LISHING IN TEXTILES Handbook of nonwovens Edited by S. J. Russell85573-952-6) ISBN-10% Th year from textiles Gnctug $8 . and environmental ee Py e m he waste is recycled instead of bee | tely ten million tonnes of textile vat . Recycling in textiles ig h Be hice, rocencs an ‘now looking for ways (0 recycle their textile wage? 1573-951-8) ess ny of its 34 billion square < printing, but developments in the digital Printing for the textiles market. This collection gives full cover in digital textiles printing, It is divided into four pay printer software, digital Printing coloratiyg digital printing. It contains fundamental technigy defined as those which react to exterior 9 together recent research in the area, Te in Overview chapter followedby ‘is on phase chromic and conductive to know more about the inteligestHandbook of nonwovens Edited by S. J. Russell,= RUS pained from authentic and highly re with permission, and SOUFCeS are indicared, a information, but the authors ang gay esponsibility forthe validity ofall materials. Neither the ssa TP ae essciaed with this publication, shall be ible y's" “revit directly or indirectly caused or alleged t0 be caused by tie ter this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any fom mie or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recap, 8% Tee ‘storage of retrieval sysiem, without permission in writin, ‘Publishing Limited. consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend t0 copying jog nor promote, fer eeating new works, or for resale, Specific perme a ‘be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying. eee Or corporate names may be trademarks or registra tact {or idemification and explanation, without intent to infingeconsolidation Develo re ‘jynamics in alain wed contr practical applications of and historical developments forming Raw materials for wet-laid nonwovens Cellulose fibse preparation “Man-made fibre preparation Web-forming process technology Bonding systems for wet-laid nonwovens Finishing Product applications Sources of further information Poe eteedtvae ohuean PERE © ye ewes « | Synfil Technologies, eg cea USA and S R Meas, aos and meltblowi ic production ansSa 52 33 35 5.6 S.7 58 5.9 5.10 5.1 5.2 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 S17 S18 5.19 5.20 521 ses eg a AND, The Univers DB ity Of Bolton, UK (Sections. Foster Ne * sateulans and G Smacnest Sh ngdle Led, UK (Sections $5" University of Leeds, UI cee K (Sections 34-3 jp 9) Ream. Stitch bondi ing: j i The Manning: introduction Multiknit stitch-bonding systems Recent developments in stitch bonding Needlepunching: introduction Needle design and selection Penetration depth and other factors affecting needle use Needlepunching technology Applications of needlepunched fabrics Hydroentanglement: introduction ‘The principles of hydroentanglement Fibre selection for hydroentanglement Process layouts Hydroentanglement process technology Applications of hydroentangled fabrics Acknowledgements References \ding Thermal bon “ Treeew ee ree sae ee , testing and modelling ‘of nonwoven = TRusséit, University of Leeds, UK (Sections 91-921), Cooperative Research Centre, Ce ed9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 sgtieptbends? pmectconerte ee Py AB Pseermobsatmmsade {ondContributor contact detail Editor Chapter 2 Professor S. J. Russell Alan Brydon (main contact for Nonwovens Research Group Sections 2.1-2.12) School of Design Garnett Controls Lid University of Leeds 3 Water Lane Leeds LS2 9JT Bradford BD1 2. UK UK E-mail: s,j,russell @leeds.ac.uk E-mail: agbrydon@ gamettcontrols.com Chapter 1 Dr Ali Pourmohammadi one Mr Adrian Wilson contact for Sections 2.1 19 Sandal Clift 3rd Floor, No. 23, 6th Steet Sandal Bokharest Avenue Wakefield WF2 6AU UK " A citolk atakaugeet oT ome wi ee twriid Chapter3 weGeorge Swarbrick Foster Needle Limite P.O. Box 7246 wie LEI8 4ww E-mail: sales@f mete Professor S. a for Sections 5.14-5.19,°" School of Nonwovens Group Design Reteag, University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK E-mail: s.j-russell @leeds, accu Chapter 6 Dr Ali Pourmohammadi 3rd Floor, No. 23, 6th Stree Bokharest Avenue Tehran 15146 Tran E-mail: texanp@leeds.acuk Chapter 7 Mr R. A. Chapman 3 The Wardens Kenilworth CV8 2UH UK1 D evelopment of the Nonwovens industry A WILSON Nonwovens Report International, UK 1.1 Definition and classification In defining what a nonwoven is, there is always at least © ti breaks the rule. This is perhaps fitting, since while ices ae nee . its own right, the nonwovens industry has drawn on the practices and know- how of many other more well-established fields of polymer and materials manufacturing with a piratical disregard and an eye to the most diverse range of end-use products, For this reason, itis possible for companies with almost nothing in common, with vastly different structures, raw materials and technologies, areas of research and development and finally, customers to be grouped together under the nonwovens ‘umbrella’. Many would define themselves by the customers they serve, as being in the medical, automotive, hygiene or civil engineering industries, for example. The term ‘nonwoven’ arises from more than half a century ago when. nonwovens were often regarded as low-price substitutes for traditional textiles and were generally made from drylaid carded webs using converted texile processing machinery. The yarn spinning stage is omitted in the oom processing of staple fibres, while bonding (consolidation) of the webby various methods, chemical, mechanical or thermal, replaces the weaving (oF ‘traditional textiles. However, even in the early days ofta us indy ST ‘The illusion cre; he as some ind of site is often true sophisticated, With hea < and parts of the wor, rms of its inVestines opment. reseath an wove Association) defing, “ha oe ‘patt of directionally Orr SS for cohesion andlor adhesion’, bu, ant als from the definition, inch red, wutted oF stitchbonded (incorporating py wetemilin whether or not additionally ens from ‘wetlaid paper materials, the ore than 50% by mass of its fibrous iapeherically digested vegetable fibres fer than 300°. other types of fabric canbe a by mass of its fibrous contents cluding chemically digested vegetable fibres) with a than 300 and its density is less than 0403) im This definition, which forms ISO 9092:1988 and EN 29092, was mos Fly coined prior to the enhancement of plastic film layers which have become broadly incistinguishable from fabrics in modern multi-component ‘or composite nonwovens. INDA, North America's Association of the Nonwoven Fabrics Industry. aoa oes fabries as ‘sheet or web structures bonded together ty Reverie Jute by various mechanical, thermal and/or chemi eee separate Fibres oF Hom mola Wiis at me disposable, for sinning een fabrics that can fom 2 estorcteen use or durable, with ‘measured in sec In practice, the life of a nonwore? vel in sectorsh a iid alu isoe ant emrronet SP Os pec include: 7 tampons tmsksand etsins edn the meg© 12 Euro Classi Hysiene edicalsurgica) 1 Wes. Dersonal care = Des, other = Garments intettinings Hi Shoe teathergoods ts Coating substrates a Upholsteryatie sf linen/housshold Floorcovering Liquid filtration Ait/gas filtration Bulldinghoofing Civil engineers neering/underground Automotive e Source: EDANA origins in textiles, weilaid materials in Papermaking, and polymer-laid products in polymer extrusion and plastics (remembering that there is always at least One ‘exception to the rule). An overview of nonwoven manufacturing technologies is given in Fig. 1.1, 1.2.1 Drylaid nonwovens The first drylaid systems owe much to the ne eae ne medieval times. In the pressed felt industry, cards and w rare to make a batt containing woo! or a wool blend that is sut ety ee (hardened) using moisture, agitation and aoe ae se yrmin; logies used in the nonwovens i speci ae econ hy te from the textile industry and ane sone and garnetting, originat Deiat 1 (aching es the dry state. In drylaid wel i = ane ‘and then bonded i aerodynamically formé ng, and cross-lapping) or vita Tes method ig mechanical, chemical or thermal met a veal), thermal bonding (someti hydroentanglement, stitchbonding (mechanical), as s A themical bonding, ). Fabrics referred to as thermobonding) and cl ved trom the paper ee an Aislaid pp we formation or ends wih ana 869 8 are formed by converting, Msingaras th dispersing ne the traditional absorbent web-forming Zone. the pulp wed random-laid fibres to the applied t0 ic resin bonding agents were Bin process te ailht byaround 8% ay ut on PoCMOM ease ae ement of | a Very low © grow Ronwovens base xs iy the next ten wren ‘Ai ae foe yee ‘8 and by $35 over 122 Wetlaid Nonwovens ing extremely capital intensive and utilising ti of water. In addition to cellulose papers, technical rea oe Performance fibres such as aramids, glass and ceramics are produced. 1.2.3 Polymer-laid nonwovens Polymer-laid or ‘spunmelt’ nonwovens including spunbond (spunlaid), meltblown, flash-spun, apertured films as well as layered composites of these materials, are manufactured with machinery developed from polymer extrusion. In a basic spunbonding system, sheets of synthetic filaments are extruded from molten polymer onto a moving conveyor as a randomly orientated web in the closest approximation ae i i demand has on average’ fabric operation. Global spunmelt demand ha ae ee annum in recent years and it now has an estim: a global ‘nonwovens industry. Speen eae soe: spanmett distribution layers and leg-cuffs account —_ (65% of hygiene production, of which spunmelt materials account further to at least 72% i to rise still product components, and this is expected ing years. originated by fibre producers Most ofthe first spunbonding str pc in France and Frevenbert such as DuPont in the USA, the first to successfully commercialise i usc io eRe te choles at LoweSreater than 300, or more than 30% fibre content for materials with a density less than 0.40 pcm". This definition excludes most wetlaid glass fibre constructions which sectors of the industry would class as. nonwovens. The use of the wetlaid process is confined to a small number of companies, being extremely capital intensive and utilising substantial volumes of water. In addition to cellulose papers, technical papers composed of high- performance fibres such as aramids, glass and ceramics are produced. 1.2.3 Polymerlaid nonwovens i ‘ ynd_(spuniaid), Polymer-laid or ‘spunmelt” nonwovens including. spunbor n meltblown, flash-spun, apertured films as well as layered composts a these materials, are manufactured with machinery developed ie pol 7 = extrusion. In a basic spunbonding system, sheets of synthetic nla extruded from molten polymer onto a moving conveyor 3% © oe orientated web in the closest approximation penne — fabric operation. Global spunmelt demand has B04 °° in gla i ‘ears and it now has an estimat sa annum in recent y* : i aed nonwovens industry. Hygiene compor Se of spel distribution layers and leg~ c aroun ee oN tion, of which s| ee : 1d this is product components, an a0 fs in the coming yeats- - stems were originated bY rote first spunbonding sy once an Frew ‘Most of the ‘Rhone-Poulene it = cal tin the USA, i to successtully “ such as DuPont ‘as the fit Germany. ‘DuPont is regarded eda a cuted carpet DORR , product. : be spunbonding with is Ty ial spunbonding a engineering the mid-1960s. The fy Ee ayscem develo TY BBA) it i 4 et 1 aes ant ONEBF HandboOR OF rarer Reicot Reifennauser abe 1.3 Devalopmens occ throughout form Technology reer nour por metre of bear) Year kg/hourim of beam bet sores 1985 50 1992 100 Reicofil 2 syster Heat 125 199545 Reicofil 3 system Aer ey 2002 195 5 ‘ 2002 225 ‘Source: Reifenhauser and Kimberly-Clark in the USA. The next major step towards the commercialisation of the spunbond process was the introducy,. Reifenhéuser’s Reicofil system in 1984, which enabled many manufyer toenier the market. The staggering increase in the productivity of spusy machines over time is highlighted in Table 1.3. 1.2.4 Web formation In all nonwoven web formation processes, fibres or filaments ae city deposited onto a forming surface to form a web or are condensed into axes and fed to a conveyor surface. The conditions at this stage can be dry. ve, ‘ormolten— drylaid, wetlaid or polymer-laid (also referred to as spunlaida spunmelt processes). Web formation involves converting staple fibres filaments into a two-dimensional (web) ora three-dimensional web assentiy (batt), which is the precursor for the final fabric. Their structure and compost strongly influences the dimensions, structure and properties of the final fbi The fibre (or film) orientation in the web is controlled during the pxs® ‘MSing machinery adapted from the textile, paper or polymer extrusion indust. ‘The arrangement of fibres in the euepectailly te fibre orientate Al _ otropy of fabric properties and most nonwovens ate anisol"?™ Although itis possible to make direct meas ofthe ie weeDevelopment of the nonwovens industry ® ‘Traditionally, each web-forming system was used for specific fibres or products, although it is increasingly common for similar commercial products to be made with different web formation systems. One example is in the manufacture of highloft nonwovens which can be produced with either @ card and cross- lapper or a roller-based airlaid system. In the hygiene industry, there is an increasing preference for the soft, staple fibre products produced by carding and hydroentanglement in favour of the alternative airlaid and thermal bonded. products. 1.2.5 Web bonding Nonwoven bonding processes can be mechanical, chemical (including latent bonding using solvents) or thermal. Hydrogen bonding is also important in bonding cellulosic webs. The degree of bonding is a primary factor in determining fabric mechanical properties (particularly strength), porosity, flexibility, softness, and density (loft, thickness). Bonding may be carried out 2s a separate and distinct operation, but is generally carried out in line with web formation. In some fabric constructions, more than one bonding process is used. Mechanical consolidation methods include needlepunching. stitchbonding, and hydroentangling. The latter process has grown considerably in popularity over the past few years. In respect of needlepunching, which is most commonly fed by a card and cross-lapper, the world production is in excess of an estimated 1.1 million tonnes of needlefelts of which over 72% used new fibres as opposed to reclaimed or recycled fibres. This sector represents about 35% of total nonwoven: output. It is. ‘estimated that the resage of new fibres in needlefelts exceeds one million tonnes globally, and this is expected to rise by around 16% over the next ten years. Chemical bonding methods involve applying adhesive binders to webs by saturating, spraying, printing, or foaming techniques. Solvent bonding involves softening o pari solvating fibre surfaces with an appropriate chemical to provide | oe autogencously bonded fibres atthe cross-over points. Thermal boning inves the use of heat and often pressure to soften and then fuse or weld 1.2.6 Rew materials10 8 5 te wa %. . i 3 fit to have increased due to ing . peli! cube! rayon is HUE Vet. While the tonnage of a eld remarkably comma a a ; nstant for int jcipated hardly at all in imftases 0 coe 378 Tare by 2000 Was a cate Ss or mt Fin is ste, 1m 1906. the ehanet % ont fF 2 yon SUP wie te price of he synthese a go py 2000 wer? around ty mally bonded. The solvent iy fibre but orl ‘ SPUN celia @ pin iobe easy ‘pereasingly important in the nonwovens: fibre, Lyoeel is Bo mre absorbency and high wet strength. Pol j oa asa rest Othe nonwovens industry. Some of the reason pres ae this include vity enabling lightweight fabrics to be produ, density and specific B13 oe wiyang temperature, which is atractvj . J tow glass transition and thermal bonding is ‘hydrophobicity that ean be ‘other treatments provides fabries with good bulk and cover Paice ably, biological degradation resistance (mildew, perspiration) modified using fibre finishes im ‘mechanical strength and abrasion resistance. Polypropylene is available in a variety of grades and its surface chemist vorbeney, mechanical ee degradation, softness, flame retard colouration : Severed auxiliary chemicals and other treatments To different cross-sectional configuration physical properties of resulting fabrics Properties offers the manufacturers of nono ‘nonwoven fibre for a competitive pactDevelopment of the nonwovens industry 11 web formation and needlepunching, chemical or thermal bonding. Meanwhile, the larger companies, such as Freudenberg, Kimberly-Clark, DuPont, Ahlstrom, Polymer Group Inc. (PGI), BBA and Asahi amongst others have been Fesponsible for major process innovations and have nurtured them to commercial scale. A significant patent estate has also been developed to protect these developments, particularly by Kimberly-Clark. The large-scale production facilities set up by the big companies were highly capital intensive, making it too risky for smaller companies to set up production, certainly of spunlaid, wetlaid, airlaid pulp and hydroentangling businesses. The industry can still be regarded as capital intensive today, when considering that, according to the latest estimates, some 40 companies are responsible for 90% of total global nonwovens sales. When machinery builders, notably Reifenhauser, among others, began to produce “turn-key” production lines capable of making high-quality nonwoven fabrics at competitive costs, the result was further strong growth in the original three regions of the USA, Europe and Japan as new end-markets for nonwoven fabrics developed with the increased fabric supply from new nonwoven producers. At the same time, the industry began to expand globally with ‘many new local producers. Most world regions now have nonwovens production and growth remains high, with many countries still in the early siage of industrialisation. The influence of developments in the man-made fibre industry ‘on the technical progress and economic viability of the nonwovens industry should not be underestimated. 1.3.1 Structure of the merket ‘The latest estimates, taking into account official INDA and aie PIS put the total global nonwovens production at over 33 million _ a ‘Western Europe accounting for around 33%, North eee eae Pacific region 25%, and the remaining 11% produced outsi Ace btlicel ‘The value placed on this production is somewhere between Western Europe‘gf nomen 2 Handbook climbed to th AT cre SS oring 0 inty a mt North Amerie Tonnes in 2000. oa wp for" 964.000 seuorbent ysiene industry is expected we i 4 jn wipes and various airlaid pulp apg. ‘trons jae to 1,004,000 tomes 19 2001 a Nonworen coms es es 04 1 once inten, ting ry nes equates (0 ration square metres. INDA pa body aE erent © ise in tonnage t0 1.355.000 a ‘North American ting an average annual Lats of 63%. Thee ve historical performance, which grey z ‘ear throughout the 1990s. While expen ge rate of abou Brera fe expected 10 be modest, strong grog the absorbent hye w aislaid pulp applications. INDA adds tha Square meure demand By the vonsumer and industrial wipes markets ry Guring 2001 over the previous ‘year, following many new ¢ . aati product niroductions during ihe previous two years. Wirsaas for retail sales of about $2 Dillion ‘and the growth forecast for the visa fadusty is 6-7% per year to 2006, There is growing use of the sili wp ved (spunlaced) nonwoven technologies by this market Far East In 2001 total nonwovens output in Japan fell for the first time since 19975, around 5%, to just under 300,000 tonnes, according to figures released ip the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). The value! this production is put at Yen 190.4 billion (€1.57 billion). There is ec ‘trend Japanese companies of moving production to other AS Z in Korea also fell, though by just 1%, 10 3068 ‘Diylaid production dominates Korea's nonwovens indi ‘more than 70% of total production. According 10 the Koss ry Co-operative, there are now 262 production isi being spunbond and/or metblown. From an oulps i ion reached 350,001modern Produ Erowth, itis necesea: OR I consider worker incom ee Chi ‘Market's poten ie, We a about ten times as oe VME disposable ee of Chinese skilled 3 SUPPLY Of Wester styic nee 25 Hey do in Bene fomecare sat apne = eae a Sema equines Ze OPE the USA Aare wtevertheless, this marker ie ell fet Chinese secretry'sinene figure is bewween 1 + the wage : P¥esent Overall, there are Middle East The Middle East represents only between 4 and 5% of global production, most of it in Israel. There has been significant investment in new spurbond, airlaid and thermal bonding facilities in the region. Mercosur . and Figures show that the Mercosur ee Uruguay produce a total of 88,000 tonnes of nonwor oe spunbonds are the majority, followed by carded-thermal a oe Bear imports 11,000 tpa and exports 10,000 tpa, giving Aeon crt aa ‘of nonwovens — about one-tenth of the Seo oets See fore enormous. For nappies, for example, ee potential jue z the age of two.and nappy oa ee eee ea salee ten million children eth oe ey market weit 1h than 30%. At the same time, fall by 18% in recent years. shes amaket ee ae petjoverap ~~ ~ nn aig factured by the © ces the to Bt a mens psuleaney th $40 bi ion. Disposables we ss og 5 companies (2004) ~ apsortent top nonwoven 2004 Sales $1.4 billion $1.25 billion $1.15 billion $1 billion $845 million $827 million $580 million, $265 million $226 million $197 million $191 million $176 million $175 million $170 million $162 million $160 million $158 million $187 million $145 million $140 million $139 million $128 million $127 millionDevelopment of the nonwovens industry 15 have now penetrated about 15% of the total available market, of 41% of the major geographic markets. Nappies and training pants amounted billion or 84 billion units, tampons, sanitary napkins and ‘i yee worth $16 billion or 160 billion units (the tampons. socoutitng fo 16 Bison units) and there were 12 billion adult incontinence products. sold -a mmtst worth $5 billion, The industry consumed 36 billion square metres of coverstock, 3.3 million tonnes of pulp, 1.1 million tonnes of SAP and 500,000 tonnes of barrier film. Of a nappy maker's total manufacturing revenue, 40% is spent ‘on raw materials. 