3 MECH A & C

ASSIGNMENT DETAILS
35 & BELOW MARKS

1 TIME ALL DIAGRAM ( 1.5 UNIT)

30 & BELOW MARKS - 1 TIME ALL DIAGRAM ( 1.5 UNIT)

1 TIME WITHOUT CHOICE Q & A

25 & BELOW MARKS 1 TIME ALL DIAGRAM ( 1.5 UNIT)
3 TIME WITHOUT CHOICE Q & A

UNIT III
ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
Basic concept of lasers Advantages of
lasers laser Interferometers types DC and
AC Lasers interferometer Applications
Straightness Alignment. Basic concept of
CMM Types of CMM Constructional
features Probes Accessories Software
Applications Basic concepts of Machine Vision
System Element Applications.

UNIT III
ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
Laser & Interferometers
CMM
Machine Vision System

LASER &
INTERFEROMETERS

LASER
LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED
EMISSION OF RADIATION.
Why Laser instruments used ?
Laser Instruments are devices to produce
powerful, monochromatic collimated beam of
light in which the waves are coherent.

PRINCIPLE OF LASER
PRINCIPLE: When photon emitted during
stimulated emission has the same energy, phase &
frequency as the incident photon.
Photon comes in contact with another atom or

molecule in high energy level E2, then it will cause the

atom to return to ground state energy level E1 by

releasing another photon.

The sequence of triggered identical photon from
stimulated atom is known as stimulated emission.

PRINCIPLE OF LASER
This

multiplication

stimulated emission

of

photon

leads

through

to coherent,

powerful monochromatic, collimated beam

of light emission. This light emission is called
LASER.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF LIGHT

Distance between two trough
or crest are called
WAVELENGTH .
Time taken to travel one
wavelength is called time
period T.
Maximum disturbance of wave
is called amplitude (A).
Velocity of transmission is (
/T )
(1/T) is called Frequency.

LASER
Helium-Neon Laser source produces a 1 to 2 mm diameter
beam of pure red light having power of 1 MW. So, Very High
Intensity.
Laser is used for Interferometry.

Upto a great distance beam has no divergence , then it begins

expand at rate of about 1 mm/m.
Is visible & it can be observed easily. Its accuracy is of 1 mm
over 2 m.
Used for very accurate instruments in the order of 0.1

micron in 100m.

LASER METROLOGY
Commercially, It is projected onto position
detector which is used for the method of
alignment.
It is very convenient, collimated & high
intensity source used, because for its Precision,
Accuracy, No Contact and Hot moving parts.,
Laser diodes, Semiconductor lasers More
advantages, Lower cost.
Laser instruments In surface Inspection &
Dimensional Measurements.

LASER TELEMETRIC SYSTEM

Is a non contact gauge with a collimated laser
beam.
Measuring Rate 150 Scans Per Second.
Three Components Transmitter, Receiver,

Processor Electronics

LASER TELEMETRIC SYSTEM

TRANSMITTER Produces a collimated parallel
scanning laser moving at high constant linear
speed. It appears as red line after scanning.

TRANSMITTER Components :
Low power helium neon gas laser.
Synchronous motor.
Collimating lens.

Reflector prism.
Synchronous pulse photo detector.
Replaceable Window.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF LASER

TELEMETRIC SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES
Possible to detect changes in dimensions when product

is in continuous processes.
There is no need to wait for measuring in hot
conditions.
Applied on production machines & controlled with
closed feedback loops.

Possible to write programs for microprocessor to take

care of smoke, dust & other airborne interference

around the work piece being measured.

LASER & LED BASED DISTANCE

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Can measure 1 to 2 m with accuracy of order of
0.1 to 1 % of measuring range.
It has two distance meter at equal distance on
either side of object & control unit to measure
thickness of object.
The angle at which the light enters the detector
will change the distance between measuring
head & object is changed.
Change in angle of deviation is measured &
calibrated in terms of distance.

