(. KobenTefey o< rroms ravers any pasawountroner Mer Del iver A078 ated OU 1S wt Pree te Conroe of Rag Prince ond Chih, 1915, New De a, ey Beth 27 Auge 912 ASH, Fimce Di, 27 Onfic, U ur 1978 | HYDERABAD 2 The Mulki-Non-Mulki Conflict KAREN LEONARD “The collapse of Hyderabad state in 1948 has contin to pute ‘Observers Indian politics, Aste largest of de princely sates in fothsize and population, why did he sate wot enaze more atively fd constructively the political confcts which ended in partion ind independence for india and Pakistan ia 9472 Why, patien- tan did the Nizam of Hyderabad! not buld upon a promising in fotos cultural atinlit movement, the MuUIKI movement, ‘etotite or fight more sucessfully for autonomy?” ‘Teyderabas's Knits politi! goals and achievements in the er ‘ial precindependence decades were rooted in the Mulki-non- ‘Muli conti which began in the nineteenth century. Malkis were ‘ountymen,eiizens of Hyderabad; non-Mulkis were ousiers, Se brought in to reform the Hyderabad government, Aa unde nding of the proces of administrative modernization and fetationsip to vnorons cltaral and pote movements i the twentieth century caries the cru role of the Mulki-non-Mulhi “Safe inthe scree of astonishing mscalclations” ofthe Niza “dhe Divan ureaucrny in the 1940s, miscalculation which ed tothe wat’ Incorporation into dia, This analysis begins withthe Divanship of Salar Jung inthe mid-nineteenth centory, because eh admivistative: modernization and the Mulki-non-Mul Soni ewan then: soves through hwo more historia periodsto Show the changing sci] compton ofthe groups competing for ptt pwer, and the icrensngly differential cates of adminis Fraite and polite modernization in the state Ti the fist stage, from 1853 10 1883, te efforts of the Divan Solar Jung to modernize the administration required men rainedin Drllhh toda, They established an Analosndlan bureaucracy an became & new socal ctepory, non-A, in he ety; the Diwan Siceesefully denied therm poiteal power,6 PROPLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT POWER During the second stage, fom 1884 to 1911, the non-Mulki sudministeators seized pital power while Mullis tied to gain Selninisiative positions, The Diwani administration became Taygly autonomous buteaveracy, constituting ell as an site and senerating its own’ behavioural norms. NO longer checked by {ne Nizam, the Diwip, oF powertal nobles, t made decisions which affected the structure of Hyderabad society. The Moghla Dureauesey was effectively dismantled and is personnel dsinher- ited at all levels. The educational and professional diterences bet ‘een Mulkjsand non-Aulis didnot essen. The non-MMull Divan fica devied regulations which would perpetuate their con timed dominance ofthe Divzni administration and allow thei d= seendant to claim positions as Mulkis. The aerated moder {on and expansion ofthe bureaueracy ater 1884 only enhanced is poliieal power and retarded other processes of politel develop: Inthe third peviod, rom 1911 %9 1948, there were three major developments within Hyuerabad sae. First was the broadening of the Mlk category’ to include men from the Hyderabad dete, accompanying ihe extension of effective administration to the rural areasof the tae. But the professional, soca, ad political integra tion of those citi Mus was only partial Second the gov rent continued to concentrate only of administative moleraion: tion, not politica modeenization* The Niztm and bi officials com fin their goals to the efficient performance of miaimal govern” fons: the collection of exes, the maintenance of a and the provision of Tiited public services (edu ‘ation, communication, and transport facies) They did not for- mule a concept of government a epresentatie of the sate a6 ‘whole, nd they made no commitment t the development of go femmental iastiutions of poiieal organizations which. cond broaden” participation in” decision-making. Although the Hyderabad administration nthe twentieth century was more no cernized dha pany have though, is politcal vison wasted, and more importaniy, it eontinued toe controled by non-AMukis. “The third ercil development inthis period wae the establish sent of Osmania Univers an the eultral nationalism it peo~ duced, The now-ulkiadeinntrators intend the inauguration of this Urdusmediao university 1918 to alvonce administrative ‘movecrization, but choles there created and elaborated upon #80 cl ideologies which dominated inlets! ad pits i= ‘Shsominthecopta iy daring ee crc decade preceding Ian iniependene. These olor, concp of Dean naionsisn Sipponed by Muli Hyderabadis and concept of Muslim SStereignty in the Desan supported nt y nor-uKi Mi Timm allowed the reinterpretation of the Tong-staning inside ‘tie conictlong comma tins and dealt. death low the Indgenous Mui movement. “Pee essentially clara ologes nape aervour which obs cote tn political elites confronting Hjéerabad sate, Both were lst views stl focused upon hesitation and its poli fonticl of the sate An fdcologel controversy Hetneen to ‘ndirspeaking groups el id members ofboth othe pres efor pla partcipaton fm the non-Urda speaking url Population of the sate, In the Hyderabal ste, Wester Toccted acts were building mass poll orgaations di {ealy Ted to nationals onanintions in Bish Ini. They fpesed for reporsible goverment and iil Hibestiss within Tiprabad stat ssng th erm Mult at asig for peter Muli portation. Bat those Malkin the dst dot share the {ator essptons ofthe Deca national movement, andthe police fagershp of the tmo Malki movements never fully tees A, hd eth na mints Secured the frm support ofthe Nizam, whose chi iterests in “Sninsratve inch andthe raenance of Iw sd oe 1. The Dinan a: Mediator of. Poliial and Adminiciative Confer ‘The policies and praticesof the Diwan Salar Jung, effective ruler of from 1833 to 188, inated both the oviinal Mulki- ‘isnlon and the modernizing administration, When Salar Jung Became Diwan in 1883, Hyderabad was in desperate financial straits and the British Indian government threatened (0 take over the slate through loans, cession of land, oF direct a Iminitration. To preserve Hyderabad's independence, the young, Divan ha! modernize the Mughal venue system an bureate= racy, both to achieve finan stability and vo meet Brith tim pti corruptions and ineicincies. The strategy he adopted was to Chnsruca new (or Divan) administration wlzing Betis advice,ce _ PROFLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT FOWER. | oh vrinstative practices, and Knowledgeable persomel from out iv dn in tyra, be ws personaly opp ME aera The revenue stem was at coger, SDE” Wisco ping wen even ae OT a ehettutin of fred colectors forthe venue cna chang ana goal was to preseée FDS racy. Tey were conssained by a stong Divan, powerful ta tional retcracy, and 4 Nizam soos wih his palace retainers. “Many ofthe no Mulk administrators came from the Indian Civil Service, an institution with sown elitist values andthe Fiyderabad Divani administration was modelled upon the Brish Indian a ministration. In some respects the non Mulki department sex felarios a Hyderabad had even more power than did their counter Partsin British Inia ™ These administrators were fais with te ‘modernizing polis of Bets India and ther implementation, and ‘hey were aware of the developments occuring in ther Indian states, There was an impatience withthe obstacles o modernization to wel personified by elder members of the Hyderabad nobis “The none Muh als shared eltral orientations which st them spare from traditional Hyderabad socety and drew them 0 the Brith officals fn Hyderabad, they were confronted with a cive culture which the judged t be a reional and inferior version of ‘he Muphal heritage then cisintegrating in Bish Indi, Most had ‘had an English language education. That, and thei cree in the Brit Indian service, gave them common distaste forthe "anti (quted Urdu" and old-fashioned ways of Hydetabacis: The bar fers between the newcomers and the Mughlai official elss bad ben reinforced by other factors. The new men tended f0 see ‘utsde the crowded old ety, n suburbs ear the Residency and beyond it?" As the nunbers of western-edcated nore Mulki ot als ere in the ety, the Residency sosely proved ateactive t0| them, and there were continual altempts to modify the restitve social reglations” ‘Salar Jungs polices lngly sscoeded in insulating the inhabit72 PTOMLE, PRINCES AND PARANOUNT POWER ant oft ol city fom th English-orente culture