9} Thermal Boundary Layers Without Coupling of the Velocity Field to the Temperature Field 9.1 Boundary—Layer Equations for the Temperature Field thp velocity ficld. These will now be correspondingly extended to include the temperature field. It will be assumed that heat is transferred to the flow field thtough the surrounding walls, so that a temperature field forms together with the velocity field. It will be seen that the temperature field also has oundary layer character at high Reynolds numbers, i.e. the temperature ld can also be divided into two regions: in the region close to the wall, wifere the thermal conductivity \ plays a role, and a region where A can be| neglected. If both a velocity field and a temperature field exist, there is geerally also a mutual coupling between these two fields. Tn this chapter we will first discuss those particular flows with heat trans- fey] for which the velocity field is decoupled from the temperature field. This is fhe case if the physical properties @ and jz are constant, i.c. can be assumed tobe independent of the temperature and pressure. This assumption is cer- talnly justified as long as the temperature and pressure differences within the bdundary layer are small. Then all statements about the velocity boundary laters in Chaps. 6 to 8 remain valid. In order to describe the temperature fiold, the (thermal) energy equation must be taken into account. If the ther- m4] conductivity \ and the isobaric specific heat capacity ¢» can also be askumed to be constant, the energy equation from Eq. (3.72), in Cartesian cobrdinates, for a (steady) two-dimensional flow reads of considerations of boundary-layer flows up until now have referred only to pe or or Pr eT 2p (05 4) = (SS Ge) +2, (9.1) wiere the dissipation function from Eq. (3.62) is ® du\? _ (avY dv uy H -|(%) +(5)|+ rm) - 02) th internal energy) is possible via conduction and dissipation. Since the a ne (9.1) shows that a (convective) change in the temperature (ie. in vefocity components u(,y) and v(2,y) appear in Eq. (9-1), the calculation210 9. Thermal Boundary Layers Without Coupling of the Velocity Field of the temperature field requires that we know what the velocity ficld is. The velocity field will now be assuined to be that of a flow at high Reynolds munber, ie. the flow will have boundary layer character. With the reference quantities t, V and AT, the following dimensionles quantities are introduced (9.3) Here # is defined as the dimensionless temperature exceeding the temperature Tyo of the outer flow. AT is some snilable reference temperature difference, which will be determined later. Introdneing the variables y* and * from the boundary-layer transforma- tion Eq. (6.6) a= vVRe. (9.4) the energy equation (9.1) together with (9.2) becomes aeyVAT (00, 00) AAT (OA |p Pd 2VAT ( pO0) _ AAT ey I om aR TB Gert wv {| fawY faey 1 de -Ou* . te (GE) + fa + (Gea YE) + (9.5) Tf we now take the limit for large Reynolds numbers (te — 90}, we obtain the equation for the thermal boundary layer (in dimensionless form): 5 out? wot pe 23 +Ee a) (9.6) Tere we have introduced the following two dimensionless numbers: Prandtl number Pi ue , (9.7) Eckert number Ee = (9.8) cA Wo assume that these two characteristic numbers remain finite in taking the large Reynolds ammber limit, ‘The Prandtl number is a. pure physical property, see Table 3.1, The Eckert number is a measure of the dissipation effects in the How. Since this grows in proportion to the square of the velocity, it cam be neglect for stnall velocities. Tn an air flow (ce, = 1000m?/s?K) with V = 10 m/s and a reference tempera- ture difference of AT = 10K, we find Be = 0.01. Because of the dissipation, a temperature fick] emerges even if there is no heat transfer, ie. in the ease of so called adiabatic (insulating) walls. The walls then have a higher tem- perature than the temperature Ty, of the outer flow. ‘Chis wall temperature is called the adiabatic wall temperature, and will be disenssed in more detail in Sect. 9.69.2 Forced Convection for Constant Properties 211 ‘At the outer edge of the velocity boundary layer, where Out /O9 = 0 hdlds, 9 = 0 satisfies the differential equation (9.6). Thus at large distances frm the wall, the temperature is that of the outer flow T.., ie. we have O(e",7 + 00, Pr) = 0. There are more different kinds of boundary conditions poksible for thermal boundary layers than for velocity boundary layers, since thse latter are fixed by the no-slip condition and the impermeability of the wall. The different kinds of boundary