LASER & LED BASED DISTANCE MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS - ADVANTAGES

These types of instruments are very reliable

because there is no moving part.
Instrument response time is in milliseconds.
The output is provided
as 0 20 mA.

SCANNING LASER GAUGE

Used for Dimensional Measurements.
Has Transmitter, Receiver & Processor Electronics.
ADVANTAGES :
Accuracy of 0.25 micron for 10-50mm diameter
objects.
It is used for objects of 0.05mm to 450mm diameter.

SCANNING LASER GAUGE

PHOTODIODE ARRAY IMAGING

Used for dimensional measurements.
Stationary part shadow is projected on a
solid state diode array image sensor.
Has four parts :
Laser source
Imaging optics
Photodiode array
Signal processor & Display unit

PHOTODIODE ARRAY IMAGING

ADVANTAGES
Used for large parts, two arrays.
Measurement accuracy is as high as

0.05 micron.

DIFFRACTION PATTERN
TECHNIQUE
Used in dimensional measurements.
Parallel coherent laser beam is diffracted by
a small part & resultant pattern is focused by
lens on a linear diode array.
Distance between alternating light & dark
bands in diffraction pattern is direct function
of wire diameter, laser beam wavelength &
Lens focal length.

DIFFRACTION PATTERN
TECHNIQUE
ADVANTAGES
Used to measure small gaps & small
diameter parts.
Measurement accuracy is more for smaller
parts.

DISADVANTAGES
Not suitable for large diameters.

LASER TRIANGULATION SENSORS

For Dimensional
Measurements.
Quick Deviation
Measurement due to
Surface Change.
Perform Automatic
Calculation on Shell
Metal Stampings.
Can measure Bore
Diameter using 2 Sensor.

INTERFEROMETRY - BASICS
When light is made to interfere, it produces a pattern
of dark bands, which corresponds to a very accurate
scale of divisions.
A ray having a single frequency and wavelength is
produced generally known as monochromatic light.
This monochromatic light is used for measuring
flatness and determining the length of slip gauges.
It is the basic principle of interferometry.

LASER USES IN INTERFEROMETRY

To find accurate measurement of length.

Reduces time & Skill requirement like other

methods used for finding the length.

The Laser Measurement accuracy is order of

0.1m in 100m.
In modified laser designs, a single frequency is
selected from the coherent beam and used for
interferometric measurement.

TWO FREQUENCY LASER

INTERFEROMETER
Two Frequency Laser Head
Beam Directing and Splitting Optics

Measurements optics
Receivers

Wavelength Compensators
Electronic Receivers

TWO FREQUENCY LASER

INTERFEROMETER

TWO FREQUENCY LASER

INTERFEROMETER - ADVANTAGES
For Measuring Linear Positioning, Straightness
in two planes.
High Sensitivity.
Free from Noise Disturbances ( Light, Electrical
Noise, Air turbulence).

Use of Single photo detector / Measurement

axis, Sensitivity to Optical Alignment is Less.

GAUGING WIRE DIAMETER FROM

DIFFRATION PATTERN USING LASER

LENGTH MEASUREMENT USING

FRINGE COUNTING
Incoherent Laser Beam illuminates three slits at
a time in the first plane which form Inference
fringes.

Fringe movement is determined by detector on

the other side of short length of grating.

The number of slits in the first plane is governed

by length over which measurement is required.

LENGTH MEASUREMENT
USING FRINGE COUNTING

LENGTH MEASUREMENT
USING FRINGE COUNTING
Using He-Ne laser at 0.63m a fringe
spacing of 1m will be obtained at 1.4m
from the slits, if a separation of 1m is used.
The spacing between the slits & distance of
the slit to the plane of grating depend on the
wavelength of the light used.

ADVANTAGES
Accurate measurements over relatively
short distances.

Wire diameters from 0.005 to 0.2mm

can be measured.

LASER INTERFEROMETRY
COMPONENTS
Two frequency laser source.
Optical elements.

Laser heads measurement receiver.

Measurement display.

