NuA] ago. | *You*
Pluck out one (DO) {of them} and take it (DO) {to him}. | He will sell it (DO) {to the
jeweller}, and buy food (DO) and firewood (DO), and finish his play (DO)." |
7.
So [#3] the Swallow plucked out the Prince's eye (DO), and flew away {to the
student's garret}. | It was easy (PA) enough to get [#12] in, [Adv. (cause) to "easy" as there
[#2]
was a hole (PN) {in the roof}]. | {Through this} he darted, and came {into the room}. |
The young man had his head buried [#13] {in his hands}, [Adv. (result) to "buried" so [#3] he
did not hear the flutter (DO) {of the bird's wings}], | and [Adv. to "found" when he
looked up] he found the beautiful sapphire lying [#14] {on the withered violets}. |
8.
Early the next morning [NuA] the Mayor was walking {in the square} below [#15] {in
company} {with the Town Councillors}. | [Adv. (time) to "looked up" As they passed the
column (DO) ] he looked up {at the statue}: | "Dear me! [Inj] how shabby (PA} the
Happy Prince looks!" [ [#6] he said]. |
"How shabby indeed!" (DO) cried the Town Councillors, [Adj. to "Town
Councillors" who always
9.
agreed {with the Mayor}]; | and they went up to look [#16] {at it}. |
" *You* Bring me (IO) the two most precious things (DO) {in the city}," [ [#6] said
God {to one} {of His Angels}]; | and the Angel brought Him (IO) the leaden heart (DO)
and the dead bird (DO). |
[#6]
[#3]
115
{in
my garden} {of Paradise} this little bird shall sing {for evermore}], | and {in my city} {of
gold} the Happy Prince shall praise me (DO)." |
Notes
1. Technically, this is a comma-splice (two main clauses joined by just a comma). It is, however,
a fairly common splice even among professional writers when the second clause can be seen
as an adverbial clause of cause.
2. For alternative explanations of this there, see KISS Level 2.1.3 - Expletives (Optional).
3. See also KISS Level 3.2.2 - So and For as Conjunctions.
4. Im assuming that the comma after moth signals the end of this clause. Some people,
however, may see the following and as joining was flying and had been so attracted.
That would mean that the was flying clause ends at the end of the sentence.
5. The verbal (infinitive) to talk functions as an adverb (of purpose) to had stopped.
6. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
7. The verbal (infinitive) to drink functions as an adverb (of purpose) to come.
8. Some grammarians prefer to explain this than as a subordinate conjunction in an ellipsed
subordinate clausethan the roar of the cataract *is loud*. Either explanation is
acceptable.
9. Alternatively, like the Happy Prince can be explained as a predicate adjective.
10. In subordinate clauses, the direct object of the verb is often simultaneously the subordinating
conjunction. (ConsiderHe is the one whom I saw.) The same thing happens here, but it
probably happens less frequently with thatI have that left. (Within the clause, of course,
that replaces my eyes.) From this perspective, left can be explained as a verbal
(gerundive) that modifies the direct object that.
11. Made can also be explained as a predicate adjective. See Exercise # 10 in KISS Level 1.2
Adding Complements (PA, PN, IO, DO).
12. The verbal (infinitive) to get (in) functions as a delayed subjectTo get in was easy
enough. See KISS Level 5.6 - Delayed Subjects and Sentences.
116
13. Buried can be explained as a verbal (gerundive) that modifies the direct object head.
KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes offers a more meaningful explanation. He did not have his
head. Most people have their heads. What he had was his head buried (in his hands). Thus
at Level Five KISS suggests that head buried is a noun absolute that functions as the direct
object of had.
14. As in note # 13, sapphire lying can be explained as a noun absolute that functions as the
direct object of found, or lying can be considered a gerundive that modifies the direct
object sapphire. In the case, the latter explanation probably makes more sense, but I would
not take the time to argue the point.
15. Below is a preposition in an ellipsed phrase that modifies squarein the square below
*the statue.
16. The verbal (infinitive) to look functions as an adverb (of purpose) to went.
2. She was the fairest thing (PN) {on earth}, worthy (PA) [#3] indeed {of the deathless
gods} [Adj. to "gods" who had created her (DO)]. |
3. And still do we watch the butterfly (DO), [Adj. to "butterfly" which is her emblem
(PN)], bursting [#4] {from its ugly tomb} {in the dark soil}, and spreading joyous white
and gold-powdered wings [#4] {in the caressing sunshine}, {amidst the radiance and the
fragrance} {of the summer flowers}. |
4. All the heroes gazed {at her} {with eyes} [Adj. to "eyes" that adored her beauty
(DO)]. |
117
5. Great (PA) was the shout [Adj. to "shout" that rose {from those} [Adj. to "those" who
still lived [Adv. to "lived" when that grim hunt thus came {to an end}]]]. |
6. {Upon the earth}, and {on the children} {of men} [Adj. to "men" who were {as gods} {in
their knowledge and mastery} {of the force} {of fire}], Jupiter had had his revenge
(DO). |
7. {From her bed} sprang Altha, | and, heedless {of the flames}, she seized the burning
wood (DO), trod {on it} {with her fair white feet}, and poured {on it} water (DO)
[Adj. to "water" that swiftly quenched its red glow (DO)]. |
8. Telamon rushed on to destroy the filthy thing [#5] [Adj. to "thing" that would have
made carrion (DO) {of the sons} {of the gods}]. |
9. The merchants wondered [DO who could be the one (PN) [Adj. to "one" {upon
whom} Pygmalion lavished the money (DO) {from his treasury}]]. |
10. And {from the trees} sang birds {with song} more sweet [#6] {than any} [Adj. to "any"
that (DO) Psyche had ever known], and [#7] {with brilliant plumage} [Adj. to
"plumage" which (DO) they preened caressingly [Adv. to "preened" when they had
118
to explain butterfly ... bursting ... and spreading as the core of a noun absolute that
functions as the direct object of watch. See KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes.