develop the new eit and Secunderabad, but some counter tenJensies a the level of the nobility brought primarily Muslim nabes int contact ‘vith non: Mlk fits. Salor Jungs vital efforts had been to {eep the Divan aminisiraion and the aobiy apart but he 5000 found that sominal association of respected nobles with the mew Adminstration belped win the support of the public and of the nobility 2 alas. In 1869 he appointed some young nobles’ Minis ter of Divan department, partly to consult the Feelings of the Jnprdars unt other nobles who might object tthe innovation of receiving onders from persons who were not connected with the nobility arly instruct nobles in practical administra tion although’ ae ese gentlemen mere no Very experienced ale secretaries were given ta then Infact, i was the non: Afulki Secretaries who diected the department, but the compromise brought together some non-Mulki officials and particular nobles, "Anovher small but important area of integration was in educa tinal insttations, Salar Jung established the Dar ul Ulu in 1856, fn ovental college afiiated to Punjab Universi,” snd the Madrasi--Aliys in 1873, 4 private school emphasizing western ‘education, in is own palace fbr his sons and other young nobles.” Ta 1873 the Madeast-Alza witha more uaditonalcariulum, ‘opened inthe old ity and enolld nobles and palace dependents ‘The Divan personaly selected and encouraged some promi fing. young oles. for further education and. sdministative npeenticeshins.” Thus few young members of the Hyderabad ‘ability began to associate with non-Mulks and the Divani ad Iministrating. Again, the dominance of Mastims in both the old bility sid the aon-Mulk group gave thr hetter acces to the few administration Tahiti sag, then the framework ofa modernizing bureaue- racy wat established a a non-Mulli group of administrators was imported into Hyderabad state. The deliberate atempts of the Dinan to istictinalize the Mlk and oa Mulk groups in two “cparate administrative and social spheres inthe ety legey se seeded, Direct confiet between these two administrations was {voided by allowing the Mog srotares a ther Mutki person> felto continue fanetioning nl by continuing the ceremonial ie of the court Another importa fact was that sizeable geographic and ‘xdminiative divisions remained outside the jurisdiction of the Divani administration, Only haf f the fand i Hyderabad was [ilsa, or public, ander the Diwan revenge adnnistation: the ‘other half was privately adiinsteved by jagrdars tebatary rules, land the Nizam. The Nizam’s personal estate had its own frze administrative structure which fetined Mulla practices and Petsonnel" The Divan elvinistation was this one of sever Competing administrative ad polieal institutions. and Salo Jung ‘wed them ocheck eachother throughout histong career as Diwan 1H, The Now Mulld Adina Selze Poliical Power in Hyderabad With Salar Jung's sudden death in 1883, the Dini adminis: tuatos fecame politically dominant, ant conflicts broke out among ron-Mkieand between'aon-Mulkis ane Malki The el cr Soldati ofthe aew Dian amination an the centel pois al position ofthe Diwan had created posi Salar Jung os not ave forescen: shoulda future Divan fecome telly or puppet Of the non-Mulki officials, power would pass decisively 0 the isan administration and its non-Mulki administrators, For one year, rom 1883 to 1884, « Council of Regency euled ‘ut he young Nizam Mahbub AE Kinan tamed eighteen antcould be enthroned. A new Dinan wasto be recognized at tbe se ine, and this was a critical selection, forthe young Nizam ws sill 2 minor, more interested in sports thaa ia stdes, ad he was not They ta be am effective che ‘ofthe next Divan bocame a miter af lvly contention 8 {young soa and an eldetly Hindu nobleman were te leting cn ates. Non-Mulki Mustim officials and members of the. alt Hyderabad nobility bated openly on many issues through theie represenatives on the Counel of Regency during that year, and British indecisiveness sharpened thet confit, But the Guvern= ‘ment of India nally chose to suppor the westerm-educites! cand date the tventy-one-yeat-old Salar Jung I, who wa backed by the non Mulki officials” thus it was Salar Jung's own soa thiough | ‘whom the non Mutks seized power ia Hyderabad Paradoniclly, a mote open and integrative soa i immediate and welcome Tesult of the istllaton of the young [Nizam and almost equaly young Diwan. Connections hetwcen the non-Mulki administrator andthe set oder in Hy rabid hdinigaly hoon weak, but freed from the Former restvtions, Diwan ‘officials and the younger genetation of Hyeerahad nobles partic- pated together ia the Englsh-oieated culture of the new lyst Secunderabad, in marked contrast to the days of Sslar Jung 1>* Some members of the nobility, both Muslim and Hinda, began to acquire weslern education and participate inthe maleraizng = Primarily for socal reasons. Some of te enthusiasm cxtied ‘ver ino Persian and Urdu literary societies and ater vouatary ‘stcitionsin the old cit as well-Forabre ime at he cose ofthe higetecath century, vigorous al eclectic Hyderabad society *reth and political actions which proved divisive. They were determined to fury forward the modernization a he sate, an they now ha the ‘means todo so. Almost all major reductions of Mughlai civil and tary positions occurred after 1884, rather than inthe time of Salar Jung 1 Aste cumulative result of hey yrs organi tion, almost al ofthe Mughlai mansabdars and other servants had becom concentrated in old-fashioned Mughlai units, suchas the Nizan's personal estate and the Inegular Miliary Forces. From 1883 40 T885, the Mansab Department was merged ino the Ac- ‘ountant General's office; & Managing Board was established for the Nizim’s estate; the brepular Forces were merged withthe Regular Forces: and a Cout of Wards was established Yo supervise the estates of nobles and jagvdars when leitmste hes were tisputed or under age.” Even inside the palace, long-standing practices were ignored and new regulations enforced: and the ‘Young Dies took n'a Nosth Indian Muslin anda European ashis private secretaries" Traditionally powerful groups found their pos- Hons insecure and theiepoitieal power usted. "The replacement of Persian by Urdu as the language of adminis tration aid the cours in the 1SAOsalso worked again the Milks, whose specialized knowledge of Persia had been # valued and novos skill inthe old Hyderabad Mughla administration, The ‘ld Herabed offcias, both Hina and Must, had a decided ‘uvantige so long 38 Persian remained the state's ficial language. Unit, while stil a vernacular widely spoken and understood throughout northern India and Hyderabad, was becoming as Socated wth the Misim community ia Newt Indi, and its Slee- [HYDERABAD 1% tion to replace Persian in Hyderabad had implications for admiis- ‘By 1890, it was clear that non-Mslkis dominated the Divant sudministation. Salar Jung Il ad begun bis Dinanship as an eld {end of the young Nizam, but his apparent manipulation by Di- wani and Resideney officials soon provoked conservative opposi- ‘on tohim, Palace officials and others of the old order who had the ‘ear ofthe Nizam turned Mahbul Alt Khan asinst his Diwan, The Statistical domination by non-Mulkis ofthe Divani positions, par- ‘eulaly the highest and most lacrtive ones, became the central political swe. The non-Mulki dominance was tru aot only a the ‘ats civ lists but increased asthe administration expanded. 