TWO FREQUENCY LASER SOURCE

Generally, It becomes He-Ne type that generates

stable coherent light beams of two frequencies.

One is Polarized vertically and other one is

polarized horizontally relative to the plane of the

moving feet.

Laser slightly oscillates at two frequencies by a

cylindrical permanent magnet around the cavity.

TWO FREQUENCY LASER SOURCE

Beam

containing

both

frequencies

passes

through a quarter wave & half wave plates

which change the circular polarization, or

vertical and other horizontal.

Linearly polarized beam is expanded in a

collimating telescope, after which most of the

beam is transmitted through a 45 degree beam
splitter and one of the laser head.

OPTICAL ELEMENTS
The various optical elements are :
Beam Splitters

Beam Benders.
Retro reflectors.

BEAM SPLITTERS
Used to divide the laser beam into separate
beams along different axes.
Possible to adjust the splitted lasers output
intensity by having a choice of beam splitter
reflectivities.

BEAM SPLITTERS USAGE (

DIVIDING EQUAL LASER OUTPUT )

BEAM BENDERS
Used to deflect the light beam around

corners on it path from the laser to each axis.

Beam benders are just flat mirrors, but having

absolutely flat and very high reflectivity.

Normally, the 90 degree beam deflection is

avoided for not to disturb the polarizing

vectors.

RETRO REFLECTORS
They are plane mirrors, roof prisms or cube
corners.
Cube corners are three mutually perpendicular
plane mirrors, and reflected beam is always
parallel to the incident beam in these devices.
In AC laser interferometer measurements, two
retro reflectors are used.
When plane mirror is used as retro reflectors in
plane mirror interferometer, it must be flat with
in 0.06 micron / cm.

LASER HEADS MEASUREMENT

RECEIVER
Used to detect the part of the returning beam
as F1 F2 and a Doppler shifted frequency
component del f.

MEASUREMENT DISPLAY
Has microcomputer to compute & display results.

Signals from reference receiver & measurement

receiver located in the laser head are counted in two

separate pulse counters and subtracted.

Other input signals for correction are temperature

co-efficient of expansions.
Air velocity is also displayed.

AC LASER INTERFEROMETER
TYPES
Standard Interferometer
Single Beam Interferometer

STANDARD INTERFEROMETER

STANDARD INTERFEROMETER
The displacement is measured between the

interferometer & cube corner.

Measurement

retro

reflector

for

this

interferometer is a cube corner.

It is least expensive and can be used wherever
it is possible.

SINGLE BEAM INTERFEROMETER

SINGLE BEAM INTERFEROMETER

As same as standard interferometer.

Has outgoing and returning beam super

imposed on each other, giving the appearance if

only

one

beam

travelling

between

the

interferometer and the retro reflector.

Very much suitable when space for optics and

beam path is minimum.

LASER INTERFEROMETER
Uses AC Laser as light source.
Enable to measure over longer distance.
Laser Monochromatic optical energy, (
Collimated into a directional beam ) Exact
wavelength Pure for highly accurate
measurements.
Utilize the principles of both optical
techniques & digital electronics.

AC LASER INTERFEROMETER

COMPONENTS LASER
INTERFEROMETER
Two frequency zeeman laser.
Beam splitters.
Fixed internal cube corners.
External cube corners.
Photo detectors.
Amplifiers.
Pulse converter.

COMPONENTS LASER
INTERFEROMETER
Two Frequency Zeeman Laser :He-Ne type
Beam Splitters : Adjust Output based on Reflectivities
Cube corners : Fixed & Movable external Used to reflect

the laser beam

Photo detectors : To change beam splitters signal to electrical

signal
Amplifiers : Used to separate frequency difference.
Pulse converter : Used to extracts change in frequency.

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
Consists of monochromatic light source, a beam

splitter & two mirrors.

PRINCIPLE

Constructive

&

Destructive

Interference when one mirror remains fixed and

the other is moved.
Monochromatic Light from an extended source
falls on a beam splitter which splits the rays into
two equal rays of same intensity at right angles.