conditions for thermal boundary layers will be discussed in the next section. Equation (9.1) is a linear differential equation, and thus its general solu- tign can be written down as a superposition of the solution without dissipa- tidn and the solution which is due to the dissipation: Wx" G Pr, Ec) = #1(0", J, Pr) + Ecda(x", Pr) « (9.9) Tie following equations therefore hold: dh 8 1 0, MA HL (9. woe Rae (9.10) 992 1 00, | (u"Y ay eg * ae) ey In what follows these two equations will be investigated separately. First offall the thermal boundary layer without dissipation will be treated, ie. we el look for sohutions 4(x*,g, Pr). This is permissible because either the locity is small enough that the dissipation may be neglected (i.e. Ec — 0), or| else the partial solution due to dissipation can always be added on later, cf] Sect. 9.6. For completeness we also present Eq. (9.6) for the thermal boundary layer in|dimensional form (constant properties): coo a) = PE a (HY cox 9j2 Forced Convection for Constant Properties If fhe dissipation is neglected, the temperature field in the thermal boundary lafer is described by Eq. (9.10). In dimensional form this equation reads oT or va, tay a (9.13) where ae (9.14)2129. Thermal Boundary Layers Without Coupling of the Velocity Field is denoted the thermal diffusivity. Iu order to determine the temperature field T(x,y) in the boundary layer, we uecd to kuow the velocity field u(a,y), u(a:,y}. Therefore siuce the motion of the fluid is foreed, we speak of forced convection and, in conucction with the calculation of the temper: ture field using Eq. (9.13), of forced convective heat transfer Let, us sun our thoughts to the boundary conditions for Eq. (9.13) or {9.10). As already explained, at great distauces from the wall, the tempera ture is that of the outer flow T.. (#; = 0). ‘The following, types of boundary conditions at the wall ean be prescribed: 1. the wall temp ature distribution Te (r), 2. the heat flux distribution at the wall gw x) = —MOT/Ay)w. 3. a relation between Ty, and gy. ‘This so called boundary condition of the third kind or mixed boundary condition oceurs particularly when both the temperature field in the dow aud the temperature field at the hody (heat coriduction problem) are to he computed simultaneously Freqnetitly it is sufficient to restrict oneself to the two standard boundary conditions To = const aud gy = const. Since the energy equation (9.13) is Linear, the solutios found wilh the standard boundary conditions can be used to generate the general solutions for arbitrary distributions Ty(2) or qw(a) via. superposition. wee cone Edge ot velbaty: poh) bocca ayer UES ~ Raporknpocte tou is tooo HU FelTTITI LN i, 7 Fig. 9.1. Development of the velocity aid temperature bonndary layer distribution for a discontinmous jump in the wall temperature at position = ro (standard problem) Such a standard solution for the ease of constant wall temperature is shown in Fig. 9.1. Here the wall temperature is initially equal 10 the outer temperature Ty. between = (amd a = ry, ad at position # = ry it suddenly jumps to the constant valne Tx. If the solution of this problem is Pla y.2%y) ~ To Te ibe, years (9.15)9.2 Forved Convection for Constant Properties 213 thpn for any arbitrary temperature distribution at the wall T;,(zo) the solution is Tee Tem f Olenze dala), (0.16) : For a known temperature field T(x, y) we obtain the distribution of the heat flug au (a,x0) = —D () = al7,24)(Te — Tx} (9.17) ou}, wifere is the coefficient of heat transfer. It has the units [a] = W/m?K. If a(, 20) is the distribution of the coefficient of heat transfer for the standard problem in Fig. 9.1, the wall heat. flux for a general temperature distribution T(x) emerges as ole) = f otto) ara(as) (9.18) ° fations (0.16) and (9.18) are Stieltjes integrals and they permit discontinuities in th¢ temperature distribution Ty (29). For continuous and differentiable distributions T,{(@), the wall heat flux is found to be ay ana) = f olas20) a. (9.19) da ° A horresponding expression also holds for Eq. (9.16). In analogy, the standard solution for constant qw (0 < x < & Zo|< x: gy = const) also yields the wall temperature for arbitrary distributions qw{ 20): T(x) — Tx = [ibe are (9.20) ° whfre (2,0) T(x) = Toe (9.21) dw is the distribution of the reciprocal coefficient. of heat transfer for the corresponding standard solution. ‘The numerical computation of temperature fields with discontinuous functions as boundary conditions naturally provides difficulties. Frequently the jump funo- tioh is replaced by a steep but continous transition function, cf. 