10 1886, the fest Hyderhad Civil List showed the 476 el officers sccoring to origin and salary: Peso gn Noster armen verte se Aonsers 20 88 ay cs We Soh % * Other sane 7 is “The 52 percent who were Mulks received only 42 percent ofall salary disbursements while the 48 per cent who were now-Malkis teceived 58 er ent of the salaries. In particular, Europeans were Usproportionstely high pai, followed by the Hindustan’ ‘A separate list of those appoiated since October 1884 revealed even restr discrepancies. Of hese 421 new appointments, 274,0r 65 per cont, were Hyderabsdis, receiving only 37 per cent of the {oul salaries. The 147 foreigners, or 35 percent ofthe new sppoin= tees, received 63 per eent ofthe total salaries. Salar Jung I! a buted ths patern to the large numberof appointments being made tothe hush, Sorvey and Edation Departments, for whieh local tilent was not available Despite expat intretions from the Nizam, expaasion ofthe ‘Diwan bureaucracy continued to favour pon-Mulkis. Politi n=16 "PROFLE. PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT ROWER igus centered on this sue forded the resignation of Salar Jung but his succesors faced the same issue, The Chil List of 1804 incluled 680 gazeted offices, an increase of just over 200, The hunter ef non-Mulkishad pearly doubled, rom 230 0447 men, the eight-year period from 1885, but the number of Hyderabad had actually dacreased, with only 233 recorded as Mulkis™ “This L894 Cit Lint alo noted tha some ofthe Mulkis wereoF ‘onlyone generation, suggesting tha his category Was being rede ‘neds non- Mule setled the stated het sons bepan to enter fcvernment service. From 1884 to TSM, a series of government ‘evolutions defined °Mulkis’ and outined procedures for govern ‘ment employment" A’ Mulkt wis defined a8 person who had Peemanntly resided in Hyderabad state fr etn years oF who had continuously served under the government forat leat twelve year; e ad is ieal male descents toto generations were legally Mulkis, While no noa-Melkiswere tobe appointed on high for low post, either permanently or temporarily, without special fovernmea permission, a non-Mlki cold app for such perm Son by detaling hs special knowledge and experience bot yet "lable in Hyderabad, The successful applicant received a ert fate of dome, known asa Mulkicerliieate” These regulations ‘enabled non-Nulkis and thei sons to retain thei monopoly | dministratve postions In Leal tems, then, the non-Mulki group became a transition category, through which recent immigeantsrhoved themsolves and thelr cilden as soon au service or bribery secured a Muli ce tte, Butregardess ol egacerifetion, most dexondantso those ‘who had come as now-Mulkis continued to be regarded as nod ‘Mulks by those of longer eesence In the sie. AS the legal definitions of Mulk and non-Mulkt became more explicit and ii, the terms became more and more flexible popula woe, 50th an individea's status could be one or the ater depending Upon the ‘ltcunstancesand the viewpoints of oers. though te Civil Lists continied to asi officils by origin, satistes based upon place fof ith no longer reflected social perceptions. of group membership, Contemporary aecounis speak of bona fe’ Milks fn fist generation” Mulks, of sons ofthe sol and sons of non: Malis offical, and all were legally Muti" Edcatonal and professional diflerences between the wo 00s were also perpetuated into the next generation by the slowness of HYDERABAD, n [Mui acquisition of westem education. While some Hyderabad ten had ben able to enter tbe new secs if, i proved for more Affi for them to secure good positions in the now bureaucracy for which Englich wa becoming essential at higher levels. The Eaton Departanent had tardy expanded since ts nitation | 860 and placement under the Revere Department. Missionaries nd non-Mals h!founded a few English-medizm schools, But they mere concentrated in the new city of Hyderabad nnd in Scan \erabad. Even Salar Jung T's palace school hed moved into the new tity before 1880. la the olf ity, the frt Swe private Schools ‘ffring Bglsh were begun ony in 1880 and 1882; here were English-mesnum school i the old city” Th 18834, 2 non-Mlki educator became secretary ofthe Edu «ation Deparment and persia the government inaugurate Ierarchiea school stem throughout thestate based on vernacular primary schools, He threatened that without an adequate primary lind secondary «choo! stem the sate could have no istittion of Enelish-medtum higher eduction" Once the lowe levels were Started, the systent was fopped hy the amalgamation of ever lead Enpish-mednum schools (inludiag tat started by Solar-tung 1) ino Nizam College, Nizam College was ated to Maas Uni ‘verity n 1886-7, becoming part ofthe British Indian erationat system. This ama! Engish-mediams college enrolled: eve forty Studentsa the turn tthe century, mostly Eurasion and wa-Mulht Hingus and Muslin.” “That ton-Mulkis sod Mulks, and specially those associated. wvith the Divani and former Mughlal admiistrations, valued or Uilied western education very diferent is clear fom en analysis ‘of chitin enclle in the state's modem educational system, com tained inthe Administration Report of 1897. Ths report elasifed the $5,797 eildren then in school according to thei fathers ocu- pation, and the old Mughal courtiers and employees were clus- {ere atthe bottom ofthe Ist. Divani goveromentofiis, mim rica 8 ach smaller group than the thiee occupations fitegores above them, were near the top. With respect to ‘women's education, # controversial socal reform iste in rincteenth century. the government officals and the Mughla ‘ffs were nga a opposite endsof the range. Almost 8 percent ‘Sf the hile sn schoo! a that time were gis, and the daughters of| [government oficial constituted 20 per centof them (879 0f 4414)‘The daughters ofthe mansabdors, jagirdrs, an nobles combined ‘constuted only 2 por cont (83) of tat total” “The continued educational differences meant that the Diwani boureaseracy could recruit the belter-educated non-Mulki sons of| tore who slrady dominated i Furthecmore explicit government ‘egulations discouraged Mughlai employees fram moving into new educational and career patterns, requiring mansabar to forfeit a percentage of the family's mansab payment if they entered pov- tment schools (1877-8) and cutting a family’s hereditary ‘mantab accordivg 0 a member's new position ia the Diwvani ad- Ininistration (1896). ‘Aniler educitonal measure was the awarding of state scholar ships to Mulks for stady in England, and here religious fators combines with Mulki-non-Mulki defiitions to complicate public Perceptions. An eily swe concerned whether or nt Hindus wore ‘ven eligible, due tothe orthodox ban on ocean travel. Western- ‘educated Hindus rtczed the committee appointed bythe gover ‘men oresolve that question because the Hindus put onit were a city Mulkis” The seventeen slate scholars In England between 1897 and 1902 were infact all Muslims, an erties pointed tothe epeatedehoice ofthe sons of high-ranking non-Mulki officials ad temersotthe Muslim nobility. The contemporary press at the {um of serentury took grat interest in such matters the career of| the fist "on fide” Muth to receive his B.A. degree in TSRS was closely followed and applauded” ‘Other modem govemmentalsructuses were being instituted ia Hiyderabad, some of them presumably intended to serve as checks tipon the bureaucracy: the judicial stem, a Legislative Coun, fn later an Executive Council. Educated: Mulkis might hive Tooke Yo these alternatives for employment and as counter forces tothe powerful bureauericy but they proved inefective Inthe ease ofthe Legislative Cunel, instituted bythe Nizam nd ‘anon-Malkt adviser in 1892," the problem was one of both limited ponersand personnel While outlining the few fenetions delegated {o the Levsative Council, the Nizam stated, Nothing herein con ined shal be decried to affect in anyway the prevogatives of H.H. the Nizar which he will eerise whenever be may think fit in any ‘manger he kes” Furthermore, ‘lial and it had no exective fanetions. It outlined and carted tties of several assistant mister, each response a the Divan for several departments, but okimely ths department seretries, Initiates policy an pracedores and eopteoied the ming and man ner of slymisions fo the assistant ministers and the Divan. The 898 clarification of Leysttve Counc uetions aso gave the power of initia commendation for apponinens and promotions to the secretaries of the depariments"' The Executive Council initiated in 1919 was similnyineeciv, wih eight of Ks nine tmembets officials” The ultimate dependence of the Legistatve land Executive Councils upon the Diwan bureaueray for mentbet= ‘ip and fr ination of policies and appoietments to administra tive service reinforeed non-Malki power in the sate “The same linations characterized the jd structures aod personnel. Althougha modern udicilsystem wasradualy but in Fideratd ety rom the 1870s, the Anglo- Indian egal stm won publicacceptance very slowly, In I883nd {884 examsforpleaders ‘were insitited, an in the 1890s a Hi Court was exabished.” Juliial pomers were exercised at lower levels by revemve oficial. ‘unl the separation of the Judicial from the Executive in 1921. ‘Again, most ofthe higher level jue officals had been drawn from British Trin, andthe educational qualifications tended to raincia non-MMulk domination “The ninctcmh century ended with increasing public awareness of the