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
If both mirrors are kept at same distance from
beam splitter, the observer will see bright spot
due to constructive interference.

If Movable mirror M1, shifted by quarter ( half )

wavelength, then the beam will be returned to

observer 180 deg out of phase ( 360 deg in phase )

and darkness will observed due to destructive
interference.

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
IMPROVING CONDITIONS
Use of laser light for measuring longer distance.
Instead of using mirror the cube corner
reflector is suited for reflecting the light.
Photocells can be employed to convert light
intensity variation in voltage pulses to given
direction of position change.

DUAL FREQUENCY LASER

INTERFEROMETER
Used

to

measure

displacement,

high

precision measurement of lengths, angles and

refractive indices as well as derived static
and dynamic quantities.

DUAL FREQUENCY LASER

INTERFEROMETER - CONSTRUCTION

DUAL FREQUENCY LASER

INTERFEROMETER - WORKING
Laser source generates two frequencies. F1 & F2
Reference signal F1-F2 is detected in Photo detector
P2.

Measuring signal F1-F2 +- Del F for X(Y) direction by

photo detector P3(P4).
Environment correction is made by photo detector P1.

DUAL FREQUENCY LASER

INTERFEROMETER

DUAL FREQUENCY LASER

INTERFEROMETER APPLICATIONS
Used for both incremental displacement and
angle measurements.
Resolution 2nm in 10m measuring range.

TWYMAN GREEN
INTERFEROMETER
Used as polarizing interferometer with variable

amplitude balancing between sample and reference

waves.
For exact test surface measurement, the instrument
error can be determined by absolute measurement.
This error is compensated by storing the same in
microprocessor system & subtracting from the test
surface measurement.

TWYMAN GREEN
INTERFEROMETER ADVANTAGES
Permits testing of surface with wide varying
reflectivity.
Avoids undesirable feed back of light reflected
of the tested surface & instrument optics.
Enables utilization of the maximum available
energy.
Polarisation permits phase variation to be
effected with the necessary precision.

LASER INTERFEROMETER APPLICATIONS

LINEAR MEASUREMENT

LASER INTERFEROMETER APPLICATIONS

ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

MACHINE TOOL METROLOGY

Component parts accuracy depends on machine tool

accuracy.Parts quality depends on,

Rigidity & Stiffness of machine tool & its components.
Alignment of various components in relation to one
another.
Quality & Accuracy of the control devices and the
driving mechanism.

ALIGNMENT ACCURACY OF
MACHINE TOOL CHECKED BY
Geometrical Test :
Dimensions, Position and Displacement of
Component relative to one another are checked.
Static Test
Dynamic Test

Practical Test :
Test pieces are machined in machines. Test
pieces must be approximate to fundamental
purpose for which machine has been designed.

PURPOSE OF MACHINE TOOL

TESTING
Dimensions of any work piece, its surface &
geometry depend on machine tool accuracy
for its manufacture.
In mass production, various components
produced should be of high accuracy &
assemble to be on non-sensitive basis.

GEOMETRICAL CHECKS ON MACHINE

TOOL
Straightness.
Flatness.
Parallelism, Equidistance & Coincidence.
Squareness of straight line & plane.
Rotations
Out of round.
Eccentricity.
Run out.
Periodical axial slip.
Camming.

GEOMETRICAL CHECKS ON
MACHINE TOOL
Movement of all the working components.
Spindle test for
Concentricity.
Axial slip.
Accuracy of axis & position.

LASER EQUIPMENT FOR ALIGNMENT

TESTING
Particularly suitable in aircraft production ,
shipbuilding etc., ( Flatness testing, Squareness
checking etc., )
Consist of Laser of 10mm dia, Auto reflector.,
Laser has Helium-Neon Plasma Tube in heavy
aluminum cylindrical housing.
Laser beam comes from its centre & parallel to
housing within 10 of arc & alignment
stability is of order of 0.2 of arc/hour.

