The Elements of Periodic Table

THE
ELEMENTS
OF
PERIODIC
TABLE
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ALL

BY M.
THE ELEMENTS WITH HIGH MURUGESH
RESOLUTION PICTURES
Neutronium 1
Neutronium
0 N/A ← neutronium → hydrogen

—
↑
Nt [not
official]
↓
He periodic table - extended periodic
table
General
Name, Symbol, Number neutronium, Nt [not official], 0
Element category none
Standard atomic weight [1] g·mol

−1
Electron configuration none
Electrons per shell 0
Physical properties
Phase unknown
Miscellaneous
Most-stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of neutronium
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP

1
Nt ? 885.7 ± 0.8 s β
− unknown 1
H
2
Nt ? transitory β− unknown 2
H
References
Neutronium is a hypothetical extremely dense phase of matter. The term was originally
used in science fiction and in popular literature to refer to a highly dense phase of matter
composed primarily of neutrons. The word was coined by scientist Andreas von Antropoff in
1926 (i.e. before the discovery of the neutron itself) for the conjectured 'element of atomic
number zero' that he placed at the head of the periodic table.[1] [2] However, the meaning of
the term has changed over time, and from the last half of the 20th century onward it has
been used legitimately to refer to extremely dense phases of matter resembling the
neutron-degenerate matter postulated to exist in the cores of neutron stars.
Neutronium 2
Neutronium and neutron stars

The term neutronium is used in popular literature to refer to the material present in the
cores of neutron stars (stars which are too massive to be supported by electron degeneracy
pressure and which collapse into a denser phase of matter). This term is very rarely used in
scientific literature, for two reasons:
• There is no universally agreed-upon definition for the term "neutronium".
• There is considerable uncertainty over the composition of the material in the cores of
neutron stars (it could be neutron-degenerate matter, strange matter, quark matter, or a
variant or combination of the above).
When neutron star core material is presumed to consist mostly of free neutrons, it is
typically referred to as neutron-degenerate matter in scientific literature.
Neutronium and the periodic table

The term neutronium was coined in 1926 by Professor Andreas von Antropoff for a
conjectured form of matter made up of neutrons with no protons, which he placed as the
chemical element of atomic number zero at the head of his new version of the periodic
table. It was subsequently placed as a noble gas in the middle of several spiral
representations of the periodic system for classifying the chemical elements, such as the
Chemical Galaxy (2005).
Although the term is not used in the scientific literature either for a condensed form of
matter, or as an element, there have been reports that, besides the free neutron, there may
exist two bound forms of neutrons without protons.[3] However, these reports have not been
further substantiated. Further information can be found in the following articles:
• Mononeutron: Isolated neutrons undergo beta decay with a half-life of approximately 15
minutes, becoming protons (the nucleus of hydrogen), electrons and antineutrinos.
• Dineutron: The dineutron, containing two neutrons, is not a bound particle, but has been
proposed as an extremely short-lived state produced by nuclear reactions involving
tritium.
• Trineutron: A trineutron state consisting of three bound neutrons has not been detected,
and is not expected to exist even for a short time.
• Tetraneutron: A tetraneutron is a hypothetical particle consisting of four bound neutrons.
Reports of its existence have not been replicated. If confirmed, it would require revision
of current nuclear models.[4] [5]
• Pentaneutron: Calculations indicate that the hypothetical pentaneutron state, consisting
of a cluster of five neutrons, would not be bound.
• And so on, through the numbers, up to icosaneutron, with 20 neutrons.[6]
If one accepts neutronium to be an element, the above mentioned neutron clusters would
be the isotopes of that element.
Neutronium in fiction
The term neutronium has been popular in science fiction since at least the middle of the
20th century. It typically refers to an extremely dense, incredibly strong form of matter.
While presumably inspired by the concept of neutron-degenerate matter in the cores of
neutron stars, the material used in fiction bears at most only a superficial resemblance,
usually depicted as an extremely strong solid under Earth-like conditions, or possessing
Neutronium 3
exotic properties such as the ability to manipulate time and space. In contrast, all proposed
forms of neutron star core material are fluids and are extremely unstable at pressures
lower than that found in stellar cores.
Noteworthy appearances of neutronium in fiction include the following:
• In Hal Clement's short story Proof (1942), neutronium is the only form of solid matter
known to Solarians, the inhabitants of the Sun's interior.
• In Vladimir Savchenko's Black Stars (1960), neutronium is mechanically and thermally
indestructible substance. It is also used to make antimatter, which leads to a fusion
explosion accident.
• In Doctor Who (1963), neutronium is a substance which can shield spaces from
time-shear when used as shielding in time-vessels.
• In Larry Niven's Known Space fictional universe (1964), neutronium is actual neutron
star core material. Niven does not make assumptions about its strength, but imagines
that small blobs of it would remain stable (and inevitably spherical) under their own
gravity.
• In the Star Trek universe, neutronium is an extremely hard and durable substance, often
used as armor, which conventional weapons cannot penetrate or even dent.
• In the computer games Master of Orion (1993), Master of Orion 2 (1996), and Sid Meier's
Alpha Centauri (1999), neutronium is the strongest armor type that can be researched in
MoO1 and MoO2, and the third strongest in SMAC. MoO1 and MoO2 also feature
"neutronium bombs", which are extremely powerful planetary bombardment weapons
which causes damage due to gravitic effects.
• In Peter F. Hamilton's novel The Neutronium Alchemist (1997), neutronium is created by
the "aggressive" setting of a superweapon.
• In Stargate SG-1 (1997), neutronium is a substance which is the basis of the technology
of the advanced Asgard race, as well as a primary component of human-form Replicators.
See also
• Neutron star
• Degenerate matter
• Neutron-degenerate matter
• Compact star
Bibliography
• Norman K. Glendenning, R. Kippenhahn, I. Appenzeller, G. Borner, M. Harwit (2000).
Compact Stars (2nd ed.).
Neutronium 4
References
[1] von Antropoff, A. (1926). " Eine neue Form des periodischen Systems der Elementen. (http:/ / www3.
interscience. wiley. com/ cgi-bin/ fulltext/ 112256618/ PDFSTART)" (PDF). Z. Angew. Chem. 39 (23): 722–725.
doi: 10.1002/ange.19260392303 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ ange. 19260392303). . Retrieved on 2007-12-12.
[2] Stewart, Philip J. (October 2007). " A century on from Dmitrii Mendeleev: tables and spirals, noble gases and
Nobel prizes (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ 6503n26633601877/ )". Foundations of Chemistry 9 (3):
235–245. doi: 10.1007/s10698-007-9038-x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s10698-007-9038-x). . Retrieved on
2007-12-12.
[3] Timofeyuk, N. K. (2003). "Do multineutrons exist?". arΧiv: nucl-th/0301020 (http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/
nucl-th/ 0301020) [nucl-th].
[4] Bertulani, C. A.; Zelevinsky, V. (2002). "Is the tetraneutron a bound dineutron-dineutron molecule?". arΧiv:
nucl-th/0212060 (http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/ nucl-th/ 0212060) [nucl-th].
[5] Timofeyuk, N. K. (2002). "On the existence of a bound tetraneutron". arΧiv: nucl-th/0203003 (http:/ / www.
arxiv. org/ abs/ nucl-th/ 0203003) [nucl-th].
[6] Bevelacqua, J. J. (June 11, 1981). " Particle stability of the pentaneutron (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6TVN-472K3HG-2K1& _coverDate=06/ 11/ 1981& _alid=349075295&
_rdoc=1& _fmt=& _orig=search& _qd=1& _cdi=5539& _sort=d& view=c& _acct=C000050221& _version=1&
_urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=f052b79209dd914c85a1bc0d32f774ab)". Physics Letters B 102 (2–3):
79–80. doi: 10.1016/0370-2693(81)91033-9 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0370-2693(81)91033-9). .
Article Sources and Contributors 5
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Hydrogen 1
Hydrogen
neutronium ← hydrogen → heliume−
↑
H
↓
Li
WARNING: Table could not be rendered - ouputting plain text.

Potential causes of the problem are: (a) table contains a cell with content that does not fit
on a single page (b) nested tables (c) table is too wide
HydrogenHeliumLithiumBerylliumBoronCarbonNitrogenOxygenFluorineNeonSodiumMagnesiumAlumini
(element)ThalliumLeadBismuthPoloniumAstatineRadonFranciumRadiumActiniumThoriumProtactiniumU
1H
Periodic table
Appearance colorless gas General Name, symbol, numberElement categoryGroup, period,

blockStandard atomic weightElectron configurationElectrons per shell Physical properties
PhaseDensityMelting pointBoiling pointTriple pointCritical pointHeat of fusionHeat of
vaporizationSpecific heat capacityVapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 15 20
Atomic properties Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energiesCovalent radiusVan

der Waals radius Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingThermal
conductivitySpeed of soundCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes
of hydrogen
iso N.A. half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
1 99.985% 1
H H is stable with 0 neutron
2 0.015% 2
H H is stable with 1 neutron
3 trace 12.32 y 0.01861

β− 3
H He
Hydrogen 2
hydrogen, H, 1 nonmetal1, 1, s1.00794(7) g·mol−1 1s1 1 (Image) gas (0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
0.08988 g/L 14.01 K,−259.14 °C,−434.45 °F 20.28 K,−252.87 °C,−423.17 °F
13.8033 K (-259°C), 7.042 kPa 32.97 K, 1.293 MPa (H2) 0.117 kJ·mol−1 (H2) 0.904 kJ·mol−1
(25 °C) (H2)
−1 −1
28.836 J·mol ·K 1, −1
(amphoteric oxide) 2.20 (Pauling scale) 1st: 1312.0 kJ·mol−131±5 pm 120 pm hexagonal
diamagnetic[1] (300 K) 180.5 m W·m−1·K−1 (gas, 27 °C) 1310 m/s 1333-74-0
Hydrogen (pronounced /ˈhaɪdrədʒən/[2] ) is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It
is represented by the symbol H. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a
colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the
molecular formula H2. With an atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest element.
Hydrogen is the most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the
universe's elemental mass.[3] Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen
in its plasma state. Elemental hydrogen is relatively rare on Earth. Industrial production is
from hydrocarbons such as methane with most being used "captively" at the production
site. The two largest uses are in fossil fuel processing (e.g., hydrocracking) and ammonia
production mostly for the fertilizer market. Hydrogen may be produced from the
electrolysis of water or other hydrogen production methods like the reforming of natural
gas.[4]
The most common isotope of hydrogen is protium (name rarely used, symbol H) with a
single proton and no neutrons. In ionic compounds it can take a negative charge (an anion
known as a hydride and written as H−), or as a positively-charged species H+. The latter
cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, but in reality, hydrogen cations in
ionic compounds always occur as more complex species. Hydrogen forms compounds with
most elements and is present in water and most organic compounds. It plays a particularly
important role in acid-base chemistry with many reactions exchanging protons between
soluble molecules. As the only neutral atom with an analytic solution to the Schrödinger
equation, the study of the energetics and bonding of the hydrogen atom played a key role in
the development of quantum mechanics.
Hydrogen is important in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals,[5] complicating the
design of pipelines and storage tanks.[6] Hydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and
transition metals[7] and is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals.[8]
Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the crystal
lattice.[9]
Hydrogen 3
Combustion
Hydrogen gas (dihydrogen[10] ) is highly flammable and will
burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4%
and 75% by volume.[11] The enthalpy of combustion for
hydrogen is −286 kJ/mol:[12]
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)[13]
Hydrogen-oxygen mixtures are explosive across a wide range of
proportions. Its autoignition temperature, the temperature at
which it ignites spontaneously in air, is 560 °C (1040 °F).[14]
Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and are
The Space Shuttle Main
nearly invisible to the naked eye as illustrated by the faint
Engine burns hydrogen with
plume of the Space Shuttle main engine compared to the highly oxygen, producing a nearly
visible plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster). The invisible flame
detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame
detector; such leaks can be very dangerous. The explosion of the Hindenburg airship was
an infamous example of hydrogen combustion; the cause is debated, but the visible flames
were the result of combustible materials in the ship's skin.[15] Because hydrogen is buoyant
in air, hydrogen flames tend to ascend rapidly and cause less damage than hydrocarbon
fires. Two-thirds of the Hindenburg passengers survived the fire, and many deaths were
instead the result of falls or burning diesel fuel.[16]
H2 reacts with every oxidizing element. Hydrogen can react spontaneously and violently at
room temperature with chlorine and fluorine to form the corresponding halides: hydrogen
chloride and hydrogen fluoride.[17]
Electron energy levels

The ground state energy level of the electron in a
hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an
ultraviolet photon of roughly 92 nm.[18]
The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly
accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, which
conceptualizes the electron as "orbiting" the proton in
analogy to the Earth's orbit of the sun. However, the
electromagnetic force attracts electrons and protons to
one another, while planets and celestial objects are
attracted to each other by gravity. Because of the
discretization of angular momentum postulated in early Depiction of a hydrogen atom showing
quantum mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr the diameter as about twice the Bohr
model radius (image not to scale).
model can only occupy certain allowed distances from
the proton, and therefore only certain allowed
energies.[19]
A more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a purely quantum
mechanical treatment that uses the Schrödinger equation or the equivalent Feynman path
integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the
proton.[20]
Hydrogen 4
Elemental molecular forms

There exist two different spin isomers of hydrogen
diatomic molecules that differ by the relative spin of
their nuclei.[21] In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of
the two protons are parallel and form a triplet state; in
the parahydrogen form the spins are antiparallel and
form a singlet. At standard temperature and pressure,
hydrogen gas contains about 25% of the para form and
75% of the ortho form, also known as the "normal
form".[22] The equilibrium ratio of orthohydrogen to
parahydrogen depends on temperature, but since the
ortho form is an excited state and has a higher energy
than the para form, it is unstable and cannot be
purified. At very low temperatures, the equilibrium
state is composed almost exclusively of the para form.
The liquid and gas phase thermal properties of pure
parahydrogen differ significantly from those of the First tracks observed in liquid
hydrogen bubble chamber at the
normal form because of differences in rotational heat
Bevatron
capacities, as discussed more fully in Spin isomers of
hydrogen.[23] The ortho/para distinction also occurs in
other hydrogen-containing molecules or functional groups, such as water and methylene,
but is of little significance with respect to thermal properties.[24]
The uncatalyzed interconversion between para and ortho H2 increases with increasing
temperature; thus rapidly condensed H2 contains large quantities of the high-energy ortho
form that convert to the para form very slowly.[25] The ortho/para ratio in condensed H2 is
an important consideration in the preparation and storage of liquid hydrogen: the
conversion from ortho to para is exothermic and produces enough heat to evaporate the
hydrogen liquid, leading to loss of the liquefied material. Catalysts for the ortho-para
interconversion, such as ferric oxide, activated carbon, platinized asbestos, rare earth
metals, uranium compounds, chromic oxide, or some nickel[26] compounds, are used during
hydrogen cooling.[27]
A molecular form called protonated molecular hydrogen, or H+3, is found in the interstellar
medium (ISM), where it is generated by ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic rays.
It has also been observed in the upper atmosphere of the planet Jupiter. This molecule is
relatively stable in the environment of outer space due to the low temperature and density.
H+3 is one of the most abundant ions in the Universe, and it plays a notable role in the
chemistry of the interstellar medium.[28]
Compounds
Covalent and organic compounds

While H2 is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form compounds with most
elements. Millions of hydrocarbons are known, but they are not formed by the direct
reaction of elementary hydrogen and carbon. Hydrogen can form compounds with elements
that are more electronegative, such as halogens (e.g., F, Cl, Br, I); in these compounds
Hydrogen 5
hydrogen takes on a partial positive charge.[29] When bonded to fluorine, oxygen, or

nitrogen, hydrogen can participate in a form of strong noncovalent bonding called hydrogen
bonding, which is critical to the stability of many biological molecules.[30] [31] Hydrogen also
forms compounds with less electronegative elements, such as the metals and metalloids, in
which it takes on a partial negative charge. These compounds are often known as
hydrides.[32]
Hydrogen forms a vast array of compounds with carbon. Because of their general
association with living things, these compounds came to be called organic compounds;[33]
the study of their properties is known as organic chemistry[34] and their study in the
context of living organisms is known as biochemistry.[35] By some definitions, "organic"
compounds are only required to contain carbon. However, most of them also contain
hydrogen, and since it is the carbon-hydrogen bond which gives this class of compounds
most of its particular chemical characteristics, carbon-hydrogen bonds are required in some
definitions of the word "organic" in chemistry.[33]
In inorganic chemistry, hydrides can also serve as bridging ligands that link two metal
centers in a coordination complex. This function is particularly common in group 13
elements, especially in boranes (boron hydrides) and aluminium complexes, as well as in
clustered carboranes.[36]
Hydrides
Compounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides, a term that is used fairly loosely. The
term "hydride" implies that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character,
denoted H−, and is used when hydrogen forms a compound with a more electropositive
element. The existence of the hydride anion, suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for
group I and II salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 with the electrolysis
of molten lithium hydride (LiH), that produced a stoichiometric quantity of hydrogen at the
anode.[37] For hydrides other than group I and II metals, the term is quite misleading,
considering the low electronegativity of hydrogen. An exception in group II hydrides is
BeH2, which is polymeric. In lithium aluminium hydride, the AlH−4 anion carries hydridic
centers firmly attached to the Al(III). Although hydrides can be formed with almost all
main-group elements, the number and combination of possible compounds varies widely;
for example, there are over 100 binary borane hydrides known, but only one binary
aluminium hydride.[38] Binary indium hydride has not yet been identified, although larger
complexes exist.[39]
Protons and acids

Oxidation of hydrogen, in the sense of removing its electron, formally gives H+, containing
no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why H+ is often
called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids. Under the Bronsted-Lowry
theory, acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors.
A bare proton, H+, cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals, because of its unstoppable
attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except at the high temperatures
associated with plasmas, such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of
atoms and molecules, and will remain attached to them. However, the term 'proton' is
sometimes used loosely and metaphorically to refer to positively charged or cationic
hydrogen attached to other species in this fashion, and as such is denoted "H+" without any
Hydrogen 6
implication that any single protons exist freely as a species.

To avoid the implication of the naked "solvated proton" in solution, acidic aqueous solutions
are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely fictitious species, termed the
"hydronium ion" (H3O+). However, even in this case, such solvated hydrogen cations are
thought more realistically physically to be organized into clusters that form species closer
to H9O+4.[40] Other oxonium ions are found when water is in solution with other
solvents.[41]
Although exotic on earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the H3+ ion,
known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the triatomic hydrogen cation.[42]
Isotopes
Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes,
denoted 1H, 2H and 3H. Other, highly unstable nuclei
(4H to 7H) have been synthesized in the laboratory but
not observed in nature.[43] [44]
1
• H is the most common hydrogen isotope with an
abundance of more than 99.98%. Because the
nucleus of this isotope consists of only a single
proton, it is given the descriptive but rarely used
formal name protium.[45]
2
• H, the other stable hydrogen isotope, is known as
deuterium and contains one proton and one neutron
in its nucleus. Essentially all deuterium in the Protium, the most common isotope of
hydrogen, has one proton and one
universe is thought to have been produced at the
electron. Unique among all stable
time of the Big Bang, and has endured since that isotopes, it has no neutrons (see
time. Deuterium is not radioactive, and does not diproton for discussion of why others
represent a significant toxicity hazard. Water do not exist).
enriched in molecules that include deuterium instead

of normal hydrogen is called heavy water. Deuterium and its compounds are used as a
non-radioactive label in chemical experiments and in solvents for 1H-NMR
spectroscopy.[46] Heavy water is used as a neutron moderator and coolant for nuclear
reactors. Deuterium is also a potential fuel for commercial nuclear fusion.[47]
3
• H is known as tritium and contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus. It is
radioactive, decaying into Helium-3 through beta decay with a half-life of 12.32 years.[36]
Small amounts of tritium occur naturally because of the interaction of cosmic rays with
atmospheric gases; tritium has also been released during nuclear weapons tests.[48] It is
used in nuclear fusion reactions,[49] as a tracer in isotope geochemistry,[50] and
specialized in self-powered lighting devices.[51] Tritium has also been used in chemical
and biological labeling experiments as a radiolabel.[52]
Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes in common use
today. (During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were
given names, but such names are no longer used). The symbols D and T (instead of 2H and
3
H) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, but the corresponding symbol P is
already in use for phosphorus and thus is not available for protium.[53] In its nomenclatural
guidelines, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry allows any of D, T, 2H,
Hydrogen 7
and 3H to be used, although 2H and 3H are preferred.[54]
Natural occurrence
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the
universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and
over 90% by number of atoms.[55] This element is found
in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets.
Molecular clouds of H2 are associated with star
formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars
through proton-proton reaction and CNO cycle nuclear
fusion.[56]
Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in

the atomic and plasma states whose properties are
quite different from molecular hydrogen. As a plasma,
hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together,
NGC 604, a giant region of ionized
resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high
hydrogen in the Triangulum Galaxy
emissivity (producing the light from the sun and other
stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by
magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth's
magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora. Hydrogen is found in the
neutral atomic state in the Interstellar medium. The large amount of neutral hydrogen
found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological
baryonic density of the Universe up to redshift z=4.[57]
Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H2 (for
data see table). However, hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by
volume) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape from Earth's gravity more
easily than heavier gases. However, hydrogen (in chemically combined form) is the third
most abundant element on the Earth's surface.[58] Most of the Earth's hydrogen is in the
form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water.[36] Hydrogen gas is
produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus. Methane is a
hydrogen source of increasing importance.[59]
History
Discovery and use

Hydrogen gas, H2, was first artificially produced and formally described by T. Von
Hohenheim (also known as Paracelsus, 1493–1541) via the mixing of metals with strong
acids.[60] He was unaware that the flammable gas produced by this chemical reaction was a
new chemical element. In 1671, Robert Boyle rediscovered and described the reaction
between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas.[61] In
1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by
identifying the gas from a metal-acid reaction as "inflammable air" and further finding in
1781 that the gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for its discovery
as an element.[62] [63] In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen (from
the Greek hydro meaning water and genes meaning creator)[64] when he and Laplace
Hydrogen 8
reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned.[63]

Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by James Dewar in 1898 by using regenerative
cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask.[63] He produced solid hydrogen the next
year.[63] Deuterium was discovered in December 1931 by Harold Urey, and tritium was
prepared in 1934 by Ernest Rutherford, Mark Oliphant, and Paul Harteck.[62] Heavy water,
which consists of deuterium in the place of regular hydrogen, was discovered by Urey's
group in 1932.[63] François Isaac de Rivaz built the first internal combustion engine
powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in 1806. Edward Daniel Clarke invented the
hydrogen gas blowpipe in 1819. The Döbereiner's lamp and limelight were invented in
1823.[63]
The first hydrogen-filled balloon was invented by Jacques Charles in 1783.[63] Hydrogen
provided the lift for the first reliable form of air-travel following the 1852 invention of the
first hydrogen-lifted airship by Henri Giffard.[63] German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin
promoted the idea of rigid airships lifted by hydrogen that later were called Zeppelins; the
first of which had its maiden flight in 1900.[63] Regularly scheduled flights started in 1910
and by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, they had carried 35,000 passengers
without a serious incident. Hydrogen-lifted airships were used as observation platforms and
bombers during the war.
The first non-stop transatlantic crossing was made by the British airship R34 in 1919.
Regular passenger service resumed in the 1920s and the discovery of helium reserves in
the United States promised increased safety, but the U.S. government refused to sell the
gas for this purpose. Therefore, H2 was used in the Hindenburg airship, which was
destroyed in a midair fire over New Jersey on May 6, 1937.[63] The incident was broadcast
live on radio and filmed. Ignition of leaking hydrogen as widely assumed to be the cause but
later investigations pointed to ignition of the aluminized fabric coating by static electricity.
But the damage to hydrogen's reputation as a lifting gas was already done. In the same
year the first hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator went into service with gaseous hydrogen as a
coolant in the rotor and the stator in 1937 at Dayton, Ohio, by the Dayton Power & Light
Co,[65] because of the thermal conductivity of hydrogen gas this is the most common type in
its field today. The nickel hydrogen battery was used for the first time in 1977 aboard the
U.S. Navy's Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-2).[66] For example, the ISS,[67] Mars
Odyssey[68] and the Mars Global Surveyor[69] are equipped with nickel-hydrogen batteries.
The Hubble Space Telescope, at the time its original batteries were finally changed in May
2009, more than 19 years after launch, led with the highest number of charge/discharge
cycles of any NiH2 battery in low earth orbit.[70]
Role in quantum theory

Because of its relatively simple
atomic structure, consisting
only of a proton and an
electron, the hydrogen atom, Hydrogen emission spectrum lines in the visible range. These are the
together with the spectrum of four visible lines of the Balmer series
light produced from it or
absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure.[71]
Furthermore, the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding
cation H2+ allowed fuller understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which followed
Hydrogen 9
shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed
in the mid-1920s.
One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood at the time)
was a Maxwell observation involving hydrogen, half a century before full quantum
mechanical theory arrived. Maxwell observed that the specific heat capacity of H2
unaccountably departs from that of a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to
increasingly resemble that of a monatomic gas at cryogenic temperatures. According to
quantum theory, this behavior arises from the spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy
levels, which are particularly wide-spaced in H2 because of its low mass. These widely
spaced levels inhibit equal partition of heat energy into rotational motion in hydrogen at
low temperatures. Diatomic gases composed of heavier atoms do not have such widely
spaced levels and do not exhibit the same effect.[72]
Production
H2 is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a by-product of other
reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates; and in nature as a
means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions.
Laboratory
In the laboratory, H2 is usually prepared by the reaction of acids on metals such as zinc
with Kipp's apparatus.
Zn + 2 H+ → Zn2+ + H2
Aluminium can also produce H2 upon treatment with bases:
2 Al + 6 H2O + 2 OH− → 2 Al(OH)4− + 3 H2
The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen. A low voltage current
is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen
forms at the cathode. Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal
when producing hydrogen for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is
desirable to assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert
metals. (Iron, for instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given
off.) The theoretical maximum efficiency (electricity used vs. energetic value of hydrogen
produced) is between 80–94%.[73]
2H2O(aq) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
In 2007, it was discovered that an alloy of aluminium and gallium in pellet form added to
water could be used to generate hydrogen. The process also creates alumina, but the
expensive gallium, which prevents the formation of an oxide skin on the pellets, can be
re-used. This has important potential implications for a hydrogen economy, since hydrogen
can be produced on-site and does not need to be transported.[74]
Industrial
Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways, but economically the most important
processes involve removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons. Commercial bulk hydrogen is
usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas.[75] At high temperatures
(1000–1400 K, °C;700–1100 °C or 1,300–2,000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with
methane to yield carbon monoxide and H2.
Hydrogen 10
CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2
This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures
(2.0 MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg) since high pressure H2 is the most marketable product. The
product mixture is known as "synthesis gas" because it is often used directly for the
production of methanol and related compounds. Hydrocarbons other than methane can be
used to produce synthesis gas with varying product ratios. One of the many complications
to this highly optimized technology is the formation of coke or carbon:
CH4 → C + 2 H2
Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of H2O. Additional hydrogen
can be recovered from the steam by use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift
reaction, especially with an iron oxide catalyst. This reaction is also a common industrial
source of carbon dioxide:[75]
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
Other important methods for H2 production include partial oxidation of hydrocarbons:[76]
2 CH4 + O2 → 2 CO + 4 H2
and the coal reaction, which can serve as a prelude to the shift reaction above:[75]
C + H2O → CO + H2
Hydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in the same industrial process, without
being separated. In the Haber process for the production of ammonia, hydrogen is
generated from natural gas.[77] Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine also produces
hydrogen as a co-product.[78]
Thermochemical
There are more than 200 thermochemical cycles which can be used for water splitting,
around a dozen of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III)
oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid
sulfur cycle are under research and in testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from
water and heat without using electricity.[79] A number of laboratories (including in France,
Germany, Greece, Japan, and the USA) are developing thermochemical methods to produce
hydrogen from solar energy and water.[80]
Applications
Large quantities of H2 are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries. The largest
application of H2 is for the processing ("upgrading") of fossil fuels, and in the production of
ammonia. The key consumers of H2 in the petrochemical plant include hydrodealkylation,
hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking. H2 has several other important uses. H2 is used as
a hydrogenating agent, particularly in increasing the level of saturation of unsaturated fats
and oils (found in items such as margarine), and in the production of methanol. It is
similarly the source of hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. H2 is also used as
a reducing agent of metallic ores.[81]
Apart from its use as a reactant, H2 has wide applications in physics and engineering. It is
used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding.[82] [83] H2 is
used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the
highest thermal conductivity of any gas. Liquid H2 is used in cryogenic research, including
Hydrogen 11
superconductivity studies.[84] Since H2 is lighter than air, having a little more than 1
⁄15 of
[85]
the density of air, it was once widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airships.
In more recent applications, hydrogen is used pure or mixed with nitrogen (sometimes
called forming gas) as a tracer gas for minute leak detection. Applications can be found in
the automotive, chemical, power generation, aerospace, and telecommunications
industries.[86] Hydrogen is an authorized food additive (E 949) that allows food package
leak testing among other anti-oxidizing properties.[87]
Hydrogen's rarer isotopes also each have specific applications. Deuterium (hydrogen-2) is
used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion
reactions.[63] Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies
of reaction isotope effects.[88] Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used in
the production of hydrogen bombs,[89] as an isotopic label in the biosciences,[52] and as a
radiation source in luminous paints.[90]
The triple point temperature of equilibrium hydrogen is a defining fixed point on the ITS-90
temperature scale at 13.8033 kelvins.[91]
Energy carrier
Hydrogen is not an energy resource,[92] except in the hypothetical context of commercial
nuclear fusion power plants using deuterium or tritium, a technology presently far from
development.[93] The Sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen, but this process
is difficult to achieve controllably on Earth.[94] Elemental hydrogen from solar, biological,
or electrical sources require more energy to make it than is obtained by burning it, so in
these cases hydrogen functions as an energy carrier, like a battery. Hydrogen may be
obtained from fossil sources (such as methane), but these sources are unsustainable.[92]
The energy density per unit volume of both liquid hydrogen and compressed hydrogen gas
at any practicable pressure is significantly less than that of traditional fuel sources,
although the energy density per unit fuel mass is higher.[92] Nevertheless, elemental
hydrogen has been widely discussed in the context of energy, as a possible future carrier of
energy on an economy-wide scale.[95] For example, CO2 sequestration followed by carbon
capture and storage could be conducted at the point of H2 production from fossil fuels.[96]
Hydrogen used in transportation would burn relatively cleanly, with some NOx
emissions,[97] but without carbon emissions.[96] However, the infrastructure costs
associated with full conversion to a hydrogen economy would be substantial.[98]
Biological reactions
H2 is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several
microorganisms, usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel-containing enzymes
called hydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H2 and
its component two protons and two electrons. Creation of hydrogen gas occurs in the
transfer of reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water.[99]
Water splitting, in which water is decomposed into its component protons, electrons, and
oxygen, occurs in the light reactions in all photosynthetic organisms. Some such
organisms—including the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and cyanobacteria—have
evolved a second step in the dark reactions in which protons and electrons are reduced to
form H2 gas by specialized hydrogenases in the chloroplast.[100] Efforts have been
Hydrogen 12
undertaken to genetically modify cyanobacterial hydrogenases to efficiently synthesize H2

gas even in the presence of oxygen.[101] Efforts have also been undertaken with genetically
modified alga in a bioreactor.[102]
Safety and precautions

Hydrogen poses a number of hazards to human safety,
from potential detonations and fires when mixed with
air to being an asphyxant in its pure, oxygen-free
form.[104] In addition, liquid hydrogen is a cryogen and
presents dangers (such as frostbite) associated with
very cold liquids.[105] Hydrogen dissolves in some
metals, and, in addition to leaking out, may have
adverse effects on them, such as hydrogen
embrittlement.[106] Hydrogen gas leaking into external
air may spontaneously ignite. Moreover, hydrogen fire,
while being extremely hot, is almost invisible, and thus
can lead to accidental burns.[107]
Even interpreting the hydrogen data (including safety

data) is confounded by a number of phenomena. Many
Inhalation of air with high
physical and chemical properties of hydrogen depend
concentration of hydrogen as with
on the parahydrogen/orthohydrogen ratio (it often takes hydrox and hydreliox displaces oxygen
days or weeks at a given temperature to reach the and may cause the above symptoms as
[103]
equilibrium ratio, for which the data is usually given). an asphyxant.
Hydrogen detonation parameters, such as critical

detonation pressure and temperature, strongly depend on the container geometry.[104]
See also
• Antihydrogen
• Blacklight Power
• Hydrogen cycle
• Hydrogen leak testing
• Hydrogen-like atom
• Hydrogen line
• Hydrogen planes
• Hydrogen spectral series
• Hydrogen station
• Hydrogen technologies
• Hydrogen vehicle
• Metallic hydrogen
• Oxyhydrogen
• Photohydrogen
Hydrogen 13
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Further reading
• Chart of the Nuclides (http:/ / chartofthenuclides. com/ default. html). Fourteenth
Edition. General Electric Company. 1989. http:/ / chartofthenuclides. com/ default. html.
• Ferreira-Aparicio, P; M. J. Benito, J. L. Sanz (2005). "New Trends in Reforming
Technologies: from Hydrogen Industrial Plants to Multifuel Microreformers". Catalysis
Reviews 47: 491–588. doi: 10.1080/01614940500364958 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1080/
01614940500364958).
• Newton, David E. (1994). The Chemical Elements. New York, NY: Franklin Watts. ISBN
0-531-12501-7.
Hydrogen 18
• Rigden, John S. (2002). Hydrogen: The Essential Element. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 0-531-12501-7.
• Romm, Joseph, J. (2004). The Hype about Hydrogen, Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save
the Climate. Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-703-X. Author interview (http:/ / www.
globalpublicmedia. com/ transcripts/ 635) at Global Public Media.
• Stwertka, Albert (2002). A Guide to the Elements. New York, NY: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-515027-9.
External links
• Basic Hydrogen Calculations of Quantum Mechanics (http:/ / www. physics. drexel. edu/
~tim/ open/ hydrofin/ )
• Hydrogen phase diagram (http:/ / www. astro. washington. edu/ users/ larson/ Astro150b/
Lectures/ JupSatUraNep/ hydrogen_phase. gif)
• Wavefunction of hydrogen (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ quantum/
hydwf. html#c3)

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Helium 1
Helium
hydrogen ← helium → lithiumNt
↑
He
↓
Ne

2He
Periodic table

PhaseDensityMelting pointBoiling pointCritical pointHeat of fusionHeat of
vaporizationSpecific heat capacityVapor pressure (defined by ITS-90)
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1.23 1.67 2.48 4.21
Atomic properties ElectronegativityIonization energies 2nd: 5250.5 kJ·mol−1Covalent

radiusVan der Waals radius Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingThermal
conductivityThermal expansionCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article:
Isotopes of helium
3 0.000137%* 3
He He is stable with 1 neutron
4 99.999863%* 4
He He is stable with 2 neutron
*Atmospheric value, abundance may differ elsewhere.