pervasiveness of non-Mulké domination of Hyderabad's politcal institutions and increasing confusion about the role of Felgion in the conflict Contemporary comment focused poy highly vibe new posions or appointments. When the Nizam tamed! a Mulki Hino, Maharaja Kishen Pershad, Diwan i 1901, Uhre ws great public ejoicing:” yet tis poston had become a felatively weak one, Another exantple of the aditional emphasis ‘on Hin Misti considerations comes from the 1898 contest for the two pleads seats on the Lepsative Coun, where the wine ners wore tivo non-Mulli Muslims tothe great indigration of the Toca press wih had supported one Malki Muslim and one Malki Hindu” “The best example of the way the Hinda-Muslim sve exacer hte! Mulkinon-Mulki tensions comes from a local news- pipers comments on the 1894 Civil List. Noting that only 63 of| fhe 680 were Hindus, and of those only 20 were Mulki indus, the arte went on to argue that non-Mulki Muslims in thefo PROFLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT ROWER Hyderabad service should not be considered foreigner, for they lent strength ro the Nizan’s government.” Thus religion was coms bined withthe Mulki-non- Malki cont in masiner prejudicial the Hindu majority ofthe Nizum’s population by reasoning which twas to become familiar in Hyderabad. IN, Administrative Control, Cultural Nationalism, and Police! Mobilization ‘Ace the death of Nizam Mahbub Alf Khan in 1911, Nizam Osman ‘All Khan ‘ame the throne, and under him the Mulki~ ‘on Mulki confit entered a third stage. The educational gap bet- tween Mulkis and non-Mulkis began to close, But their coer was no longer limited to the bureaucracy; it became diffused more broadly throughout Fyderabed politicr and society. Delineation of the Mlk and non-Motki categories in the twentieth century re ‘eal ncreasing divergence Between legal and cultural definitions ‘nd the ation of religious, and urban and rural distinctions but the foamental cleavage continued with respect to administrative and poise power. The sowMutkis were best defined as those in power. Most non-Mulki_adminisuators now considered Hyderabad. their Fhomme, an ther dominance inthe Divan administration made reward of a carer there considerable. Alter the death of Salar Sung 1 some non Mull had eesived tiles, and Diwan officials had greater access the Nizam and the nobles. The commnity tnd caste representation in both the non-Mulki category and the “Hyderabad nobility meant that Mustins benefited dsproportion- oly from increase! ascciation with aon-Mulkis. The #0 earliest Schools offering western education, the Dar ul Ulum and the Maratai-Aliys, and the establishment of close ties with Alig had strengthened this endeney, Whi Salar Jung Thad refused © allow Sir Syed Ahmed Khan tobe intoduced tothe young Nisam bbootse Sir Syed would not put on Hyderabad court dress,” by the T8006 the North nian sherwnni had Become customary dress for Hyderaal’ officals." Star Jung t Kiel poke at Allah personaly pledged lage increase of Hyderabad state's grant to fhe school, and his successor strengthened the relationship.” 1m this peri the non MAS earlier closeness to the British tured to rivalry. Many non-Mukis and thee famias coatinsed associations with people, institutions, and religious oF pial ‘movements based outside Hyderabad state particularly Aligarh politics and otter Musi euationa endeavours, Political de- ‘elopmentsin British India feo changed relationships with Bits officials in Hyderabad. Ashe rulinglasin iyderabad,non-Mulk oficials needed the Resident's support Jess, and they thought of the native sates as rivaling. British Toda in_adminsraive modernization.” The Nizam Club, founded by nan-Mulki oss and with few or no Englishmen as members, prospered, while the ‘more incisive Hyderabad Clu foundered. The Masonic Lodzes, ‘which hod integrated Englishmen, oficial, and nobles inthe 1880s find 1890, produced several separate English and Indian lodges, tnd finally npsed almost entzely* Intermarriages were vovtrring between noa-Mulki and Mulki Iamiles ut rather than working to erase distinctions between the two categories, they eppear to have highlighted their iferenil access 10 power. Fist, they emphasized the bigher ranking of the non-Mulkls, a8 non-Mulki officials 100k promising young “Mallia son-in-law and placed them in administeative postions “This was true for both Hindus and Muslims Such conspicuous alliances and thei political consequences, whe insignia a terms ofthe numbers of Malki so favoured, heightened resentment lof non-Mulki power in the sate. Second and again because ofthe “Masti majority involved in such intermarsiages and cecupational : ‘dominance as wel" These vermatrigesconfried non-Mulk seca and plicl dominance In Hyderabad society in a highly personal way In contast to the narrowing legal ad political perceptions of om-Mulkis, the Muli category was obviously expanding and di ‘verifying. Ts unity lyin its weakness, ts members ack of access to sources of administrative and paieal power. But atempts to unify the Mulkis organzationaly foiled, primarily because a narrowy-conceived cultural nationalism was chosen asthe unifying theme by the urban educated Mulks, By the fist lecadeof the twentieth century, the Muli category legily included: 1) people whore fais had been esident inthe old city of Hyderabad for generations; 2) people from rural ‘Hyderabad moving into urban administrative and profesional po tions: 3) people whose forebears had come to Hyderabad as aon ‘Mullis in the nineteenth century 4) more recent mamigrants who2 PEOPLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT POWER had een able to secure Mulkicertifeats. Originally the rxm dt icant the residents ofthe of ety, most of whom hid been em ployed inthe Mughlai bureaueracy. These long-term Hindu and rusim subjects of te Nizam ha beonslow to react to the changes ‘xcurting within Hyderabad let alone those throughout fis: with fen des ouside the capital ety, these Mulkis wanted to epain their troll placesin the poitis and socet of Hyderabad. As west- redieeain became salable throughout the city, with many new ‘inte anc community schools begun between 1900 and 1915, young. tubau Melk anqured the skills necessary to compete for Piva positions” With the establishment of Osmania University in the {Eiyin 118, the had eves to higher education in Unda, thestat’s ‘ficial language, which presumably enhanced their opportunites for state sevice. "This younger generation of urban Mulks was sugmented By an Incoming group of erick Hyderabadi, aso westest-edcated but bringing the indigenous vemnacular cutures mach more strongly into the capital ety than foxmety. These men were legally Mulkis, bin in fact they represented the majority of the Niza subjects: the Telugu, Marathi, aad Kannada-speaking Hindus of the Hiyderebat! districts, Drawn by the expansion of the education fyatem, the Divan! bureserey sad professional opportunites, these subjects ofthe Nizam sought careers in Hyderabad city and bother sdennistatve centres, No ll ued for governmient service: thang were educators and lawyers." Those who had gone to nelgh- ‘ovring Brtsh Indian presidencies for higher education retained ntact wth thei schoolmates and followed polial developments there, somewhat burring the boundariesbetween Hycerabed state and Baits Inia.” “The plac ofthese disiri-born Matkisin Hyderabad polities and society was ambiguous, They didnot share the urban background, the fondness for Mughsicultre snd the dep loyalty tothe Nizar ‘haratritic ofthe original Malki, They knew Urdu andor English for profesional purposes, and they Tounded vernacular Ubraries fd cultural associations in dhe Gt. By their residence inthe fewer sections of Hyerabad and Secunderabad and in ther social Sd poliea terest, they shared characteristics with the om Mullis, But lke the old city Mulks, they were confronted by pon Mutki domination ofthe goverament Tn this thi period, the now-Molki administrators showed ile HypeRADAD, * concern for pubic particpationin polis, and it proved dificult for ven the stmnchest of Hyderabad’ supporters to argue that polt- ‘a reforms of siniieance were made" Only administrative mod- rniatwn, not political modernization, was the goal. The officals Aid not view themselvesas part of u pois sysemn with specified tnd linited sole in the process of poiteal modernization of the State Rather they were an adminisvative eft, with taining and ‘deniogeal