14 Key companies According to the American magazine Nonwovens Industry, the total combined estimated sales of the top 42 nonwovens companies accounted for more than 90% of total global nonwoven sales. Within this top 42, “the many companies investing capital within their businesses, whether new ‘production machinery, new plants or the acquisition of smaller companies, considerably outweighed more negative factors such as plant closings and financial troubles’. The ‘companies are listed in Table 1.4. ‘Each company is ranked on the basis of their 2004 sales figures, but the top five players, while encountering fluctuating fortunes, have remained at the helm for many years. The top five companies have achieved nonwoven ules of over €3 billion approaching half of the total sales of the top 42 mranufacturers, These 42.companies control 90% of the nonwovens indust and significantly just five companies control half of that. ‘ ares th te aS capa sige ievoiore ¢50 mm. and colour blends. Multi-roll openers, Pickers or fine openers commonly suffice for other applications. Fine ‘openers provide efficient in-line opening for fibres up to about 100 mm length. Such machines are arranged horizontally or vertically and are incorporated in feeding units and chutes as well as blending hoppers (sce Figs 2.3 and 2.4). In chute feed systems, a pair of feed rollers presents fibre to a revolving opening roller that is clothed with either pins or coarse card wire. A secondary chute with delivery rollers that feed a finely pinned opening roller operating with a high surface speed follows this. Examples are shown in Fig. 24. Single roll openers are frequently suitable for opening polyester whereas mulii-roll opener may be used to open bleached cotton or viscose rayon where the tults are more heavily entangled. One of the most important considerations in opening is the state or condition of the incoming fibre in 423 Schematic of « Fea (courtesy of OMMI. tatyesent OPEN! with pneumatic doting terms of fibre entanglement and ; reduced atthe expense of unwanted fe tess sal ning ok fibre damage. gradual opening using a sequence of opening units (rather than one single unit) is required to progressively reduce the tuft size. Based on this stepwise approach, in which 2 sequence of opening units is wed, & theoretical optimum opening curve has been proposed (see example in Fiz. 25) ‘As well as the design of the feed system and the number of opening rollers used, the type of clothing. pin density or blade frequency. eause settings and surface speeds are also varied according to the fibre opens required and the incoming tuft size. The most mienekt and achieved by presenting fibge to the opener 1005" OF oe aical tuft Sze Clamped feed rollers rathes than by an sirsweam. The TNS caer after each stage of opening can be estimated = jinear density- ¥ design, feed rate and fibre/linear soto average tat Sie by z that decreasing xing of the diferent progressive fibre separation fibre components because the Span in size impurities are more BKS1 fore cai srdvantageous toremove such IMP 7 the life of the card cloming and 2 i ner 334: Disc ope! ae 29 in The dise irae “jeawn throu“41 Fully spiked roller 42 Coarse saw tooth roller 4.3, Medium saw tooth roller ‘4.4 Fine saw tooth roller 5 Mote knife 6 Fixed carding segment 0) 2.4 Opening machine variants and integrated feeding and fibre } opening units; (a) mu ) single roll open (c) universal opener: (d) blending hopper with universal (e) feeding unit with single roll opener; (f) feed trunk with universal opener (courtesy of Tritzschler GmbH, Germany). the fibre enters the expansion chamber it makes contact with & high-speed — rotating dise that is studded with stainless steel pins. The pins drag the fibye across a stationary, pinned plate and the opening takes place between the pins on the plate and those on the disc. Fibre then continues within the airflow, and is transported out of the machine via the exit chamber. 2.4 Mixing and blending Different fibre types, grades or dimensions are blended either ‘obtain particular combination of physical properties in the final fabric or for reasons to minimise cost. In some sectors, such as the manutactre needlepunched floorcoverings, stock dyed or spun dyed fibres are ‘create specific colour and shade effects, Clearly, the mixing in seh |Dry-laid web formation 25 Opening degree Theoretical tuk weight oo t pen For pinned rollers: . umber of fibres per minute (F/min) ‘Speed of roller (1pm) x surface area of roller (orn) x points/em? For beater rollers: __ Sumber of fibres per minute (F/rin) N blows per minute (B/min) mass of fibre per minute (m/min) x 10° (min) = aD fibre linear density (mtex) x average fibre length (em) collar speed (pm) Bimin = number of blades or pins on roller » Examples: calculation of N for different rollers 1, Three bladed 2. Multibiaded 3. Pinned 1560 rpm 1000 rpm 1000 rpm < 600m See ae (49,368 teeth on roller) & exw ae oe -8x10" 2400 ie ee 0 = 1000 7ee0 « 48.355 (evsuming a feed rate of 6 x 10" fibres per ‘minute? ib) : ive fibre opening across 2.5 Opening sequence for fibres! (a) progressi pene of T series of fibre opening units: (courtery fi, Beery tb) fibres per blade tooth26 Handbook of nonwovens 2.6 Disc opener (courtesy of J Stummer Konstruktion, Germany). must be homogeneous throughout the entire batch to minimise shade variations, Although most fibres utilised in nonwovens are not dyed, adequate mixing is _ still important because of the fibre variation within bales as well as bale-to- bale. Visual assessment of blending is not reliable because most of the blends appear white, Bale-to-bale variations occur in respect of crimp frequency (crimps/cm), fibre finish application level and fibre entanglement. Fused, co- terminus ends and cutting problems experienced by the fibre producer are sometimes evident in bales, which can impact fibre processing performance, Clearly, the properties of a nonwoven fabric are fundamentally a function of the blend composition and itis therefore important that the blend componenis are consistently in proportion to minimise variations and to ensure product specifications are achieved. Poor blending leads to various processing and quality problems. i When one component constitutes a small proportion of the total blend, for example <10%, ensuring a uniform distribution can be problematic Microprocessor controlled dosing systems assistin this regard, Nevertheless. where a particular blend component is a very small proportion of the tith for example in some thermal bonding applications using fusible fibres, PI blending of that component with one or more of the other components. 6 sometimes carried out. The pre-blended, sub-component can then be used a single component in the final mix, resulting in a more thorough. throughout the entire blend, Where small component sizes are2.4.1 Multi-hopper systems A multiple hopper arra ; “tnt we rn at least one component must be uniformly mined nn ame Or where The hoppers can either be conventional in design, being fed wom ence series of bale breakers, or may be consiucted as ble beakers wthawehing device attached to each (5 a (See Fig. 2.7). The hoppers typically weigh the fibre and drop the dosed weights onto a cross conveyor that runs perpendicular to the hopper feeders. In some cases, where production is particularly high. volumetric chute-feed hoppers are used, Increasingly, muli-bopper systems utilise microprocessor control to feed a pre-determined weight of fibre tothe cross conveyor. The individual weights of fibre are synchronised to ensure that the cross conveyor receives a correctly proportioned blend. The conveyor then feeds the fibre to the next machine in line, which is usually an opener. In some cases, multiple weigh systems have weigh pans that are fed by slos rather than individual hoppers. 2.4.2 Metal detection i etal abject ‘Accidental contamination of the fibre by a variety of common me such as wire, screws, card clo! hing, small machine parts, spikes from conveyors,28 Handbook of nonwovens and any number of unusual objects sometimes occurs. Comsequentty necessary to incorporate metal-detection devices in blending systems aq as at the feeding section of cards, The consequences of allowing megp enter a.card in terms of damage and lost production are serious. The sims. form of metal detection is the ‘magnetic hump" which is fitted with magnets to catch stray metal objects. The unit is fited in-line within ge ductwork that conveys the fibre. In-line diverting devices detect metal ductwork by electronic means. When metal is detected a signal is g by a microprocessor, which opens the duct to divert the contaminated to a holding bin where the metal can be manually removed and the fgg recovered. Many hopper feeders have a row of magnets mounted above ig spiked apron, Meial-detection devices can be fitted above the card fea apron or integrated into the card feed rollers. Because of the fine setting between the feed rollers, any metal that passes though the feed roles, comes into contact with both rollers and completes a circuit that triggers ap emergency stop either to the feed section or the entire card. 2.4.3 Fibre lubrication and spray systems Although fibre lubrication is not universally used by the nonwovens i because fibres are delivered ready for processing by the man-made fibre supplier, it is sometimes desirable to apply additional liquid to a blend. This may be a lubricant in the case of natural fibres, or an auxiliary such as an anti-static agent. Spray systems accurately dose and apply such additives directly onto the fibre. In some cases, the addition of water alone is en effective processing aid. Water can be sprayed during the blending and opening stages of processing or on-line using an atomiser to apply a fine mist prior to carding. | | 244 The influence of moisture content ‘Moisture is important both in respect of fibre processing performance ati the properties of the final fabric. Some hydrophobic fibres, particularly polyest* and polypropylene are prone to static electricity during carding, which becom’ | most evident when the relative humidity is low. This can lead to problems i handling lightweight webs. The fibre breaking strength of cotton i as the moisture content increases, whereas for viscose rayon and most hygroscopic fibres the reverse is true, The extension at break of hygroscopic fibres as well as frictional properties are also affected by: in moisture content. Hydrophilic fibre finishes are applied to man-made fibres, to improve wetting out during hydroentanglement -as to control static in carding. There are also important economic cons _in relation to moisture content, particularly whereDryaid web formation simply measure and repo nt, giv ian toes He Biving alarms when the moisture contem drif or the Automatic re ley can effect automatic control hydration = ydration is achieved by throughput speed. The moisture content can ales bee nenea notte also be controlled by automatic temperature adjustment in the di iryer. In the moist ca bbc 3 h ne er t roughput. and the reduction of static, wher fvon one ¥y weight, itis clearly important to-ensure that the eomest moteurs content at the correct moisture content ismainaied For example, hygiene products suchas coton won are produced ie ‘0 @ Specific invoice weight. This packed weight is theseto made oP ofthe fibre aswell an allowable anc of absobed ame Ass Be te ‘ere moisture contol ie ineades fee giene p . medical products, absorbent wipes, backing for floorcoverings, hydroentanglement installations and some thermal bonding applications. 2.4.5 Blending hoppers and self-emptying bins ‘The traditional method of batch blending involves suecessive horizontal layering of the entire blend (composed of many bales) to form a block or “stack” and then vertical slicing to produce small tufts and a homogeneous blend. The same principle is used in automatic blending bins. Semi-continuous and continuous blending are also common in the nonwove industry, where the production line allows blending between only & few bales (10 tonnes). Blending hoppers allow ‘continuous mixing. Fibre is fed into the machine ae oa telescopic or fixed rotary Fstributor and is deposited into horizontal 'ay : ‘ io par small Satins capacity blending bins, @ Lae me ual the fibre in the direction of @ revolving spiked pa ee ae slices from the fibre and discharges it Pre ely como ed to optimise (Fig. 2.8). The movement of the floor is te voile ama throughput, preventing feeding ale jane HOOD emptying bins work on a si i bed and are they allow a much larger blend en tis ase, the in empuiet MON batch rather than continuol® js deposited into bch te hd are om ht Bimusing a telescopic tO oa a spiked apron removes ‘moves progress! a spiked Per oe empeing remove the fibre “30 Handbook of nonwovens _ 7. Cleaning roller 1. Separator 2. Blanding hopper bet ale 3. Distribution laps sommencs ee 4. Feed lattice °C iy 5. Light barriers 11. Condenser 8. Spiked lattice 2.8 Blending hoppers (courtesy of Tritzschler GmbH, Germany |. Fibre feed funnel Closing flap Mixing chamber Feed duct u |. Blending duct 0. Suction funnel 2.9 Multimixer (courtesy of Triitzschler GmbH, Germany). 2.4.6 Multimixers ‘An example of a multimixer is shown in Fig, 2.9, which incorporate of individual silos into which fibre is altemately fed, The size of variable depending on the desired i horizontal slicing of the blend is} Os mO¥Al of fies fom the bottom of each sile conveyors ‘a MiOrYHaid wet formation 3 niform and continug SOnUMUOUS flow he ‘quired (© provide Quah the system, butter zor quired (0 provide interim MOFARE. These usually ey eet Zones silos with de Nese Usually take the form of automated fi 4Is0 common in fully blending and carding 16 enseqe Pee machine. Where a umber ar Hut also continuous Pees dS are ry common to utilise automatie { ng bale to final fabric. A nonwoven line must be fed with a continuous « that feeds the card ut additional supply when the level o fi plants such a supply ma opening line, with a diverter or distrib “propriate card tine, In high-production mang facturing plants there may be specifically designated, self-empty; 18 Storage chambers that take the form of self-emptying bins or silos with delivery rolls. Such reservoirs supply fibre to the card lines on demand ‘and in turn are supplied by the blen ling and opening equipment. The advantage of such systems in large operations is that the storage capacity can be utilised for a particular blenat type to ensure an adequate supply for a given number of cards, whilst the ‘opening equipment can be utilised for preparing other blends for different lines, Come direct from the blending and m device directing the fibre flow to 2.4.8 Cleaning systems With some exceptions, fibre cleaning is not widely used by be sree industry, Natural fibres such as cotton are generally purchase a cleaned form, and for medical applications, bleached cotton is ue aR ning machines can perform a mechanical cleaning function ite pias ‘a ee the opening rollers or beaters is replaced with ae ie Aen grid so that vegetable or mineral impurities cane ne pee fibre by gravitation or centrifugal bo paational een ‘mas available to combat impurities pce dacs eure lass channel th whch Colour cameras are positioned at eac directly after an opening machine the fibre is directed. This is ideally situated di open sie, A tees ofa when the fibre is mixed with air and aod to remove contaminants ozzes operating across the aoe a Suchysemare al Wore fibre is directed through a separate exindi tT re used aTChute from a fine opening mach, Rectangular fibre transport duct Inspection chaft Upper and lower illumination tut Contaminants collection chute Air valves Colour cameras 2.10 SCAN-e-JET system for the automatic detection and removal of foreign matter in fibre processing lines (courtesy of H. Hergeth GmbH, Germany). 25 Carding: working and stripping principles Parallel-laid webs in which the fibres are preferentially orientated in the machine direction are produced directly from carding and related processes, Normally, one or two webs (depending on machine design) are produced by the card and transported to the next process in line. This may be a bonding Process in the case of ‘straight-through’ systems or a lapping process (e.g., cross-lapping), which produces cross-laid webs. Alternatively, multiple webs from more than one card arranged in sequence may be continuously deposited onto a common conveyor to produce a multi-layer, parallel-laid web ready for the next process. The purpose of carding is to disentangle and mix fibres to form a_ homogeneous web of uniform weight per unit area. This is carried out ina series of fibre opening and layering actions accomplished by the interaction of toothed rollers situated throughout the carding machine. The terminology used to describe specific operations and machine parts varies in different sectors of the international nonwoven and textile industries, but the fundamental process is universal. The subject of carding is one that is widely debated, often misunderstood and which has traditionally been viewed as more of an art than a science. There is no doubt that significant skill and experience is required to successfully produce the perfect web, if indeed such an icon exists, yet the basic principles of carding are few, and well worth the time it takes to understand them. For the purpose of this section, carding is broke! down to its basic fundamental principles in order to explain and illustrate the interactions that take place within a card. Essentially, the principles of carding can be largely explained in just two basic actions, The first and most bi ‘of carding is ‘working’ and the second is ‘stripping’. AnDrystai ws Of these {WO core’ principtes. ad 10 an Fl IME Of the entire Te Principles wit} process, which is essential eee ro ssentially a su r ripping y seton of “Working” and “war ; and “st that are derivatives of the fundamental x YY incidental acti principles. seioas basic principles of carding, Fig. 2.11. The cylinder is the he: G “onfiguration as shown in dsb es ang epee ek tc the perimeter Of the cylinder have both a carding aad mineg fracion © proportion of the fibre passing through the machine is delayed as it revelvee on the surface of the workers and stippers before being returned to the cylinder. The doffer rollers condense and remove fibre from the cylinder in the form of a continuous web. A proportio mn of the circulating fibre is not removed by the doffer and is recycled by the cylinder to be combined with the fresh fibre that is continuously fed to the cylinder. Therefore, during carding both fresh (uncarded) fibre and recycled (carded) fibre circulates on the cylinder in various proportions depending on machine configuration and settings. This contributes to the mixing power of the card. Worker Stipper ing machine:34 Handbook of nonwove 2.5.1 Principle of working th on a worker roller directly The points of the »ppose the points of cylinder teeth in a point-to-point relationship (Fig. 2.12). The worker reyoyt in the opposite rotary direction to that of the cylinder but because the bottom, of the worker is set closely to the top of the cylinder teeth, the effect je teeth on each roller travel in the same lateral direction at their poin, interaction. The eylinder, being the main distributor of fibre, conveys fig towards the worker and as the fibre passes the worker teeth, some is trapped gn the worker teeth whose surface speed is slower than that of the cylindge Since part of the fibre tuft that is trapped on the worker is also trapped on the ‘ylinder, a separation or carding action takes place as each roller revolves, The efficiency of a worker tooth to collect fibre from the cylinder ishighey When the tooth is empty. When an empty worker tooth enters the are of contact with the cylinder, fibre from the cylinder i: immediately caught ang there is little resistance preventing the fibre iaken by the worker. Asthe tooth fills with fibre, resistance increases due to the build up of fibre between the teeth and consequently, the efficiency with which the teeth can accumulate fibre is reduced. When worker rotation is slow, a high loading of fibre on the Workers is clearly visible. Because of this, itis often wrongly assumed that slow workers promote better carding (ie., if the worker has collected s0 much fibre it must be very efficient). In fact the opposite is true. Assuming the cylinderspeed is constant, the efficiency of a worker generally increases as its speed increases. This is because a higher worker speed results in mote empty teeth being presented to the cylinder at the are of contact per unit time, and these empty teeth are free to collect fibre from the cylinder, Slow workers, on the other hand, take longer to recirculate the fibre back Onto the cylinder and therefore spread the fibre they have caught over @ 2:12 Diagram of worker to eylinder action, fyDrvtaid web formation 35 greater area. This results: s area. This resulisin More efficient mixing. tn su promote more efficient carding, whiteal antares Usually a balance of the two facta Fe tet Workers provide better mixing ewerkey S required, which multiple worker-st i 1 is feasible piven the MPPSt Pairings available on a fullsize nonmee eo 2.5.2 Principles of stripping Once tapped by the Worker the fibre'is carried around as the roller rotates Dotoce ie. Worker teeth are respcetcaled ia te oytindad he Mreceee removed. otherwise the worker will continue to collect fire until t became role of the stripper is io remove fibre from the worker and to re-present that fibre back onto the cylinder (cee Fig. 2.13), To do this efficiently the teeth of the stripper must interact with the back of those on the worker. In tum, the fibre is removed from the stripper by the teeth on the cylinder whose points interact with the back of those on the stripper. Therefore, there is an initial ‘working’ action between the worker and the cylinder, then a stripping action between the stripper