5. Thing is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) to destroy. The infinitive phrase
functions as an adverb of purpose to rushed on.
6. Sweet is a post-positioned adjective to song.
7. This and creates a parallel construction with two with phrases, each of which is modified
by a clause (or clauses). But the very elaboration of the with phrases may confuse many
weaker readers. (Ask them what the and joinsespecially if they have not yet done much
work in KISS Grammarand see how many can answer correctly.) The four S/V/C patterns
in a single main clause increase the complexity, as may some of the vocabulary.
Ex. 4.a. Person, Number, and Case Adapted from English for Use
1. my
2. him
3. We
4. our
5. You
6. your
7. his
8. he
9. her
10. their
11. Our
12. its
13. them
14. theirs
15. I
16. you
17. My
18. our
19. us
20. ourselves
Person
first
third
first
first
second
second
third
third
third
third
first
third
third
third
first
second
first
second
first
first
Number
singular
singular
plural
plural
singular or plural
singular or plural
singular
singular
singular
plural
plural
singular
plural
plural
singular
singular or plural
singular
plural
plural
plural
Note
Case
(possessive)
objective
nominative
(possessive)
nominative
(possessive)
(possessive)
nominative
objective
(possessive)
(possessive)
(possessive)
objective
possessive (PN)
nominative
objective
(possessive)
(possessive)
objective
objective
Antecedent
I
U
U
We
U
You
John
U [#1]
She
friends
U
flag
U
them
mother
U
U
brother & I
U
us
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Person
third
first
third
third
third
first
third
second
first
second
second
third
third
third
third
third
first
third
third
NA *
Number
singular
singular
singular
plural
singular
plural
singular
singular
singular
singular
singular
singular
plural
singular
plural
singular
singular
singular
plural
plural
Case
nominative
possessive
objective
nominative
nominative
possessive
nominative
possessive
nominative
objective
nominative
nominative
possessive
possessive
nominative
objective
objective
possessive
objective
nominative
Antecedent
chief
chief
son
Indians
chief
chief & Moneta
Moneta
son
Moneta
son
mother
mother
men
mother
men
mother
mother
younger (son)
tears
stones
* That is not a personal pronoun. It is plural because its antecedent (stones) is.
120
Aware of this gap in the pronoun system, the Equal Opportunities Commission
commissioned Dr. David Firnberg to create a new pronoun. He has suggested two
possibilities: ist, ist, ists; and hey, hem, heir, heirs, e.g.:
. . . If anyone has lost heir ticket hey should report to a stewardess
who will do her best to help hem.
Despite the clear need for such an item, there is no sign of its being adopted.
(Basil Blackwell, 1984, 38-39)
You might enjoy sharing this information with your students. As for her own book, Perera notes,
Whenever possible I have avoided the issue by using a plural noun and they. Sometimes,
however, a singular form is essential. On these occasions, I have adopted the convention of
referring to teachers as she and the pupil as henaturally, this should not be taken to mean that
male teachers and female pupils are discounted. (14)
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8. Who wants to read her story (DO) [#3] {to the class}? |
Who wants to read her or his story to the class?
10. Neither Sam nor Mary left his dirty cups (DO) {in the sink}. |
Neither Sam nor Mary left dirty cups in the sink.
Notes
1. Best could be considered a pronoun that functions as the direct object, or it can be explained
as an adjective that modifies the ellipsed direct objectwork.
2. Taken can be considered a verbal (gerundive) that modifies the direct object picture.
However the preferred KISS explanation is to view picture taken as a noun absolute that
functions as the direct object of is going to have. See KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes.
3. Story is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) to read. The infinitive phrase is the
direct object of wants. (At this KISS Level, I would also simply accept wants to read as
the finite verb phrase.
122
123
5. Prescriptive grammarians claim that this should be as he, because they see it as an ellipsed
subordinate clause -- as he *is old*. Common usage, however, often treats this as a
prepositional phrase -- as him. In either case, the as construction modifies the first as.
(See also Note 6.)
6. In this sentence, the choice of I or me affects meaning: She likes the story as well as I
*like the story* or She likes the story as well as *she likes* me. The latter would be
somewhat strange. A better example is one for which I have been criticized, but one which
came from a student -- No one can train a horse better than (I or me). In this case, the
me, which is what the student wrote, makes sense, but was probably not what the student
meant. Hence our need to teach this distinction. Note how in sentence # 7, both options
make sense, but they have very different meanings.