orientations oftheir own, Composed almost ently of ron-Mulkis and ther descendants, connected by educational ex- Perienes and hy marriages, they ignored the demands ofMulkisfor ‘ier partiipation, Like the elite cadre of ICS officers in British Inala, they emphasized the maintenance of law end ere and fet responsible only to themselves” “The Hyderabad administration filed to decentralize existing structures and functions of to initiate new and broader political institutions and process, The Executive Councl formed in 1919 rellected the larger aminstation fo thatthe nonsial and Less Jmportant positions were held by Mulki nobles while non-Mtki officials held the Finance, Revenue, Political and Public Works Bosiions! Also from 1949, there was discussion of lexsaive ‘evolution, ut no actions wete taken to expand poliial pertcpation*™ ‘Government regulations limited and repressed politcal ac. tivities, apparent dating fom the Khilaftapitation in the state butintensfie by the Arya Samaj Hind revivals. From the point Gf view of the Hyderabad government, these regulations were bimed at on-Mulki op ‘external iterference, and many fnom-Muikis, both Metin snd Hindu, were deported from Hyderabad for ining communal disturbances Of maor concern tothe Hyderabad goverament,and tothe British Residents well ‘waste expansion of Arya Samal aetivites. Arya Samaj membe {Nip grew nthe Flyderabad ditty, risng from under 10 tn 1922 to 5,300%n 1951, ile membership the it fl from $39 0 400 inthe sme decile Newly-begun Arya Samaj schools and gym- ‘sums became centres of anti-government propaganda and were ft major cause ofthe governments new regulations governing the Tecognition of private schools in 1924" Yet many privately-ron Hindu schoo continued to exist a receive government a and the long-established Hyderabad City Arya Samaj continued vigor- ‘usteligiows and socal form atvties under the leadership od4 PRORLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT FOWER iy Mulkis*" There was ictising. co-ordination. hereen Hderabad Ares and those out the state, snd writings and pomplets produced oulsie about Hyderabad were dstbuted wl within he state Tet inflmmatorynatre was ted bythe ovement as tenon fo conor printed materi emering the From he 192 aes ofr sie al pm ings tn government clearance and permison, ahd at nes public ‘pees were subjected t por approval or disapproval by go¥- ‘Ehmont cls Ests of prescribed periods ad books were ised a eel perinay” Wien communal nie i tecut he goverment respond Wh commites to investigate Shi fomlte new polis frexsenple wth regard tothe observa {ton of usin and nda relists ling upon the same dye, Almost inva, the Hinds members appointed to sich Commies were ok! iy, Malki from Urduspeaing com Pies showing he pvemmens pcre er er {ype of al Hing subject, and ending to esl mae aecepable {othe government than fo some ofthe Nias eter Hind sab- he administrators in Hyderabad ty fanciond in an environ ment ot representative oft TORT Mstate the erences elven Hyerabad cyan the Stein terms of lg snd language 1921: Religion and Language of Populavon HYDERABAD, 5 second decade of the twentieth century, sod the Utd-medin | Osmania Universiy was established in Hyderabad ety in 1918, ‘The establishment of Osmania and the inteace in Urdu-metivon secondary schools to feed i had several far-reaching fects Fist. itincteasedcommanalgrtcismsof the educational system by apparently increasing educational advantages for Moilims, Second, i fed the Mulki-non-Mulkconfict dicey by equipping more ‘Malki students for government service. Thing, the founding. of ‘Osmania led to the for ‘which took orga Critics charge that Maslins were benefiting dispeoportionstely from expansion ofthe sate’ seducationa facies, and patietatly from the extablshment of Osmania. Statistical pattens substan. (el Osmania's effect in increasing the namber of Malks snd of Maslinsenrolledinhigher educational nsittions ia Hiyrabad™ School Enrolment in Hyderabad State a Citere inder Mion Wns Nevin iow cas same iio Sot Jos an isis 20.309 20,747 10.50 98 207 2S GM3T rAt7—Saon a aor isi mks fan Moe ed a Mer Tete ‘isas ain _Uca lps Tos Maa Renae Bar ase tow ws ae toe “These contrasting demographic characterises help to explain the actions taken by the ydertbad administration with respect (0 dhcaion cultural national, and poiieal metilzation in these ‘eens. “The educational sestem in Hyderabad expanded rapidly inthe for Mustins move than doubled from 1881 t for Hindus increased by only Ot per cent” “The criteria of community and language were used to sess the state's educational policies and progress, and private schools were Subjected to sina srutiny Numerical expansion and modern ation were accomprnied by the disproportionate geog Phi, religous, and linguistic orientation ofthe educational sytem For the non-Mulhi officals, Osmania was a modernizing educs- tional insitution, both a symbol of Hylerabads traditions and an experiment in modern education. No modem higher eacational institaton in Ia taught throug the vernaclse medium then, nd the non-Mulki offials and largely non-Mulk faculty viewed (Osmania establishment as an experiment tthe modernizatisn ofi PEOPLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT FOWER of the ema * pctv pion, Tey ed a se of semua nreomsen oro rs seine ag pve al rt xpi see orn Brinda wel” Import Osnant Se taf an esl em + TOM ng men heen fing ca tee are aT i peeransunesty even Pe Rat a ifdef Uda tot Des eran arg agg, oe ben ae eo nse He fl Sono te Domo cere oe utum rean em whch Hi Hess ject clan my cuca my 0 hoger toy et eae So Ea ne er a fe ee Weta eps pial canes a ee nee seperate "teen nly eased the, was rb at ai with Coe ee ers esa mt, Se Ge ta aen eee in ese Po op hr a ec wr nm ft oe pat he monk eel the Bands offers er oe hace Tehran egnranen Neh va try etc an Fre ee abe considered equivalent ty simi qualieatons te aes dia for porposes of employment part foe enna haga Onan hd hen. sponding porns more Ma vn st lingly, most of the non-Mulkt Girostahactactacp ioe HYDERABAD, © College The goverament allegedly favoured Osmania, bat ap patently saw tas sure of edacatedctzes ather than lfc, ‘That ligach should have heen the Moileybury ofthe Hyderabad Civil Service," rather than Osasnia or even Nizam Clog, was ‘onic confimation of the continuing dominance of the oil soneMulki Inauguration of Osmania contibuted most mneiately not to the amelonstion of the Mulki-non-Mulkj conf, butt its inten- seston an farther elaboration, The fs problem ene withthe “Transavon Bureau snd the preparation of textbooks for the new univers. The head ofthis Burena was a non-Afuki, as were many ‘of the translators, and they uted North Indian rather that “ydorebad Urdu This‘pre’form drew upon clasial Persian and Aabie sources, while Mulhis advocated drawing upon Dean Ura anc the vernacular indigenous tothe Deccan. Most trans- Jators and faulty members were non-Mulli. howeves, aa! North Taian Urdu became the standard for both texts and lectares"= "From this inital disagreement, factions developed within the faculy, and the argument moved heyond language to broader cul ‘ural and historical questions. Mull seholars, led hy De Zore othe Urdu department, developed the idea os "Descant synthesis’ com: posed of Hindu and Mastin cultral elements and fostered By folerant Muslim rule in the Dessan. Opposition to this ene from ‘he aon-Mulk faculty, particularly Dr Abul Hi also! the Urea {epartment and former head ofthe Translation Bureau.” Titerary and cultural institutions and politi! movements were founded in the city which embodied theve conflicting views. The Moki scholars established the Idarci-Adaiyates Undly oF Aware Ue, in about 1930, This loca Hbrary aad research ine stitution had ort Hinda and Mustim members, and it collected nd Published materials supporting the Kea of Deccan! synthesis “Thisideaasigned a major creative tole othe Muli oles the Deccan for their patronage of Decesni Uruand their development of category of lval subjeas, of Muli, which cut across religous and eas lines. Hyderabad stite was view as unique nd well integrated society which, like ener Deccan king» ha t0 fend iself agains intolerant and marron-ainded non hi ‘Thate were historical Hintatons to this theme, bat Mlk scars sun politicians Found it zlevant and weft in the 1930s and 1940s, Ie fumished the slogan ofthe Malki political movement: "Long tvess PROFLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT POWER the Nizam, the Royal Embodiment of Deceani Nationals. “hase who apposed the Deccan spies theme were rigs iy penal solar t Omani, but Mulst Muslims abo Beeae Frbonnent inthe polieal movement which emphasized the speci Proton af Ton and Aft in Deccan Mistry. There we aoe aca institutions and organizations which contributed to Sha the Anjuman-iTaraggi Urd, founded in $903 at Aligarh ‘pany te wansiateweser rate and since into Usd had rer Fiyderaae sist with Ws second honorary Sectetary, a0 ra rrhecretay was Moulvi Abdul Faq ofthe Osmania Transl sereurau’s Und department" From about 1935, the Aajuman hanged its sion from publishing Tearned books t ‘vigorously Teeeecing] he popularization of the Urdu language among vere ofthe people’. In 1936, the headquarters moved tO Paige berth branch of the Anjuman ft in Hyderabad, Urdu Hal, pete tothe matatIteid al Mustimin in the 19408!" The Wieluty journal, blamic Culture, begun in Hyderabad in 1926, scoot de tne development of Susi patiousm in Hyderabad, weectenal boord wat heavily dominated by Osmania faculty. eer nd high government oficial all Muslimsand almost ll ‘eeent migrants i ca expression Asim patie, Nena Bahadur Yat Poe nar whose tradiona Isla education concged sang age to Mecca and Islamic counties, This well iked Walag Hyderabel developed a teary of Hyderabad a «Muslin yee ese ognn ofthe Ichad contrased with that ofthe Malki ra Long lve the Nizam, the Royal Embodiment of Mas raenercreignty inthe Deccan. An inspired orator, Bahadur Yar Jane organized ranches ofthe Itehad in te Hyderabad dsr Jang ore fis death in, 1944, the movement became more Aaiica Others who assumed ts leadership encouraed.s mile Patt which became the Razakar moverent ofthe 19408, This Manu fertorkt movement tied fo influence the public and the Notte rope dliente negotiations withthe Bris the dian and Pavrent nationalists, and limately, the Indian Union." ‘fay politeat organizations began nthe 19208 with the forme: cen Poel Onmania Gradustes Association’ and, in London, Herel daty of Union and Progress. The Society was founded in HYDERABAD, 5 etal ee ee tae eet aae eaten tte Sete tata ee str a a eta fe ean ore a te Sehr eer tines pr apnea Printed materia and large public meetings.” ° Ghee ce a a al Feels eer pene Sous ceaatiypeme arin Oe at eae aaateeta acre ee ec re enc ea en ae ee seis Sve itt Bs mem roe avoiding British advice and pressure, anc ining the Niz dj Cd allies. vat ee Feeney nepali acl gece re eee ee Sp leit en ak ee Sree See aad ea tc cs ae Beas steastne setae totaal aps Sselifticeaiee Mac een ee rae eeea eae esa ee cena ars ee including Samasthan rulers and jagirdars.'"* ° Se stn mnt econ ‘an oan ey eet seoreep tte th nary tere ee dams to ce ‘State service being lightly passed over. can ‘The League advocated “Deccan Nationalism’ and believed thatso PEOPLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT POWER “Hindustan should be encouraged and fostered as the common iimguage of Hyderabad, both for is conebution to Decca ‘Nionatcm ais potera use to Taian federalism. The Asati Jhlerscannel praise fr saving Hyderabad from foreign role and oF fusing developed a common culture end common fanawoge in Hyderabad. ‘The Mulki League deplored communal 39 an it port ftom British Ini, an atempt to divert Hyderabadi rom the erie and more important distinction between Mulkis” and toi "Ser xf mono which own fic vo was hat eth Lal re ec athe tor cna scone tere to canna repeat ws eat pe erates Commitee ot 1937-8 ier are ye Brant nner vere ey ere seal Lege he sho Msn voor artnet on a ase ioc nl ier re oe a ey king th ed a ec tmindas a apc hy old eae i srk shot ich pone $e pons for Mans pe cin 193 he Hyer Ste Congres ae a tc ee Ml ene, Some regimes ar cea hat tte ates nd sone ert ered spay fom te of th a wt a clon ptt 2 Te a ed lor ropa pre tit Nut ea arcane ia een rat te ny el naiaton aed fo epic he ia Bese ity ante pon ne end ac onmneelchiatedsone a be ae Ae tom ne ete Sate Coe a swe pera onret. we er on Te dM cond sey One Cuneres an ep repent he ee snp pleco yea ME pon ofthe Hyer xdratin na a take rico wer: Ake a a eft, Hote f Reforins Commutiee ia 1937 t0 recommend increases in| the elective and nomofficial membership of the Hydetabed Legis: Tative Council!™ But the Executive Coune’s concerns were seriously limited and lagged far Behind polite developments in Briinh Tndia and even within the sate. Fist the admins tration sill aled to employ an adequate proportion of the indigenous. population oF 10 reflect the social ofder within Hyderabad state. From its inception, the deision-making levels had been lavgely closed to members of longstanding, Mulki fans, Under Nizam Osman AB Khan, successive pre ministers were recruited from outside Hyderabad, professional adminis: teatrs with British Indian experlence and eeputations.” Second, the admission filed o-aeconmmodate local politcal and sual ‘Semin ad coavert them into programmes an action." Sines it ‘nabuncheckedby legiative or judilal review there were few ways Tor residents of te state offivence the adeinisration. Tha by {he late 1930s the ideology ofa Muslim state which movivted many bigh-ranking oficial was not compatible with continued popular apport by 8 majority of the stats inhabitants. ‘Yer the government was aot entirely usfesponsve, nor was it -leany pro-Moslim, before the Hyderabad satyegvaba of 1938. That {nhad no consistent poley fr dealing with popular toca eadersand Social and politcal movements i let fom the progress of this “ityagraha, Tt did appoint «committee af the request ofthe Hinds ‘Chil Libertice Union to investigate the communal riots which ‘opeued the year in 1938) Te placed restrictions upon public Speeches by paticila local leaders—Bokadur Yar Jung of the Meta ul Musi and Pandit Narinder ofthe Arya Samaj” AL ‘he sn time, escned censorship of he pressand eased rest tions upon peblie meetings, so that notification but nat prior ap~ proval was required for non-pobtieal mectngs. The fist public fecting et under these new rules was a celebration of Tilak's ‘niversry irielly jostled as ding & Mal since Tilak had been part-proprictor of industrial concern in Hydetabad, Seroj Naidu, a (Grst_generation) Mulki and a well-known Inember of the Ingian Naonal Congress, presided over a civic Aifoirs conference while a Provincial Congress Coniitce member ‘vas banned from the state Bahadur Yar Jung Was prevented Thom speaking toa crowd of 15,000 people celebrating the Prophat' birthday, but Pandit Narindrit was allowed to lead aSees e ot ae noes see Coane merge sana ee caesar ero oar naman once Som chenctes oe Sete meen eis ‘month, the formation ofthe Hyderahod State Congress was an- rounoed ata large public gathering by the president and four ‘ityrahis; they were inomedately arrested. Groups of five, always inclaliag a popular leader and followers from all feos of the state, repested this announcement ‘week After about two months, arly in response to Gandhi's [evie, the Congres suspended sponsorship bectuse of thencreas- ‘ingly communal character of the satygraha. Leadership passed to the Arye Samaj, whow ou-ofetate members were proving the Taugest numberof volunteer satyagtahis** The government of Hyderabad ultimately arrested some nine thousand people, more than 80 percent of them non-Mlkis* “Local support forthe sayegraka cave fom Hindu shopkeepers, why observed arta to protest the aests"" and from college Students who sing the forbidden Vande Mataram in dei hostes both at Osmania a inthe dst colleges." As the arrests con- ‘Gnued and funds and volunteers from the Arya Samaj dwindled, hoses fooked for a stilement. The satyagraa was finally teclved ffitally withdrawn bythe Aeya Sam} in July 1939." It fad suotcelea in decisively altering potieal relationships within Hygerabaa state From this point on, administrative contol of ‘Hydcrabad state wis never regained. Pointing to the participation of outsiders inthe 1938 sayagraha, government officals viewed predominantly Hinds poitical organizations inthe state asthe work Ol evtide polis, The ban on the Hyderabad State Congress sras not ited the Reforms of 1938 were not implemented, post pond allgely because of World War IL The 1938 satyagtaba bat demonstrated and sified existing poi dvisionsit dealt 2 teath blow tam indigenowsall-nchsive Mulki movement aso ‘demonstrated ancl conslated the vastly diftesent polite goalsof| the cental administrators andthe dsisct pole leaders, “At this point, oo, the Nizam