LASER EQUIPMENT FOR ALIGNMENT

TESTING
Auto reflector consists of detector head & read
out unit.
No. of photocell are arranged to compare laser
beam in each half horizontally & vertically.
Detect

the

alignment

of

flat

surfaces

perpendicular to a reference line of slight.

MACHINE TOOLS TEST

Test for level of installation of machine tool in
horizontal & vertical planes.
Tests for perpendicularity of guide ways to other
guide ways.
Test for flatness of machine bed & for
straightness & parallelism of bed ways on bearing
surface.
Test for true running of main spindle & its axis
movements.

MACHINE TOOLS TESTS

Test for line of movement of various members
like spindle, tables & cross slides.
Test for parallelism of spindle axis to guide
ways or bearing surfaces.

ALIGNMENT TESTS ON LATHE

Levelling of the machine.
True running of locating cylinder of main spindle.
Axial slip of main spindle & true running of
shoulder face of spindle nose.
True running of headstock center.

Parallelism of main spindle to saddle movement.

True running of taper socket in main spindle.

ALIGNMENT TESTS ON LATHE

Movement of upper slide parallel with main spindle
in vertical plane.
Parallelism of tailstock guide ways with the
movement of carriage.
Parallelism of tailstock sleeve taper socket to saddle
movement.
Pitch accuracy of lead screw.
Alignment of lead screw bearings with respect to
each other.

LEVELLING OF THE MACHINE

Done by sensitive spirit level.
Saddle is approximately kept in centre of the
bed support feet.

TRUE RUNNING OF LOCATING CYLINDER

OF MAIN SPINDLE
Locating cylinder is
provided to locate the
chuck / face plate.
Locating surface should be
in cylindrical shape.
Dial indicator is fixed to
carriage & indicator feeler
touches locating surface.
Surface is rotated on its axis
& indicator should not show
any spindle movement.

ALIGNMENT TESTS ON MILLING

MACHINE
Cutter spindle axial slip or float.
Eccentricity of external diameter.
True running if internal taper.
Surface parallel with longitudinal movement.
Traverse movement parallel with spindle axis.
Centre T-slot Square with the arbor.
Tests on column.
Over arm parallel with spindle.

ALIGNMENT TESTS ON PILLAR

TYPE DRILLING MACHINE
Flatness of clamping surface of base.
Flatness of clamping surface of table.
Perpendicularity of drill head guide to the base plate.
Perpendicularity of drill head guide with plate.
True running of spindle taper.
Parallelism of the spindle axis with its vertical
movement.
Squareness of clamping surface of table to its axis.
Total deflection.

ACCEPTANCE TESTS FOR

SURFACE GRINDERS
Table top parallel to its movement by attaching
the dial gauge in the stationary spindle and dial
feeler touching the table top and traversing the
table.
Spindle axis parallel to table top by fitting dial
gauge on redial arm of the spindle & its feeler
touching the square testing on table.
Slots parallel to table movement by fitting the
dial gauge in the stationary spindle & dial feeler
touching the slot & traversing the table.

ACCEPTANCE TESTS FOR

SURFACE GRINDERS
Vertical movement of the spindle square with
table top by fitting dial gauge in spindle & its
feeler touching the square resting on table.
Spindle axis square with the slot by fitting dial
gauge on an arm fitted to spindle & rotating
the spindle & rotating the spindle by 180 deg.
Practical tests.

CO ORDINATE
MEASURING MACHINE

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION

TYPES OF MEASURING MACHINE

CMM AND TYPES OF CMM
PROBE
FEATURES
APPLICATION
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES

INTRODUCTION
Measuring machines are used for measurement
length over the outer surface of the length bar or
any long member.

The member may be either rounded or flat or parallel.

Measuring are more useful and advantages that
vernier calipers, micrometer etc..,

TYPES OF MEASURING MACHINE

Length bar measuring machine
New all measuring machine (spirit level)
Universal measuring machine (all)
Co-ordinate measuring machine
Computer controlled co-ordinate measuring machine
(inspect & measure)

CO ORDINATE MEASURING
MACHINE
Co-ordinate measuring machine is also called as CMM.