Helium 2
helium, He, 2 noble gases 18, 1, s4.002602(2) g·mol−1 1s2 2 (Image) gas (0 °C, 101.325
kPa)
0.1786 g/L (at 2.5 MPa) 0.95 K,−272.20 °C,−457.96 °F 4.22 K,−268.93 °C,−452.07 °F 5.19
K, 0.227 MPa 0.0138 kJ·mol−1 0.0829 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 20.786 J·mol−1·K−1 no data (Pauling
−1 [1]
scale) 1st: 2372.3 kJ·mol 28 pm 140 pm hexagonal close-packed diamagnetic (300 K)
−1 −1 −1 −1
0.1513 W·m ·K (25 °C) { µm·m ·K 7440-59-7
Helium (pronounced /ˈhiːliəm/) is the chemical element with atomic number 2, and is
represented by the symbol He. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert
monatomic gas that heads the noble gas group in the periodic table. Its boiling and melting
points are the lowest among the elements and it exists only as a gas except in extreme
conditions.
An unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight was first observed from a solar
eclipse in 1868 by French astronomer Pierre Janssen. Janssen is jointly credited with the
discovery of the element with Norman Lockyer, who observed the same eclipse and was the
first to propose that the line was due to a new element which he named helium. In 1903,
large reserves of helium were found in the natural gas fields of the United States, which is
by far the largest supplier of the gas. Helium is used in cryogenics, in deep-sea breathing
systems, to cool superconducting magnets, in helium dating, for inflating balloons, for
providing lift in airships and as a protective gas for many industrial uses (such as arc
welding and growing silicon wafers). Inhaling a small volume of the gas temporarily
changes the timbre and quality of the human voice. The behavior of liquid helium-4's two
fluid phases, helium I and helium II, is important to researchers studying quantum
mechanics (in particular the phenomenon of superfluidity) and to those looking at the
effects that temperatures near absolute zero have on matter (such as superconductivity).
Helium is the second lightest element and is the second most abundant in the observable
universe, being present in the universe in masses more than 12 times those of all the other
elements heavier than helium combined. Helium's abundance is also similar to this in our
own Sun and Jupiter. This high abundance is due to the very high binding energy (per
nucleon) of helium-4 with respect to the next three elements after helium (lithium,
beryllium, and boron). This helium-4 binding energy also accounts for its commonality as a
product in both nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Most helium in the universe is
helium-4, and was formed during the Big Bang. Some new helium is being created presently
as a result of the nuclear fusion of hydrogen, in all but the very heaviest stars, which fuse
helium into heavier elements at the extreme ends of their lives.
On Earth, the lightness of helium has caused its evaporation from the gas and dust cloud
from which the planet condensed, and it is thus relatively rare. What helium is present
today has been mostly created by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive
elements (thorium and uranium), as the alpha particles that are emitted by such decays
consist of helium-4 nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in
concentrations up to seven percent by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a
low-temperature separation process called fractional distillation.
Helium 3
History
Scientific discoveries
The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868 as a bright yellow line with a
wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line
was detected by French astronomer Pierre Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur,
India.[2] [3] This line was initially assumed to be sodium. On October 20 of the same year,
English astronomer Norman Lockyer observed a yellow line in the solar spectrum, which he
named the D3 Fraunhofer line because it was near the known D1 and D2 lines of sodium.[4]
He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth. Lockyer and
English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun,
ἥλιος (helios).[5] [6]
On March 26, 1895 British chemist Sir William
Ramsay isolated helium on Earth by treating the
mineral cleveite (a variety of uraninite with at least
10% rare earth elements) with mineral acids.
Spectral lines of helium Ramsay was looking for argon but, after separating
nitrogen and oxygen from the gas liberated by
sulfuric acid, he noticed a bright yellow line that matched the D3 line observed in the
spectrum of the Sun.[4] [7] [8] [9] These samples were identified as helium by Lockyer and
British physicist William Crookes. It was independently isolated from cleveite in the same
year by chemists Per Teodor Cleve and Abraham Langlet in Uppsala, Sweden, who
collected enough of the gas to accurately determine its atomic weight.[3] [10] [11] Helium
was also isolated by the American geochemist William Francis Hillebrand prior to Ramsay's
discovery when he noticed unusual spectral lines while testing a sample of the mineral
uraninite. Hillebrand, however, attributed the lines to nitrogen. His letter of
congratulations to Ramsay offers an interesting case of discovery and near-discovery in
science.[12]
In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrated that alpha particles are
helium nuclei by allowing the particles to penetrate the thin glass wall of an evacuated
tube, then creating a discharge in the tube to study the spectra of the new gas inside. In
1908, helium was first liquefied by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes by cooling the
gas to less than one kelvin.[13] He tried to solidify it by further reducing the temperature
but failed because helium does not have a triple point temperature at which the solid,
liquid, and gas phases are at equilibrium. Onnes' student Willem Hendrik Keesom was
eventually able to solidify 1 cm3 of helium in 1926.[14]
In 1938, Russian physicist Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa discovered that helium-4 has almost
no viscosity at temperatures near absolute zero, a phenomenon now called superfluidity.[15]
This phenomenon is related to Bose-Einstein condensation. In 1972, the same phenomenon
was observed in helium-3, but at temperatures much closer to absolute zero, by American
physicists Douglas D. Osheroff, David M. Lee, and Robert C. Richardson. The phenomenon
in helium-3 is thought to be related to pairing of helium-3 fermions to make bosons, in
analogy to Cooper pairs of electrons producing superconductivity.[16]
Helium 4
Extraction and use

After an oil drilling operation in 1903 in Dexter, Kansas produced a gas geyser that would
not burn, Kansas state geologist Erasmus Haworth collected samples of the escaping gas
and took them back to the University of Kansas at Lawrence where, with the help of
chemists Hamilton Cady and David McFarland, he discovered that the gas consisted of, by
volume, 72% nitrogen, 15% methane (a combustible percentage only with sufficient
oxygen), 1% hydrogen, and 12% an unidentifiable gas.[3] [17] With further analysis, Cady
and McFarland discovered that 1.84% of the gas sample was helium.[18] [19] This showed
that despite its overall rarity on Earth, helium was concentrated in large quantities under
the American Great Plains, available for extraction as a byproduct of natural gas.[20] The
greatest reserves of helium were in the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in southwest Kansas
and the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma.
This enabled the United States to become the world's leading supplier of helium. Following
a suggestion by Sir Richard Threlfall, the United States Navy sponsored three small
experimental helium production plants during World War I. The goal was to supply barrage
balloons with the non-flammable, lighter-than-air gas. A total of 200 thousand cubic feet
(5,700 m3) of 92% helium was produced in the program even though only a few cubic feet
(less than 100 liters) of the gas had previously been obtained.[4] Some of this gas was used
in the world's first helium-filled airship, the U.S. Navy's C-7, which flew its maiden voyage
from Hampton Roads, Virginia to Bolling Field in Washington, D.C. on December 1,
1921.[21]
Although the extraction process, using low-temperature gas liquefaction, was not developed
in time to be significant during World War I, production continued. Helium was primarily
used as a lifting gas in lighter-than-air craft. This use increased demand during World War
II, as well as demands for shielded arc welding. The helium mass spectrometer was also
vital in the atomic bomb Manhattan Project.[22]
The government of the United States set up the National Helium Reserve in 1925 at
Amarillo, Texas with the goal of supplying military airships in time of war and commercial
airships in peacetime.[4] Due to a US military embargo against Germany that restricted
helium supplies, the Hindenburg was forced to use hydrogen as the lift gas. Helium use
following World War II was depressed but the reserve was expanded in the 1950s to ensure
a supply of liquid helium as a coolant to create oxygen/hydrogen rocket fuel (among other
uses) during the Space Race and Cold War. Helium use in the United States in 1965 was
more than eight times the peak wartime consumption.[23]
After the "Helium Acts Amendments of 1960" (Public Law 86–777), the U.S. Bureau of
Mines arranged for five private plants to recover helium from natural gas. For this helium
conservation program, the Bureau built a 425 mile (684 km) pipeline from Bushton, Kansas
to connect those plants with the government's partially depleted Cliffside gas field, near
Amarillo, Texas. This helium-nitrogen mixture was injected and stored in the Cliffside gas
field until needed, when it then was further purified.[24]
By 1995, a billion cubic meters of the gas had been collected and the reserve was
US$1.4 billion in debt, prompting the Congress of the United States in 1996 to phase out
the reserve.[3] [25] The resulting "Helium Privatization Act of 1996"[26] (Public Law 104–273)
directed the United States Department of the Interior to start emptying the reserve by
2005.[27]
Helium 5
Helium produced between 1930 and 1945 was about 98.3% pure (2% nitrogen), which was
adequate for airships. In 1945, a small amount of 99.9% helium was produced for welding
use. By 1949, commercial quantities of Grade A 99.95% helium were available.[28]
For many years the United States produced over 90% of commercially usable helium in the
world, while extraction plants in Canada, Poland, Russia, and other nations produced the
remainder. In the mid-1990s, a new plant in Arzew, Algeria producing 600 million cubic
feet (17 million cubic meters) began operation, with enough production to cover all of
Europe's demand. Meanwhile, by 2000, the consumption of helium within the US had risen
to above 15,000 metric tons.[29] In 2004–2006, two additional plants, one in Ras Laffen,
Qatar and the other in Skikda, Algeria were built, but as of early 2007, Ras Laffen is
functioning at 50%, and Skikda has yet to start up. Algeria quickly became the second
leading producer of helium.[30] Through this time, both helium consumption and the costs of
producing helium increased.[31] In the 2002 to 2007 period helium prices doubled,[32] and
during 2008 alone the major suppliers raised prices about 50%.
Characteristics
The helium atom
Helium atom
An illustration of the helium atom, depicting the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The
nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud,
although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case. The black bar is one ångström, equal to 10−10 m
or 100,000 fm.
Helium is the next simplest atom to solve using the rules of quantum mechanics, after the
hydrogen atom. Helium is composed of two electrons in orbit around a nucleus containing
two protons along with some neutrons. However, as in Newtonian mechanics, no system
consisting of more than two particles can be solved with an exact analytical mathematical
approach (see 3-body problem) and helium is no exception. Thus, numerical mathematical
methods are required, even to solve the system of one nucleus and two electrons.
The hydrogen atom quantum model has been used extensively to aid in solving the helium
atom. The Niels Bohr model of the atom gave a very accurate explanation of the hydrogen
Helium 6
spectrum, but when it came to helium, it collapsed. Werner Heisenberg developed a

modification of Bohr's analysis but it involved half-integral values for the quantum
numbers[33] . Thomas-Fermi theory also known as density functional theory is used to
obtain the ground state energy levels of the helium atom along with the Hartree-Fock
method. These methods have been used to create a quantum mechanical picture of helium
electron binding which is accurate to within < 2% of the correct value, within a few
numerical approximation steps. In such a model, various influences must be taken account
of, including the electric repulsion of the electrons for each other, and the fact that one
electron will, in part, screen the charge of the nucleus for the other. In the case of helium,
it has been found that the effective nuclear charge "Z" which each electron sees, is about
1.69 units, not the 2 charges of a classic "bare" helium nucleus.
The nucleus of the helium-4 atom, which is identical with an alpha particle is particularly
interesting, inasmuch as high energy electron-scattering experiments show its charge to
decrease exponentially from a maximum at a central point, exactly as does the charge
density of helium's own electron cloud. The reason for this symmetry is elegant: the pair of
neutrons and pair of protons in helium's nucleus both obey exactly the same quantum
mechanical rules as do helium's pair of electrons (although the nuclear particles are subject
to a different nuclear binding potential), so that all these fermions fully occupy 1s orbitals
in pairs, none of them possessing orbital angular momentum, and each cancelling the
other's intrinsic spin. This arrangement is energetically extremely stable for all these
particles, and this stability accounts for many crucial facts regarding helium in nature.
For example, the stability and low energy of the electron cloud state in helium accounts for
the element's chemical inertness (the most extreme of all the elements), and also the lack of
interaction of helium atoms with themselves, producing the lowest melting and boiling
points of all the elements.
In a similar way, the particular energetic stability of the helium-4 nucleus, produced by
similar effects, accounts for the ease of helium-4 production in atomic reactions involving
both heavy-particle emission, and fusion. The stability of helium-4 is the reason hydrogen is
converted to helium-4 (not deuterium or helium-3 or heavier elements) in the Sun. It is also
responsible for the fact the alpha particle is by far the most common type of baryonic
particle to be ejected from atomic nuclei—that is, (alpha decay is far more common than
cluster decay).
The unusual stability of the helium-4 nucleus is also important cosmologically—it explains
the fact that in the first few mintutes after the Big Bang, as the soup of free protons and
neutrons which had been created in about 6:1 ratio, cooled to the point that nuclear binding
was possible, the first nuclei to form were helium-4 nuclei. So tight was helium-4 binding, in
fact, than it consumed nearly all of the free neutrons before they could beta-decay, leaving
very few left to form any lithium, beryllium, or boron. Helium-4 nuclear binding is stronger
than in any of these elements (see nucleogenesis and binding energy) and thus no energetic
drive was available, once helium had been formed, to make elements 3, 4 and 5. It was
barely energetically favorable for helium to fuse into the next element with a lower energy
per nucleon, carbon. However, due to lack of intermediate elements, this process would
take three helium nuclei striking each other nearly simultaneously (see triple alpha
process). There was thus no time for significant carbon to be formed in the Big Bang,
before the early expanding universe cooled in a matter of minutes to the temperature and
pressure point where helium fusion to carbon was no longer possible. This left the early
Helium 7
universe with a very similar ratio of hydrogen to helium as is seen today (3 parts hydrogen
to 1 part helium-4 by mass), with nearly all the neutrons in the universe (even as it exists
today) trapped in the helium-4.
All heavier elements (including those necessary for rocky planets like the Earth, and for
carbon-based or other life), have thus had to be created since the Big Bang, in stars which
were hot enough to burn not just hydrogen (for this produces only more helium), but hot
enough to burn helium itself. Such stars are massive and therefore rare, and this fact
accounts for the fact that all other chemical elements after hydrogen and helium today
account for only 2% of the mass of atomic mater in the universe. Helium-4, by contrast,
makes up about 23% of the universe's ordinary matter—nearly all the ordinary matter
which isn't hydrogen.
Gas and plasma phases

Helium is the least reactive noble gas after neon and thus the second least reactive of all
elements; it is inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Due to helium's relatively low
molar (atomic) mass, in the gas phase its thermal conductivity, specific heat, and sound
speed are all greater than any other gas except hydrogen. For similar reasons, and also due
to the small size of helium atoms, helium's diffusion rate through solids is three times that
of air and around 65% that of hydrogen.[4]
Helium is less water soluble than any other gas
known,[34] and helium's index of refraction is closer to
unity than that of any other gas.[35] Helium has a
negative Joule-Thomson coefficient at normal ambient
temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to
freely expand. Only below its Joule-Thomson inversion
temperature (of about 32 to 50 K at 1 atmosphere) does
it cool upon free expansion.[4] Once precooled below
this temperature, helium can be liquefied through
Helium discharge tube shaped like the
expansion cooling.
element's atomic symbol
Most extraterrestrial helium is found in a plasma state,
with properties quite different from those of atomic helium. In a plasma, helium's electrons
are not bound to its nucleus, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even when the
gas is only partially ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and
electric fields. For example, in the solar wind together with ionized hydrogen, the particles
interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the
aurora.[36]
Solid and liquid phases

Unlike any other element, helium will remain liquid down to absolute zero at normal
pressures. This is a direct effect of quantum mechanics: specifically, the zero point energy
of the system is too high to allow freezing. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1–1.5 K
(about −272 °C or −457 °F) and about 25 bar (2.5 MPa) of pressure.[37] It is often hard to
distinguish solid from liquid helium since the refractive index of the two phases are nearly
the same. The solid has a sharp melting point and has a crystalline structure, but it is highly
compressible; applying pressure in a laboratory can decrease its volume by more than
30%.[38] With a bulk modulus on the order of 5×107 Pa[39] it is 50 times more compressible
Helium 8
than water. Solid helium has a density of 0.214 ± 0.006 g/ml at 1.15 K and 66 atm; the
projected density at 0 K and 25 bar is 0.187 ± 0.009 g/ml.[40]
Helium I state
Below its boiling point of 4.22 kelvin and above the lambda point of 2.1768 kelvin, the
isotope helium-4 exists in a normal colorless liquid state, called helium I.[4] Like other
cryogenic liquids, helium I boils when it is heated and contracts when its temperature is
lowered. Below the lambda point, however, helium doesn't boil, and it expands as the
temperature is lowered further.
Helium I has a gas-like index of refraction of 1.026 which makes its surface so hard to see
that floats of styrofoam are often used to show where the surface is.[4] This colorless liquid
has a very low viscosity and a density one-eighth that of water, which is only one-fourth the
value expected from classical physics.[4] Quantum mechanics is needed to explain this
property and thus both types of liquid helium are called quantum fluids, meaning they
display atomic properties on a macroscopic scale. This may be an effect of its boiling point
being so close to absolute zero, preventing random molecular motion (thermal energy) from
masking the atomic properties.[4]
Helium II state
Liquid helium below its lambda point begins to exhibit very unusual characteristics, in a
state called helium II. Boiling of helium II is not possible due to its high thermal
conductivity; heat input instead causes evaporation of the liquid directly to gas. The isotope
helium-3 also has a superfluid phase, but only at much lower temperatures; as a result, less
is known about such properties in the isotope helium-3.[4]
Helium 9
Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum-mechanical

state of matter with strange properties. For
example, when it flows through capillaries as thin as
10−7 to 10−8 m it has no measurable viscosity.[3]
However, when measurements were done between
two moving discs, a viscosity comparable to that of
gaseous helium was observed. Current theory
explains this using the two-fluid model for helium II.
In this model, liquid helium below the lambda point
is viewed as containing a proportion of helium
atoms in a ground state, which are superfluid and
flow with exactly zero viscosity, and a proportion of
helium atoms in an excited state, which behave
more like an ordinary fluid.[41]
In the fountain effect, a chamber is constructed

which is connected to a reservoir of helium II by a
sintered disc through which superfluid helium leaks
Unlike ordinary liquids, helium II will creep
easily but through which non-superfluid helium
along surfaces in order to reach an equal
cannot pass. If the interior of the container is level; after a short while, the levels in the
heated, the superfluid helium changes to two containers will equalize. The Rollin film
non-superfluid helium. In order to maintain the also covers the interior of the larger
container; if it were not sealed, the
equilibrium fraction of superfluid helium, superfluid [4]
helium II would creep out and escape.
helium leaks through and increases the pressure,
causing liquid to fountain out of the container.[42]
The thermal conductivity of helium II is greater than that of any other known substance, a
million times that of helium I and several hundred times that of copper.[4] This is because
heat conduction occurs by an exceptional quantum-mechanical mechanism. Most materials
that conduct heat well have a valence band of free electrons which serve to transfer the
heat. Helium II has no such valence band but nevertheless conducts heat well. The flow of
heat is governed by equations that are similar to the wave equation used to characterize
sound propagation in air. When heat is introduced, it moves at 20 meters per second at
1.8 K through helium II as waves in a phenomenon known as second sound.[4]
Helium II also exhibits a creeping effect. When a surface extends past the level of helium II,
the helium II moves along the surface, seemingly against the force of gravity. Helium II will
escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a
warmer region where it evaporates. It moves in a 30 nm-thick film regardless of surface
material. This film is called a Rollin film and is named after the man who first characterized
this trait, Bernard V. Rollin.[4] [43] [44] As a result of this creeping behavior and helium II's
ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine liquid helium.
Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will creep along the surfaces
and through valves until it reaches somewhere warmer, where it will evaporate. Waves
propagating across a Rollin film are governed by the same equation as gravity waves in
shallow water, but rather than gravity, the restoring force is the Van der Waals force.[45]
These waves are known as third sound.[46]
Helium 10
Isotopes
There are eight known isotopes of helium, but only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable. In the
Earth's atmosphere, there is one 3He atom for every million 4He atoms.[3] Unlike most
elements, helium's isotopic abundance varies greatly by origin, due to the different
formation processes. The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by alpha
decay of heavier radioactive elements; the alpha particles that emerge are fully ionized
helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its nucleons are arranged
into complete shells. It was also formed in enormous quantities during Big Bang
nucleosynthesis.[47]
Helium-3 is present on Earth only in trace amounts; most of it since Earth's formation,
though some falls to Earth trapped in cosmic dust.[48] Trace amounts are also produced by
the beta decay of tritium.[49] Rocks from the Earth's crust have isotope ratios varying by as
much as a factor of ten, and these ratios can be used to investigate the origin of rocks and
the composition of the Earth's mantle.[48] 3He is much more abundant in stars, as a product
of nuclear fusion. Thus in the interstellar medium, the proportion of 3He to 4He is around
100 times higher than on Earth.[50] Extraplanetary material, such as lunar and asteroid
regolith, have trace amounts of helium-3 from being bombarded by solar winds. The Moon's
surface contains helium-3 at concentrations on the order of 0.01 ppm.[51] [52] A number of
people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986,[53] have proposed to explore the moon, mine
lunar regolith and use the helium-3 for fusion.
Liquid helium-4 can be cooled to about 1 kelvin using evaporative cooling in a 1-K pot.
Similar cooling of helium-3, which has a lower boiling point, can achieve about 0.2 kelvin in
a helium-3 refrigerator. Equal mixtures of liquid 3He and 4He below 0.8 K separate into two
immiscible phases due to their dissimilarity (they follow different quantum statistics:
helium-4 atoms are bosons while helium-3 atoms are fermions).[4] Dilution refrigerators use
this immiscibility to achieve temperatures of a few millikelvins.
It is possible to produce exotic helium isotopes, which rapidly decay into other substances.
The shortest-lived heavy helium isotope is helium-5 with a half-life of 7.6 × 10−22 seconds.
Helium-6 decays by emitting a beta particle and has a half life of 0.8 seconds. Helium-7 also
emits a beta particle as well as a gamma ray. Helium-7 and helium-8 are created in certain
nuclear reactions.[4] Helium-6 and helium-8 are known to exhibit a nuclear halo. Helium-2
(two protons, no neutrons) is a radioisotope that decays by proton emission into protium,
with a half-life of 3 × 10−27 seconds.[4]
Compounds
Helium is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions due to its valence of zero.[38] It
is an electrical insulator unless ionized. As with the other noble gases, helium has
metastable energy levels that allow it to remain ionized in an electrical discharge with a
voltage below its ionization potential.[4] Helium can form unstable compounds, known as
excimers, with tungsten, iodine, fluorine, sulfur and phosphorus when it is subjected to an
electric glow discharge, to electron bombardment, or else is a plasma for another reason.
HeNe, HgHe10, WHe2 and the molecular ions He+2, He2+2, HeH+, and HeD+ have been
created this way.[54] This technique has also allowed the production of the neutral molecule
He2, which has a large number of band systems, and HgHe, which is apparently only held
together by polarization forces.[4] Theoretically, other true compounds may also be
possible, such as helium fluorohydride (HHeF) which would be analogous to HArF,
Helium 11
discovered in 2000.[55] . Calculations show that two new compounds containing a

helium-oxygen bond could be stable.[56] . The two new molecular species, predicted using
theory, CsFHeO and N(CH3)4FHeO, are derivatives of a metastable [F– HeO] anion first
theorized in 2005 by a group from Taiwan. If confirmed by experiment such compounds will
[57]
end helium's chemical nobility, and the only remaining noble element will be neon.
Helium has been put inside the hollow carbon cage molecules (the fullerenes) by heating
under high pressure. The endohedral fullerene molecules formed are stable up to high
temperatures. When chemical derivatives of these fullerenes are formed, the helium stays
inside.[58] If helium-3 is used, it can be readily observed by helium nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy.[59] Many fullerenes containing helium-3 have been reported.
Although the helium atoms are not attached by covalent or ionic bonds, these substances
have distinct properties and a definite composition, like all stoichiometric chemical
compounds.
Occurrence and production
Natural abundance
Helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe (after hydrogen),
constituting 23% of the baryonic mass of the Universe.[3] The vast majority of helium was
formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis from one to three minutes after the Big Bang. As such,
measurements of its abundance contribute to cosmological models. In stars, it is formed by
the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in proton-proton chain reactions and the CNO cycle, part of
stellar nucleosynthesis.[47]
In the Earth's atmosphere, the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per
million.[60] [61] The concentration is low and fairly constant despite the continuous
production of new helium because most helium in the Earth's atmosphere escapes into
space by several processes.[62] [63] In the Earth's heterosphere, a part of the upper
atmosphere, helium and other lighter gases are the most abundant elements.
Nearly all helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay, and thus an Earthly helium
balloon is essentially a bag of retired alpha particles. Helium is found in large amounts in
minerals of uranium and thorium, including cleveites, pitchblende, carnotite and monazite,
because they emit alpha particles (helium nuclei, He2+) to which electrons immediately
combine as soon as the particle is stopped by the rock. In this way an estimated
3000 tonnes of helium are generated per year throughout the lithosphere.[64] [65] [66] In the
Earth's crust, the concentration of helium is 8 parts per billion. In seawater, the
concentration is only 4 parts per trillion. There are also small amounts in mineral springs,
volcanic gas, and meteoric iron. Because helium is trapped in a similar way by
non-permeable layer of rock like natural gas the greatest concentrations on the planet are
found in natural gas, from which most commercial helium is derived. The concentration
varies in a broad range from a few ppm up to over 7% in a small gas field in San Juan
County, New Mexico.[67] [68]
Helium 12
Modern extraction
For large-scale use, helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas, which
contains up to 7% helium.[69] Since helium has a lower boiling point than any other
element, low temperature and high pressure are used to liquefy nearly all the other gases
(mostly nitrogen and methane). The resulting crude helium gas is purified by successive
exposures to lowering temperatures, in which almost all of the remaining nitrogen and
other gases are precipitated out of the gaseous mixture. Activated charcoal is used as a
final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995% pure Grade-A helium.[4] The principal
impurity in Grade-A helium is neon. In a final production step, most of the helium that is
produced is liquefied via a cryogenic process. This is necessary for applications requiring
liquid helium and also allows helium suppliers to reduce the cost of long distance
transportation, as the largest liquid helium containers have more than five times the
capacity of the largest gaseous helium tube trailers.[30] [70]
In 2005, approximately 160 million cubic meters of helium were extracted from natural gas
or withdrawn from helium reserves, with approximately 83% from the United States, 11%
from Algeria, and most of the remainder from Russia and Poland.[71] In the United States,
most helium is extracted from natural gas of the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in Kansas,
Oklahoma, and Texas.[30] Diffusion of crude natural gas through special semipermeable
membranes and other barriers is another method to recover and purify helium.[72] Helium
can be synthesized by bombardment of lithium or boron with high-velocity protons, but this
is not an economically viable method of production.[73]
Applications
Helium is used for many purposes that require some of its unique properties, such as its
low boiling point, low density, low solubility, high thermal conductivity, or inertness.
Helium is commercially available in either liquid or gaseous form. As a liquid, it can be
supplied in small containers called Dewars which hold up to 1,000 liters of helium, or in
large ISO containers which have nominal capacities as large as 11,000 US gallons (42 m3).
In gaseous form, small quantities of helium are supplied in high pressure cylinders holding
up to 300 standard cubic feet, while large quantities of high pressure gas are supplied in
tube trailers which have capacities of up to 180,000 standard cubic feet.
Airships, balloons and rocketry
Because it is lighter than air, airships and balloons are
inflated with helium for lift. While hydrogen gas is
approximately 7% more buoyant, helium has the
advantage of being non-flammable (in addition to being
Because of its low density and
fire retardant).[25] In rocketry, helium is used as an
incombustibility, helium is the gas of
choice to fill airships such as the ullage medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage
Goodyear blimp. tanks and to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make
rocket fuel. It is also used to purge fuel and oxidizer
from ground support equipment prior to launch and to pre-cool liquid hydrogen in space
vehicles. For example, the Saturn V booster used in the Apollo program needed about 13
million cubic feet (370,000 m3) of helium to launch.[38]
Commercial and recreational

Helium 13
Helium alone is less dense than atmospheric air, so it will change the timbre (not pitch[74] )
of a person's voice when inhaled. However, inhaling it from a typical commercial source,
such as that used to fill balloons, can be dangerous due to the risk of asphyxiation from lack
of oxygen, and the number of contaminants that may be present. These could include trace
amounts of other gases, in addition to aerosolized lubricating oil.
For its low solubility in nervous tissue, helium mixtures such as trimix, heliox and heliair
are used for deep diving to reduce the effects of narcosis.[75] [76] At depths below
150 metres (490 ft) small amounts of hydrogen are added to a helium-oxygen mixture to
counter the effects of high pressure nervous syndrome.[77] At these depths the low density
of helium is found to considerably reduce the effort of breathing.[78]
Helium-neon lasers have various applications, including barcode readers.[3]
Industrial
For its inertness and high thermal conductivity, neutron transparency, and because it does
not form radioactive isotopes under reactor conditions, helium is used as a heat-transfer
medium in some gas-cooled nuclear reactors.[79] Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc
welding processes on materials that are contaminated easily by air.[3]
Helium is used as a protective gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in titanium
and zirconium production, and in gas chromatography,[38] because it is inert. Because of its
inertness, thermally and calorically perfect nature, high speed of sound, and high value of
the heat capacity ratio, it is also useful in supersonic wind tunnels[80] and impulse
facilities[81] .
Because it diffuses through solids at three times the rate of air, helium is used as a tracer
gas to detect leaks in high-vacuum equipment and high-pressure containers.[79]
Helium, mixed with a heavier gas such as xenon, is useful for thermoacoustic refrigeration
due to the resulting high heat capacity ratio and low Prandtl number.[82] The inertness of
helium has environmental advantages over conventional refrigeration systems which
contribute to ozone depletion or global warming.[83]
Scientific
The use of helium reduces the distorting effects of
temperature variations in the space between lenses in
some telescopes, due to its extremely low index of
refraction.[4] This method is especially used in solar
telescopes where a vacuum tight telescope tube would
be too heavy.[84] [85]
The age of rocks and minerals that contain uranium and

thorium can be estimated by measuring the level of Liquid helium is used to cool the
helium with a process known as helium dating.[3] [4] superconducting magnets in modern
MRI scanners.
Liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the
extremely low temperatures required for
superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging.
The Large Hadron Collider at CERN uses 96 tonnes of liquid helium to maintain the
temperature at 1.9 Kelvin.[86] Helium at low temperatures is also used in cryogenics.
Helium is a commonly used carrier gas for gas chromatography. The leak rate of industrial
vessels (typically vacuum chambers and cryogenic tanks) is measured using helium because
of its small molecular diameter and because it is inert. No other inert substance will leak
Helium 14
through micro-cracks or micro-pores in a vessel's wall at a greater rate than helium. A

helium leak detector (see Helium mass spectrometer) is used to find leaks in vessels.
Helium leaks through cracks should not be confused with gas permeation through a bulk
material. While helium has documented permeation constants (thus a calculable permeation
rate) through glasses, ceramics, and syntheic materials, inert gasses such as helium will not
permeate most bulk metals.[87]
Safety
Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in
trace amounts in human blood. If enough helium is inhaled that oxygen needed for normal
respiration is replaced asphyxia is possible. The safety issues for cryogenic helium are
similar to those of liquid nitrogen; its extremely low temperatures can result in cold burns
and the liquid to gas expansion ratio can cause explosions if no pressure-relief devices are
installed.
Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be handled as if they contain liquid helium due
to the rapid and significant thermal expansion that occurs when helium gas at less than 10
K is warmed to room temperature.[38]
Biological effects
The human voice is not like a string instrument, in which the a primarily vibrating object
completely sets the pitch of the sound. Rather, in a human, the vocal folds act as a source of
polytonic vibration, much like the reed(s) in woodwind musical instruments. As in a
woodwind, the size of the resonant cavity plays a large part in picking out and amplifying a
given fundamental or overtone frequency of vibration, during soundmaking. The voice of a
person who has inhaled helium temporarily changes in timbre in a way that makes it sound
high-pitched, because higher overtones are being amplified. The speed of sound in helium
is nearly three times the speed of sound in air; because the fundamental frequency of a
gas-filled cavity is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas, when helium is inhaled
there is a corresponding increase in the pitch of the resonant frequencies of the vocal
tract.[3] [88] (The opposite effect, lowering frequencies, can be obtained by inhaling a dense
gas such as sulfur hexafluoride.)
Inhaling helium can be dangerous if done to excess, since helium is a simple asphyxiant and
so displaces oxygen needed for normal respiration.[3] [89] Breathing pure helium
continuously causes death by asphyxiation within minutes. Inhaling helium directly from
pressurized cylinders is extremely dangerous, as the high flow rate can result in
barotrauma, fatally rupturing lung tissue.[89] [90] However, death caused by helium is quite
rare, with only two fatalities reported between 2000 and 2004 in the United States.[90]
At high pressures (more than about 20 atm or two MPa), a mixture of helium and oxygen
(heliox) can lead to high pressure nervous syndrome, a sort of reverse-anesthetic effect;
adding a small amount of nitrogen to the mixture can alleviate the problem.[91] [92]
Helium 15
See also
• Abiogenic petroleum origin
• Helium-3 propulsion
• Leidenfrost effect
• Quantum solid
• Superfluid
• Tracer-gas leak testing method
• Helium atom
References
• Bureau of Mines (1967). Minerals yearbook mineral fuels Year 1965, Volume II (1967). U.
S. Government Printing Office.
• "Chart of the Nuclides: Fourteenth Edition [93]". General Electric Company. 1989. http:/ /
chartofthenuclides. com/ default. html.
• Emsley, John (1998). The Elements (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0198558187.
• "Mineral Information for Helium [94]" (PDF). United States Geological Survey (usgs.gov).
http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ helium/ heliumcs07. pdf.
Retrieved on 2007-01-05.
• Vercheval, J. (January 2003). "The thermosphere: a part of the heterosphere [95]". Belgian
Institute for Space Aeronomy. http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050101090349/ www.
oma. be/ BIRA-IASB/ Public/ Research/ Thermo/ Thermotxt. en. html. Retrieved on
2008-07-12.
• Zastenker, G. N.; E. Salerno, F. Buehler, P. Bochsler, M. Bassi, Y. N. Agafonov, N. A.
Eismont, V. V. Khrapchenkov, H. Busemann (April 2002). "Isotopic Composition and
Abundance of Interstellar Neutral Helium Based on Direct Measurements [96]".
Astrophysics 45 (2): 131–142. doi:10.1023/A:1016057812964 [97]. http:/ / www.
ingentaconnect. com/ content/ klu/ asys/ 2002/ 00000045/ 00000002/ 00378626.
External links
General
[98]
• The Periodic Table of Videos - Helium
[99]
• US Government' Bureau of Land Management: Sources, Refinement, and Shortage.
With some History of Helium.
• U.S. Geological Survey Publicationson Helium [100] beginning 1996
• It's Elemental – Helium [101]
More detail
• Helium [102] at the Helsinki University of Technology; includes pressure-temperature
phase diagrams for helium-3 and helium-4
• Lancaster University, Ultra Low Temperature Physics [103] - includes a summary of some
low temperature techniques
Miscellaneous
• Physics in Speech [104] with audio samples that demonstrate the unchanged voice pitch
• Article about helium and other noble gases [105]
Helium 16
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License
Lithium 1
Lithium
helium ← lithium → berylliumH
↑
Li
↓
Na

3Li
Periodic table
Appearance silvery white (seen here in oil)
General Name, symbol, numberElement

categoryGroup, period, blockStandard atomic weightElectron configurationElectrons per
shell Physical properties PhaseDensity (near r.t.) Liquid density at m.p.Melting pointBoiling
pointCritical pointHeat of fusionHeat of vaporizationSpecific heat capacityVapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 797 885 995 1144 1337 1610
Atomic properties Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energies 2nd: 7298.1

kJ·mol−1 3rd: 11815.0 kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radiusVan der Waals radius
Lithium 2
Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingElectrical resistivityThermal

conductivityThermal expansionSpeed of sound (thin rod) Young's modulusShear
modulusBulk modulusMohs hardnessCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main
article: Isotopes of lithium
6 7.5% 6
Li Li is stable with 3 neutron
7 92.5% 7
Li Li is stable with 4 neutron
6
Li content may be as low as 3.75% in
natural samples. 7Li would therefore
have a content of up to 96.25%.
lithium, Li, 3 alkali metal1, 2, s6.941(2) g·mol−1 1s2 2s1 2, 1 (Image) solid 0.534 g·cm−3
0.512 g·cm−3 453.69 K,180.54 °C,356.97 °F 1615 K,1342 °C,2456.6 °F (extrapolated)
3223 K, 67 MPa 3.00 kJ·mol−1 147.1 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 24.860 J·mol−1·K−1+1, -1
(strongly basic oxide) 0.98 (Pauling scale) 1st: 520.2 kJ·mol−1152 pm128±7 pm 182 pm
body-centered cubic paramagnetic (20 °C) 92.8 nΩ·m (300 K) 84.8 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 46
µm·m−1·K−1 (20 °C) 6000 m/s 4.9 GPa 4.2 GPa 11 GPa 0.6 7439-93-2
Lithium (pronounced /ˈlɪθiəm/) is a soft, silver-white metal that belongs to the alkali metal
group of chemical elements. It is represented by the symbol Li and has an atomic number
of 3. Under standard conditions it is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element.
Like all alkali metals lithium is highly reactive, corroding quickly in moist air to form a
black tarnish. For this reason lithium metal is typically stored under the cover of oil. When
cut open lithium exhibits a metallic luster, but contact with oxygen quickly turns it back to
a dull silvery gray color. Lithium in its elemental state is highly flammable.
According to theory, lithium was one of the few elements synthesized in the Big Bang. Since
its current estimated abundance in the universe is vastly less than that predicted by
theory[1] ; the processes by which new lithium is created and destroyed, and the true value
of its abundance,[2] continue to be active matters of study in astronomy.[3] [4] [5] The nuclei
of lithium are relatively fragile: the two stable lithium isotopes found in nature have lower
binding energies per nucleon than any other stable compound nuclides, save for the exotic
and rare deuterium, and 3He. [6] Though very light in atomic weight, lithium is less common
in the solar system than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements. [7]
Due to its high reactivity it only appears naturally in the form of compounds. Lithium occurs
in a number of pegmatitic minerals, but is also commonly obtained from brines and clays.
On a commercial scale, lithium metal is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium
chloride and potassium chloride.
Trace amounts of lithium are present in the oceans and in some organisms, though the
element serves no apparent vital biological function in humans. However, the lithium ion
Li+ administered as any of several lithium salts has proved to be useful as a mood
stabilizing drug due to neurological effects of the ion in the human body. Lithium and its
compounds have several industrial applications, including heat-resistant glass and
ceramics, high strength-to-weight alloys used in aircraft, and lithium batteries. Lithium also
has important links to nuclear physics. The transmutation of lithium atoms to tritium was
the first man-made form of a nuclear fusion reaction, and lithium deuteride serves as a
fusion fuel in staged thermonuclear weapons.
Lithium 3
History and etymology