and leading non-Mulki suns tratos nly commited themselves tothe palitealidceoey othe Tchad ul Muslin whihstresed the specal roe of Isl andthe ‘Muasim community. Unlike his immediate predecessors, Nica ‘Osman Al Kn had come tobelieve in administrative moderna tion as stoiey to retain piel ipdcpendenee. He was the fis Nizam fl to socept te argument, advanced since the 18S, that the nobles, japan, an oters wih heredity fads at incomes64 PEOPLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNF FOWER ‘vere nani bundenson he state rather than proof ofthe religious foleranceof hiscoort "Nizam Osman A Khan was by alacant: ‘mnoreotlonys Mastin bth eigoas sd polite spheres than fest os predecessors, anda elie mosdernizing bureaucracy tne upon a ideology oF Muslin sovereignty inthe Peccan which ainained how ad ore gained his stron spp The Nica an the administrative oficial foun it preferable to ‘stem tothe Htchas ol Mosisin, the Masti Lzague, and occa Siomaly tothe ok Mu lyaliet Te Htchag wt Must advo tated Nisin sovereignty vested in the tial Mustin. comunity, “nditellunifr the contol of Mastin communaists. Some of these ten held high governnent posions a have heen termed “ith less fanatics, reyponuble for he Hyderabad goveunment's i ‘managed negotlations with the Government of India in TM7=8° "That the Nizam and other Muslim officials Hyderabad shoold perceive Muslims from outsie the state as more legitimate prtipant in government than loyal Hindus aod other members f the indigeaous popltion was one ofthe ironies of these inal years, Muslin refuges rom the 1947 partition of Inia nd Pakistan were weleomed in Hyderabad: Sinrahand others from the Msn League adie the Nira; and the Peitie Miniter ho presided over Hyderabad's dowatall as on special loa from the ovement of Pakistan ‘Many non-Muslims continued to support the Nizam’s govern rent, despite is increasingly pro-Musim ideology and poles. ‘Some of the lending Hindu aobles defended thei concept of 3 Deccan nation tothe end, rebatfing attacks on the Niza leas the mibtaken interpretations of outsiders” and welcoming the ‘Nam's ahortive proclamation of independence in 1948." Others may have had litle choice, given the urban demography, employ tment patterns, and Ravakar terrorism ia the city. But many sronunely beloved that fchived in Hyderabad: the Nizam and his emis thei loyalty, but did not rewaed them hy accepting thei politcal Avie o participation ‘We have seen thatthe continue we of the terms Mutki and ho Mul to devignate cooing proupsin Hyderabad haxserve {o over-sinpliy historical realities. The groups so designated have changed radicly over Ge in both egal an popular definitions: the most comsstent meaning centred om possession of political HYDERABAD, wy pn feanterothe power, Yetthe eration of Osa Universiy ve eh sgl Rulon adapted tral abortions Oe sluhnow aft conic hat emphasized is Tent communal Meme new clos of Desens sd Mes pe acon en oil bathe capita yo the Urtespning eta em, wie ds pots de re ee ctr and organizational ties ih the en Srl ponement ous pra sae In Sart it he TRIES ral confer wich best explains the naeowed pb aie eea he adimsation reel when bth secur a so erate eae for broadening of polite vision Hyderabad state NOTES soe Profesor Cain El an Jan Le ict alge ee ko of 1 ne om Pes Baten inion Kn Hee, Stoker fj Sonenn te 9 Roy Noob Narayan he ter three of Fe aes tof Ses XXIV vee 1974, Se Ril anr tng Paral n ery, Day, 10, a. aklsdggeer Ml on sh Cote Conary Po RRS Nema ts poi, Aveo of an So mete oon, 96 _ 1 Rane eee iyi Masi Trap’ The Mie Ee So 1 Say 193, P88 i ee aps Brain, Asan Bammer, Sn te tsh np Frain, Dusty 19, patil ee Fore pena Cogs loti 141-208 a Robes i Cet Desens ly 94-03 6 Aas dented one of it Joes Drain VA Baet, ae ea emer Ese po EAN Reese tp eam Teo waoe te ee He os Baa andy tiecceae omy hee SRT as, ne Aa ostas PEOPLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT POWER “Ihe King te Neat, The Fog Revie, KARV, ow Ss, dns ne 188 2 Hips enol Caren of Gove. S.Fra of he Matos “my, London 685 pene Sree My Lie 98 1nd 188 Tha 98 ao Dust Anya, VE p30 ‘alr fe Repu Foes hd 16 and 190 Te ‘ho Sakon Kap Ra Gert Kulp Bag yesh, le, Hdd inane teas 3 10. ‘hos Kondo Met he Senda nin fo Ko Hanan Yen wih Falmer oa Crna He ecm Sst [ng vn 47 sed ted watt he ooh 876. Thode WL “once Ocabapead in he Den Col 1168 Fo Nin taney ce Ser i My fe 9. BEL ‘Sinner ty Lb) wie son "Tisppoene] neste cls no wee larson, ndeto mia esge andar Hest ars wae he men toe bane Teed fain ot sua spree is the ern renee they es laa “tins oe ta siamo the poe P21 Nj Tames tpt, Rest 1798, aed he dager of Nina ancbetazean athe Reser Typed ante 9 "Egan, The Roma Margo jr anes es ipa Fs tobe oman 199 hn Mecho pec ex ‘Sr Sng Lay See a. Syed Mbit he Crna Mote Me 1720-880, Hyer. 198, ip. 108,10. ince rer Manoir andCatrpontnce 2p. 4-2- 090 182-3, (0) Fhe Chet Soran ne 7a nant Be Frade Sate Arie. “ in 0 ln te ee af St ee o (Co)iihe As Soe Aven hichsten eps om 89 rsh fit apa it vw ih Lng Mera aceon x pest Ruste! Abana ‘Ehecatia iy Lie 9p 1-2 Frater, Mon nd Comapondne, eral Met, My Life» 104 By pet coming the Nis snr a the sath sonnei nec ie s bvpeaman ” wn pi etm eer fivaer Vite ia, Von, 19208 Soin iH The Prine of tals Vise Sears reap ee ens a En Seabee ety oten ie enone tegen eaten sas glee tome grate acim acne Feeeste mination of eines he ans arn. he icon imac Sn tr ke re htc etc dette eee rete secre ac cane pot to en ery fain Fehler hr trata tree icc ten Sean ata peer faassen ase et fea ir a nd feiweetam teesateinir Re ene Roach these aves thongh Thommen anne Da i i p99 she ent: Gon, The Kio of sedge gence hea Wie oy cima hora Jone sdecoe fs Cpl The Vieoyalof Lard Ripon 1880-84,PEOPLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT POWER CA. Se Aes Fare to orton wh fone Stelensdenanl tsetse rhea soy Fe Chat Scent 22 scl er Re Cal dsr ‘seh fr 1914 tna sl ber 2A Se‘my ar, ‘cua ‘Change od ‘Brenan Morena Nice Ceo Ht My wo a th Eg Pent sos Suerte Fr Ron Hyde 93 “isc chogaie coat eg my ct at yen, took I Rane oferta Sat sy of nan Ce Tey ‘ante ced in Sat hg Cortef Manor ofr ‘av tote Ren of Spe Th 8 eS gy ‘Samah gore lin fe a0 1S i Ran Benue Ak, vn voles ye “Since iy Le pp oy Mati Sen od Ct Et oth ew my aeton he ‘Senet a ag Sony bre ‘Seon desnded asa in feos. Sal ag 1. Gonna Mmorauton 9p Eaters otros de) ses’ nop 85nd None Ss fe Ba {Dato Vows, ch es deta csr tn of Ct Strong Conte morn pom Oca ORE when be ‘es anol ony S08 et get 1308 me ad ae “ppainedorpromot irdeto tae en ae 889 ‘eset a 53 reanptnmens went ota ay re Se trcn nae 1 He abe he © N.S Aes. Set Sei Rern inept af Doan fy Saie i Ran Sa 809. Se hi At ig, Kaos Finee Ha, Hyde 119 {W081 yp S87 theca rer or ata 9: ots ‘Tsing eho aon ot opment ga nb ma 880 ‘rotgbates woke Howes Sees “Thesemay tome Engh pt 100.40 ig iMate Soy. eee ene Trig Mow tes ikea 6p I-19 Atte Rr oo. Sonn nonin Vin us ls gy Seo ieRew eer wreak eps nah 9a {han he tn ya, Se eters nn be meee Tr fai 34 Feira Inti CCA PS or oir eso ‘Sree ect Ep iin Bonar ph pn Ses o8sfbty a mbn e stent Seaton pen Fae Ete Ec ‘or keg fone fanart tg Sea he Ra Steen cate sf Hasan Sn ‘ssid ME Ooms Paty 6 se Rap He of se e's Et ea 136 goat hei nn Na 5 is ns Ua ages men sae cline bok pororBe tonsa oe ges Sea be 07 Fa ake pd bate Ty ts yy Fine sonar tPF 231i bme omen ee a pai ce in Cen pepe so CrennScosk rekon by Faberé Occupations cums ne Sema & arene Ise Temes Pier 24% QGoremen oficeh —3 Marabt ie Day Lsbores tos age i Gere oe Nie Scemy he Wome tl Cage Mert a Femi SUES ot ore aah oomtstoot hr oh Cae Ren esa nw ond Popes Sa efor Sosonen Nth See tt hot ie enh propionate SP Sathc stout ty pre sapon co e ected {Spore tie mony scams toe tifa ed Toinsen tot osrtingosn one 1870 Rh Rum! A pst : Tea iiauoebl sot, ncn, 2 hart Hyco csp othe nd pains Ws abet piscina mens ohn es kon ean pope ey ma erin aed eusnacnenmsins Ce: Timer of ta 21 Febery ETS com sas Spent 8s as Hai woe Seen ss Cary A ty Kha he me 8 ‘Gow jen. m FeLi the Estmin of the Casares Pasi“ 2B 23R PEOPLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT POWER Journal of Pic Ser, AL 0,99 424-38, Smet MA My Tipe. Sereda Exar, oe Hydra Gee, XX, S116 Sepeaber 1 lsat ye sil oe 1 of 19h, Bleek, Eo ‘pen testa fe fh Cha Sera, AP Se Acie Repo on he Acviron. 