'T. Cebeci; P. Brhdshaw (1984), p. 98. In applications it is in most cases not necessary to know all the details of Pe temperature field. The first point of interest is the heat flux gw at the wall, or else the coefficient of heat transfer @ from Eq. (9.17).214 9. Thermal Boundary Layers Without Coupling of the Velocity Field ‘The dimensionless characteristic munber for heat transfor is the Nusselt newer a(ajl tfa)l Nut) — See. ete we) Soe This can be used to formulate vie boundary conditions at the wall from Eq. (9.10) and the desired results as follows: (9, 1. Ty = coust (9.23) (9.24) (9.25} 2. dw = const: AT =~ oe (9.26) ai , y=0: (%) =. (9.27) Result: fool Tyla) — Ta, = yaa" Pr) (9.28) AVRe or yRe Mi Uwe We see that in aif thermal boundary layers, the Nusselt number only ap- pears in combination with the Reynolds munber as Nu/ Re. (One exception is the walll jet, ef. ‘Table 9.1.) This follows from the boundary layer simpli- fications and yields the asymptotic behaviour of the heat transfer at large Reynolds uumbers. If the distribution of the wall temperature Ty(x) is dependent on «, one must be careful in applying the coellicient of heat, transfer a = qw/{Tw —Toe) since at positions with T, = T.o, « will in general become singular. Therefore the formation of the Nusselt number with the local temperature difference is not recommended for variable Ty(c}. A fixed temperature diflerence (at one reference point) or the outer flow temperature Tx would then be suitable reference quantities, ef. K. Gersien; H. Herwig (1992), p. 16 and the exam- ple in Sect. 9.4 (linear wail temperature distribution at a flat plate at zero incidence) Pr). hw9.3 Effect of the Prandtl Number 215 9.3 Effect of the Prandtl] Number number for thermal boundary layers and heat transfer in forced convection. The Prandtl number is a physical property, and, from its definition Pr = v/a, is the ratio of two quantities which characterise the transport properties of th fluid with respect to the momentum (kinematic viscosity) and with re- spkct to the heat (thermal diffusivity). If the transport property with respect tolthe momentum, i.e. the viscosity, is particularly large, the momentum de- id effect of the wall (no-slip condition) will extend well into the flow, fe from Eq. (9.10) that the Prandtl number is the salient characteristic id the thickness 6 of the velocity boundary layer will be relatively large. ‘The same holds for the thickness 5,, of the thermal boundary layer. Tinus it is Junderstandable that the Prandtl number for forced convection is a direct measure of the ratio of the thicknesses of the two boundary layers. For the plate at zero incidence, with Pr = 1 (1e. v = a) and Ty = cost, the differential equations for u* = u/U> (Eq. (6.14)} and for 1 — 0) (Ha. (9.10)) including the boundary conditions are identical. In this case thp velocity boundary layer and the thermal boundary layer have the same tans {8 = du). For Pr = 1 for any other flow, the two boundary—layer thicknesses are of the same order of magnitude. ‘The two limiting cases of very small and very large Prandtl numbers are of|particular interest since they lead to greatly simplified calculations of the heat transfer. Here only the standard case Ty = const will be considered. ues | 2) te | i Lee iees @ Pr=O (Usqid metas) DI Pree (Linus, os) Tw Fig. 9.2 a,b. Comparison of the distributions of velocity and temperature for indary-layer flows with very small and with very large Prandtl numbers Small Prandt! numbers. As can been seen from Fig. 9.2a, for stnall Prandtl nimbers, such as those which occur in liquid metals (e.. mercury), because de, > 6, the velocity boundary layer can be disregarded when calculating thf thermal boundary layer. Therefore the velocities u(z,y) and v(,y) can bq replaced by the corresponding velocities at the outer edge of the velocity bdundary layer u(x,y) = U(2) and v(e,y) = (dU /dx)y (this follows from216 9. Thermal Boundary Layers Without Coupling of the Velocity Id the conthunity cquition). The energy equation (9.13) then assmines the simple forms PL vl ‘ae (Pr 0) (9.30) By introducing the similarity variable " Uo) (931) [ vader with the meaning of ap as in Pig. 9.1, we obtain the following ordinary dit ferential equation for O(a, y,an) = 8(9) = (P —Te)/(Tu — Te) (0) = solution is the Gaussian error function, ef. Na. (5.98). This reduction to ar solution is only possible for the standard ease Typ = const Thus we obtain the following mniversal quadrative formula for the local Nusselt umber: Nya = Ope? we 0, Dy — conse). X x fav f U(o)de sulting from this for the flat plate at zero incide ion~point How (L(x) = ar) are gi U4 lp! = By > 00) = (9.32) (9.33) The formulae and the For the flat: plate at zero incidence it is found from Ka, (9.88) that the coefficient of heat transfer ee(r ro) in Fq. (9.17) for the standard problem in Pig, 9.1 iss (9.4) As an cxample of the application of Eq, (9.18). lot 11s consider the flat plate at zero ‘ith a power function for the wall temperature distribution: T,.