CMM is used for contact inspection the parts. When it is used for
computer integrated manufacturing, the CMM by computer
numerical control method.

A coordinate measuring Machine is a 3D device For measuring the

Physical geometrical Characteristics of an object.
CMM has movements in three axis .

This machine may be manually controlled by an operator or it may

be computer controlled.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE

ELEMENTS OF A CMM
CO-ORDINATE
MEASURING
MACHINE

PROBING
SYSTEM

DIGITAL
READ OUT

COMPUTER

SOFTWARE

ELEMENTS OF CMM
A basic Co-ordinate Measuring Machine consists of four
elements.
The machine structure which is basically an X-Y-Z

positioning device.
The Probing system use to collect raw data on the part and
provide input to the control system.
Machine Control and Computer hardware.
The Software for three dimensional analysis.

CMM BASIC PARTS

Description
The typical 3 "bridge" CMM is composed
of three axes, an X, Y and Z.
These axes are orthogonal to each other
in a typical three dimensional coordinate
system.
Each axis has a scale system that indicates
the location of that axis.
The machine will read the input from the
touch probe, as directed by the operator
or programmer.

The machine then uses the X,Y,Z

coordinates of each of these points to
determine size and position with
micrometer precision typically.
Reference

FEATRUES OF CNC - CMM

TYPES OF CMM
According to control system
Manual CMM
CNC CMM or DCC CMM

According to design of main structure

CANTILEVER
MOVING BRIDGE
FIXED BRIDGE
HORIZONTAL ARM
GANTRY
COLUMN

According to mounting style

Bench top
Free Standing
Portable and Hand Held

Cantilever type
A vertical probe moves in the z-axis
Carried by a cantilevered arm that moves in
the y-axis
This arm also moves laterally through the xaxis
Two configuration: fixed table and movable
table
Advantage- a fixed table allows good
accessibility to the work piece
Required small floor space
Disadvantage- the bending caused by the
cantilever design
Suitable for measuring long, thin part

Moving bridge type

Most widely used
Has stationary table to support
work piece to be measured and a
moving bridge
Stationary table and movable
bridge: Allows high table load
Advantage- reduce bending effect

Disadvantage- with this design, the

phenomenon of yawing can occuraffect the accuracy

Fixed bridge type

Most widely used CMM
In the fixed bridge configuration,
provides better accuracy and rigidity.

Disadvantage : Limited accessibility

caused by the bridge

Stationary bridge and movable table

Leads to small measuring
uncecertainty

Column type
Often referred to as universal
measuring machine instead of
CMM
The column type CMM
construction provides
exceptional rigidity and accuracy
These machines are usually
reserved for gauge rooms rather
than production floor.

Horizontal arm type

Have very large measuring range and low power

consumption.

Maximum accessibility has been achieved

Also referred to as layout machine

Type of CMM: Moving arm and Moving Table

Advantage- provides a large area, unobstructed

work area

Ideal configuration for measurement of

automobile parts

Gantry type
supported by four vertical columns rising
from the floor
Employed three movable component moving
along mutually perpendicular giudeways
This setup allows you to walk along the
work piece with the probe, which is helpful
for extremely large pieces
Used in measuring car body and wind tunnel
Model

Gantry configuration with dual linear motor drives,

laser scales an online compensation

According to mounting style

Bench top
Mounted on a bench or deck. Most CMM are this type
Free Standing
These machines can support themselves and do not
required mounting
Portable and Hand Held
Moved freely and used almost anywhere

ADVANTAGES OF CMM
Flexibility

Reduced Setup Time

Single Setup
Improved Accuracy
Reduced Operator Influence
Improved Productivity

DISADVANTAGES OF CMM
The probe may not be in perfect alignment.
The probe may have run out.
The probe may moving in Z-axis may have
some perpendicular error.

There may have errors in digital system.