7. She is a predicate noun after the infinitive to be. But unlike sentence # 6, in this case the
antecedent of she is the subject (you) of the finite verb. Thus this predicate noun is in
the nominative case.
. | [Past]
124
125
(DO) {of the gods} to mete out {to Prometheus} a punishment fit [#1] {for the blasphemous
daring} {of his crime}. | This council decided {at length} to create a thing [#2] [Adj. to
126
"thing" that should {for evermore} charm the souls (DO) and hearts (DO) {of men},
I [1st, sing, nom - he] hear [present] a voice, said [past] he [3rd, sing, nom -
unknown] , a young voice. Will [future] you [2nd, sing, nom - voice] give me [1st, sing, obj he] your hand [2nd, sing, possessive - voice], my [1st, sing, possessive - he] kind young
friend, and lead [future] me [1st, sing, obj - he] in?
2.
Livesey, said [past] the squire, you [2nd, sing, nom - Livesey] will give [future] up
this wretched practice at once. Tomorrow I [1st, sing, nom - squire] start [future (present in
form, but made future by Tomorrow] for Bristol.
3.
Terrified as I [1st, sing, nom - unknown] was [past], I [1st, sing, nom - I] could not
help [past] thinking to myself [1st, sing, obj - I] that this [3rd, sing, nom - unknown] must have
been [past] how Mr. Arrow got [past] the strong waters that destroyed [past] him [3rd, sing, obj Mr. Arrow].
4.
Well, theres [present] my boat, that I [1st, sing, nom - unknown] made [past] with my
[1st, sing, possessive - I] two hands. I [1st, sing, nom - I] keep [present] her [3rd, sing, obj boat] under the white rock.
5.
Will [future] any kind friend inform a poor blind man, who [3rd, sing, nom - man] has
lost [past] the precious sight of his [3rd, sing, possessive - man] eyes in the gracious defence of
127
rd
his [3 , sing, possessive - man] native country, Englandand God bless [present] King
George! where or in what part of this country he [3rd, sing, nom - man] may now be
[present]?
You [2nd, sing, nom - man] are [present] at the Admiral Benbow, Black Hill Cove, my
[1st, sing, possessive - I] good man, said [past] I [1st, sing, nom - unknown].
Analysis Key (FYI)
1.
"I hear a voice (DO)," [ [#1] said he], "a young voice [#2]. | Will you give me (IO)
your hand (DO), my kind young friend [DirA], and lead me (DO) in?" |
2.
"Livesey [DirA]," [ [#1] said the squire], "you will give up this wretched practice
Terrified [#3] [Adv. to "Terrified" as I was], I could not help thinking [#4] {to myself}
[DO (of "thinking") that this must have been [PN how Mr. Arrow got the strong
waters (DO) [Adj. to "waters" that destroyed him (DO)]]]. |
4.
"Well [Inj], there's my boat (PN), [Adj. to "boat" that (DO) I made {with my two
5.
"Will any kind friend inform a poor blind man (IO), [Adj. to "man" who has lost
the precious sight (DO) {of his eyes} {in the gracious defence} {of his native country},
England [#5] -- [ [#6] and God bless King George (DO) ! ]] -- [DO where or {in what part}
{of this country} he may now be]?" |
"You are {at the Admiral Benbow}, { *in* Black Hill Cove}, my good man [DirA]," [ [#1 ]
said I]. |
Notes
1. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
2. This voice is an appositive to the previous voice.
3. Terrified is a verbal (gerundive) that modifies I.
128
4. Thinking is a verbal (gerund) that functions as the direct object of could help.
5. England is an appositive to country.
6. Rhetoricians call this parenthetical construction. In KISS, we simply call it an interjection.
Bless is in the subjunctive mood. See KISS Level 2.1.7 - The KISS Perspective on the
Subjunctive Mood.
When it comes to writing, punctuation (especially commas) probably worries many good
writers more than anything else. We need to realize, however, that the rules of punctuation are
not essentially about etiquette -- although too many people think they are. The rules are about
helping the reader understand what words go with what other words in a sentence. Put
differently, punctuation lets readers understand which words chunk to which other words.
(Remember the KISS Psycholinguistic Model.) In speech, this is easily handled by intonation
and pauses. Readers do not have access to intonation and pauses, and written sentences are often
longer and more complex than are spoken sentences. As Chambers (above) observed, many
textbooks present impertinent, dark, and defective rules. They do so in part because many
people want the rules, so that is what textbooks give them. But rules without context are often
meaningless.
The rules in most textbooks are often meaningless because they focus almost exclusively on
the simple, easily understood rules. Most students easily and quickly learn to begin a sentence
with a capital letter, to use capital letters for the names of specific people and places, to use
129
commas in a sentence, and even to use quotation marks to set off the words spoken by someone.
Apostrophes give many students problems, but those problems probably result from the fact that
most textbooks do not teach students how to identify adjectives and subjects and verbs.