and the worker, followed by further stripping action between the cylinder and the stripper. This series of actions represent the fundamental operational function of a carding machine. It is by @ succession of such interactions that fibee is progressively. “worked” and ‘stripped’ within a carding machine until the fibres are so uniformly distributed and individualised that a homogeneous web can be formed. full and can no longer work’. The 2.5.3 Interaction between card rollers bencath the As shown in Fig. 2.13, fibre presented to a ae other side om ‘The reason the stripper corresponding stripper.36 Handbook of nonwovens when carding longer fibres. If the stripper is situated behind the rather than in front of it, the transfer of fibre from cylinder, to from worker to stripper and subsequently back to cylinder would Stille carried out. and a degree of working would indeed take place. Howesey, because of the short linear distance between the pick-up points of the and stripper, fibres longer than this distance could be trapped by both rollen, | of the worker is hecause this would adversely affect fibre Sarai. Parti Wore, at the same time leading to fibre breakage or rolling, which Tesults in pep | formation. By positioning the stripper at the other side of the worker, the | worker is able to draw the full length of a fibre away from the cylinder thas separating the incoming fibre bundles, and straightening the fibres before prefenting the fibre back to the cylinder via the stripper. A further argumes is that by changing the relative positions of the worker and stripper, and at the same time changing the direction of the worker, a satisfactory may be achieved that would carry out the same carding function but without “epresenting fibre to the same worker, However, in such a case, the fibre se pisventedto the next worker in line and although overall, less re-presentaion of fibre to the same workers takes place, this also leads to reduced fibre Working, Moreover, in that situation, the teeth of the worker travel in an pPesing direction to those on the cylinder and the worker needs to be driven against the opposing force of the cylinder. This leads to higher energy Expenditure because of the large mechanical forces placed on the mache drives, rollers and card clothing. This is particularly disadvantageous in the early stages of carding where the fibre bundles are entangled. By rotating the teeth away from those on the cylinder, the worker effectively yields to the force of the cylinder. More importantly, the force between the two rollers, ‘can be controlled by adjusting the worker speed. Asan example, where fibre loadings are to be reduced by increasing the worker speed and hence an increase in the number of fresh empty worker Points presented Operating in the reverse directioncaught by the worker is simultaneously helg neo Patt of the fibre tuft fibre is presested torthe Worker by the ee idby the cylinder. Thus each ime the many successive separations er meet eee SPaCation carding. The following elements are additional and manipulate or consolidate the fibre. ee 2.6 Roller operations ‘The function of a doffer is to remove or ‘doff’ fibre from the cylinder and to produce a continuous web (see Fig. 2.14), The easiest way to understand the doffing action is to consider it as a large-diameter worker. The tooth direction as well as the direction of rotation is the same as that of a worker. But38 Handbook of nonwovens Whereas the function of a worker is to “work the fibre, to break tin banen aand return it via the stripper to the same cylinder a te of a doffer is to consolidate it into a web structure so that it can be Femovey inthe form of a web. The essential difference between a doffer and. worker is that the dofter accepts fibre from the cylinder and conveys it away, re-circulating the fibre tothe eylinder using a stripper. The doffer tome a designed to accept fibre and to hold it efficiently and the dofier is a diameter than a worker creating a greater arc of contact between the and the cylinder. This allows more efficient fibre transfer as well Promoting the formation of fibres into a web. Generally, as an individual tooth becomes full its ability to hold more fibre decreases. Consequently, the faster a dofiey travels, the more empty teeth it presents to the cylinder and therefore, fibres leave the cylinder. As more fibres leave via the dotfer, fewer around the cylinder. This explains why increased doffer speeds result in lower cylinder loadings, itis known that increasing the throughput, with the consequent increase in cylinder loading, tends to negatively influence fibre breakage, nep formation and general web quality. Adjustment of the dofter speed or Specifically, the Swift-doffer surface speed ratio, is one of the most efficieat ‘methods of controlling cylinder loading and hence web quality. The doffer wine design is also important and is discussed in Section 2.7. A further consideration is the dofferto cylinder setting, Although decreasing the setting gap theoreti Promotes increased transfer efficiency, in practice, with a suitable dofier wire design and doffer Speed, efficient fibre transfer can be achieved without Light settings. This is helpful in minimising wear of the card wire. 2.6.1 Multiple doffersDry web formation may be differey nt. The top doffer has ey sdjutaeots axe : are made, the first bite that produced by the bottom done at 8P ite a the bce and unless - 3 om doffe fer tends to webs may affect the respective jes Structural differenee eon eet of the resulting fabric: In pracaee mst 8 Well as the pl between the two . doffer is balanced by a y adopting different ne gauge settings and the use of diesen 2.6.2 Transfer rollers Where a carding machine cuponed ho eecnniemee ee nat middle cctiee ie yen ae eg i xoikea aut leeC eho ae eee eee carding, a transfer roller is used. While a & sic open Ce eee rc lative tat mieuci wr te Cane om ee i i rion with the cylinder, @ transfer roller operates like a stripper. The fundamental difference between a dfx anda transfer roller is that a transfer roller takes fibre from the preceding cylinder, whereas a dofier has the fibre put onto it by the cylinder. The surface speed of a doffer is slower than that of a cylinder and the points are opposing. SO that as the cylinder passes the doffer, fibre is deposited into its teeth by the tolinder. The surface speed ofa transfer roller is grater than the £90608 Ca chigh it receives fibre and the teeth ofthe transfer rll ct ePo® Ts back of the cylinder teeth in the same way that a striPPot interacts with 3 ae ker The faster moving transfer roller therefore “rips ‘olf the cylinder ghd conveys it to the next cylinder, which ia turn SOPs ine rans et by virtue of its even greater surface speed. A transfer roller 18 . a used to convey fibre between the a “preaker’ ot ‘breast carding machine (see Fig- 2.15) to Be tale, On the inital breaker section, the le 38 8 ah the cylinder to worker settings yo e ymstances, Witt a similarly ope" population. Ifa doffer is usec! ees ection would te Hse ad likelinood of neps ane fins UIRAREEE used, fibres would be subietet oT ster saangiet seumage the card clttilB: coat woe eae a are incrcasein see Po .40 Handbook of nonwovens 2.15 Diagram of cylinder to transfer. fibre tufts are not subjected to the large forces associated with large differenc in relative roller surface speeds. This tends to minimise fibre breakage an¢ the formation of neps. 2.6.3 Operation of card feed rollersOrval web formation S SS 2,16 Diagram of feed rollers. a given card design, the fibre length and the direction of rotation of the next roller in line. For example, a short card requiring minimum carding of short fibres may be designed to take fibres from the feed rollers using a down- striking licker straight to the cylinder, In contrast, a card designed for long fibres that requires more progressive carding, may use an up-striking licker followed by a transfer to a breaker cylinder, before reaching the cylinder.42 Handbook of nonwovens ~ 2.17 Diagram of dish feed arrangement. the access of fibre to the licker-in and feeding by rotation ofa single roll. The design and setting of the dish with respect to the licker-in influences the degree of opening, waste extraction, removal of good fibres and fibre breakage. 2.6.5 Web doffing and web structure modification: randomisers, scramblers and condensing rollers The nonwovens industry is distinguished in the world of carding by the variety of different web geometries and structures that may be produced by i manipulation of the web before it leaves the card. Generally, using different roller arrangements, the aim is to improve web isotropy, which is often expressed in terms of the machine direction to cross direction (or MD:CD) ratio of properties, typically the tensile strength. Figure 2.18(@)| i Paral ey ler Fandom web cd — 2.18 Productios say uction of parallel jai and combined randomeor id leonvento, France) condensed wert onal Condensed, nerds modifies fibre orientati “ Solder snd vandal eed air turbulence developed bet fre rearrangement while safe tt Seed comme , st still allowing th commodate Randomisers are often used in cape te release of fibre to forma web. the web is bonded immediately after eats carding applications where a cross-lapped batt. Thermal calender vate aa ae not formed into nonwoven producers utilise randomisers even when eons for example when lightweight products are being manufactured using aminimal number of laps to form the batt or when the application requires an isotropic structure, for example in the production of geosyntheti fabries. ‘A condenser roller (see Fig. 2.18(b)) gives greater scope to set the optimum doffer speed at the same time as modifying the structure of web. The sondenst taller gurface speed is lower than that of the doffer, which means that jeaving the doffer is suddenly decelerated sothat fibre eondense opie into the condenser rollers. The fibres bunch up vy aie resulting in a three-dimensional ‘condensed er Swe roller surface speed is Tower than the doffer © surface speeds oft speed of the carding machine. To overcome ape denser rollers are matched t0 the FHS jormally be We fe juired ‘. speed than ser Whese is ope! ted at a higher surface SI ‘and not the softer tok a arrangement, it is the cO8 Se rest machine the ae pe tne one cig ES Mle dt Fig. 2.18(4)) 10 hie ae operating WH endothe a oi ae the: wil44 Handbook of nonwovens 2.6.6 Web removal systems ‘Traditionally, a high-speed fly-comb is used to remove the web from nonwoven card. Such combs are capable of operating up to 3200 1PM (see Fig. 2.19), However, as production speeds have increased, roller take-off hay become standard on high speed cards. Rollers and combs are also be used in combination. Roller doffing systems include the Doffmaster S¥Stem, (Hollingsworth), which incorporates a fluted roller in conjunction with 4 ‘snap-in blade and the LDS arrangement (NSC), which utilises a fluted rolleg in conjunction with a suction system to control web transfer tothe apron (see Fig. 2.19), 27 Card clothing The card clothing or ‘wire’ covering is critical. Without it the card is totally ineffective and the choice of card clothing for particular rollers within the machine is most important. Metallic wire is most commonly used as opposed to the original ‘flexible’ card clothing, which consisted of fine metal wites mounted in composite fabric foundations. Metallic wire is manufactured in ‘continuous strips with a shaped profile that is stamped to create a single row of teeth. The ‘wire’ is wound around the card rollers under tension from one side to the other until the surface is covered with teeth of specific point density and geometry. Since flexible card clothing is now largely confined toWeb formation 2.20 Metallic card wire (counesy of ECC card clothing, UK ing, UK), Page ob F = Free blade area P= Pitch X= Land D = Wire depth A= Front angle B = Back angle Y = Width of tip R = Width of row 2.21 Characterisation of metallic wire features: ies and dimensions, the card configuration. . illustrates rate, Figure 221 rae pe basi design of mec card aM) how the tooth profile and the cross-section are i doay genes oeee 27.1 Tooth depth coatte use ae46 Handbook of nonwovens r rollers requiring high fibre loading are clothed with wire having aco large tooth depth. Such rollers are principally workers and otters. ong must readily accept fibre from a faster moving roller, ic. the cylinuce they carry out their respective functions within the machine. Conversely cylinder wire whose function is to interact with the Worker must not overegy and hence low depth wire is generally selected. Similarly, stripper ite, whose function is merely to transfer fibre from one roller to another ds not require high wire depth. The selection of tooth depth is also influenced by fibre diameter ang fibre length. For example, long and coarse fibres, which are invariably Utilised fp heavyweight products such as needled floorcoverings at high throu, Fequite greater depth in order to accommodate the volume of fibre that ney to pass through the card. Fine fibres, which are typically converted inns lightweight webs, require shallow depths to prevent overloading, nep formation and to keep the fibre near to the tops of the teeth to permit Uansfer tp subsequent rollers, notably the doffer. When carding fine fibres (particulary those below 1.7 dtex), if the tooth depth is too high, fibre is trapped within the teeth and fibres near the top of the teeth are processed in preference to those packed into the base. Dimension F is the free-blade area, which is the space between the bottom of the mouth and the surface of the shoulder. This space affects the freedom of movement of fibres in the wire as well as the aerodynamics of the process. The setting gaps between card rollers typically range from about 0.27 mm to 0.70 mm. The work done within those spaces is considerable, as are the speeds of the various rollers, particularly the cylinder, whose surface speed may be in excess of 1500 m/min. The dynamics are such that a significant movement of air occurs within the card, which in a confined and enclosed Space creates air velocities that result in turbulence and large pressure differentials. This influences the movement of fibre within the card and may lead to uncontrolled fibre migration in the direction of the highest air pressure. In order to control such effects the free-fibre depth can be used to alter the i¢ properties of the carding elements. Since the card wires across the width of the machine are relatively closely spaced and a single fibre cal) bridge several teeth, it will be seen how much of the fibre can be kept ava from the shoulder and how the space beneath the mouth of the tooth cal allow air to dissipate. f Ofcourse, since many of the fibres are aligned in the longitudinal directi0 they will enter the free-space area, However, itis unlikely that a fibre will ® ‘So perfectly straight that it will sit between adjacent rows of wire, In prvelsfine, short fibres such as cott Drvaid wet formation to minimise cylinder loading. the free “ bk de Gee is eliminated in ender 27.2 Wire angle Referring to Fig. 2.21 there are card wire. The first is the “fromt op [en ees 10 or trailing angle Wt’ oF leading aple and ah dsign of Front angle fibre and this is particularly important in bi Centrifugal force increases as t in high-speed carding of fine fibres. roller speed increases. Conseq angio inflnenees the dames Omi nemie heise sneer aresult ofthat centrifugal force and equall so subject to mechanical eco AS Ease dene taeooriees a key consideration. If we consider the cylinder, fr example the function of this relleri8 Wo Catty the ibnes \ the workers aadbold art of heat as hey are presented to the worker so that there is a force of separation which disentangles the tufts, yet at the same time it must progressively release the fibre preferentially to the worker, allowing the worker to take a significant share and thus avoiding overloading of the cylinder. Conversely, a low cylinder wire angle will tend to hold the fibre too well, resulting in re-circulation of fibre and overloading, with a consequent increase in nep formation and web patchiness. Typically, the front angles used on eylinder wires are between 70 and 80 degrees. ' In comparison, considera worker that imeracts with the cylinder deseribed above Arnypoal front angle used on a worker wire BN=IWEED © 2 so degrees producing a more “hungry” tooth than that of the eye oe the function of the worker is to capture i ee ie them securely so that they are ‘worked as lingly, the fibres must os eee be held as the worker soe Accordingly angle on the worker must be more “hungry Ma! ‘ith the worker, Fee a ouctace ofthe ender that comes 2 ae is more likely to be released by the cylinder 8 Ts ed. tt ea leased ht _ ¥ the worker teeth therefore cylinders) relationship betwen the front angles es Ty Well ar beeen eytindersand does CMRI TT caring msn similar function) is one of the MOS!4B Handbook of nonwovens demonstrated in Fig. 222, which illustrates the relative interaction of worker and cylinder teeth. In Fig. 2.22 there are two different worker front angles interacting cylinder wire having a front angle of 80 degrees. The one on the left aworker wire (on top) that has a similar front angle to the cylinder. this with the one on the right, which has a front angle of SO degrees and the Gtocican be clesly observed, The lower aigleof toe woxkee oa ice Fig. 2.22, results in a more efficient transfer of fibre from cylinder to worker _ Progressively decreasing the angle eventually closes the mouth of the worker teeth and begins to have a negative effect. A low fibre transfer effici from cylinder to worker results in excessive fibre loading on the cylinder, which leads to web quality problems. Conversely, if the worker wire is too efficient in capturing fibre from the cylinder, the fibre will transfer too easily _ and will not be effectively ‘worked’, which in turn will negatively influence the web quality. It is also worth noting the effect of roller diameter. In the examples shown, the tooth angle is taken from the horizontal plane. Clearly, rollers are not flat but cylindrical and the effective angle of a tooth is influenced by the roller diameter around which the card wire is wound. A card that has small diameter workers will generally require a different worker tooth angle compared to a card with relatively large diameter workers if the same tooth point relationship is to be achieved with the cylinder wire. It is the effective wound wire angle relationship that is Sapa nei ipeeataliceletonitib hetoe aaa) is wrapped around the rollers. 2 The ‘back angle’ of a tooth influences the card wire loading eo eos gn eke at ‘on rollers such as eel Tagua ales eae st eee pail brstuiH weet et toamistadt tn qfociaed!——— jondings. uso lower ck shea, nt ae a spouth of the teeth (Fig. 2.23)" Ties point density ha ‘the choice of tooth population (op po; Jy determined by the Point density weiessed as the number of eee ibe dn Peer tooth populstion increases asthe ibys in’ 4 (Pointgny 2 SMO js determined by the pitch (P) and te ie decree pM (&). Referring to Fig. 2.21, the ‘pitch: qppe of OOH pinisacee one-inch (25.4 mm) length of the wire. iy "umber of pina are present in one inch across the roller after na HOW many by the width of the wire, or more speciticaly ‘winding, whichis soverad that each row of wire joins with the previous ome’ SMPMSET and the way such that the rows butt against each other some ann Mi the surface of the roller, whilst others utilise an ime phn eNES on ‘The wire mounting arrangements are discussed later The point denny at roller is calculated by multiplying the pitch by the munberat maa Point profile The tooth point design influences such factors as point penetration into the fibre and fibre to metal friction as well as tooth strength and resilience. appreciate the effect of point design on point of a needle. A sharp, symmetrical, good penetration into the fibre, whilst abo rninimises frictional contact b fre wear. However, a needle-point tooth50 Handbook of nonwovens overall tooth angle. Because of the way metallic card clothing is made. can be stamped out of the wire in specific shapes allowing different, _ and shape features to be included for specific purposes. Figure 22) the two fundamental dimensions of a tooth point. Dimension Y is the thicks, of the tooth at its point whilst X is the length. This latter dimension is fie, called the land area, M4 Increasing the land area behind the effective front edge of the tooth create, support and added strength. However, the land area also affects the metal jy fibre contact area and hence frictional characteristics. The sides ofthe tony, can also be engineered to include tapers, grooves or striations. These surf features influence fibre to metal friction, strength and the available free space. Examples of different point profiles and wire specifications fornonwoven cards produced by one wire manufacturer are shown in Fig. 2.24.A combination of design elements is used including special surface finishes, point shares and surface features. Wire foundation The original Gamett wire was fitted into grooves cut into the surface ofthe rollers, Some heavy feed roller wires are still mounted in this way to provide52 Handbook of nonwovens GBGa\\ ‘Striated tps O06 Pagal ‘Type Height Rib Depth Pitch Angle PPS) (ram) _(mm)_ (em) _ (mm) wraBTer 470 2.42 2.61 400 75" 76 VieBTCF 4.50 1.59 2.61 4.00 757 a07 ANeae12 3.80 1.59 1.74 425 75° a9 Az0B/S06_ 3.80 1.271.513.0070" 169 A24B/S01A_ 3.80 1.06 1.48 3.20 80" Az4B/604 3.80 1.06 1.77 2.20 70" 48) A24B/61S 3.80 1.06 1,84 250 75° aan 0288/4739 4.00 0.90 1.30 1.83 poses 80.8370 382 70" 392 930/205/86 4.00 0.851.401.8075" 429 Dsae18 400 0185) 54.98 2.70 75° _oB7 ae ae 98s 1.85 27075 2a (s 2.24 Continued demanding areas. Standard surface-mounted wire ti joins each row side by side. Interlocking wire shape is such that each row is ‘locked’ into the adjacent e generally the wire : Although the card clothing on the affected roller imepcble, the exten of daage to Ne ced eee om aDrv lang Wea tor Maton \ t s a ee \ \ Profile of rand ndom pitch wire ) y 2.26 Non-serrated and serrat i 2.26 Now serrated and serrated enhanced paint wits couteny a The flat top tooth is claimed to aid fibre breakage as well as self-cleaning of the card during run-off, Card clothing manufacturers produce card wire with either sit idled serrated edges, which aims to inerease the holding power of the teeth particularly for low friction fibres, which may otherwise slip off the tooth, Enhanced point wire (see Fig, 2,26) has a contoured point, which is claimed to pick up fibres efficiently from the cylinder, The mnanufacturers claim that more open settings can be used in comparison to conventional wire, thus reducing the risk of excessive card wire wear oF damage. The profile is tapered to allow easy fibre release. 