Petalite (LiAlSi4O10, or lithium aluminum silicate) was first discovered in 1800 by the
Brazilian scientist José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva, who discovered the mineral in a
Swedish mine on the island of Utö.[8] [9] [10] However, it was not until 1817 that Johan
August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of Jöns Jakob Berzelius, discovered the
presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore.[11] [12] [13] The element formed
compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide
were less water soluble and more basic.[14] Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name
"lithos", from the Greek λιθoς (lithos, "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a mineral, as
opposed to sodium and potassium, which had been discovered in plant tissue; its name was
later standardized as "lithium".[13] [9] [15] Arfwedson later showed that this same element
was present in the mineral ores spodumene and lepidolite. In 1818 Christian Gmelin was
the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color in flame. However, both
Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the element from its salts.[16] [17] [13] The
element was not isolated until 1821, when William Thomas Brande isolated the element by
performing electrolysis on lithium oxide, a process previously employed by Sir Humphry
Davy to isolate potassium and sodium.[17] [18] [19] Brande also described pure salts of
lithium, such as the chloride, and performed an estimate of its atomic weight. In 1855
Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen produced large quantities of the metal by
electrolysis of lithium chloride. The discovery of this procedure eventually led to
commercial production of lithium metal, begun in 1923 by the German company
Metallgesellschaft AG through the electrolysis of a molten mixture of lithium chloride and
potassium chloride.[16] [20]
Properties
Like the other alkali metals, lithium has a single
valence electron that is easily given up to form a
cation.[15] Because of this, it is both a good conductor
of both heat and electricity and highly reactive, though
it is the least reactive of the alkali metals due to the
proximity of its valence electron to the nucleus.[15]
Lithium is soft enough to be cut with a knife; it is the

lightest and softest of the metals on the periodic table.
Lithium pellets (covered in white
When cut, it possesses a silvery-white color that quickly
lithium hydroxide) changes to gray due to oxidation.[15] It also has a low
density (approximately 0.534 g/cm3) and thus will float
on water, though it reacts easily with water. This reaction is energetic, forming hydrogen
gas and lithium hydroxide in aqueous solution.[15] Due to its reactivity with water, lithium is
usually stored under cover of mineral oil or kerosene.[15]
Lithium possesses a low coefficient of thermal expansion and the highest specific heat
capacity of any solid element. Lithium is superconductive below 400 μK at standard
pressure[21] and at higher temperatures (more than 9 kelvin) at very high pressures (over
200,000 atmospheres)[22] At cryogenic temperatures, lithium, like sodium, undergoes
diffusionless phase change transformations. At 4.2K it has a rhombohedral crystal system
(with a nine-layer repeat spacing)[23] ; at higher temperatures it transforms to
Lithium 4
face-centered cubic and then body-centered cubic. At liquid-helium temperatures (4 K) the

rhombohedral structure is the most prevalent.
Chemistry
In moist air, lithium metal rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide
(LiOH and LiOH·H2O), lithium nitride (Li3N) and lithium carbonate (Li2CO3, the result of a
secondary reaction between LiOH and CO2).[24]
When placed over a flame lithium gives off a striking crimson color, but when it burns
strongly the flame becomes a brilliant white. Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when
exposed to water or water vapours. It is the only metal that reacts with nitrogen at room
temperature.
Lithium metal is flammable and potentially explosive when exposed to air and especially
water, though less so than other alkali metals. The lithium-water reaction at normal
temperatures is brisk but not violent, though the hydrogen produced can ignite. Like all
alkali metals, lithium fires are difficult to extinguish, requiring dry powder fire
extinguishers, specifically Class D type (see Types of extinguishing agents).
Lithium compounds
Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium, an element of similar atomic and ionic
radius. Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride
by reaction with N2, the formation of an oxide when burnt in O2, salts with similar
solubilities, and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides.[24]
Isotopes
Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes, 6Li and 7Li, the latter being
the more abundant (92.5 percent natural abundance).[25] [15] Both natural isotopes have
anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon compared to the next lighter and
heavier elements, Helium and Beryllium, which means that alone among stable light
elements, Lithium can produce net energy through nuclear fission. Seven radioisotopes
have been characterized, the most stable being 8Li with a half-life of 838 ms and 9Li with a
half-life of 178.3 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are
shorter than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is 4Li, which decays through
proton emission and has a half-life of 7.58043x10−23 s.
7
Li is one of the primordial elements (or, more properly, primordial isotopes) produced in
Big Bang nucleosynthesis. A small amount of both 6Li and 7Li are produced in stars, but are
thought to be burned as fast as it is produced.[26] Additional small amounts of lithium of
both 6Li and 7Li may be generated from solar wind, cosmic rays, and early solar system 7Be
and 10Be radioactive decay.[27] 7Li can also be generated in carbon stars.[28]
Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes,[29]
including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), metabolism, and ion exchange.
Lithium ions substitute for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals, where
6
Li is preferred to 7Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of
hyperfiltration and rock alteration. The exotic 11Li is known to exhibit a nuclear halo.
Lithium 5
Natural occurrence
According to theory, the stable
isotopes 6Li and 7Li were
created in the Big Bang, but
the amounts are unclear.
Lithium is a fusion fuel in main
sequence stars, and there is
general agreement that there
were larger amounts of
lithium in the past than the
cosmos contains today.
Because of the method by
which elements are built up by
fusion in stars, there is a
general trend in the cosmos
Lithium is about as common as chlorine in the Earth's upper
that the lighter elements are continental crust, on a per-atom basis.
more common. However,
lithium (element number 3) is tied with krypton as the 32nd/33rd most abundant element in
the cosmos (see Cosmochemical Periodic Table of the Elements in the Solar System), being
less common than any element between carbon (element 6) and scandium (element 21). It
is not until atomic number 36 (krypton) and beyond that chemical elements are found to be
universally less common in the cosmos than lithium. The reasons have to do with the failure
of any good mechanisms to synthesize lithium in the fusion reactions between nuclides in
supernovae. Due to the absence of any quasi-stable nuclide with five nucleons, nuclei of
lithium-5 produced from helium and a proton has no time to fuse with a second proton or
neutron to form a six nucleon isotope which might decay to lithium-6, even under extreme
conditions of bombardment. Also, the product of helium-helium fusion (berylium-8) is
immediately unstable toward disintegration to helium again, and is thus not available for
formation of lithium. Some lithium-7 is formed in the pp III branch of the proton-proton
chain in main sequence and red giant stars, but it is normally consumed by lithium burning
as fast as it is formed. This leaves new formation of the stable isotopes lithium 6 and 7 to
rare cosmic ray spallation on carbon or other elements in cosmic dust. Meanwhile, existing
Li-6 and Li-7 is destroyed in many nuclear reactions in supernovae and by lithium burning
in main sequence stars, resulting in net removal of lithium from the cosmos. In turn the
destruction of lithium isotopes is due to their very low energy of binding per nucleon with
regard to all other nuclides save deuterium (also destroyed in stars) and helium-3.[30] This
low energy of binding encourages breakup of lithium in favor of more tightly-bound
nuclides under thermonuclear reaction conditions.
Lithium is widely distributed on Earth but does not naturally occur in elemental form due to
its high reactivity.[15] Estimates for crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight.[24]
In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks, with the largest
concentrations in granites. Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of
lithium-containing minerals, with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially
viable sources.[24] A newer source for lithium is hectorite clay, the only active development
of which is through Western Lithium Corp. in the USA. [31]
Lithium 6
According to the Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium, "Lithium is a comparatively

rare element, although it is found in many rocks and some brines, but always in very low
concentrations. There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits
but only comparatively a few of them are of actual or potential commercial value. Many are
[32]
very small, others are too low in grade." At 0.00002 kg lithium per kg of Earth's crust
[33]
, lithium is the 25th most abundant element. Nickel and lead have the about the same
abundance.
The largest reserve base of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia, which has 5.4
million tons. According to the US Geological Survey, the production and reserves of lithium
in metric tons are as follows[34] :
Country 2008 Mine Production (est) Reserves Reserve Base
Argentina 3200 Not Available Not Available
Australia 6900 170,000 220,000
Bolivia None None 5,400,000
Brazil 180 190,000 910,000
Canada 710 180,000 360,000
Chile 12,000 3,000,000 3,000,000
China 3,500 540,000 1,100,000
Portugal 570 Not Available Not Available
United States of America Withheld 38,000 410,000
Zimbabwe 300 23,000 27,000
World Total 27,400 4,100,000 11,000,000
Contrary to the USGS data above, other estimates put Chile's reserve base at 7,520,000
metric tons of lithium, and Argentina's at 6,000,000 metric tons.[35]
Seawater contains an estimated 230 billion tons of lithium, though at a low concentration of
0.1 to 0.2 ppm.[36]
Major applications of the metal

Because of its specific heat capacity, the highest of all solids, lithium is often used in heat
transfer applications.
In the latter years of the 20th century lithium became important as an anode material. Used
in lithium-ion batteries because of its high electrochemical potential, a typical cell can
generate approximately 3 volts, compared with 1.5 volts for lead/acid or zinc cells. Because
of its low atomic mass, it also has a high charge- and power-to-weight ratio.
Lithium is also used in the pharmaceutical and fine-chemical industry in the manufacture of
organolithium reagents, which are used both as strong bases and as reagents for the
formation of carbon carbon bonds. Organolithiums are also used in polymer synthesis as
catalysts/initiators[37] in anionic polymerisation of unfunctionalised olefins.[38] [39] [40]
Lithium 7
Medical use
Lithium salts were used during the 19th century to treat gout. Lithium salts such as lithium
carbonate (Li2CO3), lithium citrate, and lithium orotate are mood stabilizers. They are used
in the treatment of bipolar disorder since, unlike most other mood altering drugs, they
counteract both mania and depression. Lithium can also be used to augment
antidepressants. Because of Lithium's nephrogenic diabetes insipidus effects, it can be used
to help treat the syndrome of inappropriate diuretic hormone (SIADH). It was also
sometimes prescribed as a preventive treatment for migraine disease and cluster
headaches.[41]
The active principle in these salts is the lithium ion Li+. Although this ion has a smaller
diameter than either Na+ or K+, in a watery environment like the cytoplasmic fluid, Li+
binds to the hydrogen atoms of water, making it effectively larger than either Na+ or K+
ions. How Li+ works in the CNS is still a matter of debate. Li+ elevates brain levels of
tryptophan, 5-HT (serotonin), and 5-HIAA (a serotonin metabolite). Serotonin is related to
mood stability. Li+ also reduces catecholamine activity in the brain (associated with brain
activation and mania), by enhancing reuptake and reducing release. Therapeutically useful
amounts of lithium (~ 0.6 to 1.2 mmol/l) are only slightly lower than toxic amounts
(>1.5 mmol/l), so the blood levels of lithium must be carefully monitored during treatment
to avoid toxicity.
Common side effects of lithium treatment include muscle tremors, twitching, ataxia[42] and
hypothyroidism. Long term use is linked to hyperparathyroidism[43] , hypercalcemia (bone
loss), hypertension, kidney damage, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (polyuria and
polydipsia), seizures[44] and weight gain.[45] Some of the side-effects are a result of the
increased elimination of potassium.
There appears to be an increased risk of Ebstein (cardiac) Anomaly in infants born to
women taking lithium during the first trimester of pregnancy.
According to a study in 2009 at Oita University in Japan and published in the British Journal
of Psychiatry, communities whose water contained larger amounts of lithium had
significantly lower suicide rates[46] [47] [48] [49] but did not address whether lithium in
drinking water causes the negative side effects associated with higher doses of the
element.[50]
Lithium 8
Other uses
• Electrical and electronic uses:
• Lithium batteries are disposable (primary) batteries with lithium
metal or lithium compounds as an anode. Lithium batteries are not to
be confused with lithium-ion batteries, which are high energy-density
rechargeable batteries. Other rechargeable batteries include the
Lithium-ion polymer battery, Lithium iron phosphate battery, and the
Nanowire battery. New technologies are constantly being announced.
• Lithium niobate is used extensively in telecommunication products
such as mobile phones and optical modulators, for such components
as resonant crystals. Lithium applications are used in more than 60
percent of mobile phones.[51]
• Chemical uses:
• Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are extremely hygroscopic and
The red lithium
are used as desiccants.
flame leads to
• Lithium metal is used in the preparation of organo-lithium Lithium's use in
compounds. flares and
• General engineering: pyrotechnics
• Lithium stearate is a common all-purpose, high-temperature lubricant.

• When used as a flux for welding or soldering, lithium promotes the fusing of metals
during and eliminates the forming of oxides by absorbing impurities. Its fusing quality
is also important as a flux for producing ceramics, enamels and glass.
• Alloys of the metal with aluminium, cadmium, copper and manganese are used to make
high-performance aircraft parts (see also Lithium-aluminium alloys).
• Optics:
• Lithium is sometimes used in focal lenses, including spectacles and the glass for the
200-inch (5.08 m) telescope at Mt. Palomar.
• The high non-linearity of lithium niobate also makes it useful in non-linear optics
applications.
• Lithium fluoride, artificially grown as crystal, is clear and transparent and often used
in specialist optics for IR, UV and VUV (vacuum UV) applications. It has the lowest
refractive index and the farthest transmission range in the deep UV of all common
materials.
• Rocketry:
• Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides, such a Li[AlH4], are used as high energy
additives to rocket propellants[3].
• Lithium peroxide, lithium nitrate, lithium chlorate and lithium perchlorate are used as
oxidizers in rocket propellants, and also in oxygen candles that supply submarines and
space capsules with oxygen.[52]
• Nuclear applications:
• Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb.
When bombarded by neutrons, both 6Li and 7Li produce tritium—this reaction, which
was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for
the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test. Tritium fuses with deuterium in a
Lithium 9
fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret,
lithium-6 deuteride still apparently plays a role in modern nuclear weapons, as a fusion
material.
• Lithium fluoride (highly enriched in the common isotope lithium-7) forms the basic
constituent of the preferred fluoride salt mixture (LiF-BeF2) used in liquid-fluoride
nuclear reactors. Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF/BeF2
mixtures have low melting points and the best neutronic properties of fluoride salt
combinations appropriate for reactor use.
• In conceptualized nuclear fusion power plants, Lithium will be used to produce tritium
in magnetically confined reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel. Tritium does
not occur naturally and will be produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a
'blanket' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium reaction in the
plasma will react with the lithium to produce more tritium. 6Li + n → 4He + 3H.
Various means of doing this will be tested at the ITER reactor being built at
Cadarache, France.
• Lithium is used as a source for alpha particles, or helium nuclei. When 7Li is
bombarded by accelerated protons 8Be is formed, which undergoes spontaneous
fission to form two alpha particles. This was the first man-made nuclear reaction,
produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1929.
• Other uses:
• Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is an important compound of lithium obtained from lithium
carbonate (Li2CO3). It is a strong base, and when heated with a fat it produces a
lithium soap. Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils and is used to manufacture
lubricating greases.
• Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are used in confined areas, such as aboard
spacecraft and submarines, for air purification. Lithium hydroxide absorbs carbon
dioxide from the air by reacting with it to form lithium carbonate, and is preferred over
other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight. Lithium peroxide (Li2O2) in presence of
moisture not only absorbs carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate, but also releases
oxygen. For example 2 Li2O2 + 2 CO2 → 2 Li2CO3 + O2.
• Lithium compounds are used in red fireworks and flares.
• The Mark 50 Torpedo Stored Chemical Energy Propulsion System (SCEPS) uses a
small tank of sulfur hexafluoride gas which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium. The
reaction generates enormous heat which is used to generate steam from seawater. The
steam propels the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle.[53]
Lithium 10
Production and world supply

Since the end of World War II
lithium metal production has
greatly increased. The metal is
separated from other elements
in igneous minerals such as
those above. Lithium salts are
extracted from the water of
mineral springs, brine pools
and brine deposits.
The metal is produced

electrolytically from a mixture
of fused lithium and potassium
chloride. In 1998 it was about
US$ 43 per pound ($95 per Lithium mine, Salar del Hombre Muerto, Argentina. The brine in this
kg).[54] salar is rich in lithium, and the mine concentrates the brine by
pumping it into solar evaporation ponds. 2009 image from NASA’s
Deposits of lithium are found EO-1 satellite.
in South America throughout
the Andes mountain chain. Chile is the leading lithium metal producer, followed by
Argentina. Both countries recover the lithium from brine pools. In the United States lithium
is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.[55]
Nearly half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia, a nation sitting along the
central eastern slope of the Andes. In 2009 Bolivia is negotiating with Japanese and French
firms to begin extraction.[56] According to the US Geological Survey, Bolivia's Uyuni Desert
has 5.4 million tons of lithium, which can be used to make batteries for hybrid and electric
vehicles.[56] This is the largest amount of lithium in any country, compared to Chile's 3
million tons and the United States's 760,000 tons.[56] [57]
China may emerge as a significant producer of brine-source lithium carbonate around 2010.
There is potential production of up to 55,000 tons per year if projects in Qinghai province
and Tibet proceed.[58]
The total amount of lithium recoverable from global reserves has been estimated at 35
million tonnes, which includes 15 million tons of the known global lithium reserve base.[59]
In 1976 a National Research Council Panel estimated lithium resources at 10.6 million tons
for the Western World.[60] With the inclusion of Russian and Chinese resources as well as
new discoveries in Australia, Serbia, Argentina and the United States, the total had nearly
tripled by 2008.[61] [62]
Lithium 11
Precautions
Due to its alkaline tarnish, lithium metal is corrosive
and requires special handling to avoid skin contact.
Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds (which are
often alkaline) initially irritate the nose and throat,
while higher exposure can cause a buildup of fluid in
the lungs, leading to pulmonary edema. The metal itself
is a handling hazard because of the caustic hydroxide
produced when it is in contact with moisture. Lithium is
safely stored in non-reactive compounds such as
Lithium ingots with a thin layer of
naphtha.[63]
black oxide tarnish
Regulation
Some jurisdictions limit the sale of lithium batteries, which are the most readily available
source of lithium metal for ordinary consumers. Lithium can be used to reduce
pseudoephedrine and ephedrine to methamphetamine in the Birch reduction method, which
employs solutions of alkali metals dissolved in anhydrous ammonia.
Carriage and shipment of some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard certain
types of transportation (particularly aircraft) because of the ability of most types of lithium
batteries to fully discharge very rapidly when short-circuited, leading to overheating and
possible explosion in a process called thermal runaway. Most consumer lithium batteries
have thermal overload protection built-in to prevent this type of incident, or their design
inherently limits short-circuit currents. Internal shorts have been known to develop due to
manufacturing defects or damage to batteries that can lead to spontaneous thermal
runaway.[64]
See also
• Lithium compounds
• Lithium-based grease
• Dilithium
External links
• International Lithium Alliance [65]
[66]
• USGS: Lithium Statistics and Information
• WebElements.com – Lithium [67]
• It's Elemental – Lithium [68]
• University of Southampton, Mountbatten Centre for International Studies, Nuclear
History Working Paper No5. [69]
Lithium 12
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[46] " Lithium in drinking water may boost mood (http:/ / www. upi. com/ Science_News/ 2009/ 05/ 01/
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International). May 1, 2009 at 11:41 PM. . Retrieved 2009-05-02.
[47] Alleyne, Richard (10:01AM BST 01 May 2009). " Natural levels of lithium in drinking water help reduce
suicides (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ health/ healthnews/ 5251365/
Natural-levels-of-lithium-in-drinking-water-help-reduce-suicides. html)". Health: Health News (Telegraph). .
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[60] R.K. Evans (1978). Lithium Reserves and Resources, Energy, Vol 3. Pergamon Press.
[61] R.K. Evans (2008). " An Abundance of Lithium (http:/ / www. worldlithium. com/ Abstract. html)". . Retrieved
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[62] R.K. Evans (2008). " An Abundance of Lithium Part 2 (http:/ / www. worldlithium. com/
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[63] A. Keith Furr. (2000). CRC handbook of laboratory safety (http:/ / books. google. de/
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[64] Samuel C. Levy and Per Bro. (1994). Battery hazards and accident prevention (http:/ / books. google. de/
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Beryllium 1
Beryllium
lithium ← beryllium → boron -
↑
Be
↓
Mg

4Be
Periodic table
Appearance white-gray metallic

pointHeat of fusionHeat of vaporizationSpecific heat capacityVapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1462 1608 1791 2023 2327 2742
Atomic properties Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energies

(more) 2nd: 1757.1 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 14848.7 kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radius
Beryllium 2
Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingThermal conductivityThermal

expansionSpeed of sound (thin rod) Young's modulusShear modulusBulk modulusPoisson
ratioMohs hardnessVickers hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS registry number Most stable
isotopes Main article: Isotopes of beryllium
7 trace 53.12 d ε 0.862 7

Be Li
γ 0.477 -
9 100% 9
Be Be is stable with 5 neutron
10 trace 0.556
1.51×106 y β− 10
Be B
beryllium, Be, 4 alkaline earth metal2, 2, s9.012182(3) g·mol−1 1s2 2s2 2, 2 (Image) solid
1.85 g·cm−3 1.690 g·cm−3 1560 K,1287 °C,2349 °F 2742 K,2469 °C,4476 °F 7.895 kJ·mol−1
297 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 16.443 J·mol−1·K−1 3,[1] 2, 1[2]
(amphoteric oxide) 1.57 (Pauling scale) 1st: 899.5 kJ·mol−1112 pm96±3 pm hexagonal
diamagnetic (300 K) 200 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 11.3 µm·m−1·K−1 (r.t.) 12870[3] m·s−1 287 GPa
132 GPa 130 GPa 0.032 5.5 1670 MPa 600 MPa 7440-41-7
Beryllium (pronounced /bəˈrɪliəm/) is the chemical

element with the symbol Be and atomic number 4.
A bivalent element, beryllium is found naturally only
combined with other elements in minerals. Notable
gemstones which contain beryllium include Beryl
(aquamarines and emeralds) and Chrysoberyl
(Alexandrite and Cat's eye). The free element is a
steel-grey, strong, lightweight brittle alkaline earth
metal. It is primarily used as a hardening agent in
alloys, notably beryllium copper. Structurally,
beryllium's very low density (1.85 times that of water),
high melting point (1278 °C), high temperature
stability, and low coefficient of thermal expansion,
make it in many ways an ideal aerospace material, and
it has been used in rocket nozzles and is a significant
Beryllium, crystalline fragment
component of planned space telescopes. Because of its
relatively high transparency to X-rays and other
ionizing radiation types, beryllium also has a number of uses as filters and windows for
radiation and particle physics experiments.
Commercial use of beryllium metal presents technical challenges due to the toxicity
(especially by inhalation) of beryllium-containing dusts. Beryllium produces a direct
corrosive effect to tissue, and can cause a chronic life-threatening allergic disease called
berylliosis in susceptible persons.
Beryllium is a relatively rare element in both the Earth and the universe, because it is not
formed in conventional stellar nucleosynthesis, but rather during the Big Bang, and later
from the action of cosmic rays on interstellar dust. The element is not known to be
necessary or useful for either plant or animal life.
Beryllium 3
History
Beryllium was discovered by Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin in 1798 as a component of beryl and
in emeralds. Friedrich Wöhler[4] and Antoine Bussy independently isolated the metal in
1828 by reacting potassium and beryllium chloride. Beryllium's chemical similarity to
aluminum was probably why beryllium was missed in previous searches.[5]
Etymology
The name beryllium comes from the Greek βήρυλλος, bērullos, beryl, from Prakrit veruliya,
from Pāli veḷuriya; ] veḷiru or, viḷar, "to become pale," in reference to the pale semiprecious
gemstone beryl.[6] For about 160 years, beryllium was also known as glucinium (with the
accompanying chemical symbol "Gl"[7] ), the name coming from the Greek word for sweet,
due to the sweet taste of its salts.
Characteristics
Physical
Beryllium has one of the highest melting points of the light metals. It has exceptional elastic
rigidity (Young’s modulus 316 GPa). The modulus of elasticity of beryllium is approximately
50% greater than that of steel. The combination of this modulus plus beryllium's relatively
low density gives it an unusually fast sound conduction speed at standard conditions (about
12.9 km/s). Other significant properties are the high values for specific heat (1925 J/kg·K)
and thermal conductivity (216 W/m·K), which make beryllium the metal with the best heat
dissipation characteristics per unit weight. In combination with the relatively low
coefficient of linear thermal expansion (11.4 × 10−6 K−1), these characteristics ensure that
beryllium demonstrates a unique degree of dimensional stability under conditions of
thermal loading.[8]
At standard temperature and pressures beryllium resists oxidation when exposed to air (its
ability to scratch glass is due to the formation of a thin layer of the hard oxide BeO). It
resists corrosion by concentrated nitric acid.[9]
Nuclear
Beryllium has a large scattering cross section for high energy neutrons, thus effectively
slowing the neutrons to the thermal energy range where the cross section is low (0.008
barn). The predominant beryllium isotope 9Be also undergoes a (n,2n) neutron reaction to
8
Be, i.e. beryllium is a neutron multiplier, releasing more neutrons than it absorbs.
Beryllium is highly permeable to X-rays, and neutrons are liberated when it is hit by alpha
particles.[8]
Beryllium 4
Isotopes
Of beryllium's isotopes, only 9Be is
stable and the others are relatively
unstable or rare. It is thus a
mononuclidic element.
Cosmogenic 10Be is produced in
the atmosphere by cosmic ray
spallation of oxygen and nitrogen.
Cosmogenic 10Be accumulates at
the soil surface, where its
relatively long half-life (1.51
million years) permits a long
residence time before decaying to
10
B. Thus, 10Be and its daughter Plot showing variations in solar activity, including variation in
10
Be concentration. Note that the beryllium scale is inverted, so
products have been used to
increases on this scale indictate lower beryllium-10 levels
examine soil erosion, soil
formation from regolith, the
development of lateritic soils, as well as variations in solar activity and the age of ice cores.
Solar activity is inversely correlated with Be-10 production, because solar-wind decreases
flux of galactic cosmic rays which reach Earth.
Beryllium-10 is also formed in nuclear explosions by a reaction of fast neutrons with 13C in
the carbon dioxide in air, and is one of the historical indicators of past activity at nuclear
test sites.[10]
The fact that 7Be and 8Be are unstable has profound cosmological consequences as it
means that elements heavier than beryllium could not be produced by nuclear fusion in the
Big Bang, since there was insufficient time during the nucleosynthesis phase of the Big
Bang expansion to produce carbon by fusion of 4He nuclei and the relatively low
concentrations of 8Be available because of its short half-life. Astronomer Fred Hoyle first
showed that the energy levels of 8Be and 12C allow carbon production by the triple-alpha
process in helium-fueled stars where more synthetic time is available, thus making life
possible from the supernova "ash" from these stars. (See also Big Bang nucleosynthesis).[11]
7
Be decays by electron capture, therefore its decay rate is dependent upon its electron
configuration - a rare occurrence in nuclear decay.[12]
The shortest-lived known isotope of beryllium is 13Be which decays through neutron
emission. It has a half-life of 2.7 × 10−21 second. 6Be is also very short-lived with a half-life
of 5.0 × 10−21 second.[13]
11 14
The exotic isotopes Be and Be are known to exhibit a nuclear halo.[14]
Chemical
Beryllium has the electronic configuration [He]2s2. In its chemistry Beryllium exhibits the
+2 oxidation state and the only evidence of lower valence of beryllium is in the solubility of
the metal in BeCl2.[15] The small atomic radius ensures that the Be2+ ion would be highly
polarizing leading to significant covalent character in beryllium's bonding.[16] Beryllium is 4
coordinate in complexes e.g. [Be(H2O)4]2+ and tetrahaloberyllates, BeX2−4. This
characteristic is used in analytical techniques using EDTA as a ligand which preferentially
Beryllium 5
forms octahedral complexes - thus absorbing other cations such as Al3+ which might
interfere, for example in the solvent extraction of a complex formed between Be2+ and
acetylacetone.[17]
Beryllium metal sits above aluminium in the electrochemical series and would be expected
to be a reactive metal, however it is passivated by an oxide layer and does not react with air
or water even at red heat.[16] Once ignited however beryllium burns brilliantly forming a
mixture of beryllium oxide and beryllium nitride.[16] Beryllium dissolves readily in
non-oxidising acids, such as HCl and H2SO4, but not in nitric as this forms the oxide and
this behaviour is similar to that of aluminium metal. Beryllium, again similarly to
aluminium, dissolves in warm alkali to form the beryllate anion, Be(OH)2−4, and hydrogen
gas. The solutions of salts, e.g. beryllium sulfate and beryllium nitrate are acidic because of
hydrolysis of the [Be(H2O)4]2+ ion; for example
[Be(H2O)4]2+ + H2O [Be(H2O)3(OH)]+ + H3O+
Compounds
Beryllium forms binary compounds with many non-metals. Beryllium hydride is an
amorphous white solid believed to be built from corner-sharing {BeH4} tetrahedra.[18]
All four anhydrous halides are known. BeF2 has a silica-like structure with corner-shared
BeF4 tetrahedra. BeCl2 and BeBr2 have chain structures with edge-shared tetrahedra.[16]
They all have linear monomeric gas phase forms.[16]
Beryllium oxide, BeO, is a white, high-melting-point solid, which has the wurtzite structure
with a thermal conductivity as high as some metals.[16] BeO is amphoteric. Beryllium
hydroxide, Be(OH)2 has low solubility in water and is amphoteric.[16] Salts of beryllium can
be produced by reacting Be(OH)2 with acid.
Beryllium sulfide, selenide and telluride all have the zincblende structure.[15]
Beryllium nitride, Be3N2 is a high-melting-point compound which is readily hydrolysed.[15]
Beryllium azide, BeN6 is known and beryllium phosphide, Be3P2 has a similar structure to
Be3N2.[15]
A number of beryllium borides are known, Be5B, Be4B, Be2B, BeB2, BeB6, BeB12.[15]
Beryllium carbide, Be2C, is a high melting, brick red compound that reacts with water to
give methane.[15] No beryllium silicide has been identified.[16]
Basic beryllium nitrate and basic beryllium acetate have similar tetrahedral structures with
four beryllium atoms coordinated to a central oxide ion.[15]
Occurrence
The beryllium content of the earth’s surface rocks is ca. 4 - 6 ppm. Beryllium is a
constituent of about 100 out of about 4000 known minerals, the most important of which
are bertrandite (Be4Si2O7(OH)2), beryl (Al2Be3Si6O18), chrysoberyl (Al2BeO4), and
phenakite (Be2SiO4). Precious forms of beryl are aquamarine, bixbite and emerald.[8]
Production
Because of its high affinity for oxygen at elevated temperatures and its ability to reduce
water when its oxide film is removed, the extraction of beryllium from its compounds is very
difficult. Although electrolysis of a fused mixture of beryllium and sodium fluorides was
Beryllium 6
used to isolate the element in the nineteenth century, the metal's high melting point makes
this process more energy intensive than the corresponding production of alkali metals.
Early in the twentieth century, the production of beryllium by the thermal decomposition of
beryllium iodide was investigated following the success of a similar process for the
[19]
production of zirconium, but this proved to be uneconomic for volume production.
Beryllium metal did not become readily available until 1957. Currently, most is produced by
reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium metal. The price on the US market for
vacuum-cast beryllium ingots was 338 US$ per pound ($745/kg) in 2001.[20]
BeF2 + Mg → MgF2 + Be
Applications
Radiation windows
Because of its low atomic number and very
low absorption for X-rays, the oldest and
still one of the most important applications
of beryllium is in radiation windows for
X-ray tubes. Extreme demands are placed
on purity and cleanliness of Be to avoid
artefacts in the X-ray images. Thin
beryllium foils are used as radiation
Beryllium target which "converts" a windows for X-ray detectors, and the
proton beam into a neutron beam
extremely low absorption minimizes the
heating effects caused by high intensity,
low energy X-rays typical of synchrotron
radiation. Vacuum-tight windows and
beam-tubes for radiation experiments on
synchrotrons are manufactured exclusively
from beryllium. In scientific setups for
various X-ray emission studies (e.g.,
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) the
sample holder is usually made of beryllium
because its emitted X-rays have much
lower energies (~100 eV) than X-rays from
most studied materials.[8]
Because of its low atomic number beryllium

is almost transparent to energetic particles.
A square beryllium foil mounted in a steel case to be
used as a window between a vacuum chamber and an Therefore it is used to build the beam pipe
X-ray microscope. Beryllium, due to its low Z number around the collision region in collider
is highly transparent to X-rays. particle physics experiments. Notably all
four main detector experiments at the
Large Hadron Collider accelerator (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, LHCb) use a beryllium beam-pipe.
Also many high-energy particle physics collision experiments such as the Large Hadron
Collider, the Tevatron, the SLAC and others contain beam pipes made of beryllium.
Beryllium's low density allows collision products to reach the surrounding detectors without
Beryllium 7
significant interaction, its stiffness allows a powerful vacuum to be produced within the
pipe to minimize interaction with gases, its thermal stability allows it to function correctly
at temperatures of only a few degrees above absolute zero, and its diamagnetic nature
keeps it from interfering with the complex multipole magnet systems used to steer and
[21]
focus the particle beams.
Mechanical
Due to its stiffness, light weight, and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range,
beryllium metal is used for lightweight structural components in the defense and aerospace
industries in high-speed aircraft, missiles, space vehicles and communication satellites.
Several liquid-fueled rockets use nozzles of pure beryllium,[22] [23]
Beryllium is used as an alloying agent in the production of beryllium copper, which contains
up to 2.5% beryllium. Beryllium-copper alloys are used in many applications because of
their combination of high electrical and thermal conductivity, high strength and hardness,
nonmagnetic properties, along with good corrosion and fatigue resistance. These
applications include the making of spot-welding electrodes, springs, non-sparking tools and
electrical contacts.
Beryllium was also used in Jason pistols which were used to strip paint from the hulls of
ships. In this case, beryllium was alloyed to copper and used as a hardening agent.[24]
The excellent elastic rigidity of beryllium has led to its extensive use in precision
instrumentation, e.g. in gyroscope inertial guidance systems, and in support structures for
optical systems.[8]
Beryllium mirrors are a field of particular interest. Large-area mirrors, frequently with a
honeycomb support structure, are used, for example, in meteorological satellites where low
weight and long-term dimensional stability are critical. Smaller beryllium mirrors are used
in optical guidance systems and in fire control systems, e.g. in the German Leopard I and II
main battle tanks. In these systems, very rapid movement of the mirror is required which
again dictates low mass and high rigidity. Usually the beryllium mirror is coated with hard
electroless nickel which can be more easily polished to a finer optical finish than beryllium.
In some applications, though, the beryllium blank is polished without any coating. This is
particularly applicable to cryogenic operation where thermal expansion mismatch can
cause the coating to buckle.[8]
The James Webb Space Telescope[25] will have 18 hexagonal beryllium sections for its
mirrors. Because JWST will face a temperature of 33 degrees K, the mirror is made of
beryllium, capable of handling extreme cold better than glass. Beryllium contracts and
deforms less than glass — and remains more uniform — in such temperatures.[26] For the
same reason, the optics of the Spitzer Space Telescope are entirely built of beryllium
metal.[27]
An earlier major application of beryllium was in brakes for military aircraft because of its
hardness, high melting point and exceptional heat dissipation. Environmental
considerations have led to substitution by other materials.[8]
Cross-rolled beryllium sheet is an excellent structural support for printed circuit boards in
surface mounted technology. In critical electronic applications, beryllium is both a
structural support and heat sink. The application also requires a coefficient of thermal
expansion that is well matched to the alumina and polyimide-glass substrates. The
beryllium-beryllium oxide composite “E-Materials” have been specially designed for these
Beryllium 8
electronic applications and have the additional advantage that the thermal expansion
coefficient can be tailored to match diverse substrate materials.[8]
Magnetic
• Due to its non-magnetic properties, Beryllium-based tools are often used by military
naval EOD-personnel when working on or around sea-mines, as these often have fuses
that detonate on direct magnetic contact or when influenced by a magnetic field.
• Beryllium-based tools are used for maintenance and construction near MRI scanners.
Magnetic tools would be pulled by the scanner's strong magnetic field. Apart from being
difficult to remove once magnetic items are stuck in the scanner, the missile-effect can
have dangerous consequences.
• In the telecommunications industry, tools made of beryllium are used to tune the highly
magnetic klystrons used for high power microwave applications.
Nuclear
• Beryllium is used in nuclear weapon designs as the outer layer of the pit of the primary
stage, surrounding the fissile material. It is a good pusher for implosion, and a very good
neutron reflector, as in Beryllium moderated reactors.[28]
• Beryllium is sometimes used in neutron sources, in which the beryllium is mixed with an
alpha emitter such as 210Po, 226Ra, 239Pu or 241Am.[28]
• Beryllium is used in the Joint European Torus fusion research facility and will be used in
ITER, to condition the plasma facing components.[29]
• Beryllium has also been proposed as a cladding material for nuclear fuel, due to its
combination of mechanical, chemical, and nuclear properties.[8]
Acoustics
• Beryllium's characteristics (low weight and high rigidity) make it useful as a material for
high-frequency drivers. Until recently, most beryllium tweeters used an alloy of beryllium
and other metals due to beryllium's high cost and difficulty to form. These challenges,
coupled with the high performance of beryllium, caused some manufacturers to falsely
claim using pure beryllium.[30] Some high-end audio companies manufacture pure
beryllium tweeters or speakers using these tweeters. Because beryllium is many times
more expensive than titanium, hard to shape due to its brittleness, and toxicity if
mishandled, these tweeters are limited to high-end and public address applications.[31]
[32] [33]
Electronic
• Beryllium is an effective p-type dopant in III-V compound semiconductors. It is widely
used in materials such as GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs, and InAlAs grown by molecular beam
epitaxy (MBE).[34]
• Beryllium oxide is useful for many applications that require the combined properties of
an electrical insulator an excellent heat conductor, with high strength and hardness, with
a very high melting point. Beryllium oxide is frequently used as an insulator base plate in
high-power transistors in RF transmitters for telecommunications. Beryllium oxide is also
being studied for use in increasing the thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide nuclear
fuel pellets.[35]
Beryllium 9
• Beryllium compounds were once used in fluorescent lighting tubes, but this use was
discontinued because of berylliosis in the workers manufacturing the tubes.[36]
Toxicity
According to the International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC), beryllium and beryllium compounds are
Category 1 carcinogens; they are carcinogenic to both
animals and humans.[37] Chronic berylliosis is a
pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused
by exposure to beryllium. Acute beryllium disease in the
form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in
Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. Cases
of chronic berylliosis were first described in 1946
Beryllium ore
among workers in plants manufacturing fluorescent
lamps in Massachusetts. Chronic berylliosis resembles
sarcoidosis in many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult. It occasionally
killed early workers in nuclear weapons design, such as Herbert Anderson.[38]
Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in
1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and
in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium-containing alloys, the
manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium-containing
material.
Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order to
verify its presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky
procedure and no attempt should be made to ingest this highly toxic substance. Beryllium
and its compounds should be handled with great care and special precautions must be
taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of beryllium dust
(lung cancer is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium laden dust).
This substance can be handled safely if certain procedures are followed. No attempt should
be made to work with beryllium before familiarization with correct handling procedures.
A successful test for beryllium in air and on surfaces has been recently developed and
published as a international voluntary consensus standard (ASTM D7202; www.astm.org).
The procedure uses dilute ammonium bifluoride for dissolution and fluorescence detection
with beryllium bound to sulfonated hydroxybenzoquinoline, allowing detection up to 100
times lower than the recommended limit for beryllium concentration in the workplace.
Fluorescence increases with increasing beryllium concentration. The new procedure has
been successfully tested on a variety of surfaces and is effective for the dissolution and
ultratrace detection of refractory beryllium oxide and silicious beryllium (ASTM D7458).[39]
Inhalation
Beryllium is harmful if inhaled and the effects depend on period of exposure. If beryllium
concentrations in air are high enough (greater than 100 µg/m³), an acute condition can
result, called acute beryllium disease, which resembles pneumonia. Occupational and
community air standards are effective in preventing most acute lung damage. Long-term
beryllium exposure can increase the risk of developing lung cancer. The more common
Beryllium 10
serious health problem from beryllium today is chronic beryllium disease (CBD), discussed
below. It continues to occur in industries as diverse as metal recycling, dental laboratories,
alloy manufacturing, nuclear weapons production and metal machine shops that work with
alloys containing small amounts of beryllium. A 2008 report from the United States
National Research Council said that worker exposure to beryllium should be kept "at the
lowest feasible level," as the agency's research could not establish any safe level of
exposure.[40]
Chronic beryllium disease (CBD)