Common Applications

Dimensional measurement
Profile measurement
Angularity or orientation
Depth mapping
Digitizing or imaging
Shaft measurement

FEATURES CMM SOFTWARE

Measurement of the diameter, center
distance, length
Measurement of plane and spatial curves.
Minimum CNC program
Data communication
Digital input and output command
Interface CAD software

PROBE or Sensors
The measuring head that contact the job to
inspect and measure is called as probe.
The different kinds of probes like taper tip, ball
tip etc..,
The function of a CMM is to acquire information
about the measurand, usually in the form of
Cartesian coordinates. The devices used to explore
the area to generate this information are the
"sensors".

PROBE or Sensors
Two types of sensors:
Tactile sensors.
Noncontact sensors or "optoelectronic" sensors

Tactile sensors distinguish:

Rigid or hard or fixed sensors .
Point to point or touch trigger sensors.
Continuous or measuring type or displacement sensors

In non contact sensors ,Two main principles are used:

Triangulation 3D
Time of Flight

126

Sensors
Tactile Sensor
1. Co-ordinate measuring
machine ram (or spindle).
2. Probe extension.
3. Probe changing system.
4. Probe.
5. Stylus changing system
6. Stylus extension
7. Stylus shaft.
8. Stylus.
9. Stylus tip.
10. Tip diameter.
11. Generic, fixed probing system.
12. Stylus system (composed of
stylus system components).

Characteristic elements of a generic, tactile, fixed probing system

127

Sensors
The Rigid Sensor
Rigid sensor: Touch finger constituted by a shaft for the fitting of the touch
finger in the CMM probe holder.
On the opposite extremity has either a sphere or a cone.

Point measurement by means of a spherical rigid sensors

128

Sensors
Point to Point Tactile Sensors
The point to point type of measurement determines the position of points by
bringing in physical contact the tip of the sensors with the part and then
retracting.
The point to point measurement represents a fast ideal solution to define
Dimension and Position.
Legend:
1......: Starting point.
2......: Point probing.
3......: Disengagement
after point probing
Probing (point measurement) sequences

129

Point to Point Tactile Sensors

Tactile sensors for point to point measurement are based on Isostatic
support concept.
The spring still keeps the contact closed. the force of contact balances the
force of the spring itself.
Just before that the balance between the forces is reached, the force of
contact between part and sensor causes a slight displacement of the stylus
and the contact is opened.
A signal is generated that allows the recording of the co-ordinates of the
sphere centre at the moment of contacting the part surface. The point has
been measured.
The CMM starts to decelerate, while the spring
preloaded mechanism follows the machine
movement with a slight over-travel.

Finally the machine retracts and the Isostatic

support assumes its resting position in an
extremely repeatable mode, ready to measure
more points.

Isostatic support tactile sensor

130

Sensors
Continuous Tactile Sensors
In the point to point measurement the sensor gets in contact with the part to
be measured.
In continuous measurement the sensor remains in contact with the part
follows its profile and measuring points according to pre-determined laws in a
single measuring path.
Very accurate and relatively larger than point to point, the continuous sensors,
can supply very complete information on the form of the measured feature.

Probing sequence in continuous measurement

131

Sensors
Non Contact Sensors
The non-contact sensors are based on optoelectronic techniques. These
types of sensors can measure an object without physical contact with it.

the non-contact measurement technology allows:

To measure very small pieces not otherwise measurable.
For a faster measurement than a touch sensor.
To measure very soft pieces of material not otherwise measurable.

Noncontact sensors are based on two principles

3D Triangulation Principle
Time of Flight Principle

132

Sensors
Non contact sensor:3D Triangulation Principle

It is a principle based on noncontact sensor.

When object point C is lit by the laser, the

point becomes visible to the camera.
Distance d between the laser source and the
camera .

the orientation a of the laser are known.

line CB is determined by connecting the

lens center to the image of point C in the
image plane and finding its angle with line
AB.

In triangle ABC, by knowing d and angles

a and b the position of point C on the
object can be determined.

The triangulation principle.