28 Card and Garnett machine configurations 2.8.1 Garnett machines les. As discussed, carding machines funetion around only & adel te that are repeated successively until a satisfactory web is Pt if raww materials nnany diverse earded nonwoven products and a we a3 diferent card are in thei ture. Consequently, some: used in their manufacture. TnmheUSAitis ona to refer © configurations have come into use: reine carding machines as Garnetts eg cards, This isa) misunderstood because the term garmelting cclataim ogee diferent. The relatively recent introduction it Eutopenhenate ceding ines 10 the nOOwONEY SE rg inte apparent gulf in productivity benwee 8” ea card. In fact, both are cardingecto oro ; involved are the same. Garetting in Europe refers to the process in os either in yarn or fabric form, is recycled by first cating then tearing pieces in an extremely robust machine, Feed materials ste ‘about 50 mm in length need to be cut prior to the process. Garnett machines were originally manufactured by P&C Garett Lidig the UK. The process is also called *rag tearing", ‘pulling’ or ‘rag grinding and in traditional industries the resulting reclaimed material was called * (from hard waste) and ‘shoddy’ (from soft waste). Nowadays it js More commonly referred to as waste recycling and the reclaimed fibre is used a, flock or is directly formed into products. Traditionally, Gamett machine, converted recycled waste such as used clothing, yarns and pieces into and fabrics for carpet underlay, mattress components, acoustic and therm, insulation for automotive and other technical uses. Many machines are stil in use. The recycling machinery was fundamentally similar to a card in the the point to point ‘working’ principle was utilised. However, the purpose of gametting is to break down waste yar and fabric and not specifically 1p Produce a homogeneous web. To do this, the machine is robustly built and utilises small diameter rollers. The workers and strippers are the same diameter but are situated in a different position from that of a card, In traditional Garett machines the worker is placed before the stripper because the main function is to break down the waste then simply to move it on to the next worker. Consequently, there is considerable fibre breakage in the process and limited fibre mixing. Many years ago, the association and {ater the amalgamation of P&C Garnett with the Bywater Machine Company, who developed some of the first needlepunching technology, resulted in Garnett-Bywater becoming a leading manufacturer of. turn-key nonwoven lines. It is from this early history that the term ‘Garett’ originated in respect to its use in the USA. Although the compact carding machines produced by Garett specifically for nonwovens were different from the larger roller cards used in traditional fibre processing, the carding principles were the Same. The rollers were smaller and the machines were shorter. This reflected the preference for processing short fibres and the limited amount of work that was required to produce a web for wadding at that time. Inevitably, as. the popularity of compact cards for that purpose increased, other manufacture. Can ane USA. began to produce their own versions of small, ems ‘ards, specifically for nonwovens and Garnett became a generic term.Prva wed formation pepending on the machine Configurat rates can reach 400. ke/miniem has a double transfer-system Providing fibre between the first and second. SN? SeParate increase mixing power. The Svction see ich may allows delivery of multiple webs (up to four gatiPle Web take cay directly onto an air-permeable conveyor Hee MINE OR machin, isowopy and uniformity by minimising longing web during high-speed take fF of Tighe ial esine handling is increasingly used to prevent unwannee yoo ‘web during transport between machines, Sean's Sting eable belts or roller is used in Gee eeu pies. immediately after carding, where the web is tenia roller to the conveyor and also between the card and the: "i The later involves conveyor to conveyor Span one High-speed cards are effectively sealed and use internal suction o remove fibre debris and other particles during carding as well 251 contol flows and air pressure distribution inside the machine o prevent distance ot fibres on the rollers. Internal humidity control within the cardi als posible. The airflow created by the rotation of the main cyciinderin carding is harnessed by the injection card (Fig, 2.28). A high-velocity Venturi is x The absence of stripper rollers removes one of the limitations on maximum card width, which is the deflection of small-diameter rollers. __ Since fibres in the injection card do not revolve around | and nep formation are claimed to be that the elimination of stripper rollersThe value of K depends on the ints = ‘eement. Over the years «vanced ete 7 srmrged and while some have: ro Roller train cards Sonnac go tahecet Siainguishable from conventigns) — — eaiee OF oder: Instead: a: sarieeiGh smal reg SS ot So ce ar vhine was the TU or se Srmged : ee for high-lof products usc 3 = oes meecing i me > Stare TH iebe werr aa on arectersed by partial 3D fibre tion Thera ‘MD-CD, production speed is a function of both layd ne et Md the ie layers. The laydown width varies depending on egsienese me applications such as papermakers’ felts, it Therefore, lapping enables the production of batts mW ee inital woh fet from the carding machine which is limited to <5 mands more wally about 2.5 m, The fibres in the carded web entering the cross-lapper tend tohavea preferential fibre orientation in the MD although they are by no means parallel to the web axis. Since during eross-lapping the eross-iaid web (or batt) leaves the machine perpendicular to the card, the fibres in the bt have 4 preferential fibre orientation whien ieee ee ome ientati the batt after cross-apping: orientation angles can be measured is cane cet speed ratio. In certain applications, reinforcing scrims or yarns are introduced cross-lapping to increase fabric dim can be lapped together from two dil ¢ross-lappin; ‘hines underzo 3 a. ‘tension variations68 HandbooK or renner wich, produced heavy edges atthe end of each 4¥erse Gat a mich Pe mechanism decelerated and then eccelersted sti; ‘More commonly, horizontal ‘cross-lappers are used consi of interacting conveyor aprons that operate in conjtnetion crerlages and drive rollers. The carding machine delivers the wen fot conveyor, which transports t onto the top test oe teat carriages reciprocate as the web is transported within the belts, web is then layered concertina-fashion onto © lower conveyor perpendicular to the in-feed direction (Fig. 2.37). The relative spesds, transporting and bottom Jattice conveyors determine the number of the batt and the angle of laydown. The number of layers depends on type and the final product. Basic cross-lappers of early design may i irregularities as the conveyors change direction at the end of the travere} the surface speed changes due to the intertia of the conveyors. web overthrow at the edges is pronounced when older cross-lappers ope at high speed and the batt width tends {0 increase. The problem ma parily compensated by setting the Jaydown width slightly narrower required. The production rate of basic Korizontal cross-lappers is limit, the necessity to instantaneously reverse the conveyor ‘mechanism, ¥ develops a large momentum as ‘the carriage changes direction at the « its traverse. Ideally, the motion of the carriage versus time produces as sine wave to-achieve perfect reciprocation. In practice, as the carriage is decelerated, there is a momentary whilst the direction is reversed and then the carriage is rapidly accelet the desired speed in the opposite direction. A time displacement cu the standard carriage motion would show a dwell time at the end) traverse as the direction of travel is reversed. Since the output of the machine is constant, so too is the output from the top section of th lapper. Consequently, at the point where the carriage stops and reve web overfeeds at the edges as it is fed onto the bottom conveyor Tes heavy edges. To minimise the resulting variation, the carriage speed ‘set to run slightly faster than the web delivery speed. Whilst this ret ‘overfeed at the ends of the traverse, it also means the carriage is a Vespa si ah ess 3 hiOra wet formation contre of the traverse and con erly. a critical balance must be achioved, Ane Of te web ah, ‘web will break and if too slow web ous the medi oressesA are couisaita ib thsgine ‘occurs, bal veyor at speed. Which may crease : as sorrinimise this, aspeed differentiak canbe sete iota and lower carriages, the top carriage wee created | ie in-feed and the lower cartiage travelling sfj cs Slightly faster than the Tension in the card web during cross-lapping ene tatt yariations across the batt width as the fibres Tenet dimensional jaydown, In subsequent needlepunching width ey extension after asa result of the fibre reorientation induced by the meq eemy Ost applied take-up tension. In general, heavy edges are. _ as well as the in cross-lapping: the weight profile actoss the wi ae a a ‘smiles’ or is said to exhibit a “bath-tub’ profile. Traditionally oe edges of the batt are continuously trimmed by slitting after bonding. Typ, about 100 mm of the edge is trimmed and the waste ffbre is thea eel back through the card. On a typical line such edge trims could represent 2.2% of total production, which can equate to over 70 tonnes of fibre unnecessarily recycled per line per year. The original method of reversing the carriages involved a clutch mechanism, that relied on alternating connection of the driving clutch-plate with driven plates that ran in opposite directions. This arrangement places significant demands on the clutch, particularly at high operating speeds. In addition, the wider the cross-lapper, the higher is the load on the oe the corresponding inertia. As speeds increased, ahs deen ot ‘ross: lapper evolved. Double aprons are now used to sandwich the wed and eons 5 ‘is motion through the machine. Short. web Bath ess BaP ee in abe allow higher lapping. speeds and minimise the turing of ths Te conveyors. This minimises the introduction of web iresuaiies Te of a carriage has changed from that of a heavily construct Nit ‘istictive framework, to a lighter mechanism Simple seties of rollers in which the neeapplications such as gcotext ore ee speed of each set of rollers increases from the input to ihe aire the deah aad th aximasn OraN may be in the range sae Needlepunched fabric drafters are also used alter oF between needle looms to manipulate fibre orientation in the fabric. Typically, ive of 20-60% are applied to fabrics in widths up to 7.4 m. Whilst principally applied to manipulate the MD/CD strength it algo git other structural features such as density, thickness and Permeability nf, drafting can produce MD/CD ratios approximating to 1 it associated with an increase in weight variation, wa is j Vertically lapped (perpendicular-laid) Web formation Vertically lapped (perpendicular-laid) nonwovens are gaining Acceptance ig an increasing number of applications. Such fabrics are used as foam, rep materials in the automotive industry, depth filtration media ang thermal insulation, Various methods of corrugating webs to form Petpendicularaig fabrics have been devised over the years and all produce a concertina-like, © three-dimensional structure, which after bonding exhibits high recovery from 2.12 Process (Fig. 2.40), A reciprocating lapping device is used to continuously carded web into a Vertically folded batt immediately prior to through-aif bonding. A proportion of k i2.40 Formation of perpendiculartaig International Inc., USA), fibre (25 diex). Depending on composition and have higher resistance to compression and elastic cross-lapped and high-loft airlaid fabries (ee Fig. ‘To maximise the resistance to i orientation of the fibre in each web fold is. slightly inclined orientation. Struto fabrics are used in a‘ ‘including foam replacement materials, s thermal insulation, bedding products and: (Santex, Italy) utilises a rotary forming 2.43 and 2.44). The first rotary and rei Cy pl el dca ik 2.41 Cross-section of various Strut cone Inc., USA); (a) PET (heavy web) ) 500 git; ite a beni ian anal stan76 Handbook of nonwavens 7 brics may also be wed inplane. Preformed scrims or fabries: may introdoceg, above and below to form a composite fabric structure in situ, ‘frm Airlaid web formation: raw materials ang fib Preparation Airlaying (aerodynamic or airlaid web formation) refers to a family of ae laid web formation processes used in the manufacture of dis; i tse products containing shor. pulp fibres (including wipes. absorbent age for incontinence products and food packaging pads) and durable (including high-loft waddings, filtration media, interlinings, automotive components and mattress fillings) produced from longer bres. characenst feature of airlaid webs is their isotropicity. In contrast to carded webs, MD-Cp ratios approaching | may be obtained depending on fibre specifica, = ‘mschine parameters. Airlaid webs are therefore frequently referred tq ‘o ‘random-laid”. Additionally, airlay processes are highly versatile in terms of their compatibility with different fibre types and specifications. This vere Parlly arises from the principles of fibre transport and deposition Used in airlaying as well as the variety of airlay machine designs available. Airlaying, like other technologies, has certain benefits and limitations, Among the benefits are: * isotropic web propertics 2.13 Fabric uniformity is highly dependent on fibre opening and 0 web formii = Ae ia Oa forming. I structure,wor emechanical pulping CIM) plates having raised 100i softens the lignin, wage = See fibres together, making it po ere of ond fibres can be rocess) dissolves the lignin et ee sulphur under heat and pees lower fibre yield than ty n co typical wood pulp fibres currently + Souhem Softwood Keaf. Manutacure used in products where absorbency the are cequited. Softwood fibres are wsad lint, poring pod pulp ane natcral fibre me Ip can be produ They tend to produce less dust and SS Scandinavian Sulfate (Kraft), Plugs are than American southern pines (see Table Northern Softwood Sulfite, Used on a smaller sa where superior formation (low fibre entanglany brightness are required. They are tabletop covers and wipes as well as. ‘The main critical parameters that char78 Handbook of none Table 2.2 sommarises some of the key properties of Wood pulp iggy Site axe) e1 the finer pulp fibres give Ps to airlaying industry. Generally fl on ice pacthsts ances vcatie: and Valier tibelc section With bene sorption capacity and a higher porosity beter at Man-made fibres made fibres used by the airlaying industry fall imo eee oie polymer-based fibres (¢.., regenerated cellulonty figs such as viscose rayon and Tencel) and synthetic polymer-based fibres ey polyamide, polyesier and the polyolefins). The regenerated cellule filme such as viscose rayon and Tencel (solvent-spun cellulose) are Very hydrops and similar in their absorbency characteristics to wood pullp. They cay bond and are typically cut to fibre lengths of 3-12 mm. The longer fig lengths makes them suitable for inclusion in airlaid products Parti Blends with wood pulp, as this inereases the strength of the ailaid Additionally, these longer fibres contribute to higher abrasion resistance ang often, a softer handle as compared to the shorter, stiff wood Pulp fibres, ihe synthetic polymer fibres, specifically PET, PA. PP and PE ate hydrophebie and are particularly effective in maintaining the bulkiness of airlaid fabrics in wet conditions. Such fibres are used in blend, with Wood Pulp and sometimes SAP in liquid acquisition layers for appies as wells Other absorptive materials. Synthetic fibres have a high wet strength as compu (0 viscose rayon (which decreases in strength when wet) and can markedly increase the durability and strength of the fabric in use. The effect of fibre Deraineters (crimp level, fibre fineness, fibre length and fibre ‘cross-sectional Configuration) on the performance of a thermally bonded airlaid fabric vas investigated by Gammelgard,* using both Dan-web and M&.J airlaying systems ‘The main findings of the study may be summarised as follows: * Finer fibres increase the tensile strength of the product. Changing from 3.3 dex to 1.7 dtex fibres increased the tensile strength by up 10 40%. * The tensile strength of the airlaia Web increased with decreasing crite higher the fibre throughput, Therefore, crimp may be used to control Production capacity of an arlaid line, and should be optimised depen? sJstegy?P® OF web formation syst employed (i.e, Dan-web or ME!with regard to fibre length. Tt was concluded that in the M&J optimises the production capacity the fabric tensile strength, The Da flexibility with regard to fibre leng (6-8 mm fibre length) compared system, selection of 3 mm ne es in-web line was claimed to have greater th without affecting production capacity to the M&J line (34 mm fibre length) > In textile (long) fibre airlaying, all types of synthetic fibres bet 150 dtex linear density and staple length 40-90 mm can be proceneed ea wall as natural fibres such as cotton, wool, jute, flax, kenaf, reclaimed tevtle fibres, recovered wool and specialist high-; suse spi igh-performance fibres such as P84 Superabsorbents Superabsorbent polymers (SAPs), which are available as powders, granules, beads or more recently as fibres, are increasingly being used to augment the liquid holding capacity of airlaid webs containing fluff wood pulp and other fibres, The capacity of superabsorbents (cross-linked hydrogels) 19 absorb fluid is several times higher than wood pulp fibres and their function is t0 immobilise as much fluid as possible without releasing it even when the fabric structure is compressed. The powder form is usually added to the airstream in which wood pulp fibres are suspended prior 10 arene The t that is more expensive can be blended or formed as an aeons ‘ased in acomposite web. Superabsorbent fibres are designed to absorb fluids without losing their fibrous structure and therefore a of the dry fibre strength. On drying the fibre anne its outs 4 form and is still absorbent. SP ca pies Cac ae oa cut to a staple length of 6 or 12 mm for use in pulp airlaying system js fibre is used in blends with woodpalp andlor ; of Oas fil artied ‘Typically. 10-40% ining superabsorbent fibres is & webs containing ip tic fibre is also added tophysical form rather than their chemical nature. The advantages -——j below: Fibres absorb fluids faster than powder with the same absorption, ' © Fibres are integrated within the structure and do not migrate toma As flexible and soft in contrast to the Fabrics containing fibres are flexible and s« ic’ that are abrasive and confer a rough and harsh handle to Fabyie, Fibres are easier to incorporate into the airlaid structure and are likely to migrate from the structure during subsequent bonding ana use. Fibre preparation Inairlaying it is important to introduce opened and preferably, individuatises fibres to the airstream so that a uniform web without any tangled clumps op fibre flocks can be formed. It is important to note the difference in state between opened and individualised fibres. The term “opened” fibres refersip a collection of fibres that is substantially free of clumps, tangles, knots, or similar dense entanglements, but there is still significant frictional i ti between the fibres. In contrast, ‘individualised’ fibres have no substantial mechanical or frictional interaction with other fibres. Various methods for fibre opening and separation have been designed for airlaying lines. The majority of opening systems are the same as those used Prior to carding. In addition, hammer mills or customised openers have been utilised. In general, opening and fibre separation can be accomplished using a clamped feeding unit consisting of a feed chamber equipped with a fine Opener, a vibration chute feed with a weighing device followed by a further Opening section composed of a pinned or saw-toothed roller with or without Worker-stripper rollers. Typical examples of feed roller designs that can be used to separate fibres prior to airlaying are shown in Fig. 2.45. In pulp laying, the hammermill dominates fibre preparation procedures. A hammer mill disintegrates the feed material so it can be uniformly distributed through the forming heads. The increasing use of Sunds defibrator has increased the importance of the disc refiner. The Sunds system incorporates the use of bale shredder, screening equipment and a disc e # ese AMIN ing ota(@) tear Sood wil (oh and fl food Blan, (ahand (e) nose*ber ahd over Nes os Saray nen soe Sag {ah and (el, whovoss Carne employs mainly rents DOA uses ‘type ia), oes. 2.45 Feeding systems used in airaying fe and strongly influences the gl e freb. In the formation of Tghteecnceue oe ensure that opened, individualised fibres free ent le jue introduced into the airstream. The Cine chee an cleaners ‘mainly influenced by the dynamics of the airflow in the flee meen Chamber near the landing area. In practice, this can be stongly affected the rotation of the opening or fibre dispersing unit above the transport chamber. The following methods are used to transport fibres from the opening anit o the web forming section: «free fall compressed air © air suction © closed air circuit - «© acombination of compressed air and air suction systems. ‘The principle of airaid wet formation sing ction S888 area is shown schematically in Fig. 246. In this ai reopened fibres, which can be prepared using thesogrens‘oMished on the development of aj pul ent erature. Some OF he Systems tha & shnolo. Mach, hs bes prrepance are briefly reviewed, recently introduced commercs and The inotropic have nd other examples dove ee ance aig NSC Group (France, 2.14.1 Dual rotor systems jous versions of dual rotor airlayi s he 3535187? (1970), 3740797" agysy seatO NUS rena sizny (1973) and 4018646" (1977). The dual rotor aitayity 573) 3727392 pair of contra/rotating rollers equipped with a fibre coe omSES & fibres are ejected from the rollers by a combination of cose Seve® The high-velocity airflow to a transfer duct, The dotted fibres nee oS onto a moving conveyor belt downstream from the ao that an airlaid web of homogeneously blended aoe Pecmats produced by this system. This airlaying technology was used from the are 1960s by Johnson and Johnson to produce nappy facings until the decided to terminate its presence in this market. ee 2.14.2 Rando-webber The Rando-webber (Rando Machine Corporation, formerly The Curlator Corporation) is one of the oldest aerodynamic web-forming methods and is still in use today. The design features of the machine are described in US patents 2451915,'4 2700188" and 2890497.'