(Possessive nouns always function as adjectives; contractions almost always contract some part
of a subject/verb pattern.) These simple rules are what KISS Level 1.7 is primarily about. In
essence, it is a basic introduction.
In the KISS sequence, the most important instruction about punctuation appears as part of
the study of specific constructions. For example, the punctuation of main clauses (a major
problem for some students) is a focus of KISS Level 3.1. There the exercises go beyond what
you will find in most textbooks because KISS first teaches students how to identify main clauses,
and then shows them how punctuation (including semicolons, colons, and dashes) can be used to
suggest the logical relationships between those clauses. The use of the comma for restrictive and
non-restrictive punctuation is introduced in KISS Level 3.1.2 -- Subordinate Clauses. Similarly,
the various ways in which appositives can be set off is a focus of KISS Level 5.4. (Note that in
the on-line books, punctuation exercises have a yellow background.)
The primary KISS punctuation exercises are in the Practice/Application sections. There
you will find exercises based on short passages from which the punctuation and capitalization
have been stripped. Students are asked to fix hem, and then to compare their versions with the
original. Also indexed in Level 6.1 are exercises about Bending and Breaking the Rules.
(Exercise Nine is this book is an example; most of these exercises are indexed in KISS Level
6.1)
An Overview of the Exercises in KISS Level 1.7
Note: Most of the exercises in KISS Level 1.7 either include, or can be adapted to include,
analytical directions (prepositional phrases and S/V/C patterns). These can, of course, be
ignored, or the students can follow them to improve their analytical ability. Most of the analysis
keys include a complete analysis of all the sentences.
Exercise # 1 is a study in the importance of Punctuation. Students are given a passage to
punctuate. After doing it, the class should discuss how the punctuation affects the meaning of the
passage. These are not easy to do, but that is the point--punctuation clarifies meaning.
130
Exercise # 2 presents students will relatively simple sentences that lack final punctuation
marks. Students are asked to use a period, exclamation point, or question mark to complete the
punctuation.
Exercise # 3 addresses the use of capital letters.
Exercise # 4 explores the use of commas in a series.
Exercise # 5 focuses on the use of commas in addresses and dates.
Exercise # 6 addresses the use of apostrophes to show possession.
Exercise # 7 addresses the use of apostrophes in contractions.
Exercise # 8 asks students to identify the words that were said by placing them in quotation
marks .
Exercise # 9 is an introduction to most of the punctuation exercises that students will meet
in later KISS Levels, especially in the Practice/Application booklets. As noted above, students
are given a short passage from which the punctuation and capitalization have been lost. They
are asked to fix it. These exercises are most effective if students discuss their fixes with their
classmates.
Exercise # 10 invites students to make an exercise like the one above. Students can then do
one anothers exercise and discuss the results.
Dear John,
I want a man who knows what love is all about. You are generous, kind,
thoughtful. People who are not like you admit to being useless and inferior. You have
ruined me for other men. I yearn for you. I have no feelings whatsoever when we're
apart. I can be forever happy -- will you let me be yours?
Jane
Dear John [DirA] , [#1]
I want a man (DO) [Adj. to "man" who knows [DO what love is all {about [#2] } ]].
| You are generous (PA), kind (PA), thoughtful (PA). | People [Adj. to "people" who
are not {like you} (PA)] admit {to being useless and inferior [#3]}. | You have ruined
131
me (DO) {for other men}. | I yearn {for you}. | I have no feelings (DO) whatsoever [#4]
[Adv. to "have" when we're apart (PA)]. | I can be forever happy (PA) | -- will you let
me [#5] be yours? |
Jane
Notes
1. A comma here suggests an informal (love) letter.
2. The object of about is the preceding what, which also functions as a subordinate
conjunction.
3. Useless and inferior are predicate adjectives after the gerund being. The gerund phrase
functions as the object of the preposition to.
4. My dictionary lists whatsoever as a pronoun and adjective, but not as an adverb. Perhaps it
can be considered as an adjective to feelings, but it really modifies the no. (I doubt that
anyone would every say I have feelings whatsoever.) Perhaps the best way of explaining
this would be to consider it as a pronoun that functions as an adverb to no. I would not,
however, spent time arguing about the explanation.
5. Me is the subject, and yours functions as a predicate noun to the infinitive to be. The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of will let.
Version #2
Dear John;
I want a man who knows what love is. All about you are generous, kind,
thoughtful people, who are not like you. Admit to being useless and inferior. You have
ruined me. For other men, I yearn. For you, I have no feelings whatsoever. When
were apart, I can be forever happy.
Will you let me be?
Yours,
Jane
Analysis Key
Dear John [DirA] ; [#1]
I want a man (DO) [Adj. to "man" who knows [DO what [#2] love is]]. | All [#3]
{about you} are generous, kind, thoughtful people, [Adj. to "people" who are not {like
you} (PA)]. | *You* Admit {to being useless and inferior [#4]}. | You have ruined me
132
(DO). | {For other men}, I yearn. | {For you}, I have no feelings (DO) whatsoever [#5]. |
[Adv. to "can be" When we're apart (PA),] I can be forever happy (PA). |
Will you let me be [#6] ? |
Yours,
Jane
Notes
1. The semicolon here suggests a formal (rejection) letter.
2. In this version, what functions as both the predicate noun to love is and as the subordinate
conjunction.