Increasing angle g will increase depth

accuracy, but that will increase selfocclusion, making determination of depth
impossible.
133

Continued
Angle gamma determines the quantization accuracy of the scanner.

When this angle is zero, objects at different depths cannot be distinguished

from each other.

134

Sensors
Non contact sensor: Time of Flight Principle
The Time of Flight scanner is used
to scan and investigate with laser
light.
The scanner rangefinder determines
the distance from work surface by
noting down the timing of round
trip of the light pulse.
The laser when emits light pulse
detector has timed the reflected light.
If c is known speed of light. If
round-trip time t is known, then
distance is (c* t)/2.

line of reference shown applications

135

MACHINE VISION
SYSTEM

MACHINE VISION SYSTEMS

Machine Vision::Computer Vision::Intelligent Vision
Automated Inspection of Manufactured products for Quality
and Process Control.

Definition:
Means

of

electro-optically

simulating

the

recognition capabilities of the human eye/brain.

image

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING
Image Formation
Processing of image
Defining and Analysis of Image
Image interpretation and Decision Making

OVERVIEW OF MACHINE VISION PROCESS

FUNCTIONING OF
MACHINE VISION
SYSTEM

STEPS IN MACHINE VISION

SYSTEM
Image Formation
Back Lighting
Diffused Front Lighting
Processing of image
Windowing
Image restoration
Defining and Analysis of Image
Distance measurement
Object orientation
Defining Object position
Image interpretation and Decision Making

CCD CAMERA
A CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICE (CCD) is a
sensor for recording images, consisting of an
integrated circuit containing an array capacitors.

MACHINE VISION SYSTEM

APPLICATION FIELDS
Inspection
Part Identification
Guidance and Control

HUMAN VS MACHINE VISION

HUMAN VISION

MACHINE VISION

Recognition

Identification

Hand-eye coordination

Robot guidance

Inspection

Inspection

Find Position

Find position

Gather Information

Measure

Safety

HUMAN VS MACHINE VISION

HUMAN VISION

MACHINE VISION

Human Vision

Machine Vision

High image resolution

Consistent, tireless

Interprets complex scene

Operate in visible Infrared,

quickly
Operates in visible light
spectrum

X-ray.

Operates in hostile
environments
Follows program precisely

MACHINE VISION APPLICATIONS

IN-LINE
Checking each item that passes the camera
RANDOM
Checking one item out of a series as it passes the camera on
the production line, and
OFF-LINE
Take an item off the production line for a test in a quality
assurance laboratory.

WHERE IS MACHINE VISION USED?

Semiconductor

Chemicals

Electronic

Food

Automotive

Footwear

Container

Textiles

Pharmaceutical
Medical device
Plastic

Printing
Wood / Forest
Fabricated Metal

WHY USE MACHINE VISION?

High speed production lines
Microscopic inspection
Clean room environments
Hazardous environments
Closed -loop process control
Robot guidance
Precise non-contact measurement

WHAT CAN MACHINE VISION DO?

PRESENCE - ABSENCE CHECKING,
ASSEMBLY VERIFICATION
Verify that part components are present and in the correct
locations
Dimensional Gauging
Calculate the distance between two or more points on an
object
Defect detection
Identify defects and calculate defect characteristics such
as position and size

ASSEMBLY VERIFICATION
GAUGING

DEFECT DETECTION

Golden Template Image

Image with Defects

Difference Image

ADVANTAGES
Lower inventories.
Fewer production overruns.
Reduced labor costs.
Less rework and production.
Avoidance of inspection bottlenecks.
Elimination of adding value to scrap conditions

ELIMINATES
Cost of Recruiting and Training.
Scrap - Rework created while learning a new job.

Average workers' compensation paid for injuries.

Average Educational grant per employee.
Personnel
employee

Payroll

department

costs

per

RESULT

Increased Market share.

Improved Customer satisfaction and lower
warranty costs.
Penetration of New Niche Markets.

Pricing flexibility and participation in price

Elastic markets.