° Wood then made a number of improvements as described in US patents 3768119" and 3972092," The Rando process normally consists of three units, (i) opening and blending. (i) feeding and (iii) web forming. The feeding section is similar to feeder unit with an inclined lattice, evening condenser: eb formation part is equipped with an input unit i ® feed plate, opening unit (licker-in roll) and a conv of |42 Handbook of nonwovens 2.46 Principle of web formation in a simple airlaying process, ~ teeth surface. In this way, the fibres are mixed with air and transp itto an air permeable conveyor where the air is separated and the fj deposited to form the web or batt structure. Airlaying technology may be classified according to the raw used for processing. Using this form of classification there are Py . portance of airlaying textile lengih Fecognised when the basic need for forming webs with aRando- narrow widths up to about (wo metres (model A and 8) Ty screen condensers are recommended for high production widths (model C), see Fig. 2.47. Rando-webbers can produce 3000 g/m? and can process virgin or recycled fibres for applic home furnishings, automotive fabrics, insulation and come '” A Rando-webber (model B) has been utilised yn crimp, 2. from melamine fibre (Basofil, BASF) with very low to zero and 50 mm length for application in industrial filtration and. un 2d tt Kidbatitenting. i e2.143 Aitlaid prog Prva wet Composite eer! Production Noemation gg In US patent 35351570 steipie eos once OF we or mente 2 sopra fg orientated fibres, airlaying areatited layer gf pproicing sirtaia feed condenser assembjj jpPParatus, c differen, deposited as layers on separa ald ts ge ok rary condenser Screens Were positioned 1 ittieal condenses kerin were the fibres on the condensers won te and form a composite nonwoven wep peered between of interface between the ‘some removed from their eae Fig. 2.48. tn 2.14.4 Chicopee system Lovgren in US patent 4475271"! described a method for prodcing highly uniform webs at high Speed (see Fig. 2.49), which incorporated (i) a feeding unit with a rotating toothed roll for opening the fibres; (i) a main toothed86 = Handbook of nonwovens Pre-made bate Nose bar plate Fees roll Lickerin Cylinder Stationary car Air blower "2 mane Dotting zone Front duct plate 10. Doctor blade 11. Conveyor belt 12. Exhaust duct 13, Airlaid web 2.49 Chicopee airiaying system based on USP 44752721 Surface of the cylinder; (iv) a forming section where the fibres are con on. foraminous screen and form arandomly arranged fibrous wets Prefer the airflow in the transport duct is turbulent which provides 4 nearly fig velocity profile except at the boundaries. Also in the airlaying machine, the air velocity (e.g., 140 m/s) should be substantially higher than the ‘Surface Speed of the cylinder (e.g., 20-60 mvs) or the velocity of fibres coming of the cylinder, so that the fibres are kept under tension until they reach the landing area. In this manner, itis claimed that the fibres can te nif cispersed without any tendency to clump or condense. Staple fibres ranging from 13-75 mm ean be used in this system. 2.14.5 Fehrer systems (Saurer Group) The K12 random web forming machine was developed in 1968?2 to produce fabrics in the basic weight tange 20-2000 g/m?, depending on fibre Specifications. In the K12, a laminar airflow is used to carry the fibres through the transport chamber; the airflow is produced by a patented transverse Jet stream in an open system and is not separated from the surrounding 3 The K12 is more Particularly suited to coarse fibres (10-110 dtex).”* Figure 2.50 shows a schematic view of the airlaying system. Demand for lighter-weight airlaid webs of 10-100 ‘g/m? led to: Joes of the K21 high-performance random airlaying machine. In contrast (© K12, which has only one cylinder, the K21 consists of four carding cane each with a pair of worker-stripper rollers, A proportion of the total a fibres into the machine is airlaid by each cylinder onto a common coo pelt. Airlaying is performed by a combination of centitugal fee the rapid rotation of the cylinders (30-40 tm/see) and auction aa Conveyor belt. Fibres are deposited on the belt in four different positio"® ‘hich allows levelling of local weight variations in the web by ints a.Feed rot Nose bar Worersper rolls Fibre transport chamber Suction nozsle Air passage Collecting eurtece (perforated bet) Sucvon Airleid web tA A 2.51 Schematic view of K21 airlaying system” doubling of the incoming fibres along the collection zone, The design of the web-forming zone is different from the K12 which is a closed one Me K12 is an open system (see Fig. 2.51). Ttis claimed that this design aC production speeds up to 150 m/min. ‘The K21 is designed a ee synthetic and viscose rayon fibes of 1.7-3.3 dtex with a throu 300 ke/h/m.3# 2.14.6 Fehrer high-loft syste™ mensional sts High-toft waddings are low-density: bighy TT spray boi be fat ace usually bonded BO raf the ibs i Eh aiding is advantageous for a propo" PON ection) 8025 10 heavier oriented in the z-direction ( ier exit ‘0 compression. Whilst this #8‘upper rotating suction drum. see Fig. 2.52. In this design are released from the cylinder and deposited partly onto the suction drum and partly onto the conveyor belt, whose lire, the vertically orientated fibres in the web producing bulkier ‘suction drum can be adjusted horizontally and vertically ; ‘requirements. Using this attachment, the K12 High Loft is claimed o, webs with 80% greater thickness compared to the conventional K12 i The high-loft device can be retrofitted to existing K12 airlaying 2.14.7 DOA system The basic principle of this system is shown in Fig. 2.53. Opened | passed through the feeding unit to an opening device (e.g., licker-in i and individualise fibres. The opened fibres are the from the licker-in by means of an airstream and centrifugal forces . 1044 and 1048). Screen drum diameters can be selected ( producing webs up to a thickness of 350 mm with the capability8. Airlsid wey = 2.53 Schematic view of the DOA aitaying yak rem, powders, foam or liquid additives with the fbwes. his a: air-blowing system used, an excellent random dine sate he obtained and that these fibres are entan, os Oh hea can be : led in the landin and consistently in all directions. A wide range of synthetic ines al natural fibres are processed (such as cotton, rayon, jute, flax, coir fibre sisal, wood, coconut and even straw), reprocessed wool and also reclaimed raw materials (waste fibres). Applications include moulded products, needle punched felts, insulation, automotive fabrics such as bodyshell insulation, high loft waddings, geotextiles, apparel components, furnishings, mattress components, carpet underlay, fibre glass batts and filter fabrics amongst others, 2.14.8 Laroche system Ferg ss intended to handle various types of fibres The Laroche airlaying process is intended t0 tes fibres, etc.) 10 tong and from sh fibres (cotton, man-made, | the fibre oe ene ‘ee: hemp, flax, ssa, cocom) 6 ae ed length should be in the range 20-75 mim. Te mT fags pel a fabrics such as carpet waste and quilted ponding” Typically in he ae bonded by needlepunching oF thers orto a feed gene a sytem, fibres ae fed vi tice wo a volume noppet fede ‘transported. a deliver vibrating che feed. Two prs of e808 anatis belt with a continuous are opened YO ed Den Seoole the esr en peo roller. res are90 —_- Handbook of nonwovens: mattress pads, carpet underlay, insulation, agricultural Gamntes preformed panels from bast fibres) and “The web weight ranges from 300 to 3000 g/m? with a production to 10-15 nmin depending on the required web weight and the fps 2.14.9 Spinnbau hybrid system A method for producing lightweight airlaid webs with high high production rate is described in US patent 5839166" (1999) Hollingsworth carding system (US patent 5007137. 1901) is utije, ‘open the fibres and transfer them to the main saw-toothed cylinder m/s), covered with stationary carding elements, where the fibres are imate ‘opened.™ The fibres are then thrown onto the second cylinder in a = fashion, by centrifugal force. The surface speed of the second cylinder in 110% of the main cylinder. Due to the high surface speed of the se. cylinder and after a very short residence time on the second ceylinder, the fibres are thrown tangentially into the transport duct where they are transpened_ by the entrained airflow generated by the high rotational speeds of the mag and the second cylinder. Additional air may be drawn in through the gay between the two cylinders (Fig. 2.54). The fibres are finally the conveyor belt where the eb is fomed The main wohl exit the Spinnbau Turbo Lofter system are summarised as follows: ni] a £ fibre specifications 1.7200 dtex, 30-60 mm length Web weight c.16-250 g/m’ ' fibre throughput (depending on fibre fineness and fibre type) 200 kg/h/m 4«working Width 4.000 mm web formation a ‘web speed 20-150 (200) m/min, 2.14.10 Thibeau hybrig System US patent 6195845" described an i comprising & conventional ‘secon ty cari cylinder). double doffers, an outlet evlinder fs Machine (abreast and’ wes remove! by the doffers, an ic and SP the two where the web is formed (Fig. 255), commercialsed asthe Airweb system (Ngee see aPPeh have been claimed 10 have the following features: ‘Airwed system ig + typical MD/CD ratio of 1.21.5: ¢ production rate of 200-260 kg/tvm «web weights of 35-200 p/m? . fibre types cotton, viscose rayon, PET, PP, pa fibre length of 10-40 mm. a 2.14.11 Airlaying technology for pulp fibres Pulp fibre airlaying technology was essentially designed as a ‘ry’ alternative to conventional paper making, ‘Wood pulp is formed into paper-like products. cither alone or in blends with short-cut fibres. The advantages over the wet laying process are (i) production of improved paper in terms of softness and92 Handbook of nonwovens capital investment and low environmental sey developments in pulp ailay technology were manly paper products rather than textile or nonwoven fabrics. Since the te web formation from cellulose pulp derived from trees, the fibre jo used Varied from about 3-20 mm. The highest production speeds were, with the shortest fibres and long fibres required: utilisation of a high volume because a lower concentration of fibre in air helps to minimis tee entanglement during the process. ts At an early stage, this type of airlaying technology was limited oy utp speed, web uniformity and web weight limitations. Due to the une Problems, it was not practical to make isotropic webs lighter than 39 The main manufacturers of pulp airlaying machinery are M&} Fibres, (Saurer Group), Dan-Webforming International (both of Denmark) and Hort, in Japan. Historically, in the late 1950s Hejtl (a Finnish engineer) issued 4 Patent on dry-forming webs from cellulose pulp. He started joint Work with Danish inventor Karl Kroyer and developed a process called the Comb, Fiber Distributor. Before 1980, Kroyer’s systems were sold to the. rican Can Company and the Fort Howard Paper Co, The American Can Co. was bought by James River Corporation. Later the James River and Ford Howard Paper makers were merged together into one business called Fort James, one, oF the biggest airlaid suppliers of its time. In 2000, Fort James Corp. was acquired by Georgia-Pacific. Moller & Jochumsen Paper Division's (M&J) connection with Kroyer began in October 1981. » In late 1986, M&J entered into an agreement with Kroyer whereby M&l would market, license and sell airlaid plants based on the Kroyer patents. Under the i i and future, tuses to modify and - Some of these are detailed in USP 3581706. » USP 4144619,* 1979, USP 4494278, © 1985,2.14.12 Flat beg forming “st Web formation This type of airlaying systern ; (Ssurer Group) (Denmark). I ar etl domingcy interest in the shor fibre arty JRork Of Kaa Kee 2 MAI Fibenech to Kroyer, USP 3581706,3) gr) chology, webs free from fibre entanglemens OF hey Putin Sramteg ‘The system comprises a housing havi, ‘ ‘plained, form for a stream of oi conttining suspended ro x impellers mounted for rotation ar Stirring device na val In hats dinceracd eaten pages hie are fed to the distributor box where Fan ts Stead inan ieee generated by a suction box located the individual fibres of ita dee ea = ni onthe forming belt. The rotatine elles is nana eps across the screen and partly die the fibre enangeres rms carried into pe eee nme dung he poe gen ae the size of the holes and the tora fiee arca of the perforated bar nts well as the distance between the i ‘impellers and the bottom w: fibre passage through the bottom wall may be ci ee Other patents me Fer cae ee ee webs using the same principle, for exa ale, USP 4014635," USP 414461 and USP 4494978, In USP 4144619 it was explained that fibres through a vibrating screen faster than one that is static.gs Handbook of nonwovens i of this system a brush it ., see Fig. 2.57 In a typical example a ee ing mw weed 10 ora < Gatribution chamber to vibrate ihe screen. The passage of the fibres the sereen is believed to be duc to: «the vibration of the brush where the amplitude and frequency controlled 2 the rubbing of the brush roll ‘on the screen the acrodynamic effect of the brush roll the positive net air pressure inside the chamber «the suction box. The process was claimed to produce webs in the range 10-300 im? - fibres as well 28 glass fibres could also be processed by this an jae system. sp 4212607” ‘assigned to American Can Company described an improved. s for producing webs from short fibres. It was explained that the. tention of the forming wire in the Kroyer machine tends 10 cause fibres 19 vriemate in the direction of travel, thereby forming a web that is strongerin sre direction than in another, To deliver fibres to the forming wite ina, random fashion, a continuously moving screen was provided for sifting fibres. gato a forming wire that is moving at substantially the same velocity andin the same direction as the screen. In this way, it was argued that with no relative motion between the screen and the forming wire, fibres are not orientated primarily ‘in the direction of motion of the forming wire but are randomly orientated. At an early stage of development a defibrillator such as Ny oa | | omprocess so that a uniform, or forming thr ed fish eyes’ could be obrah nets Mer free Ops ferme ‘The inclusion of a fibre distributer ; usp 4494278"". This modified aiaying sf, aitlay machine way that includes at least two closely Spaced ae SMS ie dee in pox and a perforated forming wire, It was Ftine devices, a suction capable of handling different fibrous maternt ™ this apparatus nea could be produced in a single step. In a further gan comPosite strate oon for the fibre isaibanmeiee va ae development an which improved the quality of the products 2.5 mm?. Using parallelogram-shaped openings made it possible for longer fibres (synthetics) to pass through without clumps. A typical screen of this type is shown in Fig. 2.58. The long side of the opening is preferably between 6 and 10 mm and the short side is between | and 4mm,96 Handbook of nonwovens 2.59 Dan-Web drum former. forming heads where properly sized and distributed fibres are 4 moving wire and formed into an airlai a completely uniform distribution of fibres across the web, feature of this particular airlay technology is the the forming head illustrated in Fig. 259. It comprises two contrcapacity decreases in such s claimed that, at least on a geet 88 the fibre 9 ise sees toh 8 Mall scale g th increa ‘due to the processing of longer fibres pum M8. However. used for applications such ge high-quane® Climinauea tor incapacity entanglements and lumps). “qality tah The prod 2.14.14Honshu’s TDs (totally dry System) The principles of the Honshu Tp s and 3886629." Also US Patent 3oeagseitned in US Patens 3781159 oducing multi-layer structa, i lonshu’, Forecasts, poly Sixes troy 2 arena long cuties nossa device that is designed to produce finely sens ni"! 1a disinepane comprises a plurality of disintegrating clementsor hay fibres. It essentially Fig 2.60 placed inthe shaft inside a separating wae genet shown in thick and is provided with openings (3-5 nmin diameter) S wall is 15-3 mm over is entre circumference. The total open san Sopa sifting operation at the wall is related to the peripheral speed of ene and tothe diameter of the openings Foc the shoveraetien, Eomeatoet openings the Peripheral speed ofthe blades is 60-80m/ norderioaar en, the desired volumetric ratio of air to fibres air intake valves are used. The opened fibres are screened through the wall and then deposited onto aj Perforated conveyor belt with the help of suction positioned at a distance of 150-300 mmm from the lower end of the wall, underneath the belt.Using this approach, web weights of 20-200 g/m? and delivery speeds of 100-300 m/min are claimed to be achievable. A schematic illustration of this system is shown in Fig. 2.61. Using this method production of multilayer structures from shor fibre (2-5 mm) layers and long fibre (20-50 mm) layers, simultaneously in single stage is claimed. Both layers are integrated by interfibre ides their interfaces. It is claimed that a relatively thin multi-layer ee be produced by reducing the weight of the long fibre layer to This system has been mainly used in Japan.i i é u i i 2.81 Schematic view of Honshu system explained in USP Senso <1 | 2.15 Developments in airlaying a There have been significant developments in the arlaying industry tha the growing importance and versatility of the technology and these are wor of mention. Integrated forming and bonding (IFB™) “ A proprietary method referred to as IFB™ has been developed by t The system utilises an airlaying machine with the capability of si tane forming and bonding 100% synthetie fibres or a combi synthetic fibres. The IFB™ process is claimed to be ; Producing high loft nonwovens and related products that demand high eros ‘directional tensile strength and uniform Z-directional bonding. It is claimed {hat a variety of natural fibres such as flax, wood fibres, cot laters or other recycled fibres are compatible with the system. The main icationsDry polticlayer fabrics that com WI8IG wap, aces zs Ne air}, fon se ad oe Seton Ng absorption and fabric wet strenetn et Patticulan Web ef wood pulp produced on the same jj. 24 Webs ca PEt of te cold tp produce & multi-layer prodycr, "***©combiney lid web, co iad If required, a similar approach egy Si items! with those produced by other techn, Sed t0 coy (ora combination of different way i Melading ge th iid ga, approach are the capability to replace Pe’) 1Wo clarmag 84 which is about one-third cheaper, while nao°® 3Y0N fibre te properties ofthe product and the potensniy ai Itisclaimed that t0 ensure good bonding neT*88€ Produn capac é carded me Component must be pre-boe fea minimal loss of . thermal bonding and the pulp layer fy » Tor example, by is n vd , by throu with 8-10 injectors. The composite ig mented it en Hydroentangled wood pulp fabrics 4.100% hydroentangled wood pulp fabric that can be used in distribution or absorption layers, or certain industrial applications has been described." Multi-layer nappy composites In the super-site concept the manufacture of disposable SR ce by assembling the various layers in the construction nae in this way, the forming heads operating over a common conveyor Bilt Tt Tree &austion layer, absorbent core and retaining layercan Ps SST oy bonding. One advantage is that very thin absorbent A ion rte [Re aiflay assembly approach simplifies 1h Framing mull for a nappy which normally involves at ‘and other components (0 Preformed fabrics containing wood pulp. the final composite. %D web preforms and moulds Amethod of airlaid web formation UinE collet as been developed which features 4 1HBE ©oo Hanaooun wr rrr usinga want to other fibre or filament deposition processes. Roller draft airlaying system Fu-tiun Lin ef al. designed an experimental airlaying system i Jmprove the web weight uniformity and fibre randomisation using me attenuation and airflow. . ‘basically consists of a roller drafting device, ‘and suction box as shown in Fig. 2.63. A sliver is drafted by three pair ollers and converted into loose fibres. The airflow from the s transports the Joose fibres into the suction tube at high speed themtowards the main chamber where their velocity is immediately ue to the geometry of the chamber. Finally, fibres are collected Conveyor belt and form a web with random fibre orientationsOrv jwerted airlaying systems wet ; ‘maton py the combination of webs qeen demonstrated (Fig. 2.64)" ots Web fe teen done by Dan-Web, Mificant Wop At SYS hag an 9 sctaying han 216 Airflow and fibre dynamics ; in in tis section the importance of the 4 wnsport chamber of airlaying machines 1% and ee of sacbulent ae negate diced So mi i the turbulent flow to be detrimental to the proce emer Mhile others flow in the transfer chamber. Either way. itis r the airflow affects the uniformity and fibre one at © UMersand how Once fibre has been dispersed into the airflow thease at aid we passes through a duct or chamber before the fines Mute generally conveyor or screen, The duct or chamber is sometinay eons othe transport chamber. referred to as the Airlaying of textile fibres UsP 44752717! explains the preference for turbulent airflow in the transport channel of an airlaying machine. The average airflow velocity is higher than the fibre velocity where fibres are under tension during their travel towards the landing area. Such turbulent flow, except for the narrow boundary edges at the sides of the channel, produces a relatively flat velocity profile, which encourages the formation of a uniform web across the width ofthe machine, In contrast, laminar flow produces a more curved velocity eae tends to deposit more fibres in the centre ofthe web than at te he airlaying system using a straight and laminar airflow profile in the transport chamber is described in WO 9720976- roller, It is z 95% of the disperser \ The speed of airflow was less than ° ow ire off roll, theprofile when the grid size is large and is i te belt when the belt size is small. By decreasing the end sie the Gow terween the grid and the belt becomes more uniform but of course practice.104 Handbook of nonwovens of 10* fibres per litre. This gives a crowding factor, N, of | crowding factor is defined as the number of fibres in ‘a diameter equal to the fibre length. contin aor vacate that fibres should come into only occasional contact.”