3. There are two different ways of processing this. In the text, I have considered all as an
adverb meaning completely or everywhere, and about you as functioning as an adverb
to are. Some people, however, may process All as the subject (implicitly meaning all
people and about you as an adjective to All. In this case, people becomes a predicate
noun.
4. Useless and inferior are predicate adjectives after the gerund being. The gerund phrase
functions as the object of the preposition to.
5. See the note for version 1.
6. Me is the subject of the infinitive be. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of
let.
7. But day
[NuA]
and night
[NuA]
133
Perseus saw {before him} the face (DO) {of that dreadful
woman}, {with [#1] the vipers} writhing [#2] {round her head} . |
Ex. 3 - Capitalization
1. Rhode Island is the smallest state (PN) {in the United States}. |
2. {On the card} was printed (P) , John L. Donahue, M. D. |
3. Labor Day is the first Monday (PN) {of September}. |
4. This letter came {from Ms. Mildred L. Flanagan}. |
5. Little Men was written (P) {by the author} {of Little Women}. |
6. Mrs. J. F. Mayer lives {at 792 Maple Avenue, Davenport, Iowa} [#1] . |
7. Roosevelt Dam is {in Arizona}. |
8. Ella Sheehan lives {on Ritner Avenue}. |
9. The class sang "America the Beautiful." (DO) |
10. Robinson Crusoe is the story (PN) {of a man's adventures} {on a desert island}. |
134
According to the Modern Language Association, typed titles of books should be in italics,
(but when handwritten, they are usually still underlined).
Notes
1. In place names that include city and state (or country), KISS, for the sake of simplicity,
considers them a single unit. The alternative requires additional explanation through ellipsis.
In this case, Maple Avenue *in* Davenport, *which is in* Iowa. That explanation is
always the same, so it seems silly to require students to make it every time.
4. He was not a righteous man (PN), {like Dictys} ; [#3] but *he was* greedy (PA), and
cunning (PA), and cruel (PA). |
5. So Danae was made (P) a slave [#4] , and had to fetch water (DO) {from the well},
and grind {in the mill}, and perhaps was beaten (P), and wore a heavy chain (DO),
[Adv. to all of the preceding verbs because she would not marry that cruel king (DO)
]. |
6. {Through doubt and need, danger and battle,} [#5] I drive them (DO). |
7. And Perseus was brave (PA) and truthful (PA), gentle (PA) and courteous (PA)
[#6]
.|
[#7]
and wrestling
[#7]
135
and boxing },
[#7]
and {in throwing the quoit and the javelin [#7] }, and {in rowing [#7] } {with the oar},
and {in playing [#7] } {on the harp}. |
9. Perseus's face grew very red (PA) [Adv. to "grew" as they pointed {at him}, and
smiled, and whispered, [DO "What (DO) has that foundling to give [#8] ?]]" |
10. Down {to the cliffs} he went, and looked {across the broad blue sea}; | and he
wondered [DO if his dream were [#9] true (PA) ], and prayed {in the bitterness} {of
his soul}. |
Notes
1. Mother is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) to visit. The infinitive phrase functions
as an adverb of purpose to came.
2. Falling is a verbal (gerund) that functions as the object of instead of.
3. The comma before like breaks it from man and throws the phrase back to either not or
righteous. This semicolon is interesting. A comma would have worked, but the semicolon
emphasizes differences between what is on both sides of it. Here is also separates the
prepositional phrase from the following parallel adjectives, especially in view of the ellipsed
he was. (Students should be able to see the need for the commas, even though they have
not yet studied ellipsis.
4. Slave is a retained predicate noun after the passive was made. See KISS Level 5.7 Passive Voice and Retained Complements.
5. Note how, by separating the four objects into two pairs, the commas suggest two different
types of problems.
6. Here we have the same thing as in sentence six, but in this case the commas separate the four
predicate adjectives into two types of virtues.
7. Running, wrestling, boxing, throwing, rowing, and playing are all verbals
(gerunds) that function as objects of prepositions. Quoit and javelin are direct objects of
throwing.
8. The verbal (infinitive) to give functions as an adjective to What.
136
9. This were is in subjunctive mood. See KISS Level 2.1.7 - The KISS Perspective on the
Subjunctive.
Ex. 5 - Commas in Addresses and Dates: From Voyages in English - Fifth Year
Technically, we could explain the later parts of an address as reduced subordinate clauses
San Francisco, *which is in* California. Similarly, with dates, we could explain the year as
an ellipsed prepositional phraseJuly 16, *in (or) of * 1934.) Such technicality, however, is
probably not worth the trouble in discussing every sentence.