Some people (1-15%) are sensitive to beryllium. Sensitization is not an illness, but some of
these individuals, if inhaling sufficient quantities of beryllium dust in the micrometer-size
range, may have an inflammatory reaction that principally targets the respiratory system
and skin. This condition is called chronic beryllium disease (CBD), and can occur within a
few months or many years after exposure to higher-than-normal levels of beryllium (greater
than 0.2 µg/m³). This disease causes fatigue, weakness, night sweats and can cause
difficulty in breathing and a persistent dry cough. It can result in anorexia, weight loss, and
may also lead to right-side heart enlargement and heart disease in advanced cases. Some
people who are sensitized to beryllium may not have symptoms, and just being sensitized is
not a recognized health effect. CBD is treatable, but not curable with traditional drugs and
medicine. CBD occurs when the body's immune system recognizes beryllium particles as
foreign material and mounts an immune system attack against the particles. Because these
particles are typically inhaled into the lungs, the lungs become the major site where the
immune system responds. The lung sacs become inflamed and fill with large numbers of
white blood cells that accumulate wherever beryllium particles are found. These cells form
balls around the beryllium particles called “granulomas.” When enough of these develop,
they interfere with the normal function of the organ. Over time, the lungs become stiff and
lose their ability to help transfer oxygen from the air into the bloodstream. Patients with
CBD develop difficulty inhaling and exhaling sufficient amounts of air, and the amount of
oxygen in their bloodstreams falls. Treatment includes supplemental oxygen and
immunosuppressants (such as prednisone) to lower the body's overreaction to beryllium.
The general population is unlikely to develop acute or chronic beryllium disease because
ambient air levels of beryllium are normally very low (<0.03 ng/m3).[41]
Ingestion
Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little
beryllium is absorbed from the stomach and intestines. Harmful effects have sometimes
been seen in animals ingesting beryllium.[42]
Dermatological effects
Beryllium can cause contact dermatitis. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped
or cut may cause rashes, ulcers, or bumps under the skin called granulomas.[43]
Beryllium 11
Effects on children
There are no studies on the health effects of children exposed to beryllium, although
individual cases of CBD have been reported in children of beryllium workers from the
1940s. It is unknown whether children differ from adults in their susceptibility to beryllium.
It is unclear whether beryllium is teratogenic.[44]
Detection in the body

Beryllium can be measured in the urine and blood. The amount of beryllium in blood or
urine may not indicate time or quantity of exposure. Beryllium levels can also be measured
in lung and skin samples. While such measurements may help establish that exposure has
occurred, other tests are used to determine if that exposure has resulted in health effects. A
blood test, the blood beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (BeLPT), identifies beryllium
sensitization and has predictive value for CBD. The BeLPT has become the standard test for
detecting beryllium sensitization and CBD in individuals who are suspected of having CBD
and to help distinguish it from similar conditions such as sarcoidosis. It is also the main test
used in industry health programs to monitor whether disease is occurring among current
and former workers who have been exposed to beryllium on the job. The test can detect
disease that is at an early stage, or can detect disease at more advanced stages of illness as
well. The BeLPT can also be performed using cells obtained from a person's lung by a
procedure called "bronchoscopy".[45]
Industrial release and occupational exposure limits

Typical levels of beryllium that industries may release into the air are of the order of 0.01
µg/m³, averaged over a 30-day period, or 2 µg/m³ of workroom air for an 8-hour work shift.
Compliance with the current U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
permissible exposure limit for beryllium of 2 µg/m³ has been determined to be inadequate
to protect workers from developing beryllium sensitization and CBD. The American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), which is an independent
organization of experts in the field of occupational health, has proposed a threshold limit
value (TLV) of 0.05 µg/m³ in a 2006 Notice of Intended Change (NIC). This TLV is 40 times
lower than the current OSHA permissible exposure limit, reflecting the ACGIH analysis of
best available peer-reviewed research data concerning how little airborne beryllium is
required to cause sensitization and CBD. Because it can be difficult to control industrial
exposures to beryllium, it is advisable to use any methods possible to reduce airborne and
surface contamination by beryllium, to minimize the use of beryllium and
beryllium-containing alloys whenever possible, and to educate people about the potential
hazards if they are likely to encounter beryllium dust or fumes.[46]
On 29 January 2009, the Los Alamos National Laboratory announced it was notifying nearly
2,000 current and former employees and visitors that they may have been exposed to
beryllium in the lab and may be at risk of disease. Concern over possible exposure to the
material was first raised in November 2008, when a box containing beryllium was received
at the laboratory's short-term storage facility.[47]
Beryllium 12
See also
• Category:Beryllium compounds
• Sucker Bait, a story by Isaac Asimov in which the health hazard of beryllium dust is an
important plot point
References
• Burrell, AK. Ehler, DS. McClesky, TM. Minogue, EM. Taylor, TP. Development of a New
Fluorescence Method for the Detection of Beryllium on Surfaces. Journal of ASTM
International (JAI). 2005. Vol 2: Issue 9. http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/ SoftCart. exe/
JOURNALS/ JAI/ PAGES/ JAI13168. htm?E+ mystore
• Infante PF, Newman LS. "Commentary: Beryllium exposure and Chronic Beryllium
Disease." Lancet 2004; 415-16.
• Newman LS. "Beryllium." Chemical & Engineering News, 2003; 36:38.
• Kelleher PC, Martyny JW, Mroz MM, Maier LA, Ruttenber JA, Young DA, Newman LS.
"Beryllium particulate exposure and disease relations in a beryllium machining plant." J
Occup Environ Med 2001; 43:238-249.
• Mroz MM, Balkissoon R, Newman LS. "Beryllium." In: Bingham E, Cohrssen B, Powell C
(eds.) Patty’s Toxicology, Fifth Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons 2001, 177-220.
• Beryllium and Compounds: TLV Chemical Substances Draft Documentation, Notice of
Intended Change ACGIH Publication #7NIC-042
External links
• ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Beryllium Toxicity [48] U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services
• WebElements.com – Beryllium [49]
• It's Elemental – Beryllium [50]
• National Pollutant Inventory - Beryllium and compounds [51]
• MSDS: ESPI Metals [52]
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Beryllium Page [53]
• Former Worker Medical Screening Program [54], U.S. Department of Energy
• National Supplemental Screening Program (Oak Ridge Associated Universities) [55]
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International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1993. . Retrieved 2008-09-18.
[38] " Photograph of Chicago Pile One Scientists 1946 (http:/ / www. atomicarchive. com/ Photos/ CP1/ image5.
shtml)". Office of Public Affairs, Argonne National Laboratory. 2006-06-19. . Retrieved 2008-09-18.
[39] " ASTM D7458 - 08 (http:/ / www. astm. org/ Standards/ D7458. htm)". American Society for Testing and
Materials. . Retrieved 2009-08-08.
[40] NRC urges minimal Beryllium Exposure, Chemical & Engineering News, 86, 33, 18 Aug. 2008, p. 26
[41] National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Beryllium Alloy Exposures, National Research Council (U.S.).
Committee on Toxicology (2007). Health effects of beryllium exposure (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=xGwF6fXn5rQC& pg=PA11). National Academies Press. p. 11. ISBN 0309111676. .
[42] jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/11/4/371.pdf
[43] Robert L. Rietschel, Joseph F. Fowler, Alexander A. Fisher (2008). Fisher's Contact Dermatitis (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=dQBAzfyCeQ8C& pg=PA651). PMPH-USA. p. 651. ISBN 1550093789. .
[44] John Burke Sullivan, Gary R. Krieger (2001). Clinical environmental health and toxic exposures (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=PyUSgdZUGr4C& pg=PA333). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 333. ISBN
068308027X. .
[45] Philip Witorsch, Samuel V. Spagnolo (1994). Air pollution and lung disease in adults (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=p5-_2rBnQFAC& pg=PA257). CRC Press. p. 257. ISBN 0849301815. .
[46] http:/ / www. ehponline. org/ docs/ 1994/ 102-6-7/ focus. html Environmental Health Perspectives Volume
102, Number 6-7, June-July 1994
[47] beryllium exposure (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2009/ HEALTH/ 01/ 29/ los. alamos. beryllium/ index.
html?eref=rss_us). .
[48] http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ csem/ beryllium/
[49] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ beryllium/
[51] http:/ / www. npi. gov. au/ database/ substance-info/ profiles/ 13. html
[52] http:/ / espi-metals. com/ msds's/ beryllium. pdf
[53] http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ topics/ beryllium/
[54] http:/ / www. hss. energy. gov/ healthsafety/ fwsp/ formerworkermed/
[55] http:/ / www. orau. org/ nssp/

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License
Boron 1
Boron
beryllium ← boron → carbon -
↑
B
↓
Al

5B
Periodic table
Appearance black/brown

shell Physical properties Phase Liquid density at m.p.Melting pointBoiling pointHeat of
fusionHeat of vaporizationSpecific heat capacityVapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

Boron 2
at T/K 2348 2562 2822 3141 3545 4072

Miscellaneous Magnetic orderingElectrical resistivityThermal conductivityThermal
expansionSpeed of sound (thin rod) Mohs hardnessCAS registry number Most stable
isotopes Main article: Isotopes of boron
10 19.9(7)%* 10 [1]
B B is stable with 5 neutron
11 80.1(7)%* 11 [1]
B B is stable with 6 neutron
*Boron-10 content may be as low as 19.1% and as

high as 20.3% in natural samples. Boron-11 is
[2]
the remainder in such cases.
boron, B, 5 metalloid13, 2, p10.811(7) g·mol−1 [He] 2s2 2p1 2, 3 (Image) solid 2.08 g·cm−3
2349 K,2076 °C,3769 °F 4200 K,3927 °C,7101 °F 50.2 kJ·mol−1 480 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 11.087
J·mol−1·K−1 4,[3] 3, 2, 1[4]
(mildly acidic oxide) 2.04 (Pauling scale) 1st: 800.6 kJ·mol−190 pm84±3 pm diamagnetic[5]
(20 °C) ~106Ω·m (300 K) 27.4 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) (ß form) 5–7 [6] µm·m−1·K−1 (20 °C)
16,200 m/s ~9.5 7440-42-8
Boron (pronounced /ˈbɔrɒn/) is the chemical element with atomic number 5 and the
chemical symbol B. Boron is a trivalent metalloid element which occurs abundantly in the
evaporite ores borax and ulexite.
Several allotropes of boron exist: amorphous boron is a brown powder; whereas crystalline
boron is black, extremely hard (9.3 on Mohs' scale), and a poor conductor at room
temperature. Elemental boron is used as a dopant in the semiconductor industry, while
boron compounds play important roles as light structural materials, insecticides and
preservatives, and reagents for chemical synthesis.
Boron is an essential plant nutrient. Whereas lack of boron results in boron deficiency
disorder, high soil concentrations of boron may also be toxic to plants. As an ultratrace
element, boron is necessary for the optimal health of rats and presumably other mammals,
though its physiological role in animals is not yet fully understood.
Boron 3
Characteristics
Allotropes
Boron is similar to carbon in its capability to form stable
covalently bonded molecular networks. Even nominally
disordered (amorphous) boron contains regular boron icosahedra
which are, however, bonded randomly to each other without
long-range order.[7] [8] Crystalline boron is a very hard, black
material with a high melting point of above 2000 °C. It exists in
four major polymorphs: α, ß, γ and T. Whereas α, ß and T phases
are based on B12 icosahedra, the γ-phase can be described as a
rocksalt-type arrangement of the icosahedra and B2 atomic
pairs.[9] It can be produced by compressing other boron phases
to 12-20 GPa and heating to 1500-1800 °C; it remains stable after
releasing the temperature and pressure. The T phase is produced
Amorphous boron at similar pressures, but higher temperatures of 1800-2200 °C.
As to the α and ß phases, they might both coexist at ambient
conditions with the ß phase being more stable.[10] [9] Compressing boron above 160 GPa
produces a boron phase with an as yet unknown structure, and this phase is a
superconductor at temperatures 6-12 K.[11]
Boron phase α ß γ T
Symmetry Rhombohedral Rhombohedral Orthorhombic Tetragonal
[9] 12 ~105 28
Atoms/unit cell
[12] [13] [14] [15] 2.46 2.35 2.52 2.36

Density (g/cm3)
[16] [17] 42 45 50-58

Vickers hardness (GPa)
[17] [18] 185 224 227

Bulk modulus (GPa)
[17] [19] 2 1.6 2.1

Bandgap (eV)
Chemical
Chemically, boron is closer to silicon than to aluminium. Crystalline boron is chemically
inert and resistant to attack by boiling hydrofluoric or hydrochloric acid. When finely
divided, it is attacked slowly by hot concentrated hydrogen peroxide, hot concentrated
nitric acid, hot sulfuric acid or hot mixture of sulfuric and chromic acids.[20] [21]
Oxidation of boron depends upon the crystallinity, particle size, purity and temperature.
Boron does not react with air at room temperature, but at higher temperatures it burns to
form boron trioxide:
4 B + 3 O2 (g) → 2 B2O3 (s)
Boron reacts with sulfur to produce boron sulfide:
2 B + 3 S (g) → B2S3 (s)
The first synthesis was performed by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1824. Another reaction,
starting from boron and hydrogen sulfide, was conducted by Friedrich Wöhler and Henri
Boron 4
Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville and published in 1858.[22] [23]
2 B + 3 H2S → B2S3 (s) + 3 H2

Wöhler and Deville also documented vigorous reactions between boron and the halogens
resulting in boron trichloride, boron trifluoride and boron tribromide.[23] For example:
2 B + 3 Br2 → 2 BBr3
Boron can form compounds whose formal oxidation state is not three, such as B(IV) in
boron carbide BC,[3] B(II) in B2F4,[24] and B(I) in boron fluoride BF.[4] Boron compounds
such as BCl3 behave as electrophiles or Lewis acids in their reactions.[25] Boron is the least
electronegative non-metal.[26]
Isotopes
Boron has two naturally occurring and stable isotopes, 11B (80.1%) and 10B (19.9%). The
mass difference results in a wide range of δ11B values, which are defined as a fractional
difference between the 11B and 10B and traditionally expressed in parts per thousand, in
natural waters ranging from -16 to +59. There are 13 known isotopes of boron, the
shortest-lived isotope is 7B which decays through proton emission and alpha decay. It has a
half-life of 3.5×10−22 s. Isotopic fractionation of boron is controlled by the exchange
reactions of the boron species B(OH)3 and B(OH)4. Boron isotopes are also fractionated
during mineral crystallization, during H2O phase changes in hydrothermal systems, and
during hydrothermal alteration of rock. The latter effect results in preferential removal of
the 10B(OH)4 ion onto clays. It results in solutions enriched in 11B(OH)3 and therefore may
be responsible for the large 11B enrichment in seawater relative to both oceanic crust and
continental crust; this difference may act as an isotopic signature. [27] The exotic 17B
exhibits a nuclear halo, i.e. its radius is appreciably larger than that predicted by the liquid
drop model.[28]
Enriched boron (boron-10)

10
The B isotope is good at
capturing thermal neutrons.
Natural boron is about 20% 10B
and 80%11B. The nuclear
industry enriches natural boron
to nearly pure 10B. The waste
product, or depleted boron, is
nearly pure 11B. 11B is a
candidate as a fuel for
aneutronic fusion and is used
in the semiconductor industry.
Enriched boron or 10B is used
in both radiation shielding and
in boron neutron capture
10
Neutron cross section of boron (top curve is for B and bottom curve
therapy. In the latter, a
for 11B)
compound containing 10B is
attached to a muscle near a
Boron 5
tumor. The patient is then treated with a relatively low dose of thermal neutrons. This
causes energetic and short range alpha radiation from the boron to bombard the tumor.[29]
[30] [31]
In nuclear reactors, 10B is used for reactivity control and in emergency shutdown systems.
It can serve either function in the form of borosilicate control rods or as boric acid. In
pressurized water reactors, boric acid is added to the reactor coolant when the plant is shut
down for refueling. It is then slowly filtered out over many months as fissile material is used
up and the fuel becomes less reactive.[32]
In future manned interplanetary spacecraft, 10B has a theoretical role as structural material
(as boron fibers or BN nanotube material) which would also serve a special role in the
radiation shield. One of the difficulties in dealing with cosmic rays, which are mostly high
energy protons, is that some secondary radiation from interaction of cosmic rays and
spacecraft materials is high energy spallation neutrons. Such neutrons can be moderated
by materials high in light elements such as polyethylene, but the moderated neutrons
continue to be a radiation hazard unless actively absorbed in the shielding. Among light
elements that absorb thermal neutrons, 6Li and 10B appear as potential spacecraft
structural materials which serve both for mechanical reinforcement and radiation
protection.[33]
Depleted boron (boron-11)

Cosmic radiation will produce secondary neutrons if it hits spacecraft structures; and
neutrons cause fission in 10B if it is present in the spacecraft's semiconductors, producing a
gamma ray, an alpha particle, and a lithium ion. The resultant fission products may then
dump charge into nearby semiconductor 'chip' structures, causing data loss (bit flipping, or
single event upset). In radiation hardened semiconductor designs, one countermeasure is to
use depleted boron which is greatly enriched in 11B and contains almost no 10B. 11B is
largely immune to radiation damage. Depleted boron is a by-product of the nuclear
industry.[32]
11
B is also a candidate as a fuel for aneutronic fusion. When struck by a proton with energy
of about 500 keV, it produces three alpha particles and 8.7 MeV of energy. Most other
fusion reactions involving hydrogen and helium produce penetrating neutron radiation,
which weakens reactor structures and induces long term radioactivity thereby endangering
operating personnel. Whereas, the alpha particles from 11B fusion can be turned directly
into electric power, and all radiation stops as soon as the reactor is turned off.[34]
Boron 6
NMR spectroscopy
Both 10B and 11B possess nuclear spin. The nuclear spin of 10B is 3 and that of 11B is 3/2.
These isotopes are, therefore, of use in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy; and
spectrometers specially adapted to detecting the boron-11 nuclei are available
commercially. The 10B and 11B nuclei also cause splitting in the resonances of attached
nuclei.[35]
Occurrence
Boron is a relatively rare element in the Earth's crust,
representing only 0.001%. The worldwide commercial
borate deposits are estimated as 10 million tonnes.[36]
[37]
Turkey and the United States are the world's
[38] [39]
largest producers of boron. Turkey has almost
72% of the world’s boron reserves.[40] Boron does not
appear on Earth in elemental form but is found
A fragment of ulexite combined in borax, boric acid, colemanite, kernite,
ulexite and borates. Boric acid is sometimes found in
volcanic spring waters. Ulexite is a borate mineral; it is
a fibrous crystal where individual fibers can guide light
like optical fibers.[41]
Economically important sources of boron are rasorite

(kernite) and tincal (borax ore). They are both found in
the Mojave Desert of California, but the largest borax
deposits are in Central and Western Turkey including
the provinces of Eskişehir, Kütahya and Balıkesir [42]
[43] [44]
Borax crystals

The name boron originates from the Arabic word buraq
or the Persian word burah;[45] which are names for the
mineral borax.[46]
Boron compounds were known thousands of years ago.
Borax was known from the deserts of western Tibet,
where it received the name of tincal, derived from the
Sanskrit. Borax glazes were used in China from AD300,
and some tincal even reached the West, where the
Arabic alchemist Geber seems to mention it in 700.
Marco Polo brought some glazes back to Italy in the
13th century. Agricola, around 1600, reports its use as
Sassolite
a flux in metallurgy. In 1777, boric acid was recognized
in the hot springs (soffioni) near Florence, Italy, and
Boron 7
became known as sal sedativum, with mainly medical uses. The rare mineral is called
sassolite, which is found at Sasso, Italy. This was the main source of European borax from
1827 to 1872, at which date American sources replaced it.[47] [48]
Boron was not recognized as an element until it was isolated by Sir Humphry Davy, Joseph
Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard in 1808 through the reaction of boric acid and
potassium. Davy called the element boracium.[49] Jöns Jakob Berzelius identified boron as
an element in 1824. The first pure boron was arguably produced by the American chemist
W. Weintraub in 1909.[50] [21]
Production
Pure elemental boron is difficult to extract. The earliest methods involved reduction of boric
oxide with metals such as magnesium or aluminum. However the product is almost always
contaminated with metal borides. Pure boron can be prepared by reducing volatile boron
halides with hydrogen at high temperatures. Ultrapure boron, for the use in semiconductor
industry, is produced by the decomposition of diborane at high temperatures and then
further purified with the zone melting or Czochralski processes.[51]
Isotope enrichment
Because of its high neutron cross-section, boron-10 is often used to control fission in
nuclear reactors as neutron-capturing substance. [52] Several industrial-scale enrichment
processes have been developed, however only the fractionated vacuum distillation of the
dimethyl ether adduct of boron trifluoride (DME-BF3) and column chromatography of
borates are being used. [53]
Market trend
Estimated global consumption of boron rose to a record 1.8 million tonnes of B2O3 in 2005,
following a period of strong growth in demand from Asia, Europe and North America. Boron
mining and refining capacities are considered to be adequate to meet expected levels of
growth through the next decade. The form in which boron is consumed has changed in
recent years. The use of ores like colemanite has declined following concerns over arsenic
content. Consumers have moved towards the use of refined borates and boric acid that
have a lower pollutant content. The average cost of crystalline boron is $5/g.[54]
Increasing demand for boric acid has led a number of producers to invest in additional
capacity. Eti Mine Company of Turkey opened a new boric acid plant with the production
capacity of 100,000 tonnes per year at Emet in 2003. Rio Tinto Group increased the
capacity of its boron plant from 260,000 tonnes per year in 2003 to 310,000 tonnes per year
by May 2005, with plans to grow this to 366,000 tonnes per year in 2006. Chinese boron
producers have been unable to meet rapidly growing demand for high quality borates. This
has led to imports of disodium tetraborate growing by a hundredfold between 2000 and
2005 and boric acid imports increasing by 28% per year over the same period.[55] [56]
The rise in global demand has been driven by high growth rates in fiberglass and
borosilicate production. A rapid increase in the manufacture of reinforcement-grade
fiberglass in Asia with a consequent increase in demand for borates has offset the
development of boron-free reinforcement-grade fiberglass in Europe and the USA. The
recent rises in energy prices may lead to greater use of insulation-grade fiberglass, with
consequent growth in the boron consumption. Roskill Consulting Group forecasts that
Boron 8
world demand for boron will grow by 3.4% per year to reach 21 million tonnes by 2010. The
highest growth in demand is expected to be in Asia where demand could rise by an average
5.7% per year.[55] [57]
Applications
Glass and ceramics

Nearly all boron ore extracted from the Earth is
destined for refinement into boric acid and sodium
tetraborate. In the United States, 70% of the boron is
used for the production of glass and ceramics.[58]
Borosilicate glass, which is typically 12%-15% B2O3,
80% SiO2, and 2% Al2O3, has a low coefficient of
thermal expansion giving it a good resistance to
thermal shock. Duran and Pyrex are two major brand
names for this glass.[59]
Boron filaments are high-strength, lightweight

materials that are chiefly used for advanced aerospace
structures as a component of composite materials, as
well as limited production consumer and sporting goods
such as golf clubs and fishing rods.[60] [61] The fibers
can be produced by chemical vapor deposition of boron
on a tungsten filament.[38] [62]
Boron fibers and sub-millimeter sized crystalline boron Borosilicate glassware. Displayed are
two beakers and a test tube.
springs are produced by laser-assisted chemical vapor
deposition. Translation of the focused laser beam allows
to produce even complex helical structures. Such structures show good mechanical
properties (elastic modulus 450 GPa, fracture strain 3.7 %, fracture stress 17 GPa) and can
be applied as reinforcement of ceramics or in micromechanical systems.[63]
Semiconductor industry
Boron is an important technological dopant for such important semiconductors as silicon,
germanium and silicon carbide. Having one less valence electron than the host atom, it
donates a hole resulting in p-type conductivity. Traditional method of introducing boron
into semiconductors is via its atomic diffusion at high temperatures. This process uses
either solid (B2O3), liquid (BBr3) or gaseous boron sources (B2H6 or BF3). However, after
1970s, it was mostly replaced by ion implantation, which relies mostly on BF3 as a boron
source.[64] Boron trichloride gas is also an important chemical in semiconductor industry,
however not for doping but rather for plasma etching of metals and their oxides.[65]
Boron 9
Engineering materials
Boron carbide, a ceramic material which is obtained by
decomposing B2O3 with carbon in the electric furnace:
2 B2O3 + 7 C → B4C + 6 CO
It is used in tank armor, bulletproof vests, and
numerous other structural applications. Its ability to
absorb neutrons without forming long lived
radionuclides makes the material attractive as an
absorbent for neutron radiation arising in nuclear
power plants. Nuclear applications of boron carbide
include shielding, control rod and shut down pellets.
Boron carbide is used for inner plates Within control rods, boron carbide is often powdered, to
of ballistic vests
increase its surface area.[66]
Magnesium diboride is an important superconducting material with the transition

temperature of 39 K. MgB2 wires are produced with the powder-in-tube process and applied
in superconducting magnets.[67] [68]
Boron is a part of neodymium magnet (Nd2Fe14B), which is the strongest type of permanent
magnet. It is found in all kinds of domestic and professional electromechanical and
electronic devices, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), various motors and
actuators, computer HDDs, CD and DVD players, mobile phones, timer switches, speakers,
etc.[5]
High-hardness compounds
Mechanical properties of BCN solids

Material Diamond cubic-BC2N cubic-BC5 cubic-BN B4C ReB2
Vickers hardness (GPa) 115 76 71 62 38 22
Fracture toughness (MPa 5.3 4.5 9.5 6.8 3.5

m1/2)
Several boron compounds are known for their extreme hardness and toughness, including
• Heterodiamond (also called BCN);
• Boron nitride. This material is isoelectronic to carbon. Similar to carbon, it has both
hexagonal (soft graphite-like h-BN) and cubic (hard, diamond-like c-BN) forms. h-BN is
used as a high temperature component and lubricant. c-BN, also known under
commercial name borazon,[69] is a superior abrasive. Its hardness is only slightly smaller,
but chemical stability is superior to that of diamond.
• Rhenium diboride can be produced at ambient pressures, but is rather expensive because
of rhenium. The hardness of ReB2 exhibits considerable anisotropy because of its
hexagonal layered structure. Its value is comparable to that of tungsten carbide, silicon
carbide, titanium diboride or zirconium diboride.[70]
• AlMgB14 + TiB2 composites possess high hardness and wear resistance and are used in
either bulk form or as coatings for components exposed to high temperatures and wear
loads. [71]
Boron 10
Boron carbide and cubic boron nitride powders are widely used as abrasives. Metal borides
are used for coating tools through chemical vapor deposition or physical vapor deposition.
Implantation of boron ions into metals and alloys, through ion implantation or ion beam
deposition, results in a spectacular increase in surface resistance and microhardness. Laser
alloying has also been successfully used for the same purpose. These borides are an
alternative to diamond coated tools, and their (treated) surfaces have similar properties to
those of the bulk boride. [72]
In chemistry
Sodium tetraborate pentahydrate (Na2B4O7 • 5H2O) is used in large amounts in making
insulating fiberglass and sodium perborate bleach.[73] Sodium tetraborate decahydrate
(Na2B4O7 • 10 H2O) can be found in adhesives and in anti-corrosion systems.[74] Sodium
borates are used as a flux for soldering silver and gold and with ammonium chloride for
welding ferrous metals.[75] They are also fire retarding additives to plastics and rubber
articles.[76] Sodium perborate serves as a source of active oxygen in many detergents,
laundry detergents, cleaning products, and laundry bleaches. It is also present in some
tooth bleaching formulas.[73]
Boric acid (also known as orthoboric acid) H3BO3 is used in the production of textile
fiberglass and flat panel displays.[77] It also has antiseptic, antifungal, and antiviral
properties and for this reasons is applied as a water clarifier in swimming pool water
treatment.[78] Boric acid is also traditionally used as an insecticide, notably against ants,
fleas, and cockroaches.[79]
Triethylborane is a substance which ignites the JP-7
fuel of the Pratt & Whitney J58 turbojet/ramjet engines
powering the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird.[80] It was also
used to ignite the F-1 Engines on the Saturn V Rocket
utilized by NASA's Apollo and Skylab programs from
1967 until 1973. Triethylborane is suitable for this
because of its pyrophoric properties, especially the fact
that it burns with very high temperature.[81]
Triethylborane is an industrial initiator in radical
Navy emergency flare
reactions, where it is effective even at low
temperatures. It is also injected into vapor deposition
reactors as a boron source. Examples are the plasma deposition of boron-containing hard
carbon films, silicon nitride-boron nitride films, and for doping of diamond film with
boron.[82]
Boron compounds show promise in treating arthritis.[83] Because of its distinctive green
flame, amorphous boron is used in pyrotechnic flares.[84] It is also used as a melting point
depressant in nickel-chromium braze alloys.[85]
Boron 11
Biological role
There is a boron-containing natural antibiotic, boromycin, isolated from streptomyces.[86]
[87]
Boron is an essential plant nutrient, required primarily for maintaining the integrity of
cell walls. Conversely, high soil concentrations of > 1.0 ppm can cause marginal and tip
necrosis in leaves as well as poor overall growth performance. Levels as low as 0.8 ppm can
cause these same symptoms to appear in plants particularly sensitive to boron in the soil.
Nearly all plants, even those somewhat tolerant of boron in the soil, will show at least some
symptoms of boron toxicity when boron content in the soil is greater than 1.8 ppm. When
this content exceeds 2.0 ppm, few plants will perform well and some may not survive. When
boron levels in plant tissue exceed 200 ppm symptoms of boron toxicity are likely to
appear.[88] [89] [90]
As an ultratrace element, boron is necessary for the optimal health of rats, although it is
necessary in such small amounts that ultrapurified foods and dust filtration of air is
necessary to show the effects of boron deficiency, which manifest as poor coat/hair quality.
Presumably, boron is necessary to other mammals. No deficiency syndrome in humans has
been described. Small amounts of boron occur widely in the diet, and the amounts needed
in the diet would, by analogy with rodent studies, is very small. The exact physiological role
of boron in the animal kingdom is poorly understood.[91]
Boron occurs in all foods produced from plants. Since 1989 its nutritional value has been
argued. It is thought that boron plays several biochemical roles in animals, including
humans.[92] The U.S. Department of agriculture conducted an experiment in which
postmenopausal women took 3 mg of boron a day. The results showed that supplemental
boron reduced excretion of calcium by 44%, and activated estrogen and vitamin D.
However, whether these effects were conventionally nutritional, or medicinal, could not be
determined. The US National Institutes of Health quotes this source:
Total daily boron intake in normal human diets ranges from 2.1–4.3 mg boron/kg body
weight (bw)/day. [93] [94]
Analytical quantification
For determination of boron content in food or materials the colorimetric curcumin method
is used. Boron has to be transferred to boric acid or borates and on reaction with curcumin
in acidic solution, a red colored boron-chelate complex, rosocyanine, is formed.[95]
Health issues
Elemental boron and borates are non-toxic to humans and animals (approximately similar to
table salt). The LD50 (dose at which there is 50% mortality) for animals is about 6 g per kg
of body weight. Substances with LD50 above 2 g are considered non-toxic. The minimum
lethal dose for humans has not been established, but an intake of 4 g/day was reported
without incidents, and medical dosages of 20 g of boric acid for neutron capture therapy
caused no problems. Fish have survived for 30 min in a saturated boric acid solution and
can survive longer in strong borax solutions.[96] Borates are more toxic to insects than to
mammals. The boranes and similar gaseous compounds are quite poisonous. As usual, it is
not an element that is intrinsically poisonous, but toxicity depends on structure.[47] [48]
The boranes (boron hydrogen compounds) are toxic as well as highly flammable and require
special care when handling. Sodium borohydride presents a fire hazard due to its reducing
Boron 12
nature, and the liberation of hydrogen on contact with acid. Boron halides are corrosive.[97]
Congenital endothelial dystrophy type 2, a rare form of corneal dystrophy, is linked to
mutations in SLC4A11 gene that encodes a transporter reportedly regulating the
intracellular concentration of boron.[98]
See also
• Allotropes of boron
• Category:Boron compounds
• Boron deficiency
• Boron oxide
• Boron nitride
• Boron neutron capture therapy
• Boronic acid
• Hydroboration-oxidation reaction
• Suzuki coupling
External links
• Boron [99]
• WebElements.com – Boron [100]
[101]
• National Pollutant Inventory - Boron and compounds
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[86] Hütter, R.; Keller-Schien, W.; Knüsel, F.; Prelog, V.; Rodgers jr., G. C.; Suter, P.; Vogel, G.; Voser,W.; Zähner
H.; (1967). "Stoffwechselprodukte von Mikroorganismen. 57. Mitteilung. Boromycin". Helvetica Chimica Acta
50: 1533–1539. doi: 10.1002/hlca.19670500612 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ hlca. 19670500612).
[87] Dunitz, J. D.; Hawley, D. M. Miklo, D.; White, D. N. J.; Berlin, Yu.; Marui, R.; Prelog, V. (1971). "Structure of
boromycin". Helvetica Chimica Acta 54: 1709–1713. doi: 10.1002/hlca.19710540624 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1002/ hlca. 19710540624).
[88] Mahler, R. L.. " Essential Plant Micronutrients. Boron in Idaho (http:/ / info. ag. uidaho. edu/ Resources/
PDFs/ CIS1085. pdf)". University of Idaho. . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
Boron 16
[89] " Functions of Boron in Plant Nutrition (http:/ / www. borax. com/ agriculture/ files/ an203. pdf)" (PDF). U.S.
Borax Inc.. .
[90] Blevins, Dale G.; Lukaszewski, Krystyna M. (1998). "Functions of Boron in Plant Nutrition". Annual Review of
Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49: 481–500. doi: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.481 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1146/ annurev. arplant. 49. 1. 481).
[91] Nielsen, Forrest H. (1998). "Ultratrace elements in nutrition: Current knowledge and speculation". The
Journal of Trace Elements in Experimental Medicine 11 (2–3): 251–274. doi:
10.1002/(SICI)1520-670X(1998)11:2/3<251::AID-JTRA15>3.0.CO;2-Q (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/
(SICI)1520-670X(1998)11:2/ 3<251::AID-JTRA15>3. 0. CO;2-Q).
[92] " Boron (http:/ / www. pdrhealth. com/ drug_info/ nmdrugprofiles/ nutsupdrugs/ bor_0040. shtml)".
PDRhealth. . Retrieved 2008-09-18.
[93] Zook, E. G.; Lehman, J. (1965). "Total boron". J. Assoc. Off Agric. Chem 48: 850.
[94] United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Water, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Staff (1993). Health advisories for drinking water contaminants: United States Environmental Protection
Agency Office of Water health advisories (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=trUdm-GXchIC& pg=PA84). CRC
Press. p. 84. ISBN 087371931X. .
[95] Silverman, L.; Trego K. (1953). "Corrections-Colorimetric Microdetermination of Boron By The
Curcumin-Acetone Solution Method". Anal. Chem. 25: 1639. doi: 10.1021/ac60083a061 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1021/ ac60083a061).
[96] Donald E. Garrett (1998). Borates (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=imMJJP5T5rsC& pg=PA385).
Academic Press. p. 385. ISBN 0122760603. .
[97] " Environmental Health Criteria 204: Boron (http:/ / www. inchem. org/ documents/ ehc/ ehc/ ehc204. htm)".
the IPCS. 1998. . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[98] Vithana, En; Morgan, P; Sundaresan, P; Ebenezer, Nd; Tan, Dt; Mohamed, Md; Anand, S; Khine, Ko;
Venkataraman, D; Yong, Vh; Salto-Tellez, M; Venkatraman, A; Guo, K; Hemadevi, B; Srinivasan, M; Prajna, V;
Khine, M; Casey, Jr; Inglehearn, Cf; Aung, T (Jul 2006). "Mutations in sodium-borate cotransporter SLC4A11
cause recessive congenital hereditary endothelial dystrophy (CHED2).". Nature genetics 38 (7): 755–7. doi:
10.1038/ng1824 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ ng1824). ISSN 1061-4036 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/
1061-4036). PMID 16767101.
[99] http:/ / www. du. edu/ ~jcalvert/ phys/ boron. htm
[100] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ boron/