* Kumar, the main parameters influencing the passage of fibres screening. The fibre passage efficiency increases with i through the slot or aperture (due to the suction applied increasing as the slot width. Fibre passage also increases with an flexibility and a decrease in fibre length. 2.16.1 Fibre dynamics in airlaying ‘A comprehensive study of the fibre dynamics in the transport ch ‘experimental Kroyer type airlaying system™ has been conducted speed photography. It was established that fibres move in dimensions at the top of the transport chamber and as they travel landing area their motion becomes more steady and snl F Acsiuthematical/model has been developed of theuid andi in the transport chamber of the same system.*> The airflowOry. ombined (multi-) bonding, abo Ot to co zo mu aye still latex bonded. The eens Pp tee oduced Via emulsion Polymerisation, Sed are ithaig tof ” mical binder solution is spray @ stabie ibetic ro oven. Latex bonded fabs) have 2S sitaig nelson ee can be used in place of conventional tea e ike appentiSt then caney major problem in Latex bonding isthe abe Yhetic wongy nf! and ructures. Since the Binder is sprayed an? the binder yo 0S The sransported into the interior by the water ont? t* Surface off sae thick increase in web thickness and web warn caer and “ ‘ ‘ F and the =e Wei applied teachthecentze of the Web. Generally, ge sHees the ability, othe de €F) the softer is the binder. Cumendy, the pigeon mpeg s st market LBAL isin the feminine hygiene absortem eee Wpin na 8 Sectors 2.17.2 Thermal bonding airlaying (TBAL) ‘Thermal bonding involves forming a h eae fibre (¢.2-, pulp) and the bonding cone ‘Web ofthe base thermoplastic fibre or particle), heating the web o the softening teen of the fusible bonding element and then cooling the web. As the heated thnx or particles start to melt, they become adhesive in nature and erate bonding points in the web. The thermal bonding process offers web design flexibility, since the web can be embossed with different pattcs during thermal calender bonding. The utilisation of bicomponent fibres ean produce a high-loft web with excellent bonding in the X, Y and Z directions of the web.” High loft thick airlaid fabric structures provide increased yoid areas within the web aad consequently increase the liquid holding capacity. Thermally bonded airlaid products are generally used in absorbent core articles and medical disposable products. f i This type of bonding is advantageous because t snes es i environmental pollution and the recycling of - a te, first, the dost The main limitations of thermally bonded aia is : ion, which necessitates generated during high-speed production, is the lov or irenul tensile Stoppages for cleaning. The second Cone Seis of binder teste strength of the final product particularly WPS (a gify and optimise Wed, therefore the industry is being YT Process to overcome these apparent Prob 2 uv 217.3 Multtbonding airlaying Mri pepeponse of the industry vert ‘ ieee pete ‘webs. In simple i 2a aahop Harn onding technology: 1 produces finished way thermal and Tate Poor” eptional fluid penetration, Bigh absorbs the, oft, low det — arnie strength, a soft cloth-like handle and a very low inca level. 2174 Mechanical bonding seedlepunching is one of the oldest methods of bonding nonwoven Scie er needling, or needlepunching, consists of echanea imerlocking fibres by repeatedly punching through the fibre batt with 2 array of barbed needles. Typically, needling is used to consolidate aftr, srmetare, 4o densify it and/or control te POrSTY: High-speed necdle loom, are capable of 2000 rpm although for bonding airlaid webs, lower speeg ooms are capable of balancing production Needlepunched airlaid produc tan be made from a large variety of textile-Tength fibres including Basofilt Miraflex® PET, PP, jute, flax and kenaf for applications such as protective apparel, filtration, geotextiles, automotive panel components (e.g., ar doon) srmshoe linings, Hydroentanglement or spuntacing of pulp or short cutie airlaid webs has been commercialised under the tradenames of and Airlace.“ The SBAL process (airlaid-spunlace combination) gives low raw material cost product, which it is claimed, can be tailormade to suit any requirements, Composite fabric structures can also be produced from multiple webs using hydroentanglement for applications in the ‘medical and sanitary, personal and health care and cosmetics (e.g., applicators) sectors. 2.18 Physical properties and practical applications of airlaid fabrics Airlaid webs are characterised by a more random fibre orientation than 8 carded web but they are not truly isotropic particularly in the Z-cirection- Theoretically, a random web would have an isotropic structure having the same properties in all directions, Since the web structure is often by the bonding process, hence the properties of the resulting AON isotropic. The cross-section of the web as it builds up inthe {0 * area during pulp fibre alaying tends to be wedge shape. Nad fibres continually land on the tapered end because the svete eamatt ar ta ce a fewer ures cure openings tn BOLT re eee ccartna cu tae etal of cocion. tnaooning ON Ml] atin oa 7 ehh cs Suton level an increas We ae the ts, airlaid fabri ; Orval wy Generally. ail cs exhibig 1 onajsical than w ‘The physical properties of snysieal properties ofthe con SiN fa in ae Fig the bonding Process, The eneral nes the blend eg? SPS one «high isotropicity Properties of ainaia eb geometry 1 high loft (if required) fabrics age. + high porosity (9S-.99%) high absorbency and wickin, f soft handle coe J adequate tensile strength 3 good resiliency (compression re + high thermal resistance, ~ inlaid fabrics are claimed to have hi : (eet and distribution) eat ee and faster liquid transfer fubries particularly those produced from carded were een nuove such a product is the five-layer composite fabric ‘en eg — of of ailaid webs in the core of such liquid barrier produce impor ne performance and allows a thinner product to be manuti aoe advantageous in sanitary and incontinence applications. The acquisition rate depends on the fibre type and fibre dimensions (length fineness, crimp level and cross-sectional shape). The surface chemistry is also important as this influences surface wetting during the introduction of liquid, There is evidence to suggest that pulp fibre airlaid webs produce more rigid fabric structures and also lower air permeability than fabrics produced from carded webs. 2.18.1 Applications and markets for airlaid products Depending on the fibre composition and the bonding method a wie ais of airaid products can be made. These inclu A clothing and furniture industry, wadding, ' ing and furnit a inion an hariHandbook of nonwovens medical textiles (including disposable gowns, curtains. dressings, bed sheets), filtration media + Needlepunching: interlinings and shoe linings, waddi hygiene products, geotextiles and roofing felts, insulation fey. seen components, filters, wipes. ‘igure 2.65 gives a global overview of airlaid nonwovens ; aah Rceotly, Sitaid capacity was estimated to Be eg tonnes/year excluding the vertical operations of Procter and Gama Kimberly Clarke (K-C), Polymer Group. Incorporated (PGI) with MS) demand of about 350,000 tonnes/year. Tis estimate is based on $0 ya et lines making 18 different products." Clearly, the airlaid indusy he serious overcapacity issues. However, the experts agree that this 3 will not last forever and will recover.°? Some view this situation a et because it is encouraging new markets and applications for aid fe and with an annual growth of 4.4% predicted for airlaid wipes nd predicted to increase to over 7.7 billion m,* the future certainly looks sons Given the current state of the airlaid market, the industry needs to Z Products and end-uses, which can either substitute existing nonwoven: made by other technologies or create entirely new opportunities, heed replacing other technologies, some manufacturers are choosing airlaid oser 108 ‘ow focusing on food Packaging, ‘Maintaining Position in the hygiene market, Particularly in feminine hygiene.— 1 ntti incertain applications, for example i 1 ible to eliminate the in the Bher and a highly Ses for carding otetion of for provided the Fibre is sufficient go forming anit toga "IY opened in prion Process can petite itis possi comparatively uni ‘Mechanical, ‘Adopted. volumetric feed hopper. The batt on™ Dattusing a carte ME PME, quilted or otherwise bonded, The '8 from the fy meee ms 250 g/m” and the width is 1.6 m-3.2 6 bat eights maori be processed in this way is about 75mm ee fibre eng tare capable of up t0 400 kg/m, bias ate claimed tote 2.20 References 1, Lunenschloss J. and Albrecht W., (ed), Non Hock; translation editor, David Sharp, New Yoo. td bri, transite, Jeet 2. www.ppic.org.uk ‘York: Haltead Press 194s) 3. www.nonwovens.com 4, SensD., "Fluff fibre morphology’, paper presented MTS, conference, Ottawa, Canada, 2002, 5. Gammelzard E., ‘Fibres for airlaid thermal 1997, p. 81-85. 6. ). Wood D.E., Apparatus for manufacturing nonwoventexie articles, US patent 3335187, October 1970. iis nest 10, Farington AP, Method offorming webs appara hero US a) June 1973.Handbook of nonwovens ah, Lonpren EG. et al, Process and epparains for prodiicing - pe ‘of speed, US Patent 4475271, 1984, Chicopee Fetwer E_and Feber R., mprow 22. Fe Ton fiber web. GR patent 1090827, 1967. Experience with random web technology’, Melliand Tx 70, n0. 3, 1989, E76. 24, Fever E, Apparams for making a fibrous web, US patent 4583267, ich loft offers more for less’, Nonwoven Report ne! 110 21, March 1998, 26. Jakob H., ‘Aerodynamic web-forming and needle-punching’, Texsile ‘International, p. 79-80. 1996. 27. Poille P., Textile World, vol. 150, no. 4, p. 27-28, 2000. 28. Graute H., Carding machine and process for producing an aerodynamic ¢ US patent 5839166, Nov. 1998, Spinnbau. 29. Graute H., Carding apparatus, US patent 5007137, April 1991, Hergeth i GmbH. 30. Siegfried Bernhardt, Nonwovens World, June-July 2001, p. 79. 31, DaPont J, Method and an installation for forming a fiber web by the roy US patent 6195845, March 2001, Thibeau. : 32. Kleppe J.. ‘Airlaid: Care and feeding of a growing market’, Nonwovens ‘September-October, 1990, p. 27-29. is 33. Rasmussen T-B.,Apparaus for uniformly distributing a disintegrated fibrous on a fibre layer forming surface, US patent 3581706, June 1971. * 34. Kroyer K.KK., Apparatus for the deposition of a uniform laser of dry foraminous forming surface, US patent 4014635, March 1977. 35. White D.G.W., Dry-laying a web of particulate or fibrous material, US patent - March 1979, ‘Kroyer K-KK. et al., Apparatus for the production fibrous jo, 13278 January 1985. io Ae ad 7 Kroyer KK-K., Adjustable screen for a distribution for making fibrous pr : 38 Mau Feo iss 3471712, December 1995,Drv — poormchammad A. Fibre dymamye fon a8. Piversity of Leeds, 1998, "CS tng ‘oration meal A. ef als A way a Fransport Chamber of a Siting Auay. 9 the Pe Jeol, 31-34, summer 2000 lg Syst a ee PO ty san. et al., “Modelling of Pant $0 Bi sile Industries Taba RM es nae Industry, Vol. 8. 10. 2. p. 197-169, 2001 PA filers a, 1, Wood DE., Airlaid low density nonyey -Matemae a SY GE. Cusick, Manchester UMIST. igen NOMMoyen Snerg Kerekes RJ. and Schell C.)., Journal of py Contes ppen, 32, 1992. ‘MP and Paper Scene tog Kumar A., Robert W., Richard J, “Factors ¢ VOL 1, aye slots’, TAPPL Journal, vol. 81, 00, 5, p. 249 none the se st Poumobarmmadt A etal “A sug of 288: 1995, EPO Fle ty fransport er of a Sifting Air layi TOW and i Tama, p- 22-26, autumn 2000, ESYStM' Perit ee SIS he 5, Ingham D.B. et al., “Mathematical and C ; Pnational Nonwovens, * pynamics in a Sifting Air-Laying Process’ Jn yee elite Of Find Fine Engineering, Vol. 6, no. 2, p. 287-306, 2001," 7 % Appi im |. Mango P, ‘Low density latex bonded airlaig’ Mechanics 56 Aili, Nonwovens Won, sing 19, 2 3 oe = hal J., “Bonding options for airlaid webs" i neo. ce irlaid webs", Nonwonens Word sing 197, 8, Kenney CM. er al., ‘New-glass fibre geometry ~ f ppt Journal, ol. 80, 70-3 1991, 9166 gt rr 59, Ruckert M, “Fleissner Aqualet needling process for nonwovens inthe technical and medical sphere’, AVR Allgemeiner Vliesstoff Report, vol. 27, n0.3, es BS 60, ICBT Periojet, Nonwovens Industry, vol. 30, Issue 5, 1999, p. 88. 61. Pourmohammadi A. ef al., ‘Structurally engineered air laid webs’, INDA-Tee, Sept. 1999, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. 62. Vaughn E.A., Jarvis C.W., Arena M.O., 13th Annual technical symposium, Boson, 1985, pp. 267-302. ea 63. Gammelgaard E.G., “What are the future pespets fo cade ema oo airlaid nonwovens?’, Nonwovens Report International, March |°P8 comet 4, Jensen H.S., “The super site for ultra thin air-laid diaper produetion’, Sen Insight 1999. seal ‘Nonwovens Wold, 65. Conley J.T., ‘Airlaid markets ~ the P. 75-19, ‘ E 66. Stevens B., ‘History I’, paper presented in Markee “° conference, Ottawa, Canada, 2002,Wet-laid web 3.1 Introduction a In any discussion of wet-laid nonwovens it is necessary to emphasi jan ofthe pioneering work in this area occurred before the generalace, = of the term ‘wet-laid nonwoven’. The early published work TePETS t0 the production of ‘synthetic fibre papers’ rather than wet-laid nonwoven isalso necessary to arrive at a definition of what should be correctly considers as a wet-laid nonwoven and what more correctly should be classified as reinforced paper. In the CEN (European Committee for Standardisation) definition of Nonwovens EN 29092, which is based on the ISO (International Standards Organisation) definition and which in turn is based on the EDANA, (European Disposables and Nonwovens Association); the relevant section is as follows: To distinguish wet-laid nonwovens from wet-laid papers, a material stall all sh be regarded as a nonwoven if: h vegetable fibres) with a length to diameter h oF if the conditions in (a) do not apply then, if ‘blowing conditions are fulfilled: more than 30% by mass content is made up of fibres (excluding chemically digested | et length to diameter ratio greater than 300 and itonswovens i and that the level nthe teen canton at height H, so that the velocity at point 1 Would be nesinble B+ pgl=P: + 4p} os Or grouping the pressure terms together, and neglecting the veloci : Jpv? = - P.) + pelt i If the flow box is open to the atmosphere, P; and Pare equal: Spr? = pg 33 This gives the familiar equation relating the slice velocity tothe heieht 7 (the head’) of the flow box pond: ‘ v= 2eH i Itis important to match the slice jet velocity we Wire so that the jet does not disrupt196 Handbook of nonwovens q =(F.-P:)+ pst and if we use the notation that (P|-P3) is writien delta P, then; = \2(APip + eH) ¥ This equation is used to calculate the slice velocity for pressuri flow ee As the fibre/water suspension exits from the slice ae a number of different forces act upon the suspension.* There foe shown schematically in Fig. 3.3. = As the principal force acting is drainage, the way in which the fibres are deposited onto the forming wire is very impornar These Principal modes of deposition, namely filtration, where the fibres are dann ‘more or less individually, and thickening, where the fibres have agglomerates before deposition is complete, and the fibre agelomeraie BS deposited onto the forming wire.* For a good uniform web need to maximise the filtration effect and minimise the thickening effect (see Fig. 3.4). Conventional papermaking normally works at a concentration of fibre in water of 0.5 grams per 1000 ml of water in the forming zone and conventional flat wire machines are designed to handic this level of dilution. Ifthe dilution level were reduced to 0.05 grams of fibre Per 1000 ml of water, then to feed the same amount of fibre Per unit of time onto the forming wire, it wouldbe hecessary to open the slice and feed ten times as much fibre/water mixture Onto the wire.* Conventional machines simply cannot handle this, and recognition of this provided the basis for the machinery ture development work to produce a modified machine system that can hanile such low dilutions and the significantly larger volumes of recycled water that are generated (see Fig 3.5). a ‘ 3.4 Raw materials for wet-laid nonwovens .3.4 Filtration and drainage effects,118 —_ Handbook of nonwovens 3.4.1 Natural fibres Cellulose fibre from wood pulp is a common component in ‘webs. Wood pulp is relatively cheap and is easy to Saelpemeat fee conte gnie Posey oes ees ee wide range of wood pulps are available and because the estilo ties (Se: 5 6) =r flood by fates oh ae h ee aay: wood, for example mechanical pulping, which yields short sti both cellulose and the lignin ‘cement’ material from the pulps produced by either the sulphate (most common) or processes which results in much purer cellulose material, careful take advantage of these many differences is necessary. fibre to be mechanically treated to produce small ‘fibrils’ on th by breaking up the layered structure. and these increase the the fibre and produce more potential bond sites, Other made available mechanically and/or chemically modified pulps3.7 Layered structure of cellulose fit fibre, Table 3.1 Alternative sources of cellulose fibre Ea Seed fibres Husk fibres Catton, Kapok mien Loaf fibres oe Bast fibres ee one built. Cellulose will readily form hydrogen bonds when suspended in water and subsequently dried, a characteristic fundamental to the production of paper, but one which requires careful control when cellulose is used in wet- laid nonwoven webs otherwise an undesirable “papery” product may result Cellulose, by virtue of its three hydroxy! groups, canals beessiy modified chemically to yield fibrous versions of cellulose este and ethers, Such treatments alter the physical and chemical characterises ee into the nonwoven by the use of cellulose, for example, some oe cane ‘re weak ion exchange materials. In addition to wot ees cellulose fibre (Table 3.1) such as cotton. JHE ISAE Fr use in emeree being examined to provide Jocally grow? production geographic areas interested in wet-laid 34.2 Man-made fibres asec et Man-made fibres, because theY sre tage ol rate NA much greater degree of to the wi oves Of supply than nawural fibres HL gt ee made fibres may conveniently P29 their origin, aeanamade fibres based on nawuranry piopolymers'are man-made © Bioras cellulose, starch, and sears coring pa os are based mainly on petrochemicals Organic synthetic fibr ‘ Inorganic fibres are based mainly on silica or alumina, e.g. gl fibres. basalt. mer-based fibres are the regenerated ‘ed from cellulose. This group contains fibres such as Viscose rajoe4 lulose acetate,’ cellulose triacetate, and ap including fibrous carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl ee tlulose phosphate and others: For wet-laid applications viscose : yportant fibre from this group- rayon! ‘An important group of biopoly! Cuprammonium rayon. Ce an im Viscose rayon Viscose rayon is a reconstituted oF regenerated cellulose fibre produced vig. the cellulose xanthate route. “Standard” viscose rayon fibres exhibit characteristic crenulated surface structure caused by the method of fibre production where the regeneration of the dissolved cellulose takes place in an acid bath, a technique known as wet spinning. Viscose rayon fibres for wwet-laid applications are preferably wet eut, with a 6 mm fibre length bein, Suitable for many applications. standard 1.7 dtex viscose rayon fibre exhibit the physical properties shown in Table 3:2) Multilobal cross-section viscose rayon fibres are also available and rece! developments have produced 0.75 and 0.95 diex fibres suitable for wets applications. For a given fabric weight, decreasing the fibre fineness mea that there are more fibres per unit volume ‘of fabric and the fibres are me flexible. For bonding systems such as hydroentanglement, this means t the fibres are more readily entangled and this produces significant increa in fabric strength for the given conditions of entanglement. Solvent spun cellulose # i bre type, uenctically known as Tencel, or previously 1%" fire, is based on a process where wood pulp is dissolved it 2) ft amine oxide solvent and the resultant solution is ex! in . cellulose ‘and recover the solvent. Tencel fibres are round in cross-s¢ equa= their key characteri: i are the on together with good y wet Se 3,3). Typically ee fibre swells ‘SOR oe makes it particularly Fesistant to Wet en wey vile ane is ibre pore sizes may be, Ollaps, peor ring mechanical rosea” aetna pydroentangiement, : Lyocell fibres are dispersed easily in Mee pea modulus so longer lengths can be ty Aler:The fore webs. The circular cross-section oe for resulting in a high degree of cohetae large, ie excellent wet Web transfer, The low oo eyo ay tte web. The flbre may be fibrillated by i Makes fy or similar equipment. Fibrillation of te eet Sa ying of put also decreases the length to di; ae increase a thycoplper Wet-laid webs based on Tencel fibres may be and strength may be increased by the use of longer Rae eet a web density from 1.7-1.4 dtex also . dtex-based fabric has a higher strength ae ee Polyolefin fibres Polyolefin fibres, principally Polypropylene and polyethylene are available in cut lengths suitable for wet-lay manufacture, Standard polyce are hydrophobic and with a density of 0.94 h to the surface, therefore requiring the use aids to achieve good blending with other inert fibre rods and their use should take these characteristics into sceout, ss ait # vate Lage Ponts122 Handbook of nonwovens 3 vood pulp; hence the designation “synthetic wood pulp" (Sp), for ary applications are normally 0.75-1.5 mm in length ant fibrillated. They are supplied at approximately 50% moisture in 4 igh sheet form. The fibres are easily dispersed in water with conventional gq? et sed for handling wood pulp. Dispersion at higher temperatures 2 25% process and blends of wood pulp and other fibres are easily achieves at fibres are often used as ‘binder’ fibres!” where their ability 10 be than bonded or moulded is useful thematy Polyester fibres A number of different polyester fibres are now available for use in wetiyy forming either alone or blended with other fibres. Most of the palyeser fibres used are based on PolyEthylene Terephthalate (PET) but fibres from PolyTrimethylene Terephthalate'! (PTT) are now becoming available asis polyester fibre with an eight-leg cross-section known as ‘deep grooved polyeser fibre’.'