137
2. The old man prepared a meal (DO) [Adj. to "meal" which amply satisfied Peter's
appetite (DO)]. | the appetite of Peter
3. Heidi's tale was interrupted (P) suddenly {by a great thumping} {on the door}. | The tale
of Heidi
6. Clara, {on the contrary}, enjoyed her companion's society (DO). | the society of her
companion [just one]
7. Mrs. Sesemann had noticed the child's unhappiness (DO). | the unhappiness of the
child
8. The old lady's heart was filled (P) {with pity}. | The heart of the old lady
9. The grandmama's book was carefully packed (P). | The book of the grandmama
10. Clara's rapture {in her new life} grew greater (PA) every day [NuA], | and she could
not write enough [#1] {of the grandfather's kindly care} and {of Heidi's entertaining
stories}. | The rapture of Clara; of the kindly care from? the grandfather; of the entertaining
stories by? [Note how "of" in the last two could change the meaning.]
Note
1. Enough can be explained in at least three ways: 1.) it is a pronoun that functions as the
direct object of could write. 2.) it is an adjective that modifies an ellipsed stuff, and the
stuff functions ad the direct object. 3.) it is a pronoun that functions as a Noun Used as an
Adverb. In this perspective, it answers the question Could not write how much? rather
than Could not write what?
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2. "I don't know [DO if he did], | but I don't think so (DO) [#1]. | She probably
doesn't know." |
I do not; she does not
9. Now you won't have to eat hard black bread (DO) any more {for a little while}. |
you will not
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[Adv. (time) to "cried" When Deta saw the little party (DO) {of climbers}] [#1] she
cried out shrilly: [DO "Heidi [DirA], what (DO) have you done?] | What a sight (PN) you
are! | Where are your dresses and your shawl? | Are the new shoes gone (PA) [Adj. to
"shoes" that I just bought {for you}], and the new stockings [Adj. to "stockings" that I
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The child quietly pointed down and said "There." (DO) |
The aunt followed the direction (DO) {of her finger} and descried a little heap
(DO) {with a small red dot} {in the middle}, [Adj. to "heap" which (DO) she recognized
{as the shawl}. |
"Unlucky child!" (DO) [#3] Deta said excitedly. | "What (DO) [#4] does all this mean?
"How can you be so stupid (PA), Heidi [DirA] ? | Have you lost your senses (DO)?" [
[#6]
the aunt went on, {in a tone} {of mingled vexation and reproach}]. | "Who [ [#7] do you
think] will go way {down there} to fetch those things [#8] up again? | It is half-an-hour's
walk (PN). | Please, Peter [DirA], *you* run down and get them (DO). | *You* Do not
stand and stare {at me} [Adv. (condition) to "stare" as if you were [#9] glued (P) {to the
spot}]." |
Notes
1. Contrary to the rules in some grammar textbooks, there was no comma here.
2. Myself is an appositive to I.
3. Inside the quotation, Unlucky is an adjective to child, and child is Direct Address.
4. If one considers mean to mean equal, then What is a predicate noun. (This is a question
that is not discussed in most grammar textbooks.)
5. Seeming is a verbal (gerundive) that modifies child. Repentant is a predicate adjective
after seeming.
6. KISS explains that clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
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7. This is another fairly rare clause construction that is not usually discussed in grammar
textbooks. In KISS, it can be explained either as an interjection or as an adjectival clause to
Who.
8. Things is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) to fetch. The infinitive phrase
functions as an adverb (of purpose) to will go.
9. The you is obviously singular, but the verb is were because it is in the subjunctive mood.
See KISS Level 2.1.7 - The KISS Perspective on the Subjunctive Mood.
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noun, but in the sentence The little dog barked noisily, dog clearly refers to one specific dog.
Ultimately, the distinction between common and proper is clear if we define proper as
names that are typically capitalized, and common as nouns that are not usually capitalized. But
in context, common nouns, like proper nouns, can refer to one specific thing.
The next two exercises, on Synonyms and Antonyms, are primarily important for
vocabulary, but they too have logical implications. Not only can things be somewhat defined by
their opposites, but thinking about those opposites begins to raise meaningful questions. In my
Freshman literature classes, my students are asked to think about the works we read in terms of
literary conflicts. These conflicts are usually stated as antonyms -- youth/age, good/evil.
But such antonyms bring us back to abstract/concrete questions: What, more precisely, does
youth mean in this story? Or what does evil mean in Hawthornes Young Goodman
Brown? For those who are not so philosophically or religiously oriented, however, this section
simply improves ones vocabulary. Particularly interesting may be the several exercises based on
Tom Swifties. They offer very useable (and some absolutely ridiculous) alternatives for said.
The fifth exercise asks students to fill in blanks with interesting words. Originally this
was intended to be limited to verbs, but it has been expanded to include adjectives, adverbs, and
nouns. The blanks indicate which part of speech should be inserted, so this exercise can also
reinforce those concepts. Coming after the exercises on synonyms and antonyms, it may also
provide further exploration of these two concepts, especially if students can share their versions
with their classmates. (Students are not expected to guess the original words, but rather to make
interesting sentences of their own.) The directions also ask students to identify the prepositional
phrases and S/V/C patterns, but tell students to ignore these -- unless you feel that your students
need more practice.
Exercises seven, eight and nine are on Word Families -- prefixes, suffixes, and roots.