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License
Carbon 1
Carbon
boron ← carbon → nitrogen -
↑
C
↓
Si

6C
Periodic table
Appearance Clear (diamond), black (graphite)

shell Physical properties PhaseDensity (near r.t.) Density (near r.t.) Density (near r.t.)
Sublimation pointTriple pointHeat of fusionSpecific heat capacity Atomic properties
Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energies
(more) 2nd: 2352.6 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 4620.5 kJ·mol−1Covalent radiusVan der Waals radius
Miscellaneous Magnetic orderingThermal conductivityThermal expansionSpeed of sound
Carbon 2
(thin rod) Young's modulusShear modulusBulk modulusPoisson ratioMohs hardnessCAS

registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of carbon
iso N.A. half-life DM DE (MeV) DP 15
12 98.9% 12
C C is stable with 6 neutron
13 1.1% 13
C C is stable with 7 neutron
14 trace 5730 y 0.156

beta- 14
C N
carbon, C, 6 nonmetal14, 2, p12.0107 g·mol−1 1s2 2s2 2p2 or [He] 2s2 2p2 2,4 (Image) Solid
amorphous:[1] 1.8 - 2.1 g·cm−3 graphite: 2.267 g·cm−3 diamond: 3.515 g·cm−3
3915 K,3642 °C,6588 °F 4600 K (4327°C), 10800[2] [3] kPa 117 (graphite) kJ·mol−1 (25 °C)
8.517(graphite),
6.155(diamond) J·mol−1·K−14, 3 [4] , 2, 1 [5] , 0, -1, -2, -3, -4[6] 2.55 (Pauling scale) 1st:
1086.5 kJ·mol−1 77(sp³), 73(sp²), 69(sp) pm 170 pm diamagnetic[7] (300 K) 119-165
(graphite)
900-2300 (diamond) W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 0.8 (diamond) [8] µm·m−1·K−1 (20 °C) 18350
(diamond) m/s 1050 (diamond) [8] GPa 478 (diamond) [8] GPa 442 (diamond) [8] GPa 0.1
(diamond) [8] 1-2 (Graphite)
10 (Diamond) 7440-44-0
Carbon (pronounced /ˈkɑrbən/) is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number
6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making
four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. There are three naturally
occurring isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is radioactive, decaying with a
half-life of about 5730 years.[9] Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity.[10]
[11]
The name "carbon" comes from Latin language carbo, coal, and, in some Romance and
Slavic languages, the word carbon can refer both to the element and to coal.
There are several allotropes of carbon of which the best known are graphite, diamond, and
amorphous carbon.[12] The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic
form. For example, diamond is highly transparent, while graphite is opaque and black.
Diamond is among the hardest materials known, while graphite is soft enough to form a
streak on paper (hence its name, from the Greek word "to write"). Diamond has a very low
electrical conductivity, while graphite is a very good conductor. Under normal conditions,
diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of all known materials. All the allotropic
forms are solids under normal conditions but graphite is the most thermodynamically
stable.
All forms of carbon are highly stable, requiring high temperature to react even with oxygen.
The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is
found in carbon monoxide and other transition metal carbonyl complexes. The largest
sources of inorganic carbon are limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide, but significant
quantities occur in organic deposits of coal, peat, oil and methane clathrates. Carbon forms
more compounds than any other element, with almost ten million pure organic compounds
described to date, which in turn are a tiny fraction of such compounds that are theoretically
possible under standard conditions.[13]
Carbon is one of the least abundant elements in the Earth's crust, but the fourth most
abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. It is present
in all known lifeforms, and in the human body carbon is the second most abundant element
Carbon 3
by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen.[14] This abundance, together with the unique diversity
of organic compounds and their unusual polymer-forming ability at the temperatures
commonly encountered on Earth, make this element the chemical basis of all known life.
Characteristics
The different forms or allotropes of carbon (see below)
include the hardest naturally occurring substance,
diamond, and also one of the softest known substances,
graphite. Moreover, it has an affinity for bonding with
other small atoms, including other carbon atoms, and is
capable of forming multiple stable covalent bonds with
such atoms. As a result, carbon is known to form almost
ten million different compounds; the large majority of
all chemical compounds.[13] Carbon also has the highest
Theoretically predicted phase diagram
melting and sublimation point of all elements. At
of carbon
atmospheric pressure it has no melting point as its
triple point is at 10.8 ± 0.2 MPa and 4600 ± 300 K,[2] [3]
[15] [16]
so it sublimates at about 3900 K. .
Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc which has a temperature of about 5800 K. Thus,
irrespective of its allotropic form, carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the
highest melting point metals such as tungsten or rhenium. Although thermodynamically
prone to oxidation, carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and
copper that are weaker reducing agents at room temperature.
Carbon compounds form the basis of all known so far life on Earth, and the carbon-nitrogen
cycle provides some of the energy produced by the Sun and other stars. Although it forms
an extraordinary variety of compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive
under normal conditions. At standard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the
strongest oxidizers. It does not react with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, chlorine or any
alkalis. At elevated temperatures carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon oxides, and will
reduce such metal oxides as iron oxide to the metal. This exothermic reaction is used in the
iron and steel industry to control the carbon content of steel:
Fe3O4 + 4 C(s) → 3 Fe(s) + 4 CO(g)
with sulfur to form carbon disulfide and with steam in the coal-gas reaction
C(s) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + H2(g).
Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as
the iron carbide cementite in steel, and tungsten carbide, widely used as an abrasive and
for making hard tips for cutting tools.
As to 2009, graphene appears the strongest material ever tested.[17] However, the process
of separating it from graphite will require some technological development before it is
economical enough to be used in industrial processes.[18]
The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes:
Synthetic nanocrystalline diamond is the Graphite is one of the softest materials known.
hardest materials known.
Diamond is the ultimate abrasive. Graphite is a very good lubricant.

Carbon 4
Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator. Graphite is a conductor of electricity.
Diamond is the best known naturally occurring Some forms of graphite are used for thermal insulation (i.e.
thermal conductor firebreaks and heat shields)
Diamond is highly transparent. Graphite is opaque.
Diamond crystallizes in the cubic system. Graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal system.
Amorphous carbon is completely isotropic. Carbon nanotubes are among the most anisotropic materials
ever produced.
Allotropes
Atomic carbon is a very short-lived species and therefore, carbon is stabilized in various
multi-atomic structures with different molecular configurations called allotropes. The three
relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond.
Once considered exotic, fullerenes are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in
research; they include buckyballs,[19] [20] carbon nanotubes,[21] carbon nanobuds[22] and
nanofibers.[23] [24] Several other exotic allotropes have also been discovered, such as
lonsdaleite,[25] glassy carbon,[26] carbon nanofoam[27] and linear acetylenic carbon.[28]
• The amorphous form, is an assortment of carbon atoms in a non-crystalline, irregular,
glassy state, which is essentially graphite but not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It
is present as a powder, and is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal,
lampblack (soot) and activated carbon.
• At normal pressures carbon takes the form of graphite, in which each atom is bonded
trigonally to three others in a plane composed of fused hexagonal rings, just like those in
aromatic hydrocarbons. The resulting network is 2-dimensional, and the resulting flat
sheets are stacked and loosely bonded through weak Van der Waals forces. This gives
graphite its softness and its cleaving properties (the sheets slip easily past one another).
Because of the delocalization of one of the outer electrons of each atom to form a
π-cloud, graphite conducts electricity, but only in the plane of each covalently bonded
sheet. This results in a lower bulk electrical conductivity for carbon than for most metals.
The delocalization also accounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at
room temperature.
Carbon 5
• At very high pressures

carbon forms the more
compact allotrope diamond,
having nearly twice the
density of graphite. Here,
each atom is bonded
tetrahedrally to four others,
thus making a
3-dimensional network of
puckered six-membered
rings of atoms. Diamond has
the same cubic structure as
silicon and germanium and,
thanks to the strength of the
carbon-carbon bonds is the
hardest naturally occurring
substance in terms of
resistance to scratching.
Contrary to the popular
belief that "diamonds are
forever", they are in fact
thermodynamically unstable Some allotropes of carbon: a) diamond; b) graphite; c) lonsdaleite; d–f)
under normal conditions fullerenes (C60, C540, C70); g) amorphous carbon; h) carbon nanotube.
and transform into
graphite.[12] But due to a high activation energy barrier, the transition into graphite is so
extremely slow at room temperature as to be unnoticeable.
• Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as lonsdaleite. This form has a hexagonal
crystal lattice where all atoms are covalently bonded. Therefore, all properties of
lonsdaleite are close to those of diamond. [25]
• Fullerenes have a graphite-like structure, but instead of purely hexagonal packing, they
also contain pentagons (or even heptagons) of carbon atoms, which bend the sheet into
spheres, ellipses or cylinders. The properties of fullerenes (split into buckyballs,
buckytubes and nanobuds) have not yet been fully analyzed and represents an intense
area of research in nanomaterials. The names "fullerene" and "buckyball" are given after
Richard Buckminster Fuller, popularizer of geodesic domes, which resemble the
structure of fullerenes. The buckyballs are fairly large molecules formed completely of
carbon bonded trigonally, forming spheroids (the best-known and simplest is the
soccerball-shaped structure C60 buckminsterfullerene).[19] Carbon nanotubes are
structurally similar to buckyballs, except that each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved
sheet that forms a hollow cylinder.[20] [21] Nanobuds were first published in 2007 and are
hybrid bucky tube/buckyball materials (buckyballs are covalently bonded to the outer
wall of a nanotube) that combine the properties of both in a single structure.[22]
• Of the other discovered allotropes, Carbon nanofoam is a ferromagnetic allotrope

discovered in 1997. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung
together in a loose three-dimensional web, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in
Carbon 6
six- and seven-membered rings. It is among the lightest known solids, with a density of
about 2 kg/m³.[29] Similarly, glassy carbon contains a high proportion of closed
porosity.[26] But unlike normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in
a book, but have a more random arrangement. Linear acetylenic carbon[28] has the
chemical structure[28] -(C:::C)n- .Carbon in this modification is linear with sp orbital
hybridization, and is a polymer with alternating single and triple bonds. This type of
carbyne is of considerable interest to nanotechnology as its Young's modulus is forty
times that of the hardest known material - diamond.[30]
Occurrence
An estimate of the global carbon budget:
Biosphere, oceans, atmosphere
0.45 x 1018 kilograms
Crust
Organic carbon 13.2 x 1018 kg
Carbonates 62.4 x 1018 kg
Mantle
1200 x 1018 kg
Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element

in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and
oxygen. Carbon is abundant in the Sun, stars, comets,
and in the atmospheres of most planets. Some
meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were
formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary
disk. Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the
intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of
meteorite impacts.[31]
Graphite ore
In combination with oxygen in carbon dioxide, carbon is
found in the Earth's atmosphere (in quantities of
approximately 810 gigatonnes) and dissolved in all
water bodies (approximately 36,000 gigatons). Around
1,900 gigatons are present in the biosphere.
Hydrocarbons (such as coal, petroleum, and natural
gas) contain carbon as well—coal "reserves" (not
"resources") amount to around 900 gigatons, and oil
reserves around 150 gigatons. With smaller amounts of
calcium, magnesium, and iron, carbon is a major
component in very large masses of carbonate rock
Raw diamond crystal.
(limestone, dolomite, marble etc.).
Carbon 7
Coal is a significant commercial source of mineral

carbon; anthracite containing 92–98% carbon[32] and
the largest source (4,000 Gt, or 80% of coal, gas and oil
reserves) of carbon in a form suitable for use as fuel.[33]
Graphite is found in large quantities in New York and
Texas, the United States, Russia, Mexico, Greenland,
and India.
Natural diamonds occur in the rock kimberlite, found in "Present day" (1990s) sea surface
ancient volcanic "necks," or "pipes". Most diamond dissolved inorganic carbon
deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, concentration (from the GLODAP
climatology)
Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, and Sierra Leone.
There are also deposits in Arkansas, Canada, the
Russian Arctic, Brazil and in Northern and Western Australia.
Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope.
However, though diamonds are found naturally, about 30% of all industrial diamonds used
in the U.S. are now made synthetically.
Carbon-14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere, at altitudes of
9–15 km, by a reaction that is precipitated by cosmic rays. Thermal neutrons are produced
that collide with the nuclei of nitrogen-14, forming carbon-14 and a proton.
Isotopes
Isotopes of carbon are atomic nuclei that contain six protons plus a number of neutrons
(varying from 2 to 16). Carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes.[9] The isotope
carbon-12 (12C) forms 98.93% of the carbon on Earth, while carbon-13 (13C) forms the
remaining 1.07%.[9] The concentration of 12C is further increased in biological materials
because biochemical reactions discriminate against 13C.[34] In 1961 the International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis for
atomic weights.[35] Identification of carbon in NMR experiments is done with the isotope
13
C.
Carbon-14 (14C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope which occurs in trace amounts on
Earth of up to 1 part per trillion (0.0000000001%), mostly confined to the atmosphere and
superficial deposits, particularly of peat and other organic materials.[36] This isotope decays
by 0.158 MeV β- emission. Because of its relatively short half-life of 5730 years, 14C is
virtually absent in ancient rocks, but is created in the upper atmosphere (lower
stratosphere and upper troposphere) by interaction of nitrogen with cosmic rays.[37] The
abundance of 14C in the atmosphere and in living organisms is almost constant, but
decreases predictably in their bodies after death. This principle is used in radiocarbon
dating, invented in 1949, which has been used extensively to determine the age of
carbonaceous materials with ages up to about 40,000 years.[38] [39]
There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest-lived of these is 8C which decays
through proton emission and alpha decay and has a half-life of 1.98739x10-21 s.[40] The
exotic 19C exhibits a nuclear halo, which means its radius is appreciably larger than would
be expected if the nucleus was a sphere of constant density.[41]
Carbon 8
Formation in stars
Formation of the carbon atomic nucleus requires a nearly simultaneous triple collision of
alpha particles (helium nuclei) within the core of a giant or supergiant star. This happens in
conditions of temperature and helium concentration that the rapid expansion and cooling of
the early universe prohibited, and therefore no significant carbon was created during the
Big Bang. Instead, the interiors of stars in the horizontal branch transform three helium
nuclei into carbon by means of this triple-alpha process. In order to be available for
formation of life as we know it, this carbon must then later be scattered into space as dust,
in supernova explosions, as part of the material which later forms second, third-generation
star systems which have planets accreted from such dust. The Solar System is one such
third-generation star system.
One of the fusion mechanisms powering stars is the carbon-nitrogen cycle.
Rotational transitions of various isotopic forms of carbon monoxide (e.g. 12CO, 13CO, and
C18O) are detectable in the submillimeter regime, and are used in the study of newly
forming stars in molecular clouds.
Carbon cycle
Under terrestrial conditions,
conversion of one element to
another is very rare. Therefore,
the amount of carbon on Earth is
effectively constant. Thus,
processes that use carbon must
obtain it somewhere and dispose
of it somewhere else. The paths
that carbon follows in the
environment make up the carbon
cycle. For example, plants draw
carbon dioxide out of their
environment and use it to build
biomass, as in carbon respiration
or the Calvin cycle, a process of
Diagram of the carbon cycle. The black numbers indicate how
carbon fixation. Some of this much carbon is stored in various reservoirs, in billions of tons
biomass is eaten by animals, ("GtC" stands for gigatons of carbon; figures are circa 2004). The
whereas some carbon is exhaled purple numbers indicate how much carbon moves between
reservoirs each year. The sediments, as defined in this diagram,
by animals as carbon dioxide. The
do not include the ~70 million GtC of carbonate rock and
carbon cycle is considerably more kerogen.
complicated than this short loop;
for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; dead plant or animal matter
may become petroleum or coal, which can burn with the release of carbon, should bacteria
not consume it.[42]
Carbon 9
Compounds
Organic compounds
Carbon has the ability to form very long chains of
interconnecting C-C bonds. This property is called
catenation. Carbon-carbon bonds are strong, and
stable. This property allows carbon to form an
almost infinite number of compounds; in fact, there
are more known carbon-containing compounds than
all the compounds of the other chemical elements
combined except those of hydrogen (because almost
all organic compounds contain hydrogen too).
Structural formula of methane, the

simplest possible organic compound.
Correlation between the carbon cycle and

formation of organic compounds. In plants,
carbon dioxide formed by carbon fixation
can join with water in photosynthesis
(green) to form organic compounds, which
can be utilized and further converted by
both plants and animals.
Carbon 10
The simplest form of an organic molecule is the

hydrocarbon—a large family of organic molecules
that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a
chain of carbon atoms. Chain length, side chains
and functional groups all affect the properties of
organic molecules. By IUPAC's definition, all the
other organic compounds are functionalized
compounds of hydrocarbons.
Carbon occurs in all known organic life and is the

Carbon is the basis for all plastic materials
basis of organic chemistry. When united with
that are used in common household items.
hydrogen, it forms various flammable compounds

called hydrocarbons which are important to industry as refrigerants, lubricants, solvents, as
chemical feedstock for the manufacture of plastics and petrochemicals and as fossil fuels.
When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon can form many groups of important
biological compounds including sugars, lignans, chitins, alcohols, fats, and aromatic esters,
carotenoids and terpenes. With nitrogen it forms alkaloids, and with the addition of sulfur
also it forms antibiotics, amino acids, and rubber products. With the addition of phosphorus
to these other elements, it forms DNA and RNA, the chemical-code carriers of life, and
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the most important energy-transfer molecule in all living
cells.
Inorganic compounds
Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do
not contain hydrogen or fluorine, are treated separately from classical organic compounds;
however the definition is not rigid (see reference articles above). Among these are the
simple oxides of carbon. The most prominent oxide is carbon dioxide (CO2). This was once
the principal constituent of the paleoatmosphere, but is a minor component of the Earth's
atmosphere today.[43] Dissolved in water, it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3), but as most
compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable.[44]
Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate ions are produced.
Some important minerals are carbonates, notably calcite. Carbon disulfide (CS2) is similar.
The other common oxide is carbon monoxide (CO). It is formed by incomplete combustion,
and is a colorless, odorless gas. The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly
polar, resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules, displacing
oxygen, which has a lower binding affinity.[45] [46] Cyanide (CN–), has a similar structure,
but behaves much like a halide ion (pseudohalogen). For example it can form the nitride
cyanogen molecule ((CN)2), similar to diatomic halides. Other uncommon oxides are carbon
suboxide (C3O2),[47] the unstable dicarbon monoxide (C2O),[48] [49] carbon trioxide (CO3),
[50] [51]
cyclopentanepentone (C5O5) [52] , cyclohexanehexone (C6O6) [52] , and mellitic
anhydride (C12O9).
With reactive metals, such as tungsten, carbon forms either carbides (C4–), or acetylides
(C2−2) to form alloys with high melting points. These anions are also associated with
methane and acetylene, both very weak acids. With an electronegativity of 2.5,[53] carbon
prefers to form covalent bonds. A few carbides are covalent lattices, like carborundum
(SiC), which resembles diamond.
Carbon 11
Organometallic compounds
Organometallic compounds by definition contain at least one carbon-metal bond. A wide
range of such compounds exist; major classes include simple alkyl-metal compounds (e.g.
tetraethyl lead), η2-alkene compounds (e.g. Zeise's salt, and η3-allyl compounds (e.g.
allylpalladium chloride dimer; metallocenes containing cyclopentadienyl ligands (e.g.
ferrocene); and transition metal carbene complexes. Many metal carbonyls exist (e.g.
tetracarbonylnickel); some workers consider the carbon monoxide ligand to be purely
inorganic, and not organometallic.
While carbon is understood to exclusively form four bonds, an interesting compound
containing an octahedral hexacoordinated carbon atom has been reported. The cation of
the compound is [(Ph3PAu)6C]2+. This phenomenon has been attributed to the aurophilicity
of the gold ligands.[54]

The English name carbon comes from the Latin carbo for coal and charcoal,[55] and hence
comes from the French charbon, meaning charcoal. In German, Dutch and Danish, the
names for carbon are Kohlenstoff, koolstof and kulstof respectively, all literally meaning
coal-substance.
Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known in the forms of
soot and charcoal to the earliest human civilizations. Diamonds were
known probably as early as 2500 BCE in China, while carbon in the
form of charcoal was made around Roman times by the same
chemistry as it is today, by heating wood in a pyramid covered with
clay to exclude air.[56] [57]
In 1722, René A. F. de Réaumur demonstrated that iron was

Carl Wilhelm Scheele transformed into steel through the absorption of some substance, now
known to be carbon.[58] In 1772, Antoine Lavoisier showed that
diamonds are a form of carbon, when he burned samples of carbon
and diamond then showed that neither produced any water and that
both released the same amount of carbon dioxide per gram. Carl
Wilhelm Scheele showed that graphite, which had been thought of as
a form of lead, was instead a type of carbon.[59] In 1786, the French
scientists Claude Louis Berthollet, Gaspard Monge and C. A.
Vandermonde then showed that this substance was carbon.[60] In
their publication they proposed the name carbone (Latin carbonum)
Antoine Lavoisier in
for this element. Antoine Lavoisier listed carbon as an element in his
his youth
1789 textbook.[61]
A new allotrope of carbon, fullerene, that was discovered in 1985[62] includes

nanostructured forms such as buckyballs and nanotubes.[19] Their discoverers (Curl, Kroto,
and Smalley) received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996.[63] The resulting renewed
interest in new forms lead to the discovery of further exotic allotropes, including glassy
carbon, and the realization that "amorphous carbon" is not strictly amorphous.[26]
Carbon 12
Production
Graphite
Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the
most important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil, and North Korea.[64]
Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica and
feldspars in schists, gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or
veins, sometimes of a meter or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale,
Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 1800s, pencils
were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the
strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock
and floating the lighter graphite out on water.
According to the USGS, world production of natural graphite in 2006 was 1.03 million tons
and in 2005 was 1.04 million tons (revised), of which the following major exporters
produced: China produced 720,000 tons in both 2006 and 2005, Brazil 75,600 tons in 2006
and 75,515 tons in 2005 (revised), Canada 28,000 tons in both years, and Mexico
(amorphous) 12,500 tons in 2006 and 12,357 tons in 2005 (revised). In addition, there are
two specialist producers: Sri Lanka produced 3,200 tons in 2006 and 3,000 tons in 2005 of
lump or vein graphite, and Madagascar produced 15,000 tons in both years, a large portion
of it "crucible grade" or very large flake graphite. Some other producers produce very small
amounts of "crucible grade".
According to the USGS, U.S. (synthetic) graphite electrode production in 2006 was
132,000 tons valued at $495 million and in 2005 was 146,000 tons valued at $391 million,
and high-modulus graphite (carbon) fiber production in 2006 was 8,160 tons valued at $172
million and in 2005 was 7,020 tons valued at $134 million.
Diamond
The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited
number of powerful businesses, and is also highly
concentrated in a small number of locations around the
world (see figure).
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists
of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which Diamond output in 2005
care has to be taken in order to prevent larger
diamonds from being destroyed in this process and subsequently the particles are sorted by
density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of
X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of
X-rays became commonplace, the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a
stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.[65]
Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in southern India.[66]
India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately
the 9th century BCE[67] to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these
sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by
Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.[68]
Carbon 13
Diamond production of primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) only started in the
1870s after the discovery of the Diamond fields in South Africa. Production has increased
over time and now an accumulated total of 4.5 billion carats have been mined since that
date.[69] Interestingly 20% of that amount has been mined in the last 5 years alone and
during the last ten years 9 new mines have started production while 4 more are waiting to
be opened soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in
Russia.[69]
In the United States, diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, and Montana.[70]
[71]
In 2004, a startling discovery of a microscopic diamond in the United States[72] led to
the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana.[73]
Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia, Botswana, Australia and
the Democratic Republic of Congo.[74] In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the
global diamond output, reports the British Geological Survey. Australia boasts the richest
diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons (41 LT; 46 ST)
per year in the 1990s.[70]
There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of
Canada, Siberia (mostly in Yakutia territory, for example Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe),
Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia. Diamond prospectors continue to search the
globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.
Applications
Carbon is essential to all known living systems, and
without it life as we know it could not exist (see
alternative biochemistry). The major economic use
of carbon other than food and wood is in the form of
hydrocarbons, most notably the fossil fuel methane
gas and crude oil (petroleum). Crude oil is used by
the petrochemical industry to produce, amongst
others, gasoline and kerosene, through a distillation
process, in refineries. Cellulose is a natural,
carbon-containing polymer produced by plants in
Pencil lead for mechanical pencils are
the form of cotton, linen, and hemp. Cellulose is
made of graphite.
mainly used for maintaining structure in plants.
Commercially valuable carbon polymers of animal
origin include wool, cashmere and silk. Plastics are
made from synthetic carbon polymers, often with
oxygen and nitrogen atoms included at regular
intervals in the main polymer chain. The raw
materials for many of these synthetic substances
come from crude oil.
The uses of carbon and its compounds are extremely

varied. It can form alloys with iron, of which the
most common is carbon steel. Graphite is combined
Sticks of vine and compressed charcoal.
Carbon 14
with clays to form the 'lead' used in pencils used for

writing and drawing. It is also used as a lubricant
and a pigment, as a molding material in glass
manufacture, in electrodes for dry batteries and in
electroplating and electroforming, in brushes for
electric motors and as a neutron moderator in
nuclear reactors.
Charcoal is used as a drawing material in artwork,

for grilling, and in many other uses including iron
A cloth of woven carbon filaments smelting. Wood, coal and oil are used as fuel for
production of energy and space heating. Gem
quality diamond is used in jewelry, and Industrial
diamonds are used in drilling, cutting and polishing
tools for machining metals and stone. Plastics are
made from fossil hydrocarbons, and carbon fiber,
made by pyrolysis of synthetic polyester fibers is
used to reinforce plastics to form advanced,
lightweight composite materials. Carbon fiber is
made by pyrolysis of extruded and stretched
filaments of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and other
organic substances. The crystallographic structure
and mechanical properties of the fiber depend on
Silicon carbide single crystal
the type of starting material, and on the subsequent
processing. Carbon fibers made from PAN have
structure resembling narrow filaments of graphite,
but thermal processing may re-order the structure
into a continuous rolled sheet. The result is fibers
with higher specific tensile strength than steel.[75]
Carbon black is used as the black pigment in

printing ink, artist's oil paint and water colours,
carbon paper, automotive finishes, India ink and
laser printer toner. Carbon black is also used as a
filler in rubber products such as tyres and in plastic
compounds. Activated charcoal is used as an
absorbent and adsorbent in filter material in
applications as diverse as gas masks, water
The C60 fullerene in crystalline form
purification and kitchen extractor hoods and in
medicine to absorb toxins, poisons, or gases from
the digestive system. Carbon is used in chemical
reduction at high temperatures. Coke is used to
reduce iron ore into iron. Case hardening of steel is
achieved by heating finished steel components in
carbon powder. Carbides of silicon, tungsten, boron
and titanium, are among the hardest known
Tungsten carbide milling bits
Carbon 15
materials, and are used as abrasives in cutting and grinding tools. Carbon compounds make
up most of the materials used in clothing, such as natural and synthetic textiles and leather,
and almost all of the interior surfaces in the built environment other than glass, stone and
metal.
Diamonds
The diamond industry can be broadly separated into two basically distinct categories: one
dealing with gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds. While a large
trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.
A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Unlike precious metals such as gold or
platinum, gem diamonds do not trade as a commodity: there is a substantial mark-up in the
sale of diamonds, and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds.
The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade
counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat
conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity
and color, mostly irrelevant. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about
100 million carats or 20,000 kg annually), unsuitable for use as gemstones and known as
bort, are destined for industrial use.[76] In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds
found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another
3 billion carats (600 metric tons) of synthetic diamond is produced annually for industrial
use.[77] The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding, and
polishing. Most uses of diamonds in these technologies do not require large diamonds; in
fact, most diamonds that are gem-quality except for their small size, can find an industrial
use. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in
grinding and polishing applications.[78] Specialized applications include use in laboratories
as containment for high pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance
bearings, and limited use in specialized windows.[79] [80] With the continuing advances
being made in the production of synthetic diamonds, future applications are beginning to
become feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a
semiconductor suitable to build microchips from, or the use of diamond as a heat sink in
electronics.[81]
Carbon 16
Precautions
Pure carbon has extremely low toxicity and can be
handled and even ingested safely in the form of
graphite or charcoal. It is resistant to dissolution or
chemical attack, even in the acidic contents of the
digestive tract, for example. Consequently if it gets
into body tissues it is likely to remain there
indefinitely. Carbon black was probably one of the
first pigments to be used for tattooing, and Ötzi the
Iceman was found to have carbon tattoos that
survived during his life and for 5200 years after his
death.[82] However, inhalation of coal dust or soot
(carbon black) in large quantities can be dangerous,
irritating lung tissues and causing the congestive
lung disease coalworker's pneumoconiosis.
Similarly, diamond dust used as an abrasive can do
harm if ingested or inhaled. Microparticles of
carbon are produced in diesel engine exhaust
Worker at carbon black plant in Sunray,
fumes, and may accumulate in the lungs.[83] In these Texas (photo by John Vachon, 1942)
examples, the harmful effects may result from
contamination of the carbon particles, with organic chemicals or heavy metals for example,
rather than from the carbon itself.
Carbon may also burn vigorously and brightly in the presence of air at high temperatures,
as in the Windscale fire, which was caused by sudden release of stored Wigner energy in
the graphite core. Large accumulations of coal, which have remained inert for hundreds of
millions of years in the absence of oxygen, may spontaneously combust when exposed to
air, for example in coal mine waste tips.
The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as tetrodotoxin, the
lectin ricin from seeds of the castor oil plant Ricinus communis, cyanide (CN-) and carbon
monoxide; and such essentials to life as glucose and protein.
See also
• Carbon chauvinism
• Carbon footprint
• Low-carbon economy
• Organic chemistry
• Timeline of carbon nanotubes
Carbon 17
External links
• Carbon - Periodic Table of Videos [84]
• Carbon on Britannica [85]
• WebElements.com – Carbon [86]
• Chemicool.com – Carbon [87]
• It's Elemental – Carbon [88]
• Extensive Carbon page at asu.edu [89]
• Electrochemical uses of carbon [90]
• Computational Chemistry Wiki [91]
• Carbon - Super Stuff. Animation with sound and interactive 3D-models. [92]
[93]
• BBC Radio 4 series "In Our Time", on Carbon, the basis of life, 15 June 2006
• Introduction to Carbon Properties geared for High School students. [94]
• Comprehensive Data on Carbon [95]
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License
Nitrogen 1
Nitrogen
carbon ← nitrogen → oxygen -
↑
N
↓
P

7N
Periodic table

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 37 41 46 53 62 77

(more) 2nd: 2856 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 4578.1 kJ·mol−1Covalent radiusVan der Waals radius
Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingThermal conductivitySpeed of soundCAS
registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of nitrogen
13 syn 9.965 min ε 2.220 13

N C
14 99.634% 14
N N is stable with 7 neutron
15 0.366% 15
N N is stable with 8 neutron
Nitrogen 2
nitrogen, N, 7 nonmetal15, 2, p14.0067(2) g·mol−1 1s2 2s2 2p3 2, 5 (Image) gas (0 °C,
101.325 kPa)
1.251 g/L 63.153 K,-210.00 °C,-346.00 °F 77.36 K,-195.79 °C,-320.3342 °F
63.1526 K (-210°C), 12.53 kPa 126.19 K, 3.3978 MPa (N2) 0.72 kJ·mol−1 (N2) 5.56 kJ·mol−1
(25 °C) (N2)
29.124 J·mol−1·K−1 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1, -2, -3
(strongly acidic oxide) 3.04 (Pauling scale) 1st: 1402.3 kJ·mol−171±1 pm 155 pm hexagonal
diamagnetic (300 K) 25.83 × 10−3 W·m−1·K−1 (gas, 27 °C) 353 m/s 7727-37-9
Nitrogen (pronounced /ˈnaɪtrədʒɨn/) is a chemical element that has the symbol N and
atomic number 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless,
tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78% by volume
of Earth's atmosphere.
Many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, organic nitrates
(propellants and explosives), and cyanides, contain nitrogen. The extremely strong bond in
elemental nitrogen dominates nitrogen chemistry, causing difficulty for both organisms and
industry in converting the N2 into useful compounds, and releasing large amounts of energy
when these compounds burn or decay back into nitrogen gas.
The element nitrogen was discovered by Daniel Rutherford, a Scottish physician, in 1772.
Nitrogen occurs in all living organisms. It is a constituent element of amino acids and thus
of proteins, and of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). It resides in the chemical structure of
almost all neurotransmitters, and is a defining component of alkaloids, biological molecules
produced by many organisms.
History
Nitrogen (Latin nitrogenium, where nitrum (from Greek nitron) means "saltpetre" (see
nitre), and genes means "forming") is formally considered to have been discovered by
Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air or fixed air. That there was a fraction
of air that did not support combustion was well known to the late 18th century chemist.
Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry
Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley, who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air.
Nitrogen gas was inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as "mephetic air" or
azote, from the Greek word άζωτος (azotos) meaning "lifeless". Animals died in it, and it
was the principal component of air in which animals had suffocated and flames had burned
to extinction. Lavoisier's name for nitrogen is used in many languages (French, Russian,
etc.) and still remains in English in the common names of many compounds, such as
hydrazine and compounds of the azide ion. Compounds of nitrogen were known in the
Middle Ages. The alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis (strong water). The mixture of
nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua regia (royal water), celebrated for its
ability to dissolve gold (the king of metals). The earliest military, industrial and agricultural
applications of nitrogen compounds involved uses of saltpeter (sodium nitrate or potassium
nitrate), notably in gunpowder, and much later, as fertilizer.
Nitrogen 3
Properties
Nitrogen is a nonmetal, with an electronegativity of 3.04. It has five electrons in its outer
shell and is therefore trivalent in most compounds. The triple bond in molecular nitrogen
(N2) is the strongest in nature. The resulting difficulty of converting N2 into other
compounds, and the ease (and associated high energy release) of converting nitrogen
compounds into elemental N2, have dominated the role of nitrogen in both nature and
human economic activities.
At atmospheric pressure molecular nitrogen condenses (liquifies) at 77 K (−195.8 °C) and
freezes at 63 K (−210.0 °C) into the beta hexagonal close-packed crystal allotropic form.
Below 35.4 K (−237.6 °C) nitrogen assumes the alpha cubic crystal allotropic form. Liquid
nitrogen, a fluid resembling water in appearance, but with 80.8% of the density (the density
of liquid nitrogen at its boiling point is 0.808 g/mL), is a common cryogen.
Unstable allotropes of nitrogen consisting of more than two nitrogen atoms have been
produced in the laboratory, like N3 and N4.[1] Under extremely high pressures
(1.1 million atm) and high temperatures (2000 K), as produced using a diamond anvil cell,
nitrogen polymerizes into the single-bonded cubic gauche crystal structure. This structure
is similar to that diamond, and both have extremely strong covalent bonds. N4 is nicknamed
"nitrogen diamond."[2]
Isotopes
There are two stable isotopes of nitrogen: 14N and 15N. By far the most common is 14N
(99.634%), which is produced in the CNO cycle in stars. Of the ten isotopes produced
synthetically, 13N has a half-life of ten minutes and the remaining isotopes have half-lives
on the order of seconds or less. Biologically-mediated reactions (e.g., assimilation,
nitrification, and denitrification) strongly control nitrogen dynamics in the soil. These
reactions typically result in 15N enrichment of the substrate and depletion of the product.
0.73% of the molecular nitrogen in Earth's atmosphere is comprised of the isotopologue
14 15
N N and almost all the rest is 14N2.
Radioisotope 16N is the dominant radionuclide in the coolant of pressurized water reactors
during normal operation. It is produced from 16O (in water) via (n,p) reaction. It has a short
half-life of about 7.1 s, but during its decay back to 16O produces high-energy gamma
radiation (5 to 7 MeV). Because of this, the access to the primary coolant piping must be
restricted during reactor power operation[3] . 16N is one of the main means used to
immediately detect even small leaks from the primary coolant to the secondary steam cycle.
Electromagnetic spectrum
Molecular nitrogen (14N2) is largely transparent to infrared and visible radiation because it
is a homonuclear molecule and thus has no dipole moment to couple to electromagnetic
radiation at these wavelengths. Significant absorption occurs at extreme ultraviolet
wavelengths, beginning around 100 nanometers. This is associated with electronic
transitions in the molecule to states in which charge is not distributed evenly between
nitrogen atoms. Nitrogen absorption leads to significant absorption of ultraviolet radiation
in the Earth's upper atmosphere as well as in the atmospheres of other planetary bodies.
For similar reasons, pure molecular nitrogen lasers typically emit light in the ultraviolet
range.
Nitrogen 4
Nitrogen also makes a contribution to visible air glow from the Earth's upper atmosphere,
through electron impact excitation followed by emission. This visible blue air glow (seen in
the polar aurora and in the re-entry glow of returning spacecraft) typically results not from
molecular nitrogen, but rather from free nitrogen atoms combining with oxygen to form
nitric oxide (NO).
Reactions
Nitrogen is generally unreactive at standard
temperature and pressure. N2 reacts spontaneously
with few reagents, being resilient to acids and bases as
well as oxidants and most reductants. When nitrogen
reacts spontaneously with a reagent, the net
transformation is often called nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen reacts with elemental lithium at STP.[4]