(°)--T. = sult, cf. K. Gerston: H. Kérner (1968) Na _ Pit) ( Jac Tn) 7 Since Nu is formed with respect to Tw le) — Te = is constant, see Table 9.1 ) PD De cay (0.35) we for = 1/2 the beat flux av An overview of the solutions for sinall Prandt! muubers ean be found in 8.2. Galante; 8.W. Churchill (1990)9.3 Effect of the Prandtl Number 217 Large Prandtl! numbers. The other limiting case of Pr — oo was first sglved many years ago by M.A. Lévéque (1928). The thickness of the thermal pbundary layer 6,, is very small compared to the thickness of the velocity bbundary layer 4, ef. Fig. 9.2b. In the limiting ease Pr —+ 00, the entire thermal boundary layer lies within that region where the velocity profile still appends linearly on y. The same circumstances can also occur for intermediate ‘andtl numbers if, for somewhat more fully developed boundary layers, the thermal boundary layer as in Fig. 9.1 starts with a temperature jump at the I at the position « = aro. If we take the following solutions for the velocity mponents close to the wall u(z,y) = 2O,, o(a,y) = (9.236) the resulting energy equation (9.13) can be reduced to an ordinary differential uation by means of a similarity transformation. Introducing the similarity vpriable ith the jump position %q as in Fig. $.1, for the standard case T,, = const Je obtain the following differential equation: eT aT OF 3h = ap” an ‘The solution of this equation can be given in terms of the incomplete gamma. fpaetion ‘The following quadrature formula then holds for the Nusselt num- “3 (9.37) 0. (9.38) a “ * 1/3 Nu = > = 0.53847 (4) Viw [vee prl/3 x a I (9.39) {Pr — 00, Ty = const) , where 0.5384 = 3'/8/P(1/3). ‘These formulae are given for the particular cases of the flat plate at zero Acidonce (Ty = 0.332pUo/Uz/vi) and the stagnation-point flow (tw = 2326 /ona®x) in ‘Table 9.1 (for rq = 0). By using Eq. (9.18), the wall fi flux can also be determined for arbitrary temperature differences, cf .J. Lighthill (1950), H.W. Liepmann (1958) and F.M. White (1974), p. 334 [s will be shown when we consider Fig. 9.3, the asymptotic formulae for Ir —+ 00 are also good approximations for moderate Prandtl numbers.218 9. Thermal Boundary Layers Without. Coupling of the Velocity Field ‘Table 9.1. Asymptotic formulae for the heat transfer at the plito, stagnation point and wall jet. The (heated) wall jet has the teraperatire Tse abe = 0) Pro Pros oe fat plate T., = const flat plate Gu = const stagnation point V = U(x)l/x heated wall jot Tee = const heated wall jet de = cout The formula (9.39) breaks down in the separation point because 7 — 0. An expansion of the solution for the velocity distribution up to the quadratic term ld Co) 1m (9.40) uk y) not aa! can yield some improvement, cf. D.B, Spalding (1958), We will look at this special case in the following section (for Tw. = 0 we find Nu ~ Pr), 9.4 Similar Solutions of the Thermal Boundary Layer Since the temperature field is dependent on the velocity field, a necessary the occurrence of similar temperature profiles is that there are ar solutions for the velocity field. ln Soct. 7.2 we treated those flows where the velocity field leads to similar solutions. We now look at the problem of determining for which thermal honndary conditions these flows also lead (0 similar solutions for the temperature field. An analysis similar to that in Sect. 7.2 will show that similar temperature profiles in the boandaty layer arise when the distribution of the wall temperature obeys a power law Introducing the dimensionless temperature difference Tia, y) = Tx ATn-& Wn) = (9.41) with € wlaey) = Un Oy f(y) (9.42) 2/1. aud using the following trial solutions from: Sect. 7.2.1:9.4 Similar Solutions of the Thermal Boundary Layer 219 -vtoan = Fe [sem tnd) vw eat] (0.13) “KE (9.44) we can use the momentum equation, cf. Bq. (7-14) to obtain FU pon ff" + a2 —agf? =0 (9.45) abd from the energy equation (9.13) 0" 4 Pr(ay fd! — asf") =0. (9.46) Hore the constants a; to a3 have the same meanings as in Eq. (7.13). The