Where to put these within the KISS framework is a problem. KISS is primarily concerned with
syntax, the part of grammar that concerns sentence structure. Word families, on the other hand,
are the subject of two other areas of linguistics -- phonology and morphology --the studies of the
sound structures and intra-word meaning units of language. Whereas the primary KISS premise
is that students need to master basic sentence constructions before they can understand more
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complicated ones, the study of word families needs no such sequential structure. Prefixes,
suffixes, and roots can be studied in any sequence, in dozens of different ways.
Why, then, are word-families included in the KISS sequence? For one, vocabulary is
important. But from the KISS perspective even more important is that word families teach
students how to change words from one part of speech to another. Consider, for example, the
difference between:
My explanation is different from yours.
My explanation differs from yours.
The first sentence has a weak verb. In the second, the predicate adjective has been changed into
the verb. Simply put, a bigger vocabulary and the ability to manipulate words have a major affect
on students ability to manipulate sentence structure.
That still leaves the problem of fitting word-families into the KISS sequence. In essence,
KISS offers these exercises primarily as a reminder of their importance. Level 1.8 includes
eleven exercises on suffixes, one on prefixes, and one on roots. There are eleven exercises on
suffixes because suffixes change the functions of words, for example from verb (create) to
noun (creation). As a result, suffixes help students recognize the part of speech of many words.
The eleven exercises present students with various suffixes that create nouns, adjectives, verbs,
and adverbs.
The Practice/Application booklets each include three exercises on suffixes, prefixes, and
roots. After students do KISS Level 1.8, the KISS booklets thus provide students with only three
exercises a year. They should probably do many more than that. There are, I should note, many
other web sites that include instructional material and exercises on this topic. And, if you are
interested, I have included my original (adapted) version of the exercises from Sadlier. [See the
web version of this document for the link..]
For now, most of the exercises are used across all grade levels. This will probably pose a
vocabulary problem for third and fourth graders, so these exercises may be revised in the future.
Currently, I need to get back to the basic KISS exercises.
The last exercise on The Logical Patterns of the Parts of Speech is Lewis Carrolls
famous Jabberwocky. This classic selection is Exercise # 8 in Practice/Application for Level 2
for each complete grade-level book.
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or dashes are used when the first main clause makes an abstract (general) statement and the
second main clause is a more concrete (specific) version of the first.
The conclusion to draw is this: Never trust a dog!
The abstract word conclusion is here clarified by the concrete Never trust a dog!
And there is the exercise on writing a general to specific paragraph based on Why The
Hoofs of The Deer Are Split from The Book of Nature Myths by Florence Holbrook:
Directions:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (PA, PN,
IO, or DO).
3. Place a vertical line after each main clause.
Everything is good and happy. The green leaves are whispering merrily
together, the waves are lapping on the shore and laughing, the squirrels are
chattering and laying up their food for winter.
Note that the second sentence has three main clauses, each of which gives a
specific example of the idea in the first sentence. Write two sentences. In the first, state
a general idea. In the second, use compound main clauses to give specific examples of
the idea in the first sentence.
Because the abstract/concrete distinction is not usually needed for an understanding of
sentence structure, I have included most of the exercises about it in the Practice/Application
books. For now, these exercises are almost always the same for every grade level, but you will
probably be able to adapt them if you want to use them more than once. (If I live long enough, I
plan on extending the KISS site to include much more about the teaching of writing, and there
you will find the abstract/concrete distinction to be emphasized much more than it is here.)
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falls into one of three categories identity, extension (in time or space), or cause/effect. How
these categories relate to the study of sentence structure is developed in much more detail in the
upper grades, but here we might simply note that Who? and What? are questions of identity.
When? and Where? are questions of extension in time and space. Hume was assuming an
Aristotelian concept of cause in which the manner in which something was done (How?) was
considered one of several causes for what was done.
The directions in the assignment are straight from the original, but you might want to
modify them. First, this could be a good small group exercise. Assign each group one (not two)
of the headings, but have at least five groups so that each heading is covered. Then have the
groups report their results to the class.
You might also want to have the students identify the typical grammatical functions of the
groups of words in their lists. For example, an Indian squaw is a noun phrase, along the
street is a prepositional phrase, and suddenly is an adverb. (The subordinate clause when
snowflakes fall will probably confuse them.) When they finish, dont forget to point out that the
words and phrases in the Who and What lists tend to be nouns, whereas those in the
When, Where, and How lists tend to be adverbs or prepositional phrases. Gently stress the
importance of including when, where, and how words in their own writing.
Although this exercise does not directly address this, you might want to have students look
(treasure hunt) for sentences that include both where and when words or phrases. They are
fairly common in narratives In the park on Sunday, we played baseball. (In the 1980s there
was a push to get students to increase the length of their sentences by having them do sentencecombining exercises. Sentence-combining can be problematic, in part because the content in
exercises is often meaningless. Adding prepositional phrases of place and time almost tripled the
length of we played baseball.)