Lithium burns in an atmosphere of N2 to give lithium
nitride:
6 Li + N2 → 2 Li3N
Magnesium also burns in nitrogen, forming magnesium
Structure of [Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2+.
nitride.
3 Mg + N2 → Mg3N2
N2 forms a variety of adducts with transition metals. The first example of a dinitrogen
complex is [Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2+ (see figure at right). Such compounds are now numerous,
other examples include IrCl(N2)(PPh3)2, W(N2)2(Ph2CH2CH2PPh2)2, and
5
[(η -C5Me4H)2Zr]2(μ2,η²,η²-N2). These complexes illustrate how N2 might bind to the
metal(s) in nitrogenase and the catalyst for the Haber process.[5] A catalytic process to
reduce N2 to ammonia with the use of a molybdenum complex in the presence of a proton
source was published in 2005.[4] (see nitrogen fixation)
The starting point for industrial production of nitrogen compounds is the Haber process, in
which nitrogen is fixed by reacting N2 and H2 over an iron(III) oxide (Fe3O4) catalyst at
about 500 °C and 200 atmospheres pressure. Biological nitrogen fixation in free-living
cyanobacteria and in the root nodules of plants also produces ammonia from molecular
nitrogen. The reaction, which is the source of the bulk of nitrogen in the biosphere, is
catalyzed by the nitrogenase enzyme complex which contains Fe and Mo atoms, using
energy derived from hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into adenosine diphosphate
and inorganic phosphate (−20.5 kJ/mol).
Occurrence
Nitrogen is the largest single constituent of the Earth's atmosphere (78.082% by volume of
dry air, 75.3% by weight in dry air). It is created by fusion processes in stars, and is
estimated to be the 7th most abundant chemical element by mass in the universe.[6]
Molecular nitrogen and nitrogen compounds have been detected in interstellar space by
astronomers using the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer.[7] Molecular nitrogen is a
major constituent of the Saturnian moon Titan's thick atmosphere, and occurs in trace
amounts in other planetary atmospheres.[8]
Nitrogen 5
Nitrogen is present in all living organisms, in proteins, nucleic acids and other molecules. It
typically makes up around 4% of the dry weight of plant matter, and around 3% of the
weight of the human body. It is a large component of animal waste (for example, guano),
usually in the form of urea, uric acid, ammonium compounds and derivatives of these
nitrogenous products, which are essential nutrients for all plants that are unable to fix
atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrogen occurs naturally in a number of minerals, such as saltpetre (potassium nitrate),
Chile saltpetre (sodium nitrate) and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). Most of these are
relatively uncommon, partly because of the minerals' ready solubility in water. See also
Nitrate minerals and Ammonium minerals.
Compounds
The main neutral hydride of nitrogen is ammonia (NH3), although hydrazine (N2H4) is also
commonly used. Ammonia is more basic than water by 6 orders of magnitude. In solution
ammonia forms the ammonium ion (NH+4). Liquid ammonia (boiling point 240 K) is
amphiprotic (displaying either Brønsted-Lowry acidic or basic character) and forms
ammonium and the less common amide ions (NH−2); both amides and nitride (N3−) salts
are known, but decompose in water. Singly, doubly, triply and quadruply substituted alkyl
compounds of ammonia are called amines (four substitutions, to form commercially and
biologically important quaternary amines, results in a positively charged nitrogen, and thus
a water-soluble, or at least amphiphilic, compound). Larger chains, rings and structures of
nitrogen hydrides are also known, but are generally unstable. N2+2 is another polyatomic
cation as in hydrazine.
Other classes of nitrogen anions (negatively charged
ions) are the poisonous azides (N−3), which are linear
and isoelectronic to carbon dioxide, but which bind to
important iron-containing enzymes in the body in a
manner more resembling cyanide. Another molecule of
the same structure is the colorless and relatively inert
anesthetic gas Nitrous oxide (dinitrogen monoxide,
N2O), also known as laughing gas. This is one of a
variety of nitrogen oxides that form a family often
abbreviated as NOx. Nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide,
NO), is a natural free radical used in signal transduction in both plants and animals, for
example in vasodilation by causing the smooth muscle of blood vessels to relax. The reddish
and poisonous nitrogen dioxide NO2 contains an unpaired electron and is an important
component of smog. Nitrogen molecules containing unpaired electrons show an
understandable tendency to dimerize (thus pairing the electrons), and are generally highly
reactive. The corresponding acids are nitrous HNO2 and nitric acid HNO3, with the
corresponding salts called nitrites and nitrates.
The higher oxides dinitrogen trioxide N2O3, dinitrogen tetroxide N2O4 and dinitrogen
pentoxide N2O5, are fairly unstable and explosive, a consequence of the chemical stability
of N2. N2O4 is one of the most important oxidizers of rocket fuels, used to oxidize hydrazine
in the Titan rocket and in the recent NASA MESSENGER probe to Mercury. N2O4 is an
intermediate in the manufacture of nitric acid HNO3, one of the few acids stronger than
hydronium and a fairly strong oxidizing agent.
Nitrogen 6
Nitrogen is notable for the range of explosively unstable compounds that it can produce.
Nitrogen triiodide NI3 is an extremely sensitive contact explosive. Nitrocellulose, produced
by nitration of cellulose with nitric acid, is also known as guncotton. Nitroglycerin, made by
nitration of glycerin, is the dangerously unstable explosive ingredient of dynamite. The
comparatively stable, but more powerful explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT) is the standard
explosive against which the power of nuclear explosions are measured.
Nitrogen can also be found in organic compounds. Common nitrogen functional groups
include: amines, amides, nitro groups, imines, and enamines. The amount of nitrogen in a
chemical substance can be determined by the Kjeldahl method.
Applications
Nitrogen gas is an industrial gas produced by the fractional
distillation of liquid air, or by mechanical means using
gaseous air (i.e. pressurized reverse osmosis membrane or
Pressure swing adsorption). Commercial nitrogen is often a
byproduct of air-processing for industrial concentration of
oxygen for steelmaking and other purposes. When supplied
compressed in cylinders it is often referred to as OFN
(oxygen-free nitrogen).[9]
Nitrogen gas has a wide variety of applications, including

A computer rendering of the
serving as an inert replacement for air where oxidation is nitrogen molecule, N2.
undesirable;
• To preserve the freshness of packaged or bulk foods (by delaying rancidity and other
forms of oxidative damage)
• In ordinary incandescent light bulbs as an inexpensive alternative to argon.[10]
• On top of liquid explosives as a safety measure
• The production of electronic parts such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits
• Dried and pressurized, as a dielectric gas for high voltage equipment
• The manufacturing of stainless steel
• Use in military aircraft fuel systems to reduce fire hazard, (see inerting system)
• Filling automotive and aircraft tires[11] due to its inertness and lack of moisture or
oxidative qualities, as opposed to air, though this is not necessary for consumer
automobiles.[12] [13]
Nitrogen molecules are less likely to escape from the inside of a tire compared with the
traditional air mixture used. Air consists mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrogen molecules
have a larger effective diameter than oxygen molecules and therefore diffuse through
porous substances more slowly.[14]
Nitrogen is commonly used during sample preparation procedures for chemical analysis.
Specifically, it is used as a means of concentrating and reducing the volume of liquid
samples. Directing a pressurized stream of nitrogen gas perpendicular to the surface of the
liquid allows the solvent to evaporate while leaving the solute(s) and un-evaporated solvent
behind.[15]
Nitrogen tanks are also replacing carbon dioxide as the main power source for paintball
guns. The downside is that nitrogen must be kept at higher pressure than CO2, making N2
tanks heavier and more expensive.
Nitrogen 7
Nitrogenated beer
A further example of its versatility is its use as a preferred alternative to carbon dioxide to
pressurize kegs of some beers, particularly stouts and British ales, due to the smaller
bubbles it produces, which make the dispensed beer smoother and headier. A modern
application of a pressure sensitive nitrogen capsule known commonly as a "widget" now
allows nitrogen charged beers to be packaged in cans and bottles.[16]
Liquid nitrogen
Liquid nitrogen is a cryogenic liquid. At atmospheric pressure, it boils at −195.8 °C. When
insulated in proper containers such as Dewar flasks, it can be transported without much
evaporative loss.
Like dry ice, the main use of liquid nitrogen is as a refrigerant. Among other things, it is
used in the cryopreservation of blood, reproductive cells (sperm and egg), and other
biological samples and materials. It is used in cold traps for certain laboratory equipment
and to cool x-ray detectors. It has also been used to cool central processing units and other
devices in computers which are overclocked, and which produce more heat than during
normal operation.
Applications of nitrogen compounds

Molecular nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere is relatively non-reactive due to its strong bond,
and N2 plays an inert role in the human body, being neither produced nor destroyed. In
nature, nitrogen is converted into biologically (and industrially) useful compounds by
lightning, and by some living organisms, notably certain bacteria (i.e. nitrogen fixing
bacteria – see Biological role below). Molecular nitrogen is released into the atmosphere in
the process of decay, in dead plant and animal tissues.
The ability to combine or fix molecular nitrogen is a key feature of modern industrial
chemistry, where nitrogen and natural gas are converted into ammonia via the Haber
process. Ammonia, in turn, can be used directly (primarily as a fertilizer, and in the
synthesis of nitrated fertilizers), or as a precursor of many other important materials
including explosives, largely via the production of nitric acid by the Ostwald process.
The organic and inorganic salts of nitric acid have been important historically as convenient
stores of chemical energy. They include important compounds such as potassium nitrate (or
saltpeter used in gunpowder) and ammonium nitrate, an important fertilizer and explosive
(see ANFO). Various other nitrated organic compounds, such as nitroglycerin and
trinitrotoluene, and nitrocellulose, are used as explosives and propellants for modern
firearms. Nitric acid is used as an oxidizing agent in liquid fueled rockets. Hydrazine and
hydrazine derivatives find use as rocket fuels and monopropellants. In most of these
compounds, the basic instability and tendency to burn or explode is derived from the fact
that nitrogen is present as an oxide, and not as the far more stable nitrogen molecule (N2)
which is a product of the compounds' thermal decomposition. When nitrates burn or
explode, the formation of the powerful triple bond in the N2 produces most of the energy of
the reaction.
Nitrogen is a constituent of molecules in every major drug class in pharmacology and
medicine. Nitrous oxide (N2O) was discovered early in the 19th century to be a partial
anesthetic, though it was not used as a surgical anesthetic until later. Called "laughing
gas", it was found capable of inducing a state of social disinhibition resembling
Nitrogen 8
drunkenness. Other notable nitrogen-containing drugs are drugs derived from plant
alkaloids, such as morphine (there exist many alkaloids known to have pharmacological
effects; in some cases they appear natural chemical defenses of plants against predation).
Nitrogen containing drugs include all of the major classes of antibiotics, and organic nitrate
drugs like nitroglycerin and nitroprusside which regulate blood pressure and heart action
by mimicking the action of nitric oxide.
Biological role
Nitrogen is an essential building block of amino and nucleic acids, essential to life on Earth.
Elemental nitrogen in the atmosphere cannot be used directly by either plants or animals,
and must converted to a reduced (or 'fixed') state in order to be useful for higher plants and
animals. Precipitation often contains substantial quantities of ammonium and nitrate,
thought to result from nitrogen fixation by lightning and other atmospheric electric
phenomena.[17] This was first proposed by Liebig in 1827 and later confirmed.[17] However,
because ammonium is preferentially retained by the forest canopy relative to atmospheric
nitrate, most fixed nitrogen that reaches the soil surface under trees as nitrate. Soil nitrate
is preferentially assimilated by these tree roots relative to soil ammonium.
Specific bacteria (e.g. Rhizobium trifolium) possess nitrogenase enzymes which can fix
atmospheric nitrogen (see nitrogen fixation) into a form (ammonium ion) that is chemically
useful to higher organisms. This process requires a large amount of energy and anoxic
conditions. Such bacteria may live freely in soil (e.g. Azotobacter) but normally exist in a
symbiotic relationship in the root nodules of leguminous plants (e.g. clover, Trifolium, or
soybean plant, Glycine max). Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are also symbiotic with a number of
unrelated plant species such as alders (Alnus) spp., lichens (Casuarina), Myrica, liverworts,
and Gunnera.
As part of the symbiotic relationship, the plant converts the 'fixed' ammonium ion to
nitrogen oxides and amino acids to form proteins and other molecules, (e.g. alkaloids). In
return for the 'fixed' nitrogen, the plant secretes sugars to the symbiotic bacteria.
Some plants are able to assimilate nitrogen directly in the form of nitrates which may be
present in soil from natural mineral deposits, artificial fertilizers, animal waste, or organic
decay (as the product of bacteria, but not bacteria specifically associated with the plant).
Nitrates absorbed in this fashion are converted to nitrites by the enzyme nitrate reductase,
and then converted to ammonia by another enzyme called nitrite reductase.
Nitrogen compounds are basic building blocks in animal biology as well. Animals use
nitrogen-containing amino acids from plant sources, as starting materials for all
nitrogen-compound animal biochemistry, including the manufacture of proteins and nucleic
acids. Plant-feeding insects are dependent on nitrogen in their diet, such that varying the
amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied to a plant can affect the reproduction rate of insects
feeding on fertilized plants.[18]
Soluble nitrate is an important limiting factor in the growth of certain bacteria in ocean
waters. In many places in the world, artificial fertilizers applied to crop-lands to increase
yields result in run-off delivery of soluble nitrogen to oceans at river mouths. This process
can result in eutrophication of the water, as nitrogen-driven bacterial growth depletes
water oxygen to the point that all higher organisms die. Well-known "dead zone" areas in
the U.S. Gulf Coast and the Black Sea are due to this important polluting process.
Nitrogen 9
Many saltwater fish manufacture large amounts of trimethylamine oxide to protect them
from the high osmotic effects of their environment (conversion of this compound to
dimethylamine is responsible for the early odor in not fresh saltwater fish [19] . In animals,
free radical nitric oxide (NO) (derived from an amino acid), serves as an important
regulatory molecule for circulation.
Animal metabolism of NO results in production of nitrite. Animal metabolism of nitrogen in
proteins generally results in excretion of urea, while animal metabolism of nucleic acids
results in excretion of urea and uric acid. The characteristic odor of animal flesh decay is
caused by the creation of long-chain, nitrogen-containing amines, such as putrescine and
cadaverine.
Decay of organisms and their waste products may produce small amounts of nitrate, but
most decay eventually returns nitrogen content to the atmosphere, as molecular nitrogen .
The circulation of nitrogen from atmosphere to organic compounds and back is referred to
as the nitrogen cycle.
Safety
Rapid release of nitrogen gas into an enclosed space can displace oxygen, and therefore
represents an asphyxiation hazard. This may happen with few warning symptoms, since the
human carotid body is a relatively slow and a poor low-oxygen (hypoxia) sensing system.[20]
An example occurred shortly before the launch of the first Space Shuttle mission in 1981,
when two technicians lost consciousness and died after they walked into a space located in
the Shuttle's Mobile Launcher Platform that was pressurized with pure nitrogen as a
precaution against fire. The technicians would have been able to exit the room if they had
experienced early symptoms from nitrogen-breathing.
When inhaled at high partial pressures (more than about 4 bar, encountered at depths
below about 30 m in scuba diving) nitrogen begins to act as an anesthetic agent. It can
cause nitrogen narcosis, a temporary semi-anesthetized state of mental impairment similar
to that caused by nitrous oxide.[21] [22]
Nitrogen also dissolves in the bloodstream and body fats. Rapid decompression
(particularly in the case of divers ascending too quickly, or astronauts decompressing too
quickly from cabin pressure to spacesuit pressure) can lead to a potentially fatal condition
called decompression sickness (formerly known as caisson sickness or more commonly, the
"bends"), when nitrogen bubbles form in the bloodstream, nerves, joints, and other
sensitive or vital areas.[23] [24] Other "inert" gases (those gases other than carbon dioxide
and oxygen) cause the same effects from bubbles composed of them, so replacement of
nitrogen in breathing gases may prevent nitrogen narcosis, but does not prevent
decompression sickness.[25]
Direct skin contact with liquid nitrogen will eventually cause severe frostbite (cryogenic
burns). This may happen almost instantly on contact, depending on the form of liquid
nitrogen. Bulk liquid nitrogen causes less rapid freezing than a spray of nitrogen mist (such
as is used to freeze certain skin growths in the practice of dermatology). The extra surface
area provided by nitrogen-soaked materials is also important, with soaked clothing or
cotton causing far more rapid damage than a spill of direct liquid to skin. Full "contact"
between naked skin and large droplets or pools of undisturbed liquid nitrogen may be
prevented for a few seconds by a layer of insulating gas from the Leidenfrost effect.
However, liquid nitrogen applied to skin in mists, and on fabrics, bypasses this effect.
Nitrogen 10
See also
• Industrial gas
• Liquid nitrogen
• Nitrogen asphyxiation
• Nitrogenomics
• Nutrient
• Reactive nitrogen species
• Tetranitrogen
• TKN
Further reading
• Garrett, Reginald H.; Grisham, Charles M. (1999). Biochemistry (2nd ed.). Fort Worth:
Saunders College Publ.. ISBN 0030223180.
• Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1984). Chemistry of the Elements. Oxford:
Pergamon Press. ISBN 0080220576.
• "Nitrogen [26]". Los Alamos National Laboratory. 2003-10-20. http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/
elements/ 7. html.
External links
• Etymology of Nitrogen [27]
• Why high nitrogen density in explosives? [28]
• WebElements.com – Nitrogen [29]
• It's Elemental – Nitrogen [30]
[31]
• Schenectady County Community College – Nitrogen
• Nitrogen N2 Properties, Uses, Applications [32]
• Handling procedures for liquid nitrogen [33]
• Material Safety Data Sheet [34]
References
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[2] " Polymeric nitrogen synthesized (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news693. html)". physorg.com. 2004-08-05. .
[3] Karl Heinz Neeb (1997). The Radiochemistry of Nuclear Power Plants with Light Water Reactors. Berlin-New
York: Walter de Gruyter.
[4] Richard R. Schrock (2005). "Catalytic Reduction of Dinitrogen to Ammonia at a Single Molybdenum Center".
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[6] Croswell, Ken (February 1996). Alchemy of the Heavens (http:/ / kencroswell. com/ alchemy. html). Anchor.
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[7] Daved M. Meyer, Jason A. Cardelli, and Ulysses J. Sofia (1997). " Abundance of Interstellar Nitrogen (http:/ /
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Nitrogen 11
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September/ 05. html)". Car Talk. . Retrieved 2006-07-22.
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[15] Kemmochi, Y (2002). "Centrifugal concentrator for the substitution of nitrogen blow-down
micro-concentration in dioxin/polychlorinated biphenyl sample preparation". Journal of Chromatography A 943:
295. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9673(01)01466-2 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0021-9673(01)01466-2).
[16] " How does the widget in a beer can work? (http:/ / recipes. howstuffworks. com/ question446. htm)".
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[17] Rakov, Vladimir A.; Uman, Martin A. (2007). Lightning: Physics and Effects. Cambridge University Press.
p. 508. ISBN 9780521035415.
[18] Jahn, GC, LP Almazan, and J Pacia (2005). " Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the intrinsic rate of increase of the
rusty plum aphid, Hysteroneura setariae (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rice (Oryza sativa L.) (http:/ /
puck. esa. catchword. org/ vl=33435372/ cl=21/ nw=1/ rpsv/ cw/ esa/ 0046225x/ v34n4/ s26/ p938)".
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[19] Nielsen, Mk; Jørgensen, Bm (Jun 2004). "Quantitative relationship between trimethylamine oxide aldolase
activity and formaldehyde accumulation in white muscle from gadiform fish during frozen storage.". Journal of
agricultural and food chemistry 52 (12): 3814–22. doi: 10.1021/jf035169l (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/
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[20] " Biology Safety - Cryogenic materials. The risks posed by them (http:/ / www. bath. ac. uk/ internal/ bio-sci/
bbsafe/ asphyx. htm)". University of Bath. . Retrieved 2007-01-03.
[21] Fowler, B; Ackles, KN; Porlier, G (1985). " Effects of inert gas narcosis on behavior--a critical review. (http:/ /
archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 3019)". Undersea Biomed. Res. 12 (4): 369–402. ISSN 0093-5387 (http:/ /
worldcat. org/ issn/ 0093-5387). OCLC 2068005 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 2068005). PMID 4082343. .
[22] W. H. Rogers; G. Moeller (1989). " Effect of brief, repeated hyperbaric exposures on susceptibility to nitrogen
narcosis (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 2522)". Undersea Biomed. Res. 16 (3): 227–32. ISSN
0093-5387 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 0093-5387). OCLC 2068005 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 2068005). PMID
2741255. . Retrieved 2008-09-21.
[23] Acott, C. (1999). " A brief history of diving and decompression illness. (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation.
org/ 6004)". South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society journal 29 (2). ISSN 0813-1988 (http:/ / worldcat. org/
issn/ 0813-1988). OCLC 16986801 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 16986801). . Retrieved 2008-09-21.
[24] Kindwall, E. P.; A. Baz; E. N. Lightfoot; E. H. Lanphier; A. Seireg. (1975). " Nitrogen elimination in man
during decompression. (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 2741)". Undersea Biomed. Res. 2 (4): 285–97.
ISSN 0093-5387 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 0093-5387). OCLC 2068005 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 2068005).
PMID 1226586. . Retrieved 2008-09-21.
[25] US Navy Diving Manual, 6th revision (http:/ / www. supsalv. org/ 00c3_publications. asp?destPage=00c3&
pageID=3. 9). United States: US Naval Sea Systems Command. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-04-24.
[26] http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 7. html
[27] http:/ / www. balashon. com/ 2008/ 07/ neter-and-nitrogen. html
[28] http:/ / www. newton. dep. anl. gov/ askasci/ chem99/ chem99306. htm
[29] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ nitrogen/
[31] http:/ / www. sunysccc. edu/ academic/ mst/ ptable/ n. html
[32] http:/ / www. uigi. com/ nitrogen. html
[33] http:/ / www. 2spi. com/ catalog/ instruments/ nitrodew-supp. html
[34] http:/ / www. safety. vanderbilt. edu/ pdf/ hcs_msds/ NitrogenCryo_G103_06_04. pdf

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License
Oxygen 1
Oxygen
nitrogen ← oxygen → fluorine -
↑
O
↓
S

8O
Periodic table
Appearance liquid oxygen with bubbles of oxygen gas

shell Physical properties PhaseDensityMelting pointBoiling pointCritical pointHeat of
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 61 73 90

registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of oxygen
Oxygen 2
16 99.76% 16
O O is stable with 8 neutron
17 0.039% 17
18 0.201% 18
oxygen, O, 8 nonmetal, chalcogens 16, 2, p15.9994(3) g·mol−1 1s2 2s2 2p4 2, 6 (Image) gas
(0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
1.429 g/L 54.36 K,-218.79 °C,-361.82 °F 90.20 K,-182.95 °C,-297.31 °F 154.59 K, 5.043
MPa (O2) 0.444 kJ·mol−1 (O2) 6.82 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) (O2)
29.378 J·mol−1·K−12, 1, −1, −2
(neutral oxide) 3.44 (Pauling scale) 1st: 1313.9 kJ·mol−166±2 pm 152 pm cubic
paramagnetic (300 K) 26.58x10-3 W·m−1·K−1 (gas, 27 °C) 330 m/s 7782-44-7
Oxygen (pronounced /ˈɒksɨdʒɨn/, from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys) (acid, literally "sharp",
from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter) is the element with
atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. It is a member of the chalcogen group
on the periodic table, and is a highly reactive nonmetallic period 2 element that readily
forms compounds (notably oxides) with almost all other elements. At standard temperature
and pressure two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless, odorless,
tasteless diatomic gas with the formula O2. Oxygen is the third most abundant element in
the universe by mass after hydrogen and helium[1] and the most abundant element by mass
in the Earth's crust.[2] Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.9% of the volume of air.[3]
All major classes of structural molecules in living organisms, such as proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats, contain oxygen, as do the major inorganic compounds that
comprise animal shells, teeth, and bone. Oxygen in the form of O2 is produced from water
by cyanobacteria, algae and plants during photosynthesis and is used in cellular respiration
for all complex life. Oxygen is toxic to obligately anaerobic organisms, which were the
dominant form of early life on Earth until O2 began to accumulate in the atmosphere
2.5 billion years ago.[4] Another form (allotrope) of oxygen, ozone (O3), helps protect the
biosphere from ultraviolet radiation with the high-altitude ozone layer, but is a pollutant
near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. At even higher low earth orbit altitudes
atomic oxygen is a significant presence and a cause of erosion for spacecraft.[5]
Oxygen was independently discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Uppsala, in 1773 or
earlier, and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire, in 1774, but Priestley is often given priority
because his publication came out in print first. The name oxygen was coined in 1777 by
Antoine Lavoisier,[6] whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular
phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. Oxygen is produced industrially by
fractional distillation of liquefied air, use of zeolites to remove carbon dioxide and nitrogen
from air, electrolysis of water and other means. Uses of oxygen include the production of
steel, plastics and textiles; rocket propellant; oxygen therapy; and life support in aircraft,
submarines, spaceflight and diving.
Oxygen 3
Characteristics
Structure
At standard temperature and pressure, oxygen is a colorless, odorless gas with the
molecular formula O2, in which the two oxygen atoms are chemically bonded to each other
with a spin triplet electron configuration. This bond has a bond order of two, and is often
simplified in description as a double bond[7] or as a combination of one two-electron bond
and two three-electron bonds.[8]
Triplet oxygen is the ground state of the O2 molecule.[9] The electron configuration of the
molecule has two unpaired electrons occupying two degenerate molecular orbitals.[10]
These orbitals are classified as antibonding (weakening the bond order from three to two),
so the diatomic oxygen bond is weaker than the diatomic nitrogen triple bond in which all
bonding molecular orbitals are filled, but some antibonding orbitals are not.[9]
In normal triplet form, O2 molecules are paramagnetic—they form a magnet in the presence
of a magnetic field—because of the spin magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons in the
molecule, and the negative exchange energy between neighboring O2 molecules.[11] Liquid
oxygen is attracted to a magnet to a sufficient extent that, in laboratory demonstrations, a
bridge of liquid oxygen may be supported against its own weight between the poles of a
powerful magnet.[12] [13]
Singlet oxygen, a name given to several higher-energy species of molecular O2 in which all
the electron spins are paired, is much more reactive towards common organic molecules. In
nature, singlet oxygen is commonly formed from water during photosynthesis, using the
energy of sunlight.[14] It is also produced in the troposphere by the photolysis of ozone by
light of short wavelength,[15] and by the immune system as a source of active oxygen.[16]
Carotenoids in photosynthetic organisms (and possibly also in animals) play a major role in
absorbing energy from singlet oxygen and converting it to the unexcited ground state
before it can cause harm to tissues.[17]
Oxygen 4
Allotropes
The common allotrope of elemental oxygen on Earth is called
dioxygen, O2. It has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy
of 498 kJ·mol-1.[18] This is the form that is used by complex
forms of life, such as animals, in cellular respiration (see
Biological role) and is the form that is a major part of the
Earth's atmosphere (see Occurrence). Other aspects of O2 are
covered in the remainder of this article.
Trioxygen (O3) is usually known as ozone and is a very reactive

allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue.[19] Ozone is
produced in the upper atmosphere when O2 combines with
atomic oxygen made by the splitting of O2 by ultraviolet (UV)
radiation.[6] Since ozone absorbs strongly in the UV region of
the spectrum, the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere
functions as a protective radiation shield for the planet.[6] Near
Ozone is a rare gas on Earth
the Earth's surface, however, it is a pollutant formed as a
found mostly in the
by-product of automobile exhaust.[20] stratosphere
The metastable molecule tetraoxygen (O4) was discovered in

2001,[21] [22] and was assumed to exist in one of the six phases of solid oxygen. It was
proven in 2006 that this phase, created by pressurizing O2 to 20 GPa, is in fact a
rhombohedral O8 cluster.[23] This cluster has the potential to be a much more powerful
oxidizer than either O2 or O3 and may therefore be used in rocket fuel.[21] [22] A metallic
phase was discovered in 1990 when solid oxygen is subjected to a pressure of above 96
GPa[24] and it was shown in 1998 that at very low temperatures, this phase becomes
superconducting.[25]
Physical properties
Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen; water contains approximately 1 molecule of
O2 for every 2 molecules of N2, compared to an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1:4. The
solubility of oxygen in water is temperature-dependent, and about twice as much
(14.6 mg·L−1) dissolves at 0 °C than at 20 °C (7.6 mg·L−1).[26] [27] At 25 °C and 1 standard
atmosphere (101.3 kPa) of air, freshwater contains about 6.04 milliliters (mL) of oxygen per
liter, whereas seawater contains about 4.95 mL per liter.[28] At 5 °C the solubility increases
to 9.0 mL (50% more than at 25 °C) per liter for water and 7.2 mL (45% more) per liter for
sea water.
Oxygen condenses at 90.20 K (−182.95 °C, −297.31 °F), and freezes at 54.36 K
(−218.79 °C, −361.82 °F).[29] Both liquid and solid O2 are clear substances with a light
sky-blue color caused by absorption in the red (in contrast with the blue color of the sky,
which is due to Rayleigh scattering of blue light). High-purity liquid O2 is usually obtained
by the fractional distillation of liquefied air;[30] Liquid oxygen may also be produced by
condensation out of air, using liquid nitrogen as a coolant. It is a highly reactive substance
and must be segregated from combustible materials.[31]
Oxygen 5
Isotopes and stellar origin

Naturally occurring oxygen is composed of three stable
isotopes, 16O, 17O, and 18O, with 16O being the most
abundant (99.762% natural abundance).[32]
Most 16O is synthesized at the end of the helium fusion
process in stars but some is made in the neon burning
process.[33] 17O is primarily made by the burning of
hydrogen into helium during the CNO cycle, making it a
common isotope in the hydrogen burning zones of
stars.[33] Most 18O is produced when 14N (made
abundant from CNO burning) captures a 4He nucleus,
making 18O common in the helium-rich zones of
stars.[33] Late in a massive star's life, 16O
concentrates in the O-shell, 17O in the
Fourteen radioisotopes have been characterized, the H-shell and 18O in the He-shell
15
most stable being O with a half-life of
122.24 seconds (s) and O with a half-life of 70.606 s.[32] All of the remaining radioactive
14
isotopes have half-lives that are less than 27 s and the majority of these have half-lives that
are less than 83 milliseconds.[32] The most common decay mode of the isotopes lighter than
16
O is β+ decay[34] [35] [36] to yield nitrogen, and the most common mode for the isotopes
heavier than 18O is beta decay to yield fluorine.[32]
Occurrence
Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element, by mass, in our biosphere, air, sea and
land. Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe, after hydrogen
and helium.[1] About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen.[3] Oxygen constitutes 49.2% of the
Earth's crust by mass[2] and is the major component of the world's oceans (88.8% by
mass).[3] Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the Earth's atmosphere,
taking up 21.0% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass (some 1015 tonnes).[3] [37] [38] Earth is
unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a high concentration of
oxygen gas in its atmosphere: Mars (with 0.1% O2 by volume) and Venus have far lower
concentrations. However, the O2 surrounding these other planets is produced solely by
ultraviolet radiation impacting oxygen-containing molecules such as carbon dioxide.
The unusually high concentration of oxygen gas on
Earth is the result of the oxygen cycle. This
biogeochemical cycle describes the movement of
oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs on
Earth: the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the
lithosphere. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle
is photosynthesis, which is responsible for modern
Earth's atmosphere. Photosynthesis releases oxygen
into the atmosphere, while respiration and decay Cold water holds more dissolved O2.
remove it from the atmosphere. In the present
equilibrium, production and consumption occur at the same rate of roughly 1/2000th of the
entire atmospheric oxygen per year.
Oxygen 6
Free oxygen also occurs in solution in the world's water bodies. The increased solubility of
O2 at lower temperatures (see Physical properties) has important implications for ocean
life, as polar oceans support a much higher density of life due to their higher oxygen
content.[39] Polluted water may have reduced amounts of O2 in it, depleted by decaying
algae and other biomaterials (see eutrophication). Scientists assess this aspect of water
quality by measuring the water's biochemical oxygen demand, or the amount of O2 needed
to restore it to a normal concentration.[40]
Biological role
Photosynthesis and respiration

In nature, free oxygen is produced by the light-driven
splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis.
Green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments
provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on
earth and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants.[41]
A simplified overall formula for photosynthesis is:[42]
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + photons → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
(or simply carbon dioxide + water + sunlight → glucose +
dioxygen)
Photolytic oxygen evolution occurs in the thylakoid

membranes of photosynthetic organisms and requires
the energy of four photons.[43] Many steps are involved,
but the result is the formation of a proton gradient
across the thylakoid membrane, which is used to Photosynthesis splits water to liberate
synthesize ATP via photophosphorylation.[44] The O2 O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar
remaining after oxidation of the water molecule is

released into the atmosphere.[45]
Oxygen 7
Molecular dioxygen, O2, is essential for cellular

respiration in all aerobic organisms. Oxygen is used
in mitochondria to help generate adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) during oxidative
phosphorylation. The reaction for aerobic
respiration is essentially the reverse of
photosynthesis and is simplified as:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 2880

kJ·mol-1
In vertebrates, O2 is diffused through membranes in
the lungs and into red blood cells. Hemoglobin binds
O2, changing its color from bluish red to bright
red.[19] [46] Other animals use hemocyanin (molluscs
and some arthropods) or hemerythrin (spiders and
Relation between photosynthesis and lobsters).[37] A liter of blood can dissolve 200 cm3 of
respiration. Oxygen (at left) is consumed in
O2.[37]
respiration of organic compounds to form
Reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide ion
carbon dioxide and water. These can again
produce oxygen and organic compounds in
(O−2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), are dangerous
photosynthesis.
by-products of oxygen use in organisms.[37] Parts of
the immune system of higher organisms, however,
create peroxide, superoxide, and singlet oxygen to destroy invading microbes. Reactive
oxygen species also play an important role in the hypersensitive response of plants against
pathogen attack.[44]
An adult human in rest inhales 1.8 to 2.4 grams of oxygen per minute.[47] This amounts to
more than 6 billion tonnes of oxygen inhaled by humanity per year. [48]
Build-up in the atmosphere

Free oxygen gas was almost
nonexistent in Earth's atmosphere
before photosynthetic archaea and
bacteria evolved. Free oxygen first
appeared in significant quantities
during the Paleoproterozoic era
(between 2.5 and 1.6 billion years
ago). At first, the oxygen combined
with dissolved iron in the oceans
to form banded iron formations. O2 build-up in Earth's atmosphere: 1) no O2 produced; 2) O2
Free oxygen started to gas out of produced, but absorbed in oceans & seabed rock; 3) O2 starts to
the oceans 2.7 billion years ago, gas out of the oceans, but is absorbed by land surfaces and
formation of ozone layer; 4-5) O2 sinks filled and the gas
reaching 10% of its present level
accumulates
around 1.7 billion years ago.[49]
The presence of large amounts of dissolved and free oxygen in the oceans and atmosphere
may have driven most of the anaerobic organisms then living to extinction during the
Oxygen 8
oxygen catastrophe about 2.4 billion years ago. However, cellular respiration using O2
enables aerobic organisms to produce much more ATP than anaerobic organisms, helping
the former to dominate Earth's biosphere.[50] Photosynthesis and cellular respiration of O2
allowed for the evolution of eukaryotic cells and ultimately complex multicellular organisms
such as plants and animals.
Since the beginning of the Cambrian era 540 million years ago, O2 levels have fluctuated
between 15% and 30% by volume.[51] Towards the end of the Carboniferous era (about
300 million years ago) atmospheric O2 levels reached a maximum of 35% by volume,[51]
allowing insects and amphibians to grow much larger than today's species. Human
activities, including the burning of 7 billion tonnes of fossil fuels each year have had very
little effect on the amount of free oxygen in the atmosphere.[11] At the current rate of
photosynthesis it would take about 2,000 years to regenerate the entire O2 in the present
atmosphere.[52]
History
Early experiments
One of the first known experiments on the relationship between
combustion and air was conducted by the second century BCE
Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work
Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a
burning candle and surrounding the vessel's neck with water
resulted in some water rising into the neck.[53] Philo incorrectly
surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into
the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through
pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built
on Philo's work by observing that a portion of air is consumed
during combustion and respiration.[54]
In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is

necessary for combustion. English chemist John Mayow refined
this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he
called spiritus nitroaereus or just nitroaereus.[55] In one
experiment he found that placing either a mouse or a lit candle
in a closed container over water caused the water to rise and Philo's experiment inspired
replace one-fourteenth of the air's volume before extinguishing later investigators
the subjects.[56] From this he surmised that nitroaereus is

consumed in both respiration and combustion.
Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the
nitroaereus must have combined with it.[55] He also thought that the lungs separate
nitroaereus from air and pass it into the blood and that animal heat and muscle movement
result from the reaction of nitroaereus with certain substances in the body.[55] Accounts of
these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in
the tract "De respiratione".[56]
Oxygen 9
Phlogiston theory
Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre
Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the
18th century but none of them recognized it as an element.[26]
This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the
philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston
theory, which was then the favored explanation of those
processes.
Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, and

modified by the chemist Georg Ernst Stahl by 1731,[57]
phlogiston theory stated that all combustible materials were
made of two parts. One part, called phlogiston, was given off
Stahl helped develop and when the substance containing it was burned, while the
popularize the phlogiston
dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or
theory.
calx.[54]
Highly combustible materials that leave little residue, such as wood or coal, were thought
to be made mostly of phlogiston; whereas non-combustible substances that corrode, such as
iron, contained very little. Air did not play a role in phlogiston theory, nor were any initial
quantitative experiments conducted to test the idea; instead, it was based on observations
of what happens when something burns, that most common objects appear to become
lighter and seem to lose something in the process.[54] The fact that a substance like wood
actually gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the gaseous
combustion products. Indeed one of the first clues that the phlogiston theory was incorrect
was that metals, too, gain weight in rusting (when they were supposedly losing phlogiston).
Discovery
Oxygen was first discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl
Wilhelm Scheele. He had produced oxygen gas by heating
mercuric oxide and various nitrates by about 1772.[3] [54]
Scheele called the gas 'fire air' because it was the only known
supporter of combustion. He wrote an account of this discovery
in a manuscript he titled Treatise on Air and Fire, which he sent
to his publisher in 1775. However, that document was not
published until 1777.[58]
Carl Wilhelm Scheele beat