ditional constant a is 2 - nee 6). (or) Tiwe choose the following boundary conditions for Ea. (9.46): n=0: B=1 now: 9=0, (9.48) itl follows from Eq. (9.41) that T(t) — Toe = ATaé” - (9.49) ‘Therefore ATR = Tw(# = 9 — Tro. From the gradient at the wall &, we obtain the Nussclt number from hi = aul/[MTw (2) — To) a8 Nu wo, TEKS" (9.50) ‘The two standard boundary conditions are Ty =comst : n=0 dy = const: €"/5(€) = const. (9.50a) A comparison of Eqs. (9.45) and (9.46) shows that for Pr = 1,a2 = 0 and = @ and for appropriate boundary conditions we find v=1-f, W=-fh. (9.51) the literature, this special case is called the Reynolds analogy. [t can only dew at constant pressure (a2 = 0), that is, either for the flat plate (a3 = 0) for the wall jet (a3 = —2) In the special case of cy a, Eq. (9.46) may be integrated to give the rfsult J, = 0; ie. heat is only transferred to the flow at the singular origin (leading edge).2209 ‘Thermal Boundary Layers Withont Coupling of the Velocity Pield As in Soet. 7.2.1, we can differentiate between the following cases: Boundary layers with a wall LA Wedge flow (a4 = 1, a2 = aa = 8, a4 = (2 —B)) From Eq. (9-46) the energy equation reads Qn 59 aeat %) =o (9.52) he Pr (9 - with the boundary conditions from Hq. (948), Because LF ~ £" and 6 ~ gow from Eq. (7.18), instead of Nu aud Ke, the following characteristic numbers are used for wedge How: * Ulver Niele) Tap RS, ‘Thus instead of Eo. ( Na, = 50) we obtain Nu. VRey For the standard boundary conditions gw = const, Eq. (9.50a) yields ma He (onn; Pr) . (ona) l-m (9.58) (a Some numerical values for i. can easily he determined from Table 9.2: plate. Tx = const Why © Profan /2 plate,gy = const J, = —PrvBar stagnation point, ee Oe ‘The numerical values for the limiling eases Pr + 0 and Pr — oe correspond to the formulae in Table 9.1, but can also be obtained in part from Eqs. (9.33), (9.35) and (9.39). Explicit formulae for arbitrary values of in and 1 can also be stated in both limiting cases, of K. Gersten: H. Korner (1968). Here, for Pr + 90, we bave to distinguish between cases where 74 #0 CF. # 0) and those where the wall shear stress vanishes (rw = 0. ff = 0). The dependence of the Nusselt number on the Prandi) unuber is different: for these two cases. For 7. 4 0 we Bind Na, ~ Pri! while for 7 = U the dependence is Nu, ~ Pr'/". This latter dependence can therefore not be acquired from the forsnula for casos tw % O by setting rm > 0 there. Rather we need to carry out a double fimit Pr se, (> 1, noting that the order of taking the limit is of importance, Figure 9.3 shows the dependence of the local Nussell umber on the Prandtl inonber, from numerical work by ELL. Evans (1962). These are cases where the wall temperature is constant (m= 0). Further solutions of Eq. (9.52) have been given by TIL, Evans (1968) aud K. Gers ston; H, Kérner (1968). nce the cnergy equation (9.13) is linear, the different solutions for power dis- tributions of the wall temporature in Bq, (9:49) can ho suprerinaposedon one pot her to generate solutions for arbitrary teaperature distributions which ean he expanded as power series,9.4 Similar Solutions of the Thermal Boundary Layer 221 aie +6 @ +e? 2? +e wo 2 4 Fp 9.3. Dependence of the local Nusselt number on the Prandtl number and the parameter rm for wedge flows. as in Eq. (9.54) (U ~ x”, Ty = const, neglecting dissipation). Dashed lines are asymptotes Example: Linear temperature distribution at a plate (Pr = 0.7) Fpr the wall temperature distribution Tol Te - Ts )ono (1-25 ahd the quantities from Eq. (9.54) BLO; T)=-O0414: d(0; 1; 0.7) = wp obtain the distribution of the wall heat flux 0.675, Rus ofan = vo felene «Gy (0.298 -o.95a2) . Here the Nusselt number Nu was formed with the temperature To.. Tt would not Dp particularly sensible in this example to form the Nusselt number as usual with the temperature difference Ty(x) — Te, because this difference vanishes at x = 1 x 2, although the wall heat flux is indeed non-zero at this position. Since in the mneral case Gy (cc) is not proportional to Ty (2) —Tr., the Nusselt nmmber should be fdrmed with either one temperature (e.g. Ts.) or else a nom: vanishing temperature ference {here for example with (T(r) — Tx) In this example, heat is removed from the flow in the region 0.307 < 2/t < 0.5 ffr (T(x) ~ ToJ2-v (heat is transferred from the fluid to the wall), even though 4 a > Tos. The explanation for this is as follows: since the fluid close to the wall mes from boundary-layer regions further upstream with higher temperatures, it $s attained a temperature