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[Ex. 7 - Suffixes]
[Ex. 8 - Prefixes]
[Ex. 9 - Roots]
Appendix
In addition to explaining the codes and colors used in the analysis keys, this key is also
called The KISS Grammar Toolbox. It presents, in very brief form, all the essential concepts
that students will need to learn in order to explain, and thus intelligently discuss, how any word,
in any English sentence, functions within that sentence.
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labeled: PN (Predicate Noun); PA (Predicate Adjective); IO (Indirect Object); and DO (Direct
Object). A (P) after a finite verb indicates that it is in passive voice.
Adjectives and Adverbs are not always identified, but when they are, adjectives are in green
and adverbs in blue. In some of the upper level keys, adjectives and adverbs are identified simply
by being in smaller type to show how much of the text students can already be expected to
analyze. Sometimes they are not colored because the result is a confusion of colors. Likewise,
once students have some experience identifying prepositional phrases, I do not usually ask them
to draw arrows from simply adjectives and adverbs to the words they modify. Doing so often
results in a confusion of lines on the students' papers.
Prepositional Phrases are identified {by braces}. The words in adjectival phrases are in
green; adverbial; phrases are in blue because we are more interested in the functions of phrases
than in the functions of individual words. Embedded phrases and the phrases they are embedded
in are underlined when the directions specifically call for identifying the embeddings.
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[PPA]
Post-Positioned Adjective
Retained Complements [RDO], [RPN], [RPA]
Noun Absolute [NAbs]
If additional explanation is needed, links are included in notes at the bottom of the page.
The corn which had been sowed {in the field} {over the field-mouse's home}
grew up high {into the air}, and made a thick forest (DO) {for the poor little
girl}, who was only an inch high (PA).
In other words, you can ignore the rest of the analysis. It is there as information for parents and
teachers who want to know how to analyze every word. You are, of course, always welcome to
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ask questions on the KISS Grammar List or the Yahoo Grammar Group about sentences in
exercises (or any other sentences).
Directions: The punctuation and capitalization in the following text was lost.
Please fix it (right on this page).
These exercises will be most effective if they are followed by a class discussion of various
changes that students made, particularly if the students are also shown the punctuation in the
original passage.
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Directions for Sentence-Combining Exercises
The following directions are standard for KISS sentence-combining exercises. I give them
here so that you can use them to create your own exercises without confusing students by
changing directions that they may be accustomed to. These are, I should note, the directions that
were used for the "Aluminum" passage created by Roy O'Donnell.
Read the passage all the way through. You will notice that the sentences are
short and choppy. Study the passage, and then rewrite it in a better way. You may
combine sentences, change the order of words, and omit words that are repeated
too many times. But try not to leave out any of the information.
Directions for De-Combining Exercises
Many of the sentences in the following selection are long and complex.
Rewrite the passage, breaking each sentence into as many shorter sentences as you
can. Then consider the stylistic differences between the original and your rewritten
version.
Although textbooks tend to focus on combining exercises, de-combining may be as or more
important than combining exercises. Developmental psychologists such as Piaget and Vygotsky
claimed that reversibility -- the ability to undo a mental operation -- is a sign of cognitive
mastery. More specifically in terms of syntactic maturity, de-combining exercises can help
students see the relationships between ellipsed and reduced forms (such as verbals) and the
simpler "underlying" sentences. Finally, decombining exercises give students a somewhat
different perspective on style since they will find some sentences very difficult to decombine.
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We discover
You discover
They discover
Present Progressive
Singular
Plural
I am discovering
You are discovering
He, she, it is discovering
We are discovering
You are discovering
They are discovering
We have discovered
You have discovered
We discovered
You discovered
They discovered
We had discovered
You had discovered
I was discovering
You were discovering
He, she, it was discovering
We were discovering
You were discovering
They were discovering
Future Progressive
Singular
Plural
We will discover
I will be discovering
We will be discovering
You will discover
You will be discovering
You will be discovering
They will discover He, she, it will be discovering They will be discovering
Past Progressive
Singular
Plural
We will have
discovered
You will have
discovered
They will have
discovered
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Passive Voice
Simple Present Tense
Singular
I am discovered
You are discovered
Plural
We are discovered
You are discovered
Plural
We have been
discovered
You have been
discovered
They have been
discovered
Present Progressive
Singular
I am being discovered
You are being discovered
He, she, it is being
discovered
Plural
We are being discovered
You are being discovered
Plural
We have been being
discovered
You have been being
discovered
They have been being
discovered
Past Progressive
Plural
We were discovered
You were discovered
Singular
Plural
I was being discovered
We were being discovered
You were being discovered You were being discovered
He, she, it was being
They were being
He, she, it was discovered They were discovered
discovered
discovered
Plural
We had been
discovered
You had been
discovered
They had been
discovered
I will be discovered
Plural
We will be discovered
Future Progressive
Singular
You will be discovered You will be discovered You will be being discovered
He, she, it will be
discovered
They will be
discovered
Plural
We had been being
discovered
You had been being
discovered
They had been being
discovered
Plural
We will be being
discovered
You will be being
discovered
They will be being
discovered
Plural
We will have been being
discovered
You will have been being
discovered
They will have been being
discovered