Priestley to the discovery but
published afterwards.
Oxygen 10
In the meantime, an experiment was conducted by the British

clergyman Joseph Priestley on August 1, 1774 focused sunlight
on mercuric oxide (HgO) inside a glass tube, which liberated a
gas he named 'dephlogisticated air'.[3] He noted that candles
burned brighter in the gas and that a mouse was more active
and lived longer while breathing it. After breathing the gas
himself, he wrote: "The feeling of it to my lungs was not
sensibly different from that of common air, but I fancied that
my breast felt peculiarly light and easy for some time
afterwards."[26] Priestley published his findings in 1775 in a
paper titled "An Account of Further Discoveries in Air" which
Joseph Priestley is usually was included in the second volume of his book titled
given priority in the
Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air.[54] [59]
discovery
Because he published his findings first, Priestley is usually
given priority in the discovery.
The noted French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier later claimed to have discovered the
new substance independently. However, Priestley visited Lavoisier in October 1774 and
told him about his experiment and how he liberated the new gas. Scheele also posted a
letter to Lavoisier on September 30, 1774 that described his own discovery of the
previously unknown substance, but Lavoisier never acknowledged receiving it (a copy of
the letter was found in Scheele's belongings after his death).[58]
Lavoisier's contribution
What Lavoisier did indisputably do (although this was disputed at the time) was to conduct
the first adequate quantitative experiments on oxidation and give the first correct
explanation of how combustion works.[3] He used these and similar experiments, all started
in 1774, to discredit the phlogiston theory and to prove that the substance discovered by
Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element.
In one experiment, Lavoisier observed that there was no overall
increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed
container.[3] He noted that air rushed in when he opened the
container, which indicated that part of the trapped air had been
consumed. He also noted that the tin had increased in weight
and that increase was the same as the weight of the air that
rushed back in. This and other experiments on combustion
were documented in his book Sur la combustion en général,
which was published in 1777.[3] In that work, he proved that air
Antoine Lavoisier discredited is a mixture of two gases; 'vital air', which is essential to
the Phlogiston theory combustion and respiration, and azote (Gk. ἄζωτον "lifeless"),
which did not support either. Azote later became nitrogen in
English, although it has kept the name in French and several other European languages.[3]
Lavoisier renamed 'vital air' to oxygène in 1777 from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys) (acid,
literally "sharp," from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter),
because he mistakenly believed that oxygen was a constituent of all acids.[6] Chemists
eventually determined that Lavoisier was wrong in this regard, but by that time it was too
Oxygen 11
late, the name had taken. Actually, the gas that could more appropriately have been given
the description, "acid producer," is hydrogen.
Oxygen entered the English language despite opposition by English scientists and the fact
that the Englishman Priestley had first isolated the gas and written about it. This is partly
due to a poem praising the gas titled "Oxygen" in the popular book The Botanic Garden
(1791) by Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin.[58]
Later history
John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis assumed that
all elements were monoatomic and that the atoms in
compounds would normally have the simplest atomic
ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton
assumed that water's formula was HO, giving the
atomic mass of oxygen as 8 times that of hydrogen,
instead of the modern value of about 16.[60] In 1805,
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt
showed that water is formed of two volumes of
hydrogen and one volume of oxygen; and by 1811
Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct
interpretation of water's composition, based on what is
now called Avogadro's law and the assumption of
diatomic elemental molecules.[61] [62]
Robert H. Goddard and a liquid
By the late 19th century scientists realized that air oxygen-gasoline rocket
could be liquefied, and its components isolated, by
compressing and cooling it. Using a cascade method, Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul
Pierre Pictet evaporated liquid sulfur dioxide in order to liquefy carbon dioxide, which in
turn was evaporated to cool oxygen gas enough to liquefy it. He sent a telegram on
December 22, 1877 to the French Academy of Sciences in Paris announcing his discovery of
liquid oxygen.[63] Just two days later, French physicist Louis Paul Cailletet announced his
own method of liquefying molecular oxygen.[63] Only a few drops of the liquid were
produced in either case so no meaningful analysis could be conducted. Oxygen was liquified
in stable state for the first time on March 29, 1877 by Polish scientists from Jagiellonian
University, Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski.[64]
In 1891 Scottish chemist James Dewar was able to produce enough liquid oxygen to
study.[11] The first commercially viable process for producing liquid oxygen was
independently developed in 1895 by German engineer Carl von Linde and British engineer
William Hampson. Both men lowered the temperature of air until it liquefied and then
distilled the component gases by boiling them off one at a time and capturing them.[65]
Later, in 1901, oxyacetylene welding was demonstrated for the first time by burning a
mixture of acetylene and compressed O2. This method of welding and cutting metal later
became common.[65]
In 1923 the American scientist Robert H. Goddard became the first person to develop a
rocket engine; the engine used gasoline for fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. Goddard
successfully flew a small liquid-fueled rocket 56 m at 97 km/h on March 16, 1926 in
Auburn, Massachusetts, USA.[65] [66]
Oxygen 12
Industrial production
Two major methods are employed to produce 100 million tonnes of O2 extracted from air for
industrial uses annually.[58] The most common method is to fractionally distill liquefied air
into its various components, with nitrogen N2 distilling as a vapor while oxygen O2 is left as
a liquid.[58]
The other major method of producing O2 gas involves
passing a stream of clean, dry air through one bed of a
pair of identical zeolite molecular sieves, which absorbs
the nitrogen and delivers a gas stream that is
90% to 93% O2.[58] Simultaneously, nitrogen gas is
released from the other nitrogen-saturated zeolite bed,
by reducing the chamber operating pressure and
diverting part of the oxygen gas from the producer bed
through it, in the reverse direction of flow. After a set
cycle time the operation of the two beds is
interchanged, thereby allowing for a continuous supply
of gaseous oxygen to be pumped through a pipeline.
This is known as pressure swing adsorption. Oxygen
gas is increasingly obtained by these non-cryogenic
technologies (see also the related vacuum swing
adsorption).[67]
Oxygen gas can also be produced through electrolysis

Hoffman electrolysis apparatus used in
electrolysis of water. of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen. DC
electricity must be used: if AC is used, the gases in each
limb consist of hydrogen and oxygen in the explosive ratio 2:1. Contrary to popular belief,
the 2:1 ratio observed in the DC electrolysis of acidified water does not prove that the
empirical formula of water is H2O unless certain assumptions are made about the
molecular formulae of hydrogen and oxygen themselves.
A similar method is the electrocatalytic O2 evolution from oxides and oxoacids. Chemical
catalysts can be used as well, such as in chemical oxygen generators or oxygen candles that
are used as part of the life-support equipment on submarines, and are still part of standard
equipment on commercial airliners in case of depressurization emergencies. Another air
separation technology involves forcing air to dissolve through ceramic membranes based on
zirconium dioxide by either high pressure or an electric current, to produce nearly pure O2
gas.[40]
In large quantities, the price of liquid oxygen in 2001 was approximately $0.21/kg.[68] Since
the primary cost of production is the energy cost of liquefying the air, the production cost
will change as energy cost varies.
For reasons of economy, oxygen is often transported in bulk as a liquid in specially
insulated tankers, since one litre of liquefied oxygen is equivalent to 840 liters of gaseous
oxygen at atmospheric pressure and 20 °C.[58] Such tankers are used to refill bulk liquid
oxygen storage containers, which stand outside hospitals and other institutions with a need
for large volumes of pure oxygen gas. Liquid oxygen is passed through heat exchangers,
which convert the cryogenic liquid into gas before it enters the building. Oxygen is also
stored and shipped in smaller cylinders containing the compressed gas; a form that is
Oxygen 13
useful in certain portable medical applications and oxy-fuel welding and cutting.[58]
Applications
Medical
Uptake of O2 from the air is the essential purpose of
respiration, so oxygen supplementation is used in medicine.
Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema, pneumonia, some
heart disorders, and any disease that impairs the body's ability
to take up and use gaseous oxygen.[69] Treatments are flexible
enough to be used in hospitals, the patient's home, or
increasingly by portable devices. Oxygen tents were once
commonly used in oxygen supplementation, but have since
been replaced mostly by the use of oxygen masks or nasal
cannulas.[70]
Hyperbaric (high-pressure) medicine uses special oxygen

chambers to increase the partial pressure of O2 around the An oxygen concentrator in an
[71] emphysema patient's house
patient and, when needed, the medical staff. Carbon
monoxide poisoning, gas gangrene, and decompression
sickness (the 'bends') are sometimes treated using these devices.[72] Increased O2
concentration in the lungs helps to displace carbon monoxide from the heme group of
hemoglobin.[73] [74] Oxygen gas is poisonous to the anaerobic bacteria that cause gas
gangrene, so increasing its partial pressure helps kill them.[75] [76] Decompression sickness
occurs in divers who decompress too quickly after a dive, resulting in bubbles of inert gas,
mostly nitrogen and helium, forming in their blood. Increasing the pressure of O2 as soon as
possible is part of the treatment.[69] [77] [78]
Oxygen is also used medically for patients who require mechanical ventilation, often at
concentrations above 21% found in ambient air.
Life support and recreational use

A notable application of O2 as a low-pressure breathing
gas is in modern space suits, which surround their
occupant's body with pressurized air. These devices use
nearly pure oxygen at about one third normal pressure,
resulting in a normal blood partial pressure of O2.[79]
[80]
This trade-off of higher oxygen concentration for
lower pressure is needed to maintain flexible
spacesuits.
Scuba divers and submariners also rely on artificially

delivered O2, but most often use normal pressure,
and/or mixtures of oxygen and air. Pure or nearly pure
O2 use in diving at higher-than-sea-level pressures is Low pressure pure O2 is used in space
usually limited to rebreather, decompression, or suits
Oxygen 14
emergency treatment use at relatively shallow depths (~6 meters depth, or less).[81] [82]
Deeper diving requires significant dilution of O2 with other gases, such as nitrogen or
helium, to help prevent oxygen toxicity.[81]
People who climb mountains or fly in non-pressurized fixed-wing aircraft sometimes have
supplemental O2 supplies.[83] Passengers traveling in (pressurized) commercial airplanes
have an emergency supply of O2 automatically supplied to them in case of cabin
depressurization. Sudden cabin pressure loss activates chemical oxygen generators above
each seat, causing oxygen masks to drop and forcing iron filings into the sodium chlorate
inside the canister.[40] A steady stream of oxygen gas is produced by the exothermic
reaction. However, even this may pose a danger if inappropriately triggered: a ValuJet
airplane crashed after use-date-expired O2 canisters, which were being shipped in the cargo
hold, activated and caused fire. The canisters were mis-labeled as empty, and carried
against dangerous goods regulations.[84]
Oxygen, as a supposed mild euphoric, has a history of recreational use in oxygen bars and
in sports. Oxygen bars are establishments, found in Japan, California, and Las Vegas,
Nevada since the late 1990s that offer higher than normal O2 exposure for a fee.[85]
Professional athletes, especially in American football, also sometimes go off field between
plays to wear oxygen masks in order to get a supposed "boost" in performance. However,
the reality of a pharmacological effect is doubtful; a placebo or psychological boost being
the most plausible explanation.[85] Available studies support a performance boost from
enriched O2 mixtures only if they are breathed during actual aerobic exercise.[86] Other
recreational uses include pyrotechnic applications, such as George Goble's five-second
ignition of barbecue grills.[87]
Industrial
Smelting of iron ore into steel consumes 55% of
commercially produced oxygen.[40] In this process, O2 is
injected through a high-pressure lance into molten iron,
which removes sulfur impurities and excess carbon as
the respective oxides, SO2 and CO2. The reactions are
exothermic, so the temperature increases to
[40]
1,700 °C.
Another 25% of commercially produced oxygen is used

by the chemical industry.[40] Ethylene is reacted with Most commercially produced O2 is
O2 to create ethylene oxide, which, in turn, is converted used to smelt iron into steel.
into ethylene glycol; the primary feeder material used
to manufacture a host of products, including antifreeze and polyester polymers (the
precursors of many plastics and fabrics).[40]
Most of the remaining 20% of commercially produced oxygen is used in medical

applications, metal cutting and welding, as an oxidizer in rocket fuel, and in water
treatment.[40] Oxygen is used in oxyacetylene welding burning acetylene with O2 to produce
a very hot flame. In this process, metal up to 60 cm thick is first heated with a small
oxy-acetylene flame and then quickly cut by a large stream of O2.[88] Rocket propulsion
requires a fuel and an oxidizer. Larger rockets use liquid oxygen as their oxidizer, which is
mixed and ignited with the fuel for propulsion.
Oxygen 15
Scientific
Paleoclimatologists measure the
ratio of oxygen-18 and oxygen-16
in the shells and skeletons of
marine organisms to determine
what the climate was like millions
of years ago (see oxygen isotope
ratio cycle). Seawater molecules
that contain the lighter isotope,
oxygen-16, evaporate at a slightly
faster rate than water molecules
containing the 12% heavier
oxygen-18; this disparity increases
at lower temperatures.[89] During
periods of lower global
500 million years of climate change vs 18O
temperatures, snow and rain from
that evaporated water tends to be
higher in oxygen-16, and the seawater left behind tends to be higher in oxygen-18. Marine
organisms then incorporate more oxygen-18 into their skeletons and shells than they would
in a warmer climate.[89] Paleoclimatologists also directly measure this ratio in the water
molecules of ice core samples that are up to several hundreds of thousands of years old.
Planetary geologists have measured different abundances of oxygen isotopes in samples

from the Earth, the Moon, Mars, and meteorites, but were long unable to obtain reference
values for the isotope ratios in the Sun, believed to be the same as those of the primordial
solar nebula. However, analysis of a silicon wafer exposed to the solar wind in space and
returned by the crashed Genesis spacecraft has shown that the Sun has a higher proportion
of oxygen-16 than does the Earth. The measurement implies that an unknown process
depleted oxygen-16 from the Sun's disk of protoplanetary material prior to the coalescence
of dust grains that formed the Earth.[90]
Oxygen presents two spectrophotometric absorption bands peaking at the wavelengths 687
and 760 nm. Some remote sensing scientists have proposed using the measurement of the
radiance coming from vegetation canopies in those bands to characterize plant health
status from a satellite platform.[91] This approach exploits the fact that in those bands it is
possible to discriminate the vegetation's reflectance from its fluorescence, which is much
weaker. The measurement is technically difficult owing to the low signal-to-noise ratio and
the physical structure of vegetation; but it has been proposed as a possible method of
monitoring the carbon cycle from satellites on a global scale.
Oxygen 16
Compounds
The oxidation state of oxygen is −2 in almost all known
compounds of oxygen. The oxidation state −1 is found in a few
compounds such as peroxides.[92] Compounds containing
oxygen in other oxidation states are very uncommon: −1/2
(superoxides), −1/3 (ozonides), 0 (elemental, hypofluorous
acid), +1/2 (dioxygenyl), +1 (dioxygen difluoride), and +2
(oxygen difluoride).
Oxides and other inorganic compounds

Water (H2O) is the oxide of hydrogen and the most familiar
oxygen compound. Hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to
oxygen in a water molecule but also have an additional Water (H2O) is the most
familiar oxygen compound.
attraction (about 23.3 kJ·mol−1 per hydrogen atom) to an
adjacent oxygen atom in a separate molecule.[93] These
hydrogen bonds between water molecules hold them approximately 15% closer than what
would be expected in a simple liquid with just Van der Waals forces.[94] [95]
Due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms chemical

bonds with almost all other elements at elevated
temperatures to give corresponding oxides. However,
some elements readily form oxides at standard
conditions for temperature and pressure; the rusting of
iron is an example. The surface of metals like
aluminium and titanium are oxidized in the presence of
air and become coated with a thin film of oxide that
passivates the metal and slows further corrosion. Some
Oxides, such as iron oxide or rust form
of the transition metal oxides are found in nature as
when oxygen combines with other
elements. non-stoichiometric compounds, with a slightly less
metal than the chemical formula would show. For
example, the natural occurring FeO (wüstite) is actually written as Fe1 − xO, where x is
usually around 0.05.[96]
Oxygen as a compound is present in the atmosphere in trace quantities in the form of

carbon dioxide (CO2). The earth's crustal rock is composed in large part of oxides of silicon
(silica SiO2, found in granite and sand), aluminium (aluminium oxide Al2O3, in bauxite and
corundum), iron (iron(III) oxide Fe2O3, in hematite and rust) and other metals.
The rest of the Earth's crust is also made of oxygen compounds, in particular calcium
carbonate (in limestone) and silicates (in feldspars). Water-soluble silicates in the form of
Na4SiO4, Na2SiO3, and Na2Si2O5 are used as detergents and adhesives.[97]
Oxygen also acts as a ligand for transition metals, forming metal–O2 bonds with the iridium
atom in Vaska's complex,[98] with the platinum in PtF6,[99] and with the iron center of the
heme group of hemoglobin.
Oxygen 17
Organic compounds and biomolecules

Among the most important classes of organic
compounds that contain oxygen are (where "R" is an
organic group): alcohols (R-OH); ethers (R-O-R);
ketones (R-CO-R); aldehydes (R-CO-H); carboxylic acids
(R-COOH); esters (R-COO-R); acid anhydrides
(R-CO-O-CO-R); and amides (R-C(O)-NR2). There are
many important organic solvents that contain oxygen,
including: acetone, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol,
furan, THF, diethyl ether, dioxane, ethyl acetate, DMF,
DMSO, acetic acid, and formic acid. Acetone
((CH3)2CO) and phenol (C6H5OH) are used as feeder Acetone is an important feeder
materials in the synthesis of many different substances. material in the chemical industry
(oxygen is in red, carbon in black and
Other important organic compounds that contain
hydrogen in white).
oxygen are: glycerol, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde,
citric acid, acetic anhydride, and acetamide. Epoxides
are ethers in which the oxygen atom is part of a ring of
three atoms.
Oxygen reacts spontaneously with many organic

compounds at or below room temperature in a process
called autoxidation.[100] Most of the organic compounds
that contain oxygen are not made by direct action of O2.
Organic compounds important in industry and Oxygen represents more than 40% of
commerce that are made by direct oxidation of a the molecular mass of the ATP
molecule.
precursor include ethylene oxide and peracetic acid.[97]
The element is found in almost all biomolecules that are important to (or generated by) life.
Only a few common complex biomolecules, such as squalene and the carotenes, contain no
oxygen. Of the organic compounds with biological relevance, carbohydrates contain the
largest proportion by mass of oxygen. All fats, fatty acids, amino acids, and proteins contain
oxygen (due to the presence of carbonyl groups in these acids and their ester residues).
Oxygen also occurs in phosphate (PO3−4) groups in the biologically important
energy-carrying molecules ATP and ADP, in the backbone and the purines (except adenine)
and pyrimidines of RNA and DNA, and in bones as calcium phosphate and hydroxylapatite.
Oxygen 18
Safety and Precautions
Toxicity
Oxygen gas (O2) can be toxic at
elevated partial pressures, leading
to convulsions and other health
problems.[81] [102] [103] Oxygen
toxicity usually begins to occur at
partial pressures more than 50
kilopascals (kPa), or 2.5 times the
normal sea-level O2 partial
pressure of about 21 kPa.
Therefore, air supplied through
oxygen masks in medical
applications is typically composed
of 30% O2 by volume (about
30 kPa at standard pressure).[26]
[101] At one time, premature babies
Main symptoms of oxygen toxicity.
were placed in incubators
containing O2-rich air, but this
practice was discontinued after
some babies were blinded by it.[26]
[104]
Breathing pure O in space

2
applications, such as in some
modern space suits, or in early
spacecraft such as Apollo, causes
no damage due to the low total
pressures used.[79] [105] In the case
of spacesuits, the O2 partial
pressure in the breathing gas is, in
general, about 30 kPa (1.4 times
normal), and the resulting O2
partial pressure in the astronaut's
Oxygen toxicity occurs when lungs arterial blood is only marginally
take in a higher than normal O2 partial
more than normal sea-level O2
pressure, which can occur in deep
scuba diving. partial pressure (see arterial blood
gas).
Oxygen toxicity to the lungs and central nervous system can also occur in deep scuba diving
and surface supplied diving.[26] [81] Prolonged breathing of an air mixture with an O2 partial
pressure more than 60 kPa can eventually lead to permanent pulmonary fibrosis.[106]
Exposure to a O2 partial pressures greater than 160 kPa may lead to convulsions (normally
fatal for divers). Acute oxygen toxicity can occur by breathing an air mixture with 21% O2
at 66 m or more of depth while the same thing can occur by breathing 100% O2 at only
6 m.[106] [107] [108] [109]
Oxygen 19
Combustion and other hazards
0
0
0
OX
Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid
combustion. Fire and explosion hazards exist when
concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close
proximity; however, an ignition event, such as heat or a
spark, is needed to trigger combustion.[110] Oxygen
itself is not the fuel, but the oxidant. Combustion
hazards also apply to compounds of oxygen with a high
oxidative potential, such as peroxides, chlorates,
nitrates, perchlorates, and dichromates because they
can donate oxygen to a fire. Pure O2 at higher than normal
pressure and a spark led to a fire and
Concentrated O2 will allow combustion to proceed the loss of the Apollo 1 crew.
rapidly and energetically.[110] Steel pipes and storage

vessels used to store and transmit both gaseous and liquid oxygen will act as a fuel; and
therefore the design and manufacture of O2 systems requires special training to ensure that
ignition sources are minimized.[110] The fire that killed the Apollo 1 crew on a test launch
pad spread so rapidly because the capsule was pressurized with pure O2 but at slightly
more than atmospheric pressure, instead of the ⅓ normal pressure that would be used in a
mission.[111] [112]
Liquid oxygen spills, if allowed to soak into organic matter, such as wood, petrochemicals,
and asphalt can cause these materials to detonate unpredictably on subsequent mechanical
impact.[110] As with other cryogenic liquids, on contact with the human body it can cause
burns to the skin and the eyes.
See also
• Oxygen compounds
• Hypoxia, a lack of oxygen
• Hypoxia (environmental) for O2 depletion in aquatic ecology
• Optode for a method of measuring O2 concentration in solution
• Oxygen Catastrophe The sudden rise in Oxygen in the atmosphere around 2.4B years ago
• Oxygen isotope ratio cycle
• Oxygen plant
• Oxygen sensor
• Winkler test for dissolved oxygen
• Limiting oxygen concentration
Oxygen 20
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pnb:‫نجیسکآ‬
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Oxygen 24
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[143] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ O/ index. html

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Fluorine 1
Fluorine
Oxygen ← Fluorine → Neon -
↑
F
↓
Cl

9F
Periodic table
Appearance Yellowish brown gas General Name, symbol, numberElement categoryGroup,

period, blockStandard atomic weightElectron configurationElectrons per shell Physical
properties PhaseDensityMelting pointBoiling pointCritical pointHeat of fusionHeat of
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 38 44 50 58 69 85

Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingThermal conductivityCAS registry
number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of Fluorine
18 syn 109.77 min 0.64

β+ (97%) 18
F O
ε (3%) 1.656 18
O
19 100% 19
F F is stable with 10 neutron
Fluorine 2
Fluorine, F, 9 halogen17, 2, p18.9984032(5) g·mol−1 1s2 2s2 2p5 2, 7 (Image) gas (0 °C,
101.325 kPa)
1.7 g/L 53.53 K,−219.62 °C,−363.32 °F 85.03 K,−188.12 °C,−306.62 °F 144.13 K, 5.172
MPa (F2) 0.510 kJ·mol−1 (F2) 6.62 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) (F2)
−1 −1
31.304 J·mol ·K −1
(Weaklyacidic oxide) 3.98 (Pauling scale) 1st: 1681.0 kJ·mol−157±3 pm
−1 −1
(see covalent radius of fluorine)147 pm cubic nonmagnetic (300 K) 27.7 m W·m ·K 7782-41-4
Fluorine is the chemical element with atomic number 9, represented by the symbol F.
Fluorine forms a single bond with itself in elemental form, resulting in the diatomic F2
molecule. F2 is a supremely reactive, poisonous, pale, yellowish brown gas. Elemental
fluorine is the most chemically reactive and electronegative of all the elements. For
example, it will readily "burn" hydrocarbons at room temperature, in contrast to the
combustion of hydrocarbons by oxygen, which requires an input of energy with a spark.
Therefore, molecular fluorine is highly dangerous, more so than other halogens such as the
poisonous chlorine gas.
Fluorine's highest electronegativity and small atomic radius give unique properties to many
of its compounds. For example, the enrichment of 235U, the principal nuclear fuel, relies on
the volatility of UF6. Also, the carbon–fluorine bond is one of the strongest bonds in organic
chemistry. This contributes to the stability and persistence of fluoroalkane based
organofluorine compounds, such as PTFE/(Teflon) and PFOS. The carbon–fluorine bond's
inductive effects result in the strength of many fluorinated acids, such as triflic acid and
trifluoroacetic acid. Drugs are often fluorinated at biologically reactive positions, to prevent
their metabolism and prolong their half-lives.
Characteristics
F2 is a corrosive pale yellow or brown[1] gas that is a powerful oxidizing agent. It is the
most reactive and most electronegative of all the elements on the classic Pauling scale
(4.0), and readily forms compounds with most other elements. It has an oxidation number
-1, except when bonded to another fluorine in F2 which gives it an oxidation number of 0.
Fluorine even combines with the noble gases argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. Even in
dark, cool conditions, fluorine reacts explosively with hydrogen. The reaction with hydrogen
occurs even at extremely low temperatures, using liquid hydrogen and solid fluorine. It is so
reactive that metals, and even water, as well as other substances, burn with a bright flame
in a jet of fluorine gas. In moist air it reacts with water to form the also dangerous
hydrofluoric acid.
Fluorides are compounds that combine fluorine with some positively charged counterpart.
They often consist of crystalline ionic salts. Fluorine compounds with metals are among the
most stable of salts.
Hydrogen fluoride is a weak acid when dissolved in water, but is still very corrosive and
attacks glass. Consequently, fluorides of alkali metals produce basic solutions. For example,
a 1 M solution of NaF in water has a pH of 8.59 compared to a 1 M solution of NaOH, a
strong base, which has a pH of 14.00.[2]
Fluorine 3
Isotopes
Although fluorine (F) has multiple isotopes, only one of these isotopes (F-19) is stable,
and the others have short half-lives and are not found in nature. Fluorine is thus a
mononuclidic element.
The nuclide 18F is the radionuclide of fluorine with the longest half life (about 110 minutes
= almost 2 hours), and commercially is an important source of positrons-- finding its major
use in positron emission tomography scanning.
Applications
Elemental fluorine, F2, is mainly used for the production of two compounds of commercial
interest, uranium hexafluoride and sulfur hexafluoride.[3]
Industrial use of fluorine-containing compounds:
• Atomic fluorine and molecular fluorine are used for plasma etching in semiconductor
manufacturing, flat panel display production and MEMS (microelectromechanical
systems) fabrication.[4] Xenon difluoride is also used for this last purpose.
• Hydrofluoric acid (chemical formula HF) is used to etch glass in light bulbs and other
products.
• Tetrafluoroethylene and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are directly used in the
production of low friction plastics such as Teflon (or polytetrafluoroethylene).
• Fluorine is used indirectly in the production of halons such as freon.
• Along with some of its compounds, fluorine is used in the production of pure uranium
from uranium hexafluoride and in the synthesis of numerous commercial fluorochemicals,
including vitally important pharmaceuticals, agrochemical compounds, lubricants, and
textiles.
• Fluorochlorohydrocarbons are used extensively in air conditioning and in refrigeration.
Chlorofluorocarbons have been banned for these applications because they contribute to
ozone destruction and the ozone hole. Interestingly, since it is chlorine and bromine
radicals which harm the ozone layer, not fluorine, compounds which do not contain
chlorine or bromine but contain only fluorine, carbon and hydrogen (called
hydrofluorocarbons) are not on the United States Environmental Protection Agency list of
ozone-depleting substances,[5] and have been widely used as replacements for the
chlorine- and bromine-containing fluorocarbons. Hydrofluorocarbons do have a
greenhouse effect, but a small one compared with carbon dioxide and methane.
• Sodium hexafluoroaluminate (cryolite), is used in the electrolysis of aluminium.
• In much higher concentrations, sodium fluoride has been used as an insecticide,
especially against cockroaches.
• Fluorides have been used in the past to help molten metal flow, hence the name.
• Some researchers including US space scientists in the early 1960s have studied
elemental fluorine gas as a possible rocket propellant due to its exceptionally high
specific impulse. The experiments failed because fluorine proved difficult to handle, and
its combustion products proved extremely toxic and corrosive.
• Compounds of fluorine such as fluoropolymers, potassium fluoride and cryolite are
utilized in applications such as anti-reflective coatings and dichroic mirrors on account of
their unusually low refractive index.
Fluorine 4
Dental and medical uses

• Inorganic compounds of fluoride, including sodium fluoride (NaF), stannous fluoride
(SnF2) and sodium MFP, are used in toothpaste to prevent dental cavities. These or
related compounds are also added to some municipal water supplies, a process called
water fluoridation, although the practice has remained controversial since its beginnings
in 1945.
• Many important agents for general anesthesia such as sevoflurane, desflurane, and
isoflurane are hydrofluorocarbon derivatives.
• The fluorinated antiinflammatories dexamethasone and triamcinolone are among the
most potent of the synthetic corticosteroids class of drugs.[6]
• Fludrocortisone ("Florinef") is one of the most common mineralocorticoids, a class of
drugs which mimics the actions of aldosterone.
• Fluconazole is a triazole antifungal drug used in the treatment and prevention of
superficial and systemic fungal infections.
• Fluoroquinolones are a family of broad-spectrum antibiotics.
• SSRI antidepressants, except in a few instances, are fluorinated molecules. These include
citalopram, escitalopram oxalate, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine maleate, and paroxetine. A
notable exception is sertraline. Because of the difficulty of biological systems in dealing
with metabolism of fluorinated molecules, fluorinated antibiotics and antidepressants are
among the major fluorinated organics found in treated city sewage and wastewater.
• Compounds containing 18F, a radioactive isotope that emits positrons, are often used in
positron emission tomography, because its half-life of 110 minutes is long by the
standards of positron-emitters. One such species is fluorodeoxyglucose.
Chemistry of fluorine
Fluorine forms a variety of very different compounds, owing to its small atomic size and
covalent behavior. Elemental fluorine is a dangerously powerful oxidant, reflecting the
extreme electronegativity of fluorine. Hydrofluoric acid is extremely dangerous, whereas in
synthetic drugs incorporating an aromatic ring (e.g. flumazenil), fluorine is used to help
prevent toxication or to delay metabolism.
The fluoride ion is basic, therefore hydrofluoric acid is a weak acid in water solution.
However, water is not an inert solvent in this case: when less basic solvents such as
anhydrous acetic acid are used, hydrofluoric acid is the strongest of the hydrohalogenic
acids. Also, owing to the basicity of the fluoride ion, soluble fluorides give basic water
solutions. The fluoride ion is a Lewis base, and has a high affinity to certain elements such
as calcium and silicon. For example, deprotection of silicon protecting groups is achieved
with a fluoride. The fluoride ion is poisonous.
Fluorine as a freely reacting oxidant gives the strongest oxidants known.
The reactivity of fluorine toward the noble gas xenon was first reported by Neil Bartlett in
1962. Fluorides of krypton and radon have also been prepared. Argon fluorohydride has
been observed at cryogenic temperatures.
The carbon-fluoride bond is covalent and very stable. The use of a fluorocarbon polymer,
poly(tetrafluoroethene) or Teflon, is an example: it is thermostable and waterproof enough
to be used in frying pans. Organofluorines may be safely used in applications such as drugs,
without the risk of release of toxic fluoride. In synthetic drugs, toxication can be prevented.
Fluorine 5
For example, an aromatic ring is useful but presents a safety problem: enzymes in the body
metabolize some of them into poisonous epoxides. When the para position is substituted
with fluorine, the aromatic ring is protected and epoxide is no longer produced.
The substitution of fluorine for hydrogen in organic compounds offers a very large number
of compounds. An estimated fifth of pharmaceutical compounds and 30% of agrochemical
compounds contain fluorine.[7] The -CF3 and -OCF3 moieties provide further variation, and
more recently the -SF5 group.[8]
Fluorite (CaF2) crystals
Production
Industrial production of fluorine entails the electrolysis
of hydrogen fluoride in the presence of potassium
fluoride. This method is based on the pioneering studies
by Moissan (see below). Fluorine gas forms at the
anode, and hydrogen gas at the cathode. Under these
conditions, the potassium fluoride (KF) converts to
potassium bifluoride (KHF2), which is the actual
electrolyte, This potassium bifluoride aids electrolysis
by greatly increasing the electrical conductivity of the
solution. Fluorine cell room at F2 Chemicals
Ltd, Preston, UK
HF + KF → KHF2
2 KHF2 → 2 KF + H2 + F2
The HF required for the electrolysis is obtained as a byproduct of the production of
phosphoric acid. Phosphate-containing minerals contain significant amounts of calcium
fluorides, such as fluorite. Upon treatment with sulfuric acid, these minerals release
hydrogen fluoride:
Fluorine 6
CaF2 + H2SO4 → 2 HF + CaSO4

In 1986, when preparing for a conference to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the
discovery of fluorine, Karl Christe discovered a purely chemical preparation involving the
reaction of solutions in anhydrous HF, K2MnF6, and SbF5 at 150 °C:[9]
K2MnF6 + 2 SbF5 → 2 KSbF6 + MnF3 + ½ F2
Though not a practical synthesis on the large scale, this report demonstrates that
electrolysis is not the sole route to the element.
History
The mineral fluorspar (also called fluorite), consisting mainly of calcium fluoride, was
described in 1530 by Georgius Agricola for its use as a flux.[10] Fluxes are used to promote
the fusion of metals or minerals. The etymology of the element's name reflects its history:
Fluorine pronounced /ˈflʊəriːn/, /ˈflʊərɨn/, or commonly /ˈflɔr-/; from Latin: fluere, meaning
"to flow". In 1670 Schwanhard found that glass was etched when it was exposed to
fluorspar that had been treated with acid. Carl Wilhelm Scheele and many later
researchers, including Humphry Davy, Caroline Menard, Gay-Lussac, Antoine Lavoisier,
and Louis Thenard all would experiment with hydrofluoric acid, easily obtained by treating
fluorite with concentrated sulfuric acid.
Owing to its extreme reactivity, elemental fluorine was not isolated until many years after
the characterization of fluorite. Progress in isolating elemental fluorine was slowed because
it could only be prepared electrolytically and even then under stringent conditions since the
gas attacks many materials. In 1886, the isolation of elemental fluorine was reported by
Henri Moissan after almost 74 years of effort by other chemists.[11] The generation of
elemental fluorine from hydrofluoric acid is exceptionally dangerous, killing or blinding
several scientists who attempted early experiments on this halogen. These individuals came
to be referred to as "fluorine martyrs".[12] For Moissan, it earned him the 1906 Nobel Prize
in chemistry.[13]
The first large-scale production of fluorine was undertaken in support of the Manhattan
project, where the compound uranium hexafluoride (UF6) had been selected as the form of
uranium that would allow separation of its 235U and 238U isotopes. Today both the gaseous
diffusion process and the gas centrifuge process use gaseous UF6 to produce enriched
uranium for nuclear power applications. In the Manhattan Project, it was found that UF6
decomposed into UF4 and F2. The corrosion problem due to the F2 was eventually solved by
electrolytically coating all UF6 carrying piping with nickel metal, which forms a nickel
difluoride that is not attacked by fluorine. Joints and flexible parts were made from teflon,
then a very recently discovered fluorocarbon plastic which is also not attacked by F2.
Biological role
Though F2 is too reactive to have any natural biological role, fluorine is incorporated into
compounds with biological activity. Naturally occurring organofluorine compounds are
rare, the most notable example is fluoroacetate, which functions as a plant defence against
herbivores in at least 40 plants in Australia, Brazil and Africa.[14] The enzyme
adenosyl-fluoride synthase catalyzes the formation of 5'-deoxy-5'-fluoroadenosine. Fluorine
is not an essential nutrient, but its importance in preventing tooth decay is
well-recognized.[15] The effect is predominantly topical, although prior to 1981 it was
Fluorine 7
considered primarily systemic (occurring through ingestion).[16]
Precautions
Elemental fluorine
Elemental fluorine (fluorine gas) is a highly toxic, corrosive oxidant, which can cause
ignition of organic material. Fluorine gas has a characteristic pungent odor that is
detectable in concentrations as low as 20 ppb. As it is so reactive, all materials of
construction must be carefully selected and metal surfaces must be passivated.
Fluoride ion
Fluoride ions are toxic: the lethal dose of sodium fluoride for a 70 kg human is estimated at
5–10 g.[17]
Hydrogen fluoride and hydrofluoric acid