whieh is higher than the local wall temperature in that rticular region.2229, Thermal Boundary Layers Without Coupling of the Velority Field 1.2 Wedge flow in reverse (a = —1, a2 = ag 8, a4 = —r(2 — A)) 1.3. Flow ina convergent channel (a1 = 0, a2 = ag = 1, a4 = —r) Bxample: 7Pr = -2: al, = 1/0 = —o.866, 1.4 Moving flat plate (a = 1, a2 = ag = 0, a4 = 27) Example: 1 =0, Pr = 0.7: a = —0.494 1.5 Wall jet (01 =1, a2 = 0, a3 = —2, a4 = 4n) Numerical values for the wall jet can bo fonnd in K, Gersten; 8. Sehilawa, (1978) and S. Schilawa (1981) As well as the solution of the energy equation for the wall jet 8 + Pr(fo! —dnf'v) = 0 (9.56) boundary condition (9.43) (for ge = const we have 2 of Eq, (9.56) with homogeneous bommdary conditions D also exists. The eigenvalue of this solution is vith the inhomogencon 3/4}, an “eigen-solution 0; yor 8 3Pr+1 BPr (957) This is the case of the “hot wall jee” which is blown aloug the wall with temperature Ty = Tae, of WAIL, Schwartz; 8. Caswell (1961). 2. Boundary layers without a wall 2.1 Mixing layer (a, = 1, a2 = a3 = 0, a, = 0) With the boundary conditions evo: P=1, foo: =U, ATi: in Bq. (9.41) is the temperature difference between the two parallel jets, 2.1 Free jet (ay 1, ag = 0, ag = —1, a4 = 2n) As in the case of the wali jot, we must distinguish between two cases here, Tf the Auid on each sides of the free jet has a different temperature, the boundary conditions yo nee bal) yo too: de can be satisfied for n= 0, In addition there exists an ‘cigen solution”, that of the Shot free jet”. This has the eigenvalue n = —1/2 with the general solution wach (9.58) The eigenvalue emerges from the demand that (he thermal energy in the free jet must be independent of the distance alongs the jet9.5 Integral Methods for Computing the Heat ‘Transfer 223, 9|5 Integral Methods for Computing the Heat Transfer li| Chap. 8 we looked at the integral methods to compute the velocity bound- ae layer. These were useful whenever one was interested in approximate sqlutions for the wall shear stress distribution. An analogous integral method for the approximate calculation of the heat tipnsfer can also be developed. The basis of this is the integral relation ob- tqined from the thermal energy equation. If we integrate Eq. (9.13) from yl= 0 to y + oo, we find the thermal-energy-integral equation: HlTolo) ~ TalUer(ay) = (0.59) with the thermal energy thickness f Loew) = Ta we) Te(a)—~ Tan U@) br(z) = ay (9.60) Since Eq. (9.59) is constructed in a similar manner to the momentum- inftegral equation (8.1), it seems natural to exploit this formal similarity in ofder to obtain a quadrature formula corresponding to Eq, (8.23). To this end, we first, in analogy to Eqs. (8.12) and (8.13), define the lowing quantities: 2 Zr(u) = “4 : (9.61) 5p (Ou oR du Pr(2) = # (3), - =7o- (9.62) Corresponding to Eq. (8.19), the thermal-energy-integral equation (9.59) then yields te = Fro(lr} (9.63) ben 8 rg UT w fda Fra= Hep(Lw ~ Too) ( 2 Ufde T. Ta. Ty —T 64) If we now approximate Fry by the linear relation Fra( Ep) = ar ~ br Pr (9.65) if analogy to Eq. (8.20), and, with Z7(0} = 0, we obtain the following quadra- thre formula for Zp(2): Zr(a) = a wor Jue (a) dx |. (9.66)224 9, Thermal Boundary Layers Without Coupling of the Velocity: Field Table 9.2. Constants in the quadrature forma (91.66) Ty = const he = const Pr ~ ey be a be +0 4s(Pr) 1 x/(aPr) 0.284 0.0L 106,58 ORAS 60.170 0.042, Ol TAL 427 A027 7 0.164 OF 0.699, 7 0.305, O.836, “p20 i 1 O4dL 0.355, : O.211 0.5508 “| 5 0.053, 0.222, " UU29 “0. 125 7 0.034 0,202 | “o ANG ABI, 10 O.OLL OLS oto AAS “| 100 0.001 O18 0.000 481 ~ +50 tsp oost | nats “0.508 The constants ap aud br are now dependent. on the Prandtl minber and the thermal boundary condition. 'Phey can be determined by the demand that Fig. {9.66} yield exact results for the plate flow and for the stagnation point flow. The numerical values «(Pr) auc b(Pr) found in Uiis manner are shown in Table 9.2. From the solutions for Zp(x) we find for the Nusselt number Nu Pr f Ul [« Zr dl eh lap 4 2 Te = const : = . aor. 9.678 Ly = const me PV EV +F dal by) (9.672) Pr /[UZyt 0 st: _ 9.67b fe = const 5 v (9.67b) As is to be expected, the integeal method yields very goud results ck to the stagnation point of a body in a flow, On the other hand, the devia- tions frou the exact solution of the thermal horndary layer in regions where the pressure increases bocome large, more particularly so close to separation. ‘Phis could be improved by another choice of ap and bp, however. in practice, the transition to