? These special shaped fibres exhibit a high surface area and provide bulk, whilst the grooves are claimed to transport fluids spontaneously within the web. This characteristic makes them particularly interesting in webs ued in absorbent products. Polyester fibres have good tensile strength and chemical resistance and are now available with a narrow fibre length distribution (Fig. 3.8) and cut ends free from defects. Most types of polyester fibres are treated before supply, if specified for wet-lay, to make them easy to disperse. High-performance organic fibres A variety of high-performance fibres! can be successfully processed wit wet-lay technology including fibres based on PEEK (Poly ether ether Ketone) PEI (Poly ether imide), PPS (Poly phenylene sulphide)'*, DuPont Nomex™. DuPont Kevlar™, Aramid fibres are one of the few organic polymers thit can be fibrillated in a manner similar to wood pulp and using the stl equipment. High-performance fibres are used in wet-laid webs thit applications in fields such as surface veils, heat-resistant webs, fl . ‘structures and other applications where their high ‘cost can be justified bY enhanced performance characteristics that they confer. Polyamide fibres Nylon fibres are used in some products to increase tear available in various forms, SE. Sorters) with 0 "and form uniform applied in the high-efficiene Jow-temperature cryogenic for use in very high the much thicker and heavier126 Handbook of nonwovens . 3.5 Cellulose fibre preparation cellulose fibres may be prepared for use in wet-lay nonwoven eo ‘ormally used to prepare these fibres for papermaling eth fibres are normally suspended in water by feeding the pulp coset hiydropulper, which i basically a high shear mixer, and which beat, et pull sheets and disperses the fibres in the water. This may be between 3-6% concentration of fibre. The dispersed fibre may be ues ® is at this stage of treatment to blend with other, normally man-madets* or it may be treated further by means of a refining or beating process jp further treatment, the suspension of cellulose fibres in water i fede machine, either a refiner or a beater, which forces the fibre suspension two metal bars where the hydraulic forces applied tothe fibres cause then, fibrillate (split into small fibrils) and swell by the absorption of water ma, the fibre structure. These fibrillation and swelling characteristics are possible because oie structure of the cellulose fibre which is made up of a numiber of layen of cellulose molecules, laid in different orientations and which can be “peeled away to produce the fibrils and allow water to penetrate. Whilst these characteristics are of fundamental importance in papermaking, controlled development of the cellulose fibres used in wet-laid nonwoven siructurescan be used to advantage for some products, but it must be used with cae otherwise a web with characteristics more closely associated with some Paper grades results, Once the cellulose fibres are treated, they are ready be blended with the other fibre components as required for the product. 3.6 Man-made fibre preparation Man-made fibres are supplied in cut lengths and at a selected fibre diameter (normally specified in terms of the linear density) and in highly bales. The first requirement for wet-laid is to select fibres that are free from cutting defects to avoid problems in the system, Fibre defects are - increasingly less common as the fibre producers take the requirements o! nonwoven business more seriously and the nonwoven producers have belle! designed systems. Fibre associated problems to be avoided are: * logs or sticks: bundles of fibres with aligned cut ends that are neVe dispersed * dumb-bells: pared clumps of fibres connected by’ one or more IE bres, and * ropes: assemblages of fibres, with unaligned ends, that are clearly" than in the general dispersion. Logs are normally. problem be lc stforthet formation, an exceasiye Wetiaig at Formation proceeds by the fui 8 iby ‘oration in the SYS'°m Piping: its free Nie anda es Fe sch se et hg Lene 1 from the snag a * become so'1, *Umulay eter repeated With He NEXt Snapped Finns, pe livers eee that he Bt a.yortex that is about the same size Ropes are fons othe we, i drag fibres can Become twisted into a str, te fibre, Una eM zed zsmveufel nonwoven ne cen ope Tc Tope. blend of, £ the fibres, is to obtain goog dispersi ‘™an- for ‘101 Made maintain that throughout the system, ath HOTS in the 28 eelaine Different manufacture PH SARE. and wy : 8 adopt differe some Preparing a low consistency digs erOaChES to this then blending these dispersed fied wae of the mansmaie nent after these have been treated. An alternatives the treated and dispersed cellulose fibre but the essential requirement is + vi lure. The most suitable man-made fibres for wet-laid are those that have been wet cut and are Supplied wet. Dry cut fibres, if used, should have the minimum of spin finish applied sti an cause foaming in the system and chemicals have to be added to break the foam. The use of chemicals in this way can itself cause problems in the finished web, where small trace quantities may be retained and these are not desirable in some grades, i.e. liquid filtration media. - The preparation of inorganic fibres has to be Ce ee fibres are often of very smal diameter, rigidande Pe ae ee be dispersed by carefully controlled and gent oe a sie either contains an appropriate surfactant a for glass microfibre. If 100% acid side of the pH scale, for example, PH 93 OO 4 aijusimen me inorganic fibres are to be used to ne ‘methods may be employed ant is the preferred option. In blends, alter: the fibre suspension 10 ae dispersion achieved by simply Sublecint Tipe fibre dave ty Once the fibre preparation stages are controlled agitation Tr gore 1% consistency or lower, is held ia ine. From g, At the zi supply the othe machin Provide a buffer feed stock ne a mixing 9 Taeioe os system, the fibre dispersion 18 ip fur ied ns 8S mixing pump the fibre disper yas ow 8 Tequired at the flow box- of wate Needs large additional volumesby companies use of old, fully depreciated conve Oeil the flat wire type (Fig. 3-1) or the cylinder mould ‘work was done, but other than in cxcomrot of the Mow onto the Weta way wh and operating speed (see Fig, 35) rman ay had to be drained and this Fequired: ‘increased the Same wey Early experimental work shows diigo M0¥ omens of vacuum boxes under the wire ge lings Wie ae Configuration that could handle these mea tae rg a rershad been established, funhe ei Oc acing ingles, extended flow boxes and maeree**OPmens ig eae 3.11). Am example ofthe current appease 1 OPMINE capa is illustrated by the Voith Hy, apelin wie forme Soh of inclined wire formers G sine orc one unit. The converging 8 Boxe te net alower dewatering box through which the font! 88 UPper frat wall ag mat is formed continuously on the wire abou pe I suspension of uniform stock consistency. Stock {he dewatering box from a are typical for this machine. With the Hydroformer na os Ol-8% nonwovens as well as long-fibred papers can be produc a et dispersible fibres and fibre mixtures, Fibres up 0 35 nm cans prescnd under the right conditions into homogeneous webs. The machine is available in different formats. 3.7.1 Single-layer HydroFormer 7 The HydroFormer was first developed in the mid-1960s. Since that time the concept has been continuously developed and since 1996 the HydroFormer ‘Machines are available in has included a hydraulically closed flow box. Mac 4 ee pal cane130 Handbook of nonwovens j widths up to 5.2 mand with production speeds of over $00 mani, vith web weights in the range 7-300 g/m? can be produced, Gruetn i xaied by individual adjustment of the Tow eee dewatering chamber. é 3.7.2 Double-layer HydroFormer The top sheet is formed directly after the formation of the sheet, The process is made possible by a separate supply of te, = suspension into a special flow box. The result is very good adhesigy the two layers. The combination of two individual layers having ee fibre compositions can create final mat characteristics that can be with separate individual layers. 3.7.3 White-water circuit The choice of an open or a closed white-water circuit is largely determines by the filtration resistance of the product to be produced and by the space available for the machine. For the open white-water circuit, the maximum, vacuum value in the dewatering chambers is determined by the level between the flow box and the level of the white-water tank. With the closed white. water system, the white-water tank is subjected to a vacuum. By ‘changing the vacuum in the white-water tank, the dewatering vacuum can be changed over a wide range, which provides a high degree of flexibility. 3.7.4 Alternative wet-lay forming technologies The cylinder mould machine In the cylinder mould configuration, the forming wire is wrapped round @ cylinder, which is contained within a vat through which the fibre suspensiot flows (see Fig. 3.12). The water drains through the wire onto the cylindet and the web is built up on the cylinder surface and then transfered. i Vacuum boxes mounted under the transfer felt, through @ lightweight pr 2g (othe drying section of the machine and on tothe ree-up. Moukb ‘sed for we-laid nonwovens were almost exact copies of the noulds usarea and positioned vacuum ‘eainage capability. The advantages Sera uniform web, were combined with jn.a machine system designed by Sandy Hill Corporation and the SIGMA former (Fig. 3.14). This system Wit technically very Pe vas ot he commercial success that te Rowiotnes ie for many applications. ‘roll forming, for examp probably too expensive ‘The Radfoam process ‘An altemative to the machinery modification route was to make use auitives, which modify the effective viscosity of the suspending (water) and provide forces of attraction and/or repulsion between ‘These additives, usually based on natural gums, have been known si early days in places like Japan where they were used to produce jmprovements in the web formation of long-fibred papers. Un more these additives are used, the greater are the problems of drai and the greater the limitation on machine speed. Wiggins Teape R *Radfoam’ which allowswovens 34 — Handbook of no’ suspension of the fibres with an air content of 60%. Under t Jong fibres are processed at a 0.4% forming consistency Brith poe lg relates tothe basic concept of the Radfoam process and a number gy patents were filed in many different countries. A US patent was ee September 1972 and the process was made available on a licensed Wont in the weight range 30-120 gim? were produced at speeds up to 2 ae The Lystil OY (now Ahlstrom) process In 1996 Lystil OY of Finland announced a significant development in wet-laid nonwovens field. Since the early developments of wetlay, it he always been recognised that there would be advantages in being able produce multilayer structures. Earlier developments had resulted ip Multiple forming devices which allowed one layer to be deposited on the formi wire followed by a second layer and with care, a third layer could be added, In these cases the water suspension of the first layer was drained through the forming wire; for the second layer the water was drained through the Previously formed first layer and when there was a third layer, the suspending water yas drained through the first two wet layers on the wire. This forming method was limited by the natural compaction of the initial layers on the forming wire and this made the forming of the second and third layers problematical in a number of cases. Although it has never been disclosed exactly how Lystil OY achieve their simultaneous forming of three layers, itis likely to be a development of twin wire forming technology used in paper and board making. In 1968 Beloit Corporation published results of their research work into simultaneous convergent forming. This research has been successfilly applied to board making and to producing twin wire soft tissue, where very high-speed jets of fibre/water suspension converge between two drainage wires to form a web of significantly improved formation (Fig. 3.15). This technology allowed the manufacture of a three-layer soft tissue sheet that had very soft cellulose fibres on the two outside layers and the stiffer ‘but stronger fibres in the centre layer, thus providing a web that was soft © touch, but strong enough to be of practical use. It should be remembered tat a soft tissue machine runs at speeds in excess of 2000 mimin and ths Heh speed is a necessary feature of the two-sided simultaneous cewnetes a makes the sheet formation possible. Unfortunately, in the early stages offets development there did not appear to be a way of achieving the same eS at relatively slow speeds consistent with the forming of wet-laid non, ‘There is little doubt that Lystil OY have developed a system thattg —— = \P to Seo OT) —— Lave 3 tw 3.15 Principle of convergent forming 38 Bonding systems for wet-laid Nonwovens 3.8.1 Hydrogen (cellulose) bonding Wet laid nonwovens utilising cellulose fibre, particulary i woe processed to induce fibration an Gate eee natural affinity of the cellulose fibre to produce hydrogen bonds between the tydroxyl groups on the molecular surface to form ‘bonds between the celle chains and other fibres present to provide sufficient web stength. This ecnigne is useful when the resultant web is going to be further processed off the mnachine, ie. coated, For webs that require more trenath o forwebs male fam ahigh percentage of man-made fibres, other bonding methods anst be used, 382 Latex bonding nate Theuse of atx emulsions 1 bond weed webs SEE wt eres are dispersed in water can BE ss Mai136 Handbook of nonwovens iff, rigi 5 Ision binders 11 deapable to stiff, rigid or rubbery Latex emul Peer ts ‘wet web after forming (and if required ster pertaeana if surface bonding is particularly important or the web properties eying dictate this approach. 3.8.3 Thermal bonding laid webs may be thermally bonded by the application of heat provi ce contains fibre or an additive that will fuse at the selected _ temperature and will low between the fibre junctions. On cooling, the binder material locks the fibre network together. It is possible, if the web contains, for example, polyethylene fibres of the SWP tyPe- that these may be melted in discrete points (point bonded) 10 create bonds, but it is now generally preferable to use specific binder fibres such as copolyesters or bicomponents ‘ased on the PP/PE or PETICoPET”’ structure. With bicomponent fibres of the side-by-side or sheath/core configuration, the Jower melting point polymer is the polymer that forms the bond, The big advantage that the use of bicomponents brings is that they do not leave a “hole* in the web when the ond ie formed because the higher melting point component remains as 8 integral part of the web. The value of this is that it prevents wet web collapse inuse. A special case of thermal bonding: is the use of glass fibre to creates thermally induced bond in structures formed from ceramic or i melting-point fibres. In this case, a small quantity of glass fibre, ‘melting: point about 500 °C, is used to create a bond in ceramic fibre webs (melts point 1750 °C). ie 3.8.4 Binder fibres based on polyvinyl alcohol {family of fibres based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is avaiable fom 6S and some members ofthis group are soluble in water at various = Using a percentage of these fibres at the web-forming stage, with a so {temperature of 80°C, means that as the web passes through theWetis js depending on the required we a the web, the advantage get Puy ‘ote hich would otherwise modify the pene is inn Whe ey entanglement Process is capable op sat P™PEnieg ene alone srength without increasing the fabric gq oSIM8 fale fabric gee stems. Hydroentanglement of webs tes to the ext ty thermal bonding is also practised to bicomponen rhe bonding in the case of webs composed of Bi = Overallbonding pantty of latex binder may be applied Me Such es connate, provide a more fully bonded surface, the bydtoemanged ayn 3.8.6 Inorganic binder systems For the high-performance inorganic fi 7 applications, there is a need to have atin tone Wet-laid nonwoven remains stable at elevated temperatures. ‘Conventional binge eet ov organic materials are of little use under such conditions Rowers ane itis fundamental to wet-lay technology that the fibres are snpeains water, this provides a route by which an ‘inorganic binder system may be created in situ. The adjustment of the pH or changing ofthe ionic concentration of the liquid can be beneficial to the fibre dispersion, and this may be used to create a binder. For example, using ceramic fibre to produce a high- temperature insulation material requires that the ceramic web be stabilised upto its operating temperature. This can be achieved by creating aninorganic binder within the web. ae Aluminium sulphate dissolved in water creates an acid solution, which is sultable for dispersion of the ceramic fibre. At the ee aed hvdtoride solution is added to increase the pH to the ine precipitate the gelatinous aluminium hydroxide thats pom c Teaction between the aluminium sulphate a re network a i mel This gelatinous material is trapped within the peep fit ses onthe wire. As the web is dried, this gelatinous ; and then, when the web is subsequentlySe en ww Tentile strength 975 mm atrp (0) 400 100 Without binder woo 200 300. 400 800600700 Temperature °C ‘Temperature resistance of glass microfibre web with 40% aluminium hydroxide addition. Exposure 15 minutes at each temperature, 3.16 Effect of aluminium hydroxide binder on ceramic fibre web. 3.9 Finishing Wet-laid webs containing cellulose fibres may be slightly too stiff for direct use in some applications such as surgical wrap although the web characteristics such as tensile strength and tear may be particularly important tama Se eet rete Sos xe) Oe 0aramid and phenolic fibres, Sateen Webs in the weight range 5~2000 g/m? can | designed units. Product applications of the9.18 Glass microtibre web for cryogenic insulation.ST a aoe static dissipation surfac RFI shielding veils? Yells pultrusion materials heat and controlled ¢} 2 electrolytic condenser Conductance Parators, Mialerials 3.11 Sources of further j, cee Cia, Sythe (6 6) pt a PIRA Intrational Leatheeay Sirey a white Colin F, Wetlad and short fibre ginags i nonwovens, fmeoven) surrey UK 1996, Amery Leatetieas 3.12 References 1. Grant J, Young J H and Watson B, P British Paper & Board Industry Feder, at Mann Ts ile 2. Inagaki H, Nonwovens Asia, Miller Freeman, se, ae, Osbourne F H, The History of Dewter's Long finn USA 1989, Windsor Locks, Connecticut, USA. lees Hiner me Parker J D, The Sheet Forming Process, Association of the Pulp & Paper Indy US get Se No Ta 5. Schoffmann E, Neue Broderhaus NoWoFormer Bull . Hardy C, Fine dtex cellulosic fibres offer significant Intemational Yearbook 1991, No 245 p 50-52. . Smith JE, Cellulose acetate fibres: A fibrillated high surface area pulp fr seiity —— septate TAPPI Nonwovens Conference ome ea p 237-243. . Cruz MM, Rayons in Battista OA (ed), Synthetic Fibers in Papermating. Interscience 1964. ). Derwick G van Breen A W, A new polypropylene fibre for the paper industry Pial BPBIF/PRI Conference 28-29 November 1978 p 4.144. |. White CF, The use of empules fe boning eae oa onl ‘Dester, Techical TEC International Nonwoven Fabrics Conference 3) May-2 une ba (Teimetnylene eet PIM |. Brown HS, Casey PK and Donahue J M, Poly for fibers, Nonwovens World, summer 1998. . Haile W A and Phillips B M, Deep grooved : TAPP! Journal Nel 78 NOS: Seas Z142 Handbook of nonwovens 18. White CF and Moore GK, Ceramic and Mineral wool fibers in processes, TAPP] Journal December 1987. Keith J M, Dispersion of synthetic fiber for wetlay nonwovens, 7appy 19. 20. 21. m2. 