089 1? Fs pe 24 Iota Buronay, SDC, September 1098 ee ne: Dero goto Admin of HEH. The Nam's Dans Thoda 38 Father 19130 50 Ober 8 41), ert want enon the Admraon 13086152 Fol pp, 8710 See Raa, ‘ac Asa ep 0 fer Mor of the jks, fe AVA, Aft, “Phe Admisitrton af se wert Neos {aed atts, Onna Utes. ‘Thvchong ee os tea eset ffl Bets a aes ‘Shand chsh wee bss sono si eer one ‘Stns apo Th spre i au cer nthe al has Item Dec Rago 815-020) 1191 ‘ogo mrt om ere ofthe Mp Coot conf isla K Ey ss Pad din ak t Ine CC, AP. Ste Active. inte 2 ae 00 The Pe of aly, 7 December 1901, CC, AP. Sine Ahn et Br 19%; Mind, 18 Nh 1898. CCAP Sate Aves The Deca Butane, CCAP Ste Ace. Ths happenin 187, ete you Non nd Dera wate he Det rar Ante tpeseiatve of lath vas iadied We the Noes Secale p18 ‘ars a Der ay ut So yer 193 4 here [Resp oe sda a roma rant Ce Fans a Speco Evans Nowe Sern, Sentra 1907 9.2 acter 884 ea hc nn pot iy Ro 3.00 The ie ‘nee ee 112th Aap, Lin Pes. Na Woh pct he Adar Eee Na Se Str ing ib for Fa 1306 (7598-9), Neca 1898 3 Whe ‘Noro itr Unrated igh ws etn dt te Na five ie lrgetprmanent ensue he Cale: Aan oe {Gare Soper is Scat, Pei! Head 2 where Fane i ‘Abarat nd Bere ste Forte yet cand ie Noun Ch se eB Ah [revs an Me Ades of 22 ayo 2 ly 109 Gate a 0 Anat 899 CC, AP. Ste Aes bas Cha 1 a ah 1H, sit hh ined ‘see DB Gli, Hor of Pesan) yaad De) Main, (10 wih heen nly ne Sa Joe Lira. or Metin ee one te Gregus sno Soar Nwar iow) Ce A ste Ase i kad fer he sors to reo HK Sr and Roy Nita Neyo. apn nes iin oF Meshes kava ates Witte or Mtb mo eens Rae Hine Ut A fr tee ‘We're ss ne tpn ae Zeenth Fal, Zahm, Deanap ssh orleans org! nt capa mela meet Samad Abr aban Biss, ML nd arenes ae sip, oO 4 Leino Pe cone teen Sed A At ds ans Sree sa ete tc bhi pb 34-T5 Fae arinerptras dag pli te om poses Kanani Momo oft Hrd ee {eer bnay, B71 sur et Geen fe Lea ‘Aika taco. 88, Bia atte ie rntmeoit Regine pst mae 1 sun a ay tats soe vais Tiki. oth 1.9 tea. 278 sean Sherwin The soot he Lge’ athsie ‘one Buena Chang nd 1-08 ia ‘ur Burne Sous emp te two Gace he Shi et eg and apse pare Piet of Patino Rep 28-3: Sera "Eoon ofthe nso onan, Vp 2842780, Rahren Ran Msafie emo, Va 272 poi Beco Ree eters fia seed the eeCaStnentt caring nt hese marie Poe rapa Viera tien tnacinet22 05st ramet ecuiin then ep oe pela 2S atest HIT 17, onsen eprom 11 he ab Ini nie Soe) Face fom Hees, AP Sie Asie ire ouput aroton the Ae Soca renee (eeS80 in te te Oe ery. rate eC 8 ee. 18 errs Mato 9 cig ers et lt, 0 A 6: Pernt ee Are Sony Tegan 888). ete "as ramen tpt ti Hort vin,Seperate nee dai {ciy bc frida ad may Prmet ablerand ofa were tena, an ey pT ap Rha {arama Gays Pesan Cpa ays Po he ‘rapa ie hana ome mint Gant port he putin ofl Hn Comme Plished The Conumanal Probie fyrbed, na (1935) Thea he ‘Sat Arena rt donbatne re Soma {citopgns Buh (oe nh onc aad [lan indent men Soma Fb, Hosea 98) ‘etc eae on tenon en ‘gee pyre 10. 28 Sait hf wh snd ha pe mings ed it pncrment pn’ Pe ace Chat, cy oot ‘Geatranis tan timan peso laertnenctee weet, Forse ein BA {rand Vig 21-3 Rao, ‘Dewi Repo (112-1922. 6 08 Fa he wb a a ‘SF ce fa 4, 9 pa a,aet “Splneibyhewancoreeeton the popoenesee ‘Shain ota poe prmest eee alot ‘ihe BconcAp ee Ae be Ms prt Re at ade Ao eT pe tet the pre thon oink py Has al Chr, eso ‘ie tt erga hh i 106, 0 us inn St Aa yr Hane Ses. Nea, 197. tment 3a emer LAs Aces, selec chit Sccuut ime err inter ei, cwspndec ton perme epi in oun sea 1p Bc Ie nteaon cA 1920, the Gene, V1 Aga 920 Mtn Rese trite na Offs Libary, A206 ‘Sauna ren Pct Te reprton Me Cale ch ‘Secitinte orcrnment sine Nem Cape toe bot 5tece Makan to pout lps Mads, Bets Pons. an ‘Eevioc a ere su gah mein ecto Sesbernads con, Reread Tang of Bet ClitSeratso {na 00-1860 son Aon aerate ste. 87-10, {eva of Washay wit net oe LS. ‘ew hey endevonr a fel members en Crete Fen 912-109) p 101-20 Srv The Onna Very Pi the ikaw’ Conn or Tastes, Hrind ey {of Mow iu are ton Nl and 20 FO ‘Nr tadpenottsgos AE om ae Icon wr Motenned Ki of th Durant 0 ‘Omni fay Mahara, caret Pern a Tatvegn stesso fom Peter FURS hd Prete abner a Sen and Roy Mato Sar i 19 ‘Heivan! Us aoe Sb Rar agai ed ater fs Dect ‘rin poe sean anu ommsemere th Osta ‘er Maumee Qu Goh Sah posted ths tune See [ide "The bec yes Ol Hera sri Ey ‘Mion! of ie Paton Hire Sey, Ocbe 197.2518 ‘The sm ane te pg Waiter et Se A an Mune Oss memset Mate, eho 8. Mtn The oF be Bombay, 18 Scene Hh ais Re, Aumont | Urn Fy Awe of rnp. 55-8. ‘Rtn ems Care SL Ap 939, 24 ced wo res ASiins Upon raion, it alg ony seen tee ‘Stout te Ml Shean Ub See rnc nog] aoa ‘cl Ceny asain, Pwo Pisin, ee ‘Tl civics pana 193 Analects Incas whe Conon thes Deyanisimsareesnse clea Seng arittiekennee Sese me ‘Re eay spe ade Clr, VI 3, Jy 1988p 2848 hte may Und popes ft Se aha Toe ai ua of sin 4 pert, 1,(dmg vrai Rep Saas Nan, Be Taringa SNC! Lehn, Rinptoof Yer, Landon 185. hve Bo 8 “Theamacionpubteda que as, nner» Minor Io" Eater 38-Desm Chess 2 rater Tose Une ytd Roose ‘othe enn othe Leaps lal ca pes Crm th Sie fr Uaioe ti Pope Some flora td tes made ee Hyer to pale te Soe ors snr secton CS Ken Farppie Yow «Rebel, Hysham 983) pp O48, Abas ‘Sam tynbed Sn Bonbon. 9. 207. sie vara ey fe The wton fom primate Gum gun ony ‘ren mse alo Dset e,age stot Ain neo Un (No ln wana wn eed Rapp So- mtv frte lenges Fath ho Stern The Bolu of the Legon, Sod Jon], Head ere ‘One thee conic ons hd een he Ratton Candee, whe ‘ier hn at pv rt vod xf Tia 85-4 Repo ender Tit erento fe po ‘nl nmin, ch eed wey mie! by he Hern ne Inc he oped Cans: nts be pl a hay te oa Ite sted ste dso ey frac ‘hoover tla of te fap p30 Ug etd i ee i, Pa Hee, 1g "hor Deseo Petal Reine’. 31-2. Teme ep om aie Sern’ patho Snes orem on Dono Chon 32 My TaN pa econ Chr 18 My 1988 fe con Chon 23 My 938,916 7 Avg 938, 9.46. Forte chic ati conten Bacon Cho, 1 Joe 8 p10. Decain Cnt 2 Ne 1938 p13. 9 aber 138, 2 The prs Sherwell te Lepit’ p484, The iso of he Reforma Commie 1838, Hyer 18, pred lor ‘represen scr tec, sual soa ‘Netgear prop, nddvemdnenben wold scoot a Tdi Satcher ete he mane ‘Soran ea hemo ott ety Hin mentor. ‘Se Rema Tih, Fn Cin Toe, Pons, £940, pe ursondcce bine the Ste Congres nd the, gpreromen: Ht elgg Sal Pare Sout p17 $e Ms p81, Sm. rtd Sage, 9. SS. 7. ‘Teh Mote 7 3 Dac Chee 38 Oca 138 mn useing df nies Sucre To oma pp. slg Hyerabd Ro. re ov ear fom Hrb y Ffm hyAth ‘Tat, Memo, pp 100-13 orth telaowip to Grey Salam, es ig sinh evn ‘Becon Chic ¢ Dusen hep. 9-10,4o¢ Mov bane. 2 Sra ig hh ot 8 ee a Flan Sg ne roa, 956,1¥ 9.196 cst we (the tnd teppei Coors aed Lothian, Kingdoms of {cy release Wchad athe Cores of vans pest hem Ont Deca hrc response osteo the aopb, ‘Stun sston sh Now fun be Det Si peta: Min Tage St Hew shed a. Hye aap Fone mac Sih yen nl ep Aw Xe. senon he Sr fe neon fie on Se Ra. 18H, fEttsind Nong, seed Revoec 1. Mitrih Reken Recta Ui specs 1 Ap 1939, Sab ‘uj hr Kaen wed he sect mo shee Relos PHOPLE, PRINCES AND PARAMOUNT POWER: eLenien’ Avion, rt om Be peleaons fe the preemny ama Dse ne e 151 Uae an a ir ie Ma ie Yo a pte BARODA 3 ‘The Structure of a Progressive’. State DAVID HARDIMAN 1 ‘Baro had eptation forbeingone of the mst progressive of the Thuan tates Hain avance of Bish India i any elds of ‘terial progress. Even today, many people who ive in what use Tobe Barna sate sigh nostalgia forthe days when the Gaikwad Fae However one needs to ask what kid of person preferred the ‘Bava Re, ity Baya was ahead of British India in some respects ut lagging i athens especial nthe Held of representa tive goverment. This chapter wll examine a few espects ofthe ‘heii an poitcvo! Bars state during the twobundsed years of iteexstence Our nai isk willbe to map cut the soca alliances On| depended, and owe this analysis 40 thro. ight on political developments within the sate " “The rise of the Gaikwad family date from the early eighteenth cou when it priced twa able wartrds, the father and son, Pai and Damnaji Gaikwad atthe time when Maratha power as texjning most rapidly. The family. which was of minor agricul fal este, came fom the area around Foon, where they served as Wille bed, Piaji Gaikwad hepan hiseareerasan officer in the Maratha arty in consi of bout ity horsemen, fn 1722, he ranage To forge several clover and effective alliances between Nis ‘Maratha war-band and some focal Gujrat powers, against the Mughal viceroy of Gujarat, These alianes led vo tte Gujrat war OF 1724-5, in which the Mughals were defeated. although not Aven rom Gujarat, Pls beens was consolidated ver the next forty years by hi ans Damaji Gikwad. However the Peshwa in Poona onthe cain hal ie revenues Guta, and Fnebly reverted the Gaikwad fom becoming its unchallenged eer, "Riter Domaji eed in 17682 succession sale followed between