the turbulent boundary layer takes place in Lhe region of increasing pressure, so thal it is mainly the laminar boundary layer close to the stagnation poink which is of importance,9.5 Integral Methods for Computing the Heat Transfer 225 Fig. 9.4. The conduction thickness 6: pte. In the literature the quantity 64,(x), called the conduction thickness, is fre- qifently used instead of ér(x), ef. A.G. Smith; D.B. Spalding (1958), The definition rehds _ MB e — Too) ow m Fig. 9.4, with gw = —\(OT/Oy)w, the meaning of 31 is clear. In analogy to . (9.61), the quantity Z. = 52 /v can again be given by a quadrature formula h as that in Eq. (9.66). The constants a1, and 6 which appear in this have a ple relationship with the constants a7 and br in Table 9.2, ef. K. Gersten; H wig (1992), p. 174. b, (9.68) Bo ope¢gom kample: Heat transfer at a circular cylinder mo re the empirical velocity distribution from Eq. (8.41), obtained from a measured sure distribution, was used. The calculation was carried out for a Prandtl ntim- of Pr = 0.7, for the standard case Ty. = const. As well as the numerical solution fs 9.5 shows the Nusselt number on the circumference of a circular cylinder. py g 10) ma oe 06 oat a2} m L oe 30° 60° 90° ° Fi. 9.5. Distribution of the local Nusselt number at a circular cylinder for Velocity distribution U(r) from Eq. (8.41) - numerical solution: —{_— integral method from Eq. (9.66) - asymptotic formula (9.39) with the 7, distribution according to the quadrature formula (8.23) . measurements by B. Schmidt; K, Wenner (1941), see H. Seblichting (1982), p. 317, Re = 4-10" - 10°226-9. Therma! Boundary Layers Without. Coupling of the Velocity Ficld of the energy equation (9.10), the results frot the integral method, Eq. (9.66), anc from the asymptotic formula (9.39) are given. The results of the quadrature fornmla, (8.23) have been used for the wall shear stross in Eq. (0.39). Apart from directly close to separation, the agreement, is very guod, Possible effects of variable physical properties are discussed in Sect. 1413.2 9.6 Effect of Dissipation; Distribution of the Adiabatic Wall Temperature The considerations up to now regarding thermal boundary layers were gen- erally carried out with the dissipatiou neglected. We now propose to treat. the effects of dissipation in detail. Tn this case the distribution of the so valled adiabatic wall temperature Ti is important. As a consequence of the dissipation in the boundary taycr, even if there is no heat transfer to a body in a flow, a thermal boundary layer forms at the body. Lf the surface of the body is impermeable to heat. ie. adiabatic, the dissipation means that the distribution of the wall temperature is such that it is above the surrounding temperature. For the temperature field at an adiabatic body (9.69) we have, from Eg. (9.6), the energy equation LPO | fan" ) oon) = +2 (¥ (9.70) with the houndary conditions 00 | on From the solittion O(a", Pr) we obtain the adiabatic wall temperature =o: 0 Fox: O20. (9.71) The depenclonce of the adiabatic wall temperature on the Prandtl mam ber can be given exactly for the two Tuniting, cases of small and kurge Prandtl numbers. Small Prandt} numbers. If we set @ = @/Py in Ey. (9.70) it follows that 2) = 59 42 (S) (9.72) ay)” OF y For the limiting case Pr + 0, this equation reduces to ve -2 (ary (9.73) OF9|6 Effect of Dissipation; Distribution of the Adiabatic Wall Temperature 227 th the solution, 1 (00 7 (ow? von), (ae), -2/ Cae) or erefore, since the convective terms vanish in this limiting case, the internal ergy produced by dissipation is transferred locally to the wall. The adia- tic wall temperature distribution must now (neglecting the dissipation) ipensate precisely this wall heat flux given by Eq. (9.74). From Eq. (9.20) then obtain the adiabatic wall temperature as. ; ra {Fawr Trale) ~ Ta = fabe20)- Pron (/ (er) «) dry. (9.75) a a 4 esea Sihce the distribution g(2,«o) of the standard solution is proportional to P}-'?, we finally obtain Too =Pr¥?F(2*) (Pr 0). (9.76) Lhrge Prandtl numbers. If, in analogy to Eq. (9.36), we set sory, po 9 weno, t= RE (a77) wp obtain, from Ea. (9.70) 1g 00 _ Ndr 200 _ 180 ya (9.78) ‘Vor ~ Qdat) Oy — Pr Og? Uking the transformation O(x",7) = Ol2",Y)Pr8, y= Proy (9.79) get the following equation which is independent of the Prandt] nuraber: +98 _ldti 5200 _ 00 da de BY BY? Ffom the solution ®,.