23. ‘Stassen WN, Dispersing glass fibers in the wet process, TAPPI| 1983. Meicthocfer A W, Wetlaid nonwovens — a survey of the ‘speciality fabrics on papermaking machinery, Nonwoven Fabrics University 19-26 June 1989 Clemson USA. ‘Schoffmann E and Schwend F, Meeting trend developments in wet forming tage, Nonwovens Conference 12-16 May Marco Island Fl USA 1991. we Schofimann E, The use of inclined wire formers to produce nonwoven Materia op ‘medical/health care applications, PIRA Nonwovens in Medical and Hea Applications seminar 10-12 November, Brighton UK 1987, See i. Magill D G. Operation and capabilities of wet forming devices for long fies structures, TAPP! Journal January 1987, . Dunn M P, Multiply sheet formation on inclined wire formers, TAPPI Journal October 1988. - Haile W, Dean Land Gregory D, Co Polyester Polymers forbinder fibers, Nonwoven 508. : World, summer 1998, Ohmori A. A new water soluble synthetic fibre for nonwoven applications, EDANA INDEX 96 symposium Geneva 1996 R&D Session. | White CF Hydoentanglement technology applied to wet formed and other reir webs, TAPP/ Journal, June 1990. a 1 neLed norte Polymerlaid Web formation Sd . G S BHAT niversity of Tennessee, USA and = SR MALKAN Synfil Technologies, USA 41 Introduction Polymer-laid, spunlaid or ‘spunmelt’ nonwoven fries are produced by extrusion spinning processes, in which filaments are directly collected to form a web instead of being formed into tows or yarns as in conventional spinning. As these processes eliminate intermediate steps, they provide opportunities for increasing production and cost reductions. In fact, melt spinning is one of the most cost efficient methods of producing fabrics. Commercially, the two main polymer-laid processes are spunbonding (spunbond) and meltblowing (meltblown). Both are similar in principle, but the technologies used are quite different. Because of distinct differences in the structure and properties of the fabrics, these processes have grown in parallel since their inception in the late 1950s and for some applications they are also used in combination to produce bilaminates, trilaminates (e.s.. SMS) and other multilayer fabrics. Advancements in polymer chemistry and extrusion technology have enabled an increasingly varied range of products to be developed based on the core spunlaid and meltblown technologies. Some of the most important research commenced in the fate 1950s and an extensive number of processing and product patents have been reported over the year More recently, there has been a dramatic resurgence of research ant development concemed with polymer lai systems 38 wells acceptance of the fabrics in new product areas, 4.2 Resins for spunbonding and meltblowing : «oh molecular weight and broad molecular weight distribution In general, high mo\ ieee polyester and polyamide can be process polymers such as poly ‘uniform webs. Medium melt viscosity polymers, by spunbonding OP ied of fibers by melt spinning, are also used: In commonly used eee ‘weight and relatively narrow weight contrast, en are preferred for meliblowing,144 — Handbook of nonwovens decade, the use of polyolefins, especially doninml the production of meltblown and spunbonded the main reasons for the growing use of polyolefins in polymer. jc that the raw materials are relatively inexpensive and available . the world. Polyolefin resins are widely used in nonwovens rae they offer a relatively attractive cost combined with good value ang ea. use when compared to conventional resins, such as polyesters and oe Moreover, continuing advances in polyolefin fiber rade resins are tegen the olefin’s price-propertics ratio, which make them more suitable for poly, laid nonwoven applications. Polym. ‘Commercial polyolefin technologies over the last six decades have gop, through significant changes. They have gone through introduction, groys and stabilization or maturity phases.' The drive for technology evolution been the industry's desire to continuously improve control of the architecture, which leads to improved polymer performance. The ke developments or milestones in polyolefin technology are as follows? * Inthe 1930s, ICI set a trend of making versatile plastics by introducing its high-pressure process for making polyethylene resins. 2 * Inthe 1950s, the discovery of stereo-regular polyolefins and the incrediy. rapid development of catalysts and processes led to commercialization of crystalline isotactic polypropylene and HDPE resins. 7 * In the 1970s and through the 1990s, the invention of the low-pressure, as phase process for making linear polyolefins started the wheels * Inthe 2000s, the introduction of a single site catalyst for making supes polyolefin resins set another technological trend. 7 4.2.1 Markets ‘aa Polyolefins are the Table that, of |components IL18alS0 Widely use jn ‘Web torntion js used predominantly in the Uniteg gt Strat 5 Envelopes: and other paper-tik N24 States for inguin © Products, AUStal parmesan 4.2.2 Polyolefin resins Commercially available polyolefin resiny Span a weights and comonomer contents ranging pYeT Wide range op molecular weight resins to low mole oe extremes Molecule ei crystalline, stiff materials to low modulus, amit Hid: from mit main polyolefin resins used in polymer-lag gee Pt" Polymers, Thee? (PP) and polyethylene (PE). Although both crane a the olefin family, they have significantly differen sgn a members of and performance variations. Mt Processing requirements Polypropylene is the most widely used resi 7 and itexists in three forms; isotactic, syidioncie eae Peay orns isotactic PP is the principal type, oe aa ae 1, Isotactic PP is a stereo specific polymer because the its added head t tail so thal their methyl group ae al ce enn the plane of the polymeric backbone. It. Crystallizes in a helical form and exhibits good mechanical properties, such a stifness and tensile stensth Isotactic PP is sold commercially in three basic types of product homopolymer, random copolymer, and block copolymer. Homopolymer has the highest stiffness and melting point of the three types and is marketed in a wide range of melt flow rates (MFR). * ~ 2. Syndiotactic PP is made by inserting the monomer ais nan tang configuration. It lacks the stiffness of the isotactic form, but has impact and clarity. ; i 3 Atacie BP is sade is talons insertion of the eenaptees lacks the crystallinity of the other two. It is mainly and adhesives applications. PPhomopoly et Fre rade PP resins are manly sotaetichoner stiffness a When drawn or oriented, gives a material sinent ‘car strength, and clarity due to the molecular fiber technologies take advantage of the 4146 Handbook of nonwovens J Polyethylene (PE) resins are made by polymerizing ethylene Js0 be copolymerized with other materials to modify or emp ey ceeacien Sees the density of polyethylene can be atinac the type and amount of comonomer reacted with ethylene to make te This comonomer, in combination with the manufacturing process, 4 ME type, frequency, and length of branching that occurs in the ce variation results in different types of polyethylene There are teen types of polyethylene, namely: 1. HDPE resin. The term HDPE is an abbreviation for high polyethylene, The typical density of this resin is 0.950 giem ang hehe 2. LDPE resin. The term LDPE is an abbreviation for low qe polycthylene. The typical density of this resin ranges from Oo10g 0.925 g/em?. 3. LLDPE resin. The term LLDPE is an abbreviation for Vinear tow deny Polyethylene, which typically ranges from 0.915 to 0.930 gle Fiber grade PE resins are mainly HDPE and LLDPE. Low melt flow rate HDPE resins are used for filament applications. Medium to high melt oy fate LLDPE resins are used to produce continuous fine denier f Both spunbonding and meltblowing require medium melt flow rate PE resins, The typical range is (0.5 to 300 MER. The extrusion and spinning characteristics of all polyolefin resins are uite distinct, Itis known that polypropylene resin is more difficult toextnde than polyethylene.‘ This is mainly due to the high shear sensitivity of Polypropylene resin and to a limited extent, the higher melting point. Generally Speaking, the output for polypropylene from a given size of extruder is lower than that of Polyethylene and has a greater tendency to surge.’ On the other both polypropylene and polyethylene resins are relatively easy to spin into fine denier Provided the resins have a narrow molecular weight distribution and an appropriate MFR. ‘main resin characteristics affecting the extrusion and spinning proceaes: the production of polymer-laid nonwovens are as follows:4 17 Molecular WeiEht distrib Mat wap, meltblowing require relat; q molecular Weight distribuyes OW mW, Doty of the resin so that the melt sree Sethe my, sehen A without excessive draw force mmeanbe ey wade and melt strength. which prohip broad Mwpy nite dence ah sin is prone to fiber ‘increases may Namen resin is pr Produce fiber pees {Wing ali instability) phenomena, breaks due oe abroenn, + Melt viscosity. Melt viscosity is a funcg; sonar a, The melt viscosity of the melt has Tb EMER and me filaments. The MER range suitable e Pope in caer pe melt blowing it is 30 to 1500. Spunbonding is 39 xe . maine 4 Resin cleanliness. Owing to the fine cay for utilized in spunbonding and melibi one e diameter of the sp with practically no contaminants. The con mine a tt holes during processing causing inconsistency in he final onan the contaminants are removed usin; product. Usually, 4 15 Lworstep melt flration sy Polyolefin technology is growing faster than any ther polymer d new development technology. To understand new developments, we must first understand the catalysts in general. In polyolefin manufacturing, the monomers are reacted ssing « catalyst. All catalysts have reactive sites enabling them to perform their fanction, which is linking individual molecules to form a polymer chain. Conventional catalysts have many reactive sites located randomly on the surface of the catalyst. This produces different and varying polymers. The new catalyst system, which is known asa single-site catalyst, also has many reactive sites, but all sites are identical. This ‘turn gives identical polymers and minimizes the variability of polymers. es polyolefin The most commonly used single-site cataly ae ge Aad resins is the metallocene catalyst. Companies around crabs si producing metallocene based polyolefin 0% offer various attributes, as deseribed of polyolefins, «© They allow contol of the molec ges mse Yo14g Handbook of nonwovens e finer denier fibers than conventional resins © The optimum bonding temperators= sn spunbonding are lower because of the lower melting point « Tabrie strengths are comparable ¢ excellent spinning continuity TG be spun at higher draw force, Spbstantial reduetion in votatile deposits © Sproader MER range, especially for meltblowing- 4.2.3 Polyester Polyester is used in a number of commercial spunbond products and offers eerain advantages over Polypropylene although itis more expensive. Unlike polypropylene, polyester Scrap. is not readily recycled in spunbond Mranufacturing, The tensile strength ‘modulus, and heat stability of polyester fabries are superior to those Of polypropylene. Polyester fabrics are easily dyed and printed with conventional non-aqueous Processes: 4.2.4 Polyamide Spunbond fabrics are made from both nylon-6 (PA-6), and nylon-6,6 (PA6.6) Nylon is highly energy intensive and therefore more expensive than polyester or polypropylene. Nylon-6,6 spunbond fabrics are produced with weights 8s tow as 10 g/m* and with excellent cover ‘and strength, Unlike olefins and polyester fabries, those made from nylon readily absorb water by means of hydrogen bonding between the amide grouP ‘and water molecules. 4.2.5 Polyurethane Following development work by various workers, spunbond fabrics made ances thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), was commercially developed in japan. Unique properties are ‘aimed for this product, which appears to Pe ‘well suited for apparel, hygiene products and other applications requiring ead ears and fit. ‘Vanious polymer suppliers produce TPUs and ae problems can pe experienced in processing with static electricity and ° ee lems, the use of these polymers has gained increasing — t blown and spunbond fabrics. Spunbond fabrics containin poe heath bicomponent filaments have been commercialized by ADC joint venture between BBA Fiberweb and Dow). These spunbond fabrics contain filaments Se aim sheath of & pee cs niagara sates ot ersPolymerisid web format id wef : ion ag . The main advantage properties and softness to web eT 4.2.7 Bicomponents (Bicos) and mixed Polymer rs Some fabrics are composed can function as the Deer ay oe A opstuacins veer higher melting fibers, or two polymers may be com fiber interspersed with type. In the latter case the so-called bicomponest Phan theene on, a lower melting component wich aig aa shea Coes a gle Gok papertnre cre, Bomar nies as a sheath covering a higher melt adjacent polymers. Polyethylenc ents are also spun by extrusion of two isophthalic acid are used ee Bulan Sad polrestets, wats Pe Nev oe 2 as the lower-melting point bicomponent elements. polymers such as PTT and PTAT have been shown to produce g00d aiualty Souabond eee teeta ge ret eae gras eee that of PP and PET and has no shrinkage problems compared to regular PET. PTAT is a copolyester that is biodegradable and has the definite advantage of disposability with low environmental impact. Many other new polymers, copolymers and polymer blends are being evaluated as candidates for spunbonding. Whereas each polymer or combination of polymers can claim certain advantages, the cost of these resins, atleast initially, prevents their growth, Unless the property advantages offered by these new resins outweigh the higher cost, their growth will be limited to specialty applications Splitable bicomponents are also found in spunbond fabries and have some interesting applications. The cross-section of these bicomponent laments roe at least two different polymer components, which in spunbonding are normally arranged sequentially in a segmented pie form, To aid mechanical splitting, the core of the filament me be hollow. Evolon® fabs proteed by Freudenberg are made of se bicomponent filame oe ee rs droentanpement ofthe spunlaid web. The resulting raalarly after finishing, and have therefore cor spunk we fate) ISA mth late 1950s but twas |ak ot nonwovens 150 Hanabook ry 1970s, that the commens ial potential of 960s to the ea a eee ter, int ne + fully recone’ Numerous patents 8 spunbong mono veto TT Guring this temo and seme were commercially Wocess design Wore 1 commercialized the first spunbe ;Pont developed ane md adopted. In ES os Tho 1965. research at DuPont resulted in a polyester process inthe late 197%, facture. This was followed by the reatled Reemay” man ee ‘ A fabric ‘Typar® and the flashspun poly ethy lene fabric peaeten ypmsatly sold both the Reemay and Typar® = ‘DuPont subsequent He Ate Tne, DuPont still remains & significant force in the technologi ‘ei i to Reem yvek® branded procucl rh ca company Frevdenders filed vod ge on the spunbond process in 195. Six years later, Trouenbere intredics it first spunbond precs Lutravil® and made a product called Viledon M°, made from mixed polyamides.” ‘The German company became the first European spunbond manufacturer and ih 1970 Freudenberg incorporated al} its spunbond activities intothe Carl Freudenberg Spunbond Division based in Kaiserslautern, eth facility, polyester, polyamides ‘and later polypropylene spunbonded pies were produced. About the sume 10 in 1970, Lurgi Koble & Mineraloltechnik GmbH. Germany introduced the Docan® spunbond process and in 1971 started licensing the process it the USA. Many US and European spunbond roll goods manufacturers se the Docan® process with proprietary modifications. ‘There were comparatively few major developments in the spunbonding process from 1971 to the early 1980s until in 1984, Reifenhauser GmbH, Germany, introduced the Reicofil® spunbond process. A few years before its. introduction, Reifenhauser had purchased the rights to an East German patent oe ve ae ae Sane spunbond webs.’ Considerable research and nase n ‘igi S| s il Sr ea gem fr oaueng Wee} 2 te sauptger lens? producing webs primarily from Fi i a Sate ee eee ees been introduced. Amoco Fibers and the $-TEX® system. These proce system and Sodoca, France introduced abk Cyn at lew Beas Ret je are reported to make highly uniform Gael: srcnibuits peccenecs a ereby providing opportunities that the ‘Ason, Germany and Nordson, eae to mies. Kobeles tapes Ne new spunbonding systems a a Gee operating in this market with spunbond equipment. Spunbond y, Meccaniche Moderne S.p.Ais offering 4.2. Reifenhauser supplies oe manufacturers are listed in Table lines. ‘of current commercial production A primary factor in the fouregingiteneoamain ea ‘of spunbonded fabries is the control of ‘grated operations: filament extrusion, drawing, |@Y down, and bondi bonding. The first three operations are directly adapted fromrormertal Table 4.2 Majors Meior spunbond equipme i aa id. web formation 151 Reifenhauser eo eae Zimmer Germany STP Impianti Germany Reicofi n,m any NWT (Perfobond) ttaly DocanNST Kobeleo Naly/Switaotiong Modified Docan Karl Fischer (Invent a Whiple Stot Nerdson NeRta) Germany (Switzer belo (NKK) ona USA fend) Kar Fischer Rieter Germanyrusa Merri Switzerland = conventional man-made filament extrusi n xtrusion and consti ances ican a or! xe of the process, hence the generi nd” Is believed 1 Whi Sara censor arcana yea nae en manufacturing processes have two aspects in common:"' they all ewe with apolymer resin and end with a finished fabric; all spunbond fabrics = made on an integrated and continuous production line. 43.1 Extrusion spinning One of three generic extrusion spinning techniques (melt, dry and wet) is employed in a spunbonding process. In spunbonding, each is directly adapted from conventional filament fiber spinning. Melt spinning is by far the most commonly used. A brief summary of the three approaches is given below:'* 1. Melt spinning involves melting a thermoplastic fiber-forming polymet and ite extrusion into air or an alternative gas, where cooling and solidification of the filament is accomplished. This is sometimes referred to as direct spinning. Polyolefins ey pelsproniene 3 thylene), ‘ester, and polyami je are amongst the most €o pe a eee used ipmeleamn spunbond fabrics. Additionally by modifying the spinnerette and polymer feed oe ed (BICO) or conjugate filaments are produced. vie a ee different polymers arranged in various configuratio! Be a pedues cross-section. With certain bicomponent fibres itis POR solution mnicrofibers and even nanofibers it the fabric by either Se itt filament voainal spliting of the of one of the polymers of bY IONE nical enerey: 8 mec! components using a suitable SON ooaney of a solution of the fibet= 2. Dry spinning involves contin oy exarusioemove the solvent, beaviN forming polymer into 8 Pr ufacture of cellulose acetate. the solid filament, 5Handbook of onwoverss 182 trusion invous eX of a solution of the fiber. presing potyener into's HaSS Ee ® staring medium where the polymer is regenerated, as in the Harafacture of viscose TaYOS Me cupramoniom Foon. Calcium alginate punionds nave also BeeR produced using this 3, Wet spinning involves cont approach. fan be used to make spunbond fabrics « the most widely used. partly because in addition, it should be noted that int extrusion processes can be ing and centrifugal are available in the spinning techniques ¢ it spinning technique | sconomics All of the above However, the melt of its simplicity and attractive © seleast from a technical ViewPOIn ‘most filame! adapted to form spuniaid weds. for example gel spinni spinning. Detailed discussions of the different techniques published literature." In its simplest form. an extruder for forming spinning, drawing and deposition SYST a sronding zone; and a winding unit. Figure spunbonding process based on melt spinning: 4 spunbond fabric using melt spinning are m the following elements: a spunbond line consists of filament Fiaments, a metering pump: a die asserb'Ys belt for collecting the filaments; 4.1 shows a flow diagram of the ‘The stages involved in producing ‘ow discussed in more detail. 4.3.2 Polymer melting are fed into the extruder hopper. A gravity ‘which rotates within the heated barrel. The he barrel between the The polymer pellets or granules feed supplies pellets to the serew, pellets are conveyed forward along the hot walls oft Polymer metting Fiering and extrusion potymer melt mae R | f Fiber Leydown se eae ales Se Bonding nas | Fabric és \ 4.1 Basic stages in the production of spunbond fabricsRe Olymertsid web formation fein’ and is controlled by the breaker plate the screw discharge. The screen pack and and unmelted polymer lumps.!° The pressurized eyed to the metering pump. with a screen pack placed near breaker plate also filter out dirt molten polymer is then conv Metering of the melt a pate sale! volume metering device is used for uniform melt Ty ie assembly. It ensures the consistent flow of clean polymer mix under process variations in viscosity, pressure, and temperature. The metering pump also provides polymer metering and the required process pressure. The metering pump typically has two intermeshing, counter-rotating. toothed gears. The positive displacement is accomplished by filling each gear tooth with polymer on the suction side of the pump and carrying the polymer around to the pump discharge. The molten polymer from the gear pump goes to the feed distribution system to provide uniform flow to the die nosepiece in the die assembly (or fiber forming assembly)” 4.3.3. Die block assembly The die assembly is one of the most import process. The die assembly has two distinet co distribution section and the spinneret. fant elements of the spunbond ponents: the polymer feed ‘more critical than in a film or Polymer feed distribution ding die is ea bonding die usually has no ‘The feed distribution in a spun! tee pete SE ee t os fox variations in polymer flow across mechanical see process is ‘often operated at a temperature range = oes breakdown of polymers proceeds rapidly. The feed distribution hia ually designed way that the distribution is less dependent & phe ee ae oe polymer. ‘This feature allows the processing of pels differen! mol ee e materials using just one distribution system: nder pm pe hw athe esses ite es OS