Hydrogen fluoride and hydrofluoric acid are dangerous, far more so than the related
hydrochloric acid, because undissociated molecular HF penetrates the skin and biological
membranes, causing deep and painless burns. The free fluoride, once released from HF in
dissociation, also is capable of chelating calcium ion to the point of causing death by
cardiac dysrhythmia. Burns with areas larger than 25 square inches (160 cm2) have the
potential to cause serious systemic toxicity.[18]
Organofluorines
Organofluorines are naturally rare compounds. They can be nontoxic (perflubron and
perfluorodecalin) or highly toxic (perfluoroisobutylene and fluoroacetic acid). Many
pharmacuticals are organofluorines, such as the anti-cancer fluorouracil.
Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) is a persistent organic pollutant.
See also
• Fluorocarbon
• Isotopes of fluorine
• Halide minerals
• Water fluoridation
References
[19]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory – Fluorine
External links
• WebElements.com – Fluorine [20]
• It's Elemental – Fluorine [21]
[22]
• Picture of liquid fluorine – chemie-master.de
• Chemsoc.org [23]
Fluorine 8
References
[1] Theodore Gray. " Real visible fluorine (http:/ / theodoregray. com/ PeriodicTable/ Samples/ 009. 5/ index. s12.
html)". The Wooden Periodic Table. .
[2] " pKa's of Inorganic and Oxo-Acids (http:/ / www2. lsdiv. harvard. edu/ labs/ evans/ pdf/ evans_pKa_table. pdf)".
Evans Group. . Retrieved 2008-11-29.
[3] M. Jaccaud, R. Faron, D. Devilliers, R. Romano (2005). Fluorine, in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527310975.
[4] Leonel R Arana, Nuria de Mas, Raymond Schmidt, Aleksander J Franz, Martin A Schmidt and Klavs F Jensen
(2007). "Isotropic etching of silicon in fluorine gas for MEMS micromachining". J. Micromech. Microeng. 17:
384. doi: 10.1088/0960-1317/17/2/026 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1088/ 0960-1317/ 17/ 2/ 026).
[5] " Class I Ozone-Depleting Substances (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ozone/ ods. html)". Ozone Depletion. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. .
[6] Steve S Lim. " eMedicine - Corticosteroid-Induced Myopathy (http:/ / www. emedicine. com/ pmr/ topic35.
htm)". .
[7] " Fluorine's treasure trove (http:/ / www. icis. com/ Articles/ 2006/ 09/ 30/ 2016413/ fluorines-treasure-trove.
html)". ICIS news. 2006-10-02. . Retrieved 2008-11-29.
[8] Bernhard Stump, Christian Eberle, W. Bernd Schweizer, Marcel Kaiser, Reto Brun, R. Luise Krauth-Siegel,
Dieter Lentz, François Diederich (2009). "Pentafluorosulfanyl as a Novel Building Block for Enzyme Inhibitors:
Trypanothione Reductase Inhibition and Antiprotozoal Activities of Diarylamines". ChemBioChem 10: 79. doi:
10.1002/cbic.200800565 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ cbic. 200800565).
[9] K. Christe (1986). "Chemical synthesis of elemental fluorine". Inorg. Chem. 25: 3721–3724. doi:
10.1021/ic00241a001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ic00241a001).
[10] " Discovery of fluorine (http:/ / www. fluoride-history. de/ fluorine. htm)". Fluoride History. .
[11] H. Moissan (1886). " Action d'un courant électrique sur l'acide fluorhydrique anhydre (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/
ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3058f/ f1541. chemindefer)". Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des
sciences 102: 1543–1544. .
[12] Richard D. Duncan. (2008). Elements of faith : faith facts and learning lessons from the periodic table (http:/ /
books. google. de/ books?id=kgVAlzGXx6oC). Green Forest, Ark.: Master Books. p. 22. ISBN 9780890515471. .
[13] " The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1906 (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ chemistry/ laureates/ 1906/ )".
Nobelprize.org. . Retrieved 2009-07-07.
[14] Proudfoot AT, Bradberry SM, Vale JA (2006). "Sodium fluoroacetate poisoning". Toxicol Rev 25 (4): 213–9.
doi: 10.2165/00139709-200625040-00002 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2165/ 00139709-200625040-00002). PMID
17288493.
[15] Olivares M and Uauy R (2004). " Essential nutrients in drinking-water (Draft) (http:/ / www. who. int/
water_sanitation_health/ dwq/ en/ nutoverview. pdf)". WHO. . Retrieved 2008-12-30.
[16] Pizzo G, Piscopo MR, Pizzo I, Giuliana G (September 2007). "Community water fluoridation and caries
prevention: a critical review". Clin Oral Investig 11 (3): 189–93. doi: 10.1007/s00784-007-0111-6 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s00784-007-0111-6). PMID 17333303.
[17] Aigueperse, Jean; Paul Mollard, Didier Devilliers, Marius Chemla, Robert Faron, Renée Romano, Jean Pierre
Cuer (2005), "Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic", in Ullmann, Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Weinheim:
Wiley-VCH
[18] " Recommended Medical Treatment for Hydrofluoric Acid Exposure (http:/ / www51. honeywell. com/ sm/
hfacid/ common/ documents/ HF_medical_book. pdf)" (PDF). Honeywell Specialty Materials. . Retrieved
2009-05-06.
[20] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ fluorine/
[22] http:/ / www. chemie-master. de/ pse/ pse. php?modul=F
[23] http:/ / www. chemsoc. org/ viselements/ pages/ fluorine. html

Fluorine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=306561968 Contributors: 12dstring, A. Carty, A3r0, AAAAA, ACSE, Ace of Spades IV,
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Neon 1
Neon
fluorine ← neon → sodiumHe
↑
Ne
↓
Ar

10Ne
Periodic table

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 12 13 15 18 21 27
Atomic properties Oxidation states Ionization energies

(more) 2nd: 3952.3 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 6122 kJ·mol−1Covalent radiusVan der Waals radius
Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingThermal conductivitySpeed of soundBulk
modulusCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of neon
20 90.48% 20
Ne Ne is stable with 10 neutron
21 0.27% 21
22 9.25% 22
Neon 2
neon, Ne, 10 noble gases 18, 2, p20.1797(6) g·mol−1 1s2 2s2 2p6 2, 8 (Image) gas (0 °C,
101.325 kPa)
0.9002 g/L 24.56 K,-248.59 °C,-415.46 °F 27.07 K,-246.08 °C,-410.94 °F
24.5561 K (-249°C), 43[1] [2] kPa 44.4 K, 2.76 MPa 0.335 kJ·mol−1 1.71 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C)
−1 −1 −1
20.786 J·mol ·K no data 1st: 2080.7 kJ·mol 58 pm 154 pm face-centered cubic
diamagnetic[3] (300 K) 49.1x10-3 W·m−1·K−1 (gas, 0 °C) 435 m/s 654 GPa 7440-01-9
Neon (pronounced /ˈniːɒn/) is the chemical element that has the symbol Ne and atomic
number 10. Although a very common element in the universe, it is rare on Earth. A
colorless, inert noble gas under standard conditions, neon gives a distinct reddish-orange
glow when used in discharge tubes and neon lamps.[4] [5] It is commercially extracted from
air, in which it is found in trace amounts.
History
Neon (Greek νέον (neon) meaning "new one") was discovered in 1898 by Scottish chemist
Sir William Ramsay (1852–1916) English chemist Morris W. Travers (1872–1961) in
London, England.[6] Neon was discovered when Ramsay chilled a sample of the atmosphere
until it became a liquid, then warmed the liquid and captured the gases as they boiled off.
The three gases that boiled off were krypton, xenon, and neon.[7] In December 1910,
French engineer Georges Claude made a lamp from an electrified tube of neon gas. On
January 19, 1915, Claude began selling his tubes to U.S. companies; the Packard car
dealership in Los Angeles was one of the first to buy it.[8]
Isotopes
Neon has three stable isotopes: 20Ne (90.48%), 21Ne (0.27%) and 22Ne (9.25%). 21Ne and
22
Ne are nucleogenic and their variations are well understood. In contrast, 20Ne is not
known to be nucleogenic and the causes of its variation in the Earth have been hotly
debated. The principal nuclear reactions which generate neon isotopes are neutron
emission, alpha decay reactions on 24Mg and 25Mg, which produce 21Ne and 22Ne,
respectively. The alpha particles are derived from uranium-series decay chains, while the
neutrons are mostly produced by secondary reactions from alpha particles. The net result
yields a trend towards lower 20Ne/22Ne and higher 21Ne/22Ne ratios observed in
uranium-rich rocks such as granites. Isotopic analysis of exposed terrestrial rocks has
demonstrated the cosmogenic production of 21Ne. This isotope is generated by spallation
reactions on magnesium, sodium, silicon, and aluminium. By analyzing all three isotopes,
the cosmogenic component can be resolved from magmatic neon and nucleogenic neon.
This suggests that neon will be a useful tool in determining cosmic exposure ages of
surficial rocks and meteorites.[9]
Similar to xenon, neon content observed in samples of volcanic gases are enriched in 20Ne,
as well as nucleogenic 21Ne, relative to 22Ne content. The neon isotopic content of these
mantle-derived samples represent a non-atmospheric source of neon. The 20Ne-enriched
components are attributed to exotic primordial rare gas components in the Earth, possibly
representing solar neon. Elevated 20Ne abundances are found in diamonds, further
suggesting a solar neon reservoir in the Earth.[10]
Neon 3
Characteristics
Neon is the second-lightest noble gas. It glows reddish-orange in a vacuum discharge tube.
According to recent studies, neon is the least reactive noble gas and thus the least reactive
of all elements[11] . Also, neon has the narrowest liquid range of any element: from 24.55 K
to 27.05 K (-248.45 °C to −245.95 °C, or −415.21 °F to −410.71 °F). It has over 40 times
the refrigerating capacity of liquid helium and three times that of liquid hydrogen (on a per
unit volume basis).[12] In most applications it is a less expensive refrigerant than helium.[13]
Neon plasma has the most
intense light discharge at
normal voltages and currents
of all the noble gases. The
average colour of this light to
Spectrum of neon with ultraviolet lines (at left) and infrared (at right) the human eye is red-orange
shown in white due to many lines in this
range; it also contains a strong
green line which is hidden, unless the visual components are dispersed by a
spectroscope.[14]
Two quite different kinds of neon lights are in common use. Glow-discharge lamps are
typically tiny, and often designed to operate at 120 volts; they are widely used as power-on
indicators and in circuit-testing equipment. Neon signs and other arc-discharge devices
operate instead at high voltages, often 3–15 kilovolts (3,000–15,000 volts); they can be
made into (often bent) tubes a few meters long.
Occurrence
Neon is actually abundant on a universal scale: the fifth most abundant chemical element in
the universe by mass, after hydrogen, helium, oxygen, and carbon (see chemical element).
Its relative rarity on Earth, like that of helium, is due to its relative lightness and chemical
inertness, both properties keeping it from being trapped in the condensing gas and dust
clouds of the formation of smaller and warmer solid planets like Earth.
Neon is monatomic, making it lighter than the molecules of diatomic nitrogen and oxygen
which form the bulk of Earth's atmosphere; a balloon filled with neon will rise up into the
air, albeit more slowly than a helium balloon.[15]
Mass abundance in the universe is about 1 part in 750 and in the Sun and presumably in
the proto-solar system nebula, about 1 part in 600. The Galileo spacecraft atmospheric
entry probe found that even in the upper atmosphere of Jupiter, neon is reduced by about a
factor of 10, to 1 part in 6,000 by mass. This may indicate that even the ice-planetesmals
which brought neon into Jupiter from the outer solar system, formed in a region which was
too warm for them to have kept their neon (abundances of heavier inert gases on Jupiter
are several times that found in the Sun).[16]
Neon is a monatomic gas at standard conditions. Neon is rare on Earth, found in the Earth's
atmosphere at 1 part in 65,000 (by volume) or 1 part in 83,000 by mass. It is industrially
produced by cryogenic fractional distillation of liquefied air.[12]
Neon 4
Applications
Neon is often used in signs and produces an
unmistakable bright reddish-orange light. Although still
referred to as "neon", all other colours are generated
with the other Noble Gases or by many colours of
fluorescent lighting.
Neon is used in vacuum tubes, high-voltage indicators,
lightning arrestors, wave meter tubes, television tubes,
and helium-neon lasers. Liquefied neon is commercially
A neon sign in the shape of its name.
used as a cryogenic refrigerant in applications not
requiring the lower temperature range attainable with
more extreme liquid helium refrigeration.
Liquid neon is actually quite expensive, and nearly impossible to obtain in small quantities
for laboratory tests. For small quantities, liquid neon can be >55x more expensive than
liquid helium. The driver for expense is actually rarity of the gas, not the liquefaction
process.
The triple point temperature of Neon (24.5561 K) is a defining fixed point in the
International Temperature Scale of 1990.[1]
Compounds
Neon is the first p-block noble gas. Theoretically neon is the least reactive of all noble gases
(including helium which produces a metastable compound HHeF), and therefore generally
considered to be inert. The calculated bond energies of neon with noble metals, hydrogen,
beryllium and boron are lesser than that of helium or any other noble gas. No true
compounds including the neutral compounds of neon are known. However, the ions Ne+,
(NeAr)+, (NeH)+, and (HeNe+) have been observed from optical and mass spectrometric
studies, and there are some unverified reports of an unstable hydrate.[12]
See also
• Expansion ratio
• Neon sign
• Neon lamp
External links
• WebElements.com – Neon [17]
• It's Elemental – Neon [18]
• USGS Periodic Table - Neon [20]
• Atomic Spectrum of Neon [21]
• Neon Museum, Las Vegas [22]
Neon 5
References
[1] Preston-Thomas, H. (1990). " The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) (http:/ / www. bipm. org/
en/ publications/ its-90. html)". Metrologia 27: 3-10. .
[2] "Section 4, Properties of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds; Melting, boiling, triple, and critical
temperatures of the elements". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th edition ed.). Boca Raton,
Florida: CRC Press. 2005.
[4] Harold P Coyle (2001). Project STAR: The Universe in Your Hands (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=KwTzo4GMlewC& pg=PA127). Kendall Hunt. ISBN 9780787267636. .
[5] Kohtaro Kohmoto (1999). " Phosphors for lamps (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lWlcJEDukRIC&
pg=PA380)". in Shigeo Shionoya and William M. Yen. Phosphor Handbook. CRC Press. ISBN 9780849375606. .
[6] William Ramsay, Morris W. Travers (1898). " On the Companions of Argon (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/
116011)". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 63: 437–440. doi: 10.1098/rspl.1898.0057 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rspl. 1898. 0057). .
[7] " Neon: History (http:/ / nautilus. fis. uc. pt/ st2. 5/ scenes-e/ elem/ e01000. html)". Softciências. . Retrieved
2007-02-27.
[8] " Neon: A Brief History (http:/ / nymag. com/ shopping/ features/ 41814/ )". New York Magazine. . Retrieved
2008-05-20.
[9] " Neon: Isotopes (http:/ / nautilus. fis. uc. pt/ st2. 5/ scenes-e/ elem/ e01093. html)". Softciências. . Retrieved
2007-02-27.
[10] Anderson, Don L.. " Helium, Neon & Argon (http:/ / www. mantleplumes. org/ Ne. html)". Mantleplumes.org. .
[11] Errol G. Lewars (2008). " Modelling Marvels (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=whdw2qlXjD0C& pg)".
Springer. .
[12] C. R. Hammond (2000). The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81th edition (http:/ / www-d0.
fnal. gov/ hardware/ cal/ lvps_info/ engineering/ elements. pdf). CRC press. p. 19. ISBN 0849304814. .
[13] " NASSMC: News Bulletin (http:/ / www. nassmc. org/ bulletin/ dec05bulletin. html#table)". 30. . Retrieved
2007-03-05.
[14] " Plasma (http:/ / www. electricalfun. com/ plasma. htm)". . Retrieved 2007-03-05.
[15] R. Gallagher and P. Ingram (2001). Chemistry for Higher Tier (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=SJtWSy69eVsC& pg=PA96). University Press. ISBN 9780199148172. .
[16] Morse, David (26). " Galileo Probe Science Result (http:/ / www2. jpl. nasa. gov/ sl9/ gll38. html)". Galileo
Project. . Retrieved 2007-02-27.
[17] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ neon/
[19] http:/ / www. compchemwiki. org/ index. php?title=Neon
[20] http:/ / wwwrcamnl. wr. usgs. gov/ isoig/ period/ ne_iig. html
[21] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ quantum/ atspect2. html
[22] http:/ / www. neonmuseum. org/

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License
Sodium 1
Sodium
neon ← sodium → magnesiumLi
↑
Na
↓
K

11Na
Periodic table
Appearance silvery white metallic

pointCritical pointHeat of fusionHeat of vaporizationSpecific heat capacityVapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 554 617 697 802 946 1153

Sodium 2

(more) 2nd: 4562 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 6910.3 kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radiusVan der Waals
radius Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingElectrical resistivityThermal
modulusBulk modulusMohs hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS registry number Most stable
isotopes Main article: Isotopes of sodium
22 syn 2.602 y 0.5454

β+→γ 22
Na Ne*
[1] 22
1.27453(2) Ne
ε→γ - 22
Ne*
1.27453(2) 22
Ne
1.8200
β+ 22
Ne
23 100% 23
Na Na is stable with 12 neutron
sodium, Na, 11 alkali metal1, 3, s22.98976928(2) g·mol−1 [Ne] 3s1 2,8,1 (Image) solid 0.968
g·cm−3 0.927 g·cm−3 370.87 K,97.72 °C,207.9 °F 1156 K,883 °C,1621 °F (extrapolated)
2573 K, 35 MPa 2.60 kJ·mol−1 97.42 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 28.230 J·mol−1·K−1+1, -1
body-centered cubic paramagnetic (20 °C) 47.7 nΩ·m (300 K) 142 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 71
µm·m−1·K−1 (20 °C) 3200 m/s 10 GPa 3.3 GPa 6.3 GPa 0.5 0.69 MPa 7440-23-5
Sodium (pronounced /ˈsoʊdiəm/) is a metallic element with a symbol Na (from Latin
natrium or Arabic natrun) and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive
metal and is a member of the alkali metals within "group 1" (formerly known as ‘group IA’).
It has only one stable isotope, 23Na.
Elemental sodium was first isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in 1806 by passing an electric
current through molten sodium hydroxide. Elemental sodium does not occur naturally on
Earth, but quickly oxidizes in air and is violently reactive with water, so it must be stored in
an inert medium, such as a liquid hydrocarbon. The free metal is used for some chemical
synthesis and heat transfer applications.
Sodium ion is soluble in water in nearly all of its compounds, and is thus present in great
quantities in the Earth's oceans and other stagnant bodies of water. In these bodies it is
mostly counterbalanced by the chloride ion, causing evaporated ocean water solids to
consist mostly of sodium chloride, or common table salt. Sodium ion is also a component of
many minerals.
Sodium is an essential element for all animal life and for some plant species. In animals,
sodium ions are used in opposition to potassium ions, to allow the organism to build up an
electrostatic charge on cell membranes, and thus allow transmission of nerve impulses
when the charge is allowed to dissipate by a moving wave of voltage change. Sodium is thus
classified as a “dietary inorganic macro-mineral” for animals. Sodium's relative rarity on
land is due to its solubility in water, thus causing it to be leached into bodies of
long-standing water by rainfall. Such is its relatively large requirement in animals, in
contrast to its relative scarcity in many inland soils, that herbivorous land animals have
developed a special taste receptor for sodium ion.
Sodium 3
Characteristics
At room temperature, sodium metal is soft enough that it can be cut with a knife. In air, the
bright silvery luster of freshly exposed sodium will rapidly tarnish. The density of alkali
metals generally increases with increasing atomic number, but sodium is denser than
potassium.
Chemical properties
Compared with other alkali metals, sodium is generally less reactive
than potassium and more reactive than lithium,[2] in accordance with
"periodic law": for example, their reaction in water, chlorine gas, etc.;
Sodium reacts exothermically with water: small pea-sized pieces will
bounce across the surface of the water until they are consumed by it,
whereas large pieces will explode. While sodium reacts with water at
room temperature, the sodium piece melts with the heat of the
reaction to form a sphere, if the reacting sodium piece is large
enough. The reaction with water produces very caustic sodium
hydroxide (lye) and highly flammable hydrogen gas. These are
extreme hazards (see Precautions section below). When burned in air,
sodium forms sodium peroxide Na2O2, or with limited oxygen, the
oxide Na2O (unlike lithium, the nitride is not formed). If burned in
oxygen under pressure, sodium superoxide NaO2 will be produced. In
chemistry, most sodium compounds are considered soluble but nature
Sodium metal
provides examples of many insoluble sodium compounds such as the
(approx 10g) under
oil feldspars. There are other insoluble sodium salts such as sodium
bismuthate NaBiO3, sodium octamolybdate Na2Mo8O25• 4H2O,
sodium thioplatinate Na4Pt3S6, sodium uranate Na2UO4. Sodium meta-antimonate's
2NaSbO3•7H2O solubility is 0.3g/L as is the pyro form Na2H2Sb2O7• H2O of this salt.
Sodium metaphosphate NaPO3 has a soluble and an insoluble form.[3]
Compounds
Sodium compounds are important to the chemical, glass, metal, paper, petroleum, soap,
and textile industries. Hard soaps are generally sodium salt of certain fatty acids
(potassium produces softer or liquid soaps).[4]
The sodium compounds that are the most important to industries are common salt (NaCl),
soda ash (Na2CO3), baking soda (NaHCO3), caustic soda (NaOH), sodium nitrate (NaNO3),
di- and tri-sodium phosphates, sodium thiosulfate (hypo, Na2S2O3 · 5H2O), and borax
(Na2B4O7 · 10H2O).[4]
Spectroscopy
When sodium or its compounds are introduced into a
flame, they turn the flame a bright yellow color.
Sodium spectral lines.

Sodium 4
One notable atomic spectral line of sodium vapor is

the so-called D-line, which may be observed directly
as the sodium flame-test line (see Applications) and
also the major light output of low-pressure sodium
lamps (these produce an unnatural yellow, rather
than the peach-colored glow of high pressure
lamps). The D-line is one of the classified
Fraunhofer lines observed in the visible spectrum of
the Sun's electromagnetic radiation. Sodium vapor
in the upper layers of the Sun creates a dark line in
the emitted spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
by absorbing visible light in a band of wavelengths
A low pressure sodium/sodium oxide around 589.5 nm. This wavelength corresponds to
(LPS/SOX) streetlamp at full power
transitions in atomic sodium in which the
(detail)
valence-electron transitions from a 3p to 3s
electronic state. Closer examination of the visible
spectrum of atomic sodium reveals that the D-line
actually consists of two lines called the D1 and D2
lines at 589.6 nm and 589.0 nm, respectively. This
fine structure results from a spin-orbit interaction of
the valence electron in the 3p electronic state. The
spin-orbit interaction couples the spin angular
momentum and orbital angular momentum of a 3p
electron to form two states that are respectively
notated as and in the LS
coupling scheme. The 3s state of the electron gives
rise to a single state which is notated as in
the LS coupling scheme. The D1-line results from an
electronic transition between lower state
and upper state. The D2-line results from
an electronic transition between lower
state and upper state. Even closer
examination of the visible spectrum of atomic
sodium would reveal that the D-line actually consists
A FASOR tuned to the D2A component of of a lot more than two lines. These lines are
the sodium D line, used at the Starfire
associated with hyperfine structure of the 3p upper
Optical Range to excite sodium atoms in
the upper atmosphere.
states and 3s lower states. Many different
transitions involving visible light near 589.5 nm may
occur between the different upper and lower
hyperfine levels.[5] [6]
A practical use for lasers which work at the sodium D-line transition (see FASOR
illustration) is to create artificial laser guide stars (artificial star-like images from sodium in
the upper atmosphere) which assist in the adaptive optics for large land-based visible light
telescopes.
Sodium 5
Isotopes
Thirteen isotopes of sodium have been recognized. The only stable isotope is 23Na. Sodium
has two radioactive cosmogenic isotopes which are also the two isotopes with longest half
life, 22Na, with a half-life of 2.6 years and 24Na with a half-life of 15 hours. All other
isotopes have a half life of less than one minute.[7]
Acute neutron radiation exposure (e.g., from a nuclear criticality accident) converts some of
the stable 23Na in human blood plasma to 24Na. By measuring the concentration of this
isotope, the neutron radiation dosage to the victim can be computed.[8]
History
Salt has been an important commodity in human
activities, as testified by the English word salary,
referring to salarium, the wafers of salt sometimes
given to Roman soldiers along with their other
wages.
In medieval Europe a compound of sodium with the
Latin name of sodanum was used as a headache
remedy. The name sodium probably originates from
the Arabic word suda meaning headache as the
headache-alleviating properties of sodium carbonate
or soda were well known in early times.[9]
Sodium's chemical abbreviation Na was first

published by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in his system of
atomic symbols (Thomas Thomson, Annals of
Philosophy[10] ) and is a contraction of the element's
new Latin name natrium which refers to the
Egyptian natron,[11] the word for a natural mineral
salt whose primary ingredient is hydrated sodium
carbonate. Hydrated sodium carbonate historically
had several important industrial and household uses
The flame test for sodium displays a later eclipsed by soda ash, baking soda and other
brilliantly bright yellow emission due to the
sodium compounds.
so called "sodium D-lines" at 588.9950 and
589.5924 nanometers.
Although sodium (sometimes called "soda" in
English) has long been recognized in compounds, it
was not isolated until 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy through the electrolysis of caustic
soda.[12]
Sodium imparts an intense yellow color to flames. As early as 1860, Kirchhoff and Bunsen
noted the high sensitivity that a flame test for sodium could give. They state in Annalen der
Physik und der Chemie in the paper "Chemical Analysis by Observation of Spectra":
In a corner of our 60 cu.m. room farthest away from the apparatus, we exploded 3 mg. of
sodium chlorate with milk sugar while observing the nonluminous flame before the slit.
After a while, it glowed a bright yellow and showed a strong sodium line that disappeared
only after 10 minutes. From the weight of the sodium salt and the volume of air in the room,
we easily calculate that one part by weight of air could not contain more than 1/20 millionth
Sodium 6
weight of sodium.
Occurrence
Owing to its high reactivity, sodium is found in nature only as a compound and never as the
free element. Sodium makes up about 2.6% by weight of the Earth's crust, making it the
sixth most abundant element overall[13] and the most abundant alkali metal. Sodium is
found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium
chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater, as well as in solid deposits
(halite). Others include amphibole, cryolite, soda niter and zeolite.
Sodium is relatively abundant in stars and the D spectral lines of this element are among
the most prominent in star light. Though elemental sodium has a rather high vaporization
temperature, its relatively high abundance and very intense spectral lines have allowed its
presence to be detected by ground telescopes and confirmed by spacecraft (Mariner 10 and
MESSENGER) in the thin atmosphere of the planet Mercury.[14]
Commercial production
Sodium was first produced commercially in 1855 by thermal reduction of sodium carbonate
with carbon at 1100 °C, in what is known as the Deville process.[15]
Na2CO3 (liquid) + 2 C (solid) → 2 Na (vapor) + 3 CO (gas).
A process based on the reduction of sodium hydroxide was developed in 1886.[15]
Sodium is now produced commercially through the electrolysis of liquid sodium chloride,
based on a process patented in 1924.[16] [17] This is done in a Downs Cell in which the NaCl
is mixed with calcium chloride to lower the melting point below 700 °C. As calcium is less
electropositive than sodium, no calcium will be formed at the anode. This method is less
expensive than the previous Castner process of electrolyzing sodium hydroxide.
Very pure sodium can be isolated by the thermal decomposition of sodium azide.[18]
Metallic sodium costs about 15 to 20 US cents per pound (US$0.30/kg to US$0.45/kg) in
1997, but reagent grade (ACS) sodium cost about US$35 per pound (US$75/kg) in 1990.
Applications
Sodium in its metallic form can be used to refine some reactive metals, such as zirconium
and potassium, from their compounds. This alkali metal as the Na+ ion is vital to animal life.
Other uses:
• In certain alloys to improve their structure.
• In soap, in combination with fatty acids. Sodium soaps are harder (higher melting) soaps
than potassium soaps.
• To descale metal (make its surface smooth).
• To purify molten metals.
• In some medicine formulations, the salt form of the active ingredient usually with sodium
or potassium is a common modification to improve bioavailability.
• In sodium vapor lamps, an efficient means of producing light from electricity (see the
picture), often used for street lighting in cities. Low-pressure sodium lamps give a
distinctive yellow-orange light which consists primarily of the twin sodium D lines.
High-pressure sodium lamps give a more natural peach-colored light, composed of
Sodium 7
wavelengths spread much more widely across the spectrum.

• As a heat transfer fluid in some types of nuclear reactors and inside the hollow valves of
high-performance internal combustion engines.
• Sodium chloride (NaCl), a compound of sodium ions and chloride ions, is an important
heat transfer material.
• In organic synthesis, sodium is used as a reducing agent, for example in the Birch
reduction.
• In chemistry, sodium is often used either alone or with potassium in an alloy, NaK as a
desiccant for drying solvents. Used with benzophenone, it forms an intense blue
coloration when the solvent is dry and oxygen-free.
Biological role
In maintenance of body fluid volume in animals

The serum sodium and urine sodium play important roles in medicine, both in the
maintenance of sodium and total body fluid homeostasis, and in the diagnosis of disorders
causing homeostatic disruption of salt/sodium and water balance.
In mammals, decreases in blood pressure and decreases in sodium concentration sensed
within the kidney result in the production of renin, a hormone which acts in a number of
ways, one of them being to act indirectly to cause the generation of aldosterone, a hormone
which decreases the excretion of sodium in the urine. As the body of the mammal retains
more sodium, other osmoregulation systems which sense osmotic pressure in part from the
concentration of sodium and water in the blood, act to generate antidiuretic hormone. This,
in turn, which causes the body to retain water, thus helping to restoring the body's total
amount of fluid.
There is also a counterbalancing system, which senses volume. As fluid is retained,
receptors in the heart and vessels which sense distension and pressure, cause production of
atrial natriuretic peptide, which is named in part for the Latin word for sodium. This
hormone acts in various ways to cause the body to lose sodium in the urine. This causes the
body's osmotic balance to drop (as low concentration of sodium is sensed directly), which in
turn causes the osmoregulation system to excrete the "excess" water. The net effect is to
return the body's total fluid levels back toward normal.
In maintenance of resting electrical potential in excitable tissues in

animals
Sodium cations are important in neuron (brain and nerve) function, and in influencing
osmotic balance between cells and the interstitial fluid, with their distribution mediated in
all animals (but not in all plants) by the so-called Na+/K+-ATPase pump.[19] Sodium is the
chief cation in fluid residing outside cells in the mammalian body (the so-called
extracellular compartment), with relatively little sodium residing inside cells. The volume of
extracellular fluid is typically 15 litres in a 70 kg human, and the 50 grams of sodium it
contains is about 90% of the body's total sodium content.
Sodium 8
Dietary uses
The most common sodium salt, sodium chloride (table salt), is used for seasoning and
warm-climate food preservation, such as pickling and making jerky (the high osmotic
content of salt inhibits bacterial and fungal growth). The human requirement for sodium in
the diet is about 500 mg per day,[20] which is typically less than a tenth as much as many
diets "seasoned to taste." Most people consume far more sodium than is physiologically
needed. For certain people with salt-sensitive blood pressure, this extra intake may cause a
harmful effect on health. However, low sodium intake may lead to sodium deficiency.
Precautions
Extreme care is required in handling elemental/metallic sodium. Sodium is potentially
explosive in water (depending on quantity) and is a corrosive substance, since it is rapidly
converted to sodium hydroxide on contact with moisture. The powdered form may combust
spontaneously in air or oxygen. Sodium must be stored either in an inert (oxygen and
moisture free) atmosphere (such as nitrogen or argon), or under a liquid hydrocarbon such
as mineral oil or kerosene.
The reaction of sodium and water is a familiar one in chemistry labs, and is reasonably safe
if amounts of sodium smaller than a pencil eraser are used and the reaction is done behind
a plastic shield by people wearing eye protection. However, the sodium-water reaction does
not scale up well, and is treacherous when larger amounts of sodium are used. Larger
pieces of sodium melt under the heat of the reaction, and the molten ball of metal is buoyed
up by hydrogen and may appear to be stably reacting with water, until splashing covers
more of the reaction mass, causing thermal runaway and an explosion which scatters
molten sodium, lye solution, and sometimes flame. (18.5 g explosion [21]) This behavior is
unpredictable, and among the alkali metals it is usually sodium which invites this surprise
phenomenon, because lithium is not reactive enough to do it, and potassium is so reactive
that chemistry students are not tempted to try the reaction with larger potassium pieces.
Sodium is much more reactive than magnesium; a reactivity which can be further enhanced
due to sodium's much lower melting point. When sodium catches fire in air (as opposed to
just the hydrogen gas generated from water by means of its reaction with sodium) it more
easily produces temperatures high enough to melt the sodium, exposing more of its surface
to the air and spreading the fire.
Few common fire extinguishers work on sodium fires. Water, of course, exacerbates sodium
fires, as do water-based foams. CO2 and Halon are often ineffective on sodium fires, which
reignite when the extinguisher dissipates. Among the very few materials effective on a
sodium fire are Pyromet and Met-L-X. Pyromet is a NaCl/(NH4)2HPO4 mix, with
flow/anti-clump agents. It smothers the fire, drains away heat, and melts to form an
impermeable crust. This is the standard dry-powder canister fire extinguisher for all classes
of fires. Met-L-X is mostly sodium chloride, NaCl, with approximately 5% Saran plastic as a
crust-former, and flow/anti-clumping agents. It is most commonly hand-applied, with a
scoop. Other extreme fire extinguishing materials include Lith+, a graphite based dry
powder with an organophosphate flame retardant; and Na+, a Na2CO3-based material.
Because of the reaction scale problems discussed above, disposing of large quantities of
sodium (more than 10 to 100 grams) must be done through a licensed hazardous materials
disposer. Smaller quantities may be broken up and neutralized carefully with ethanol
Sodium 9
(which has a much slower reaction than water), or even methanol (where the reaction is
more rapid than ethanol's but still less than in water), but care should nevertheless be
taken, as the caustic products from the ethanol or methanol reaction are just as hazardous
to eyes and skin as those from water. After the alcohol reaction appears complete, and all
pieces of reaction debris have been broken up or dissolved, a mixture of alcohol and water,
then pure water, may then be carefully used for a final cleaning. This should be allowed to
stand a few minutes until the reaction products are diluted more thoroughly and flushed
down the drain. The purpose of the final water soaking and washing of any reaction mass or
container which may contain sodium, is to ensure that alcohol does not carry unreacted
sodium into the sink trap, where a water reaction may generate hydrogen in the trap space
which can then be potentially ignited, causing a confined sink trap explosion.
See also
• Alkali metals
• Sodium compounds
External links
• The Periodic Table of Videos - Sodium [22]
• Etymology of "natrium" - source of symbol Na [23]
• WebElements.com – Sodium [24]
• The Wooden Periodic Table Table's Entry on Sodium [25]
• Dietary Sodium [26]
[27]
• Sodium isotopes data from The Berkeley Laboratory Isotopes Project's
References
[1] Endt, P. M. ENDT, ,1 (1990) (12/1990). "Energy levels of A = 21-44 nuclei (VII)". Nuclear Physics A 521: 1.
doi: 10.1016/0375-9474(90)90598-G (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0375-9474(90)90598-G).
[2] Prof. N. De Leon. " Reactivity of Alkali Metals (http:/ / www. iun. edu/ ~cpanhd/ C101webnotes/
modern-atomic-theory/ alkali-reac. html)". Indiana University Northwest. . Retrieved 2007-12-07.
[3] Lange's Handbook of Chemistry
[4] Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; (1985). "Natrium" (in German). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen
Chemie (91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 931–943. ISBN 3-11-007511-3.
[5] Citron, M. L., et al. (1977). " Experimental study of power broadening in a two level atom (http:/ / prola. aps.
org/ abstract/ PRA/ v16/ i4/ p1507_1)". Physical Review A 16: 1507. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevA.16.1507 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevA. 16. 1507). .
[6] Daniel A. Steck. " Sodium D. Line Data (http:/ / george. ph. utexas. edu/ ~dsteck/ alkalidata/ sodiumnumbers.
pdf)" (PDF). Los Alamos National Laboratory (technical report). .
[7] Audi, Georges (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic
Mass Data Center) 729: 3–128. doi: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j.
nuclphysa. 2003. 11. 001).
[8] Sanders, F. W.; Auxier, J. A. (1962). " Neutron Activation of Sodium in Anthropomorphous Phantoms (http:/ /
www. health-physics. com/ pt/ re/ healthphys/ abstract. 00004032-196208000-00005. htm)". Health Physics 8
(4): 371–379. doi: 10.1097/00004032-196208000-00005 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1097/
00004032-196208000-00005). .
[9] David E. Newton, Chemical Elements, ISBN 0-7876-2847-6
[10] van der Krogt, Peter. " Elementymology & Elements Multidict (http:/ / www. vanderkrogt. net/ elements/
elem/ na. html)". . Retrieved 2007-06-08.
[11] Newton
[12] Davy, Humphry (1808). " On some new Phenomena of Chemical Changes produced by Electricity, particularly
the Decomposition of the fixed Alkalies, and the Exhibition of the new Substances, which constitute their Bases
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Kg9GAAAAMAAJ)". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
Sodium 10
London 98: 1