(2*) it then follows that the adiabatic wall temperature is +200 (9.80) Tad — Tro V7 (2a Pri/6y(2") (Pr oo). (9.81) It can be seen from this formula that, for large Prandtl numbers, the perature increase via dissipation can be considerable, even for moderate locities.228 9. Thermal Boundary Layers Without Coupling of the Velocity Field Flat plate. Using the solutions we fs pon, e= oa). n= ver Ox (9.82) from Eq. {6.45}, (6.47) and (6.48), we obtain rhe following, differential equation from Eq. (9.70) Ke" + fe" -2y? (8.83) with the boundary conditions a0: B20 yo ‘The following quadrature formula can be given for the solution: 620 Oly, Pr) arr fiery” [ror ar | ag (9.84) ‘This yields, e.g. for Pr= 1 Ol = 1 £2 (yh (9.85) For the adiabatic wall temperature it thus follows that, for arbitrary Prandt] ume ber r(Pr) O(n) (2.86) In the case of the flat plate, the adiabatic: wall tormperature is constant, Lc. inele- pendent of . Tt is also called the eigen: temperature. ‘he dimensionless temperature increase of an adiabatic wall as ® consequence of dissipation given by Eq. (9.M6G) Is also called the meoneny factor, since the do- nominator UR (AT aa a (sz) Te is the temperature increase duc adiabatic compression of an ideal gas at constant specific heat capacity. Here Ty is the fofal lemperature of the onter flew. Kor Pr from big. (9.85), we have ¢— 1, Le, the imerease of the wall temperature due to dissipation is precisely the temperature inerease due to adiabatic compression. Figure 9.6 shows r(Pr) as a finction of the Prandt] anmber. From this. the recovery factor for Pr_< 1 is less than one, while that for Pr > 1 is greater Minny one. ‘The asyruptotes Bgs. (9.76) and (9.81) cau be written down. Prom K. Gersten: H. Karner (1968) we have r= 0.9254 Pr? (Pr + 0) (9.88) while R. Narasimha; $.S. Vasantha (1966) have shown, 9222Pr\' — L341 (Prax). (9.89)94 Effect of Dissipation; Distribution of the Adiabatic Wall Temperature 229 X r OF Or 1 10, 100 Fig. 9.6. Dependence of the recovery factor of a flat plate at zero incidence on the Piandt] number: asymptotes from Eqs. (9.88) and(9.89) Figure 9.7 shows the measured adiabatic wall temperature of a flat plate a zero infidence at different Reynolds numbers Ua2/v. In the laminar region it agrees HI with the theory {r = 0.85 for Pr = 0.72). As will be shown in Sect. 10.3.1, Eq. (10.25), the temperature dependence of the physical properties has practically nq effect on the recovery factor. In the transition to turbulent flow, the eigen tefmperature increases, cf. Sect. 18.6. 0.95 eel USAR @ o.85 Fig. 9.7. Measurement of 00 the adiabatic wall tempera- 0 ture of a flat plate at zero in- cidence in air, after E, Eck- O75 ert; W. Weise (1942). 08 theory: Pr = 0.72 turbulent: from Eq. (18.160) Wedge flows. U ~ 2", 6 =2m/{m +1). Ufing the solutions w= $= Ory, 2 GS) [mit m1 | jmrre v [a ft og MY}: (9.90)2309. Thermal Boundary Layers Without Coupling of the Velocity Field ef, Eq. (9-41) 10 (9.44), we obtain, from Eq. (9.70), dhe following differential eqnation 1 Pr with the bomdary conditions +f0' —28/'8 ~ —2y"" (9.91) ye0: O=0: yoo: Boo Krom the solution (Prin) we obtain the adiabatic wall temperature, or the recovery Ector, as Tui = Bo 3 (Py 92 rPrim) = ptypany 7 Sethe) (9.992) Therefore if the teruperature increase clue to dissipation is related to the local velocity (or its decrease die to adiabatic compression}, we obtain a value indepen- dent. of a, Le. Duala] — To ~ 88. Numerical valnes for e(Pr.7e) ean be found in K. Gersten: H. Komor (1948). The offeet of a is very small, so that Fig. 94 also holds for values in (1, cf B Le Eur (£960) Wall jet. It can easily be shown that the adiabatic wall temperature for a wall Jet is Tuy — Te, wa! Since: the maximum velocity is dias 01, the recovery factor formed with the maxinmm velocity is Bye oD ph ES Pr} (98) Peony) ~ yet again independent of a, cf N, Riley (1958). For Pr Lowe have r a ie. Tat = Toe. In this ease the tolal encray produced by dissipation is transported away from the wall jet. For Pe = 0,72 we have # — (0.0029, Nusselt number when the dissipation is taken into account. If we take the dissipation into account, heat tran 1 only oceur if the actual wall temperature differs from the adinbatie wall temperature. Siure the energy equation is linear, the temperature fields due to dissipation and die toa temperature difference Z}, — 2), are superimposed on one another. A measure of the lieat transfer is therefore the following Nusselt nuniber: awl MB a — Tra)” If the wall temperature is in between the surrounding terperature and the adiabatic wall temperature, ie. Ty, < Ty < Tht, heat is transferred to the body. even though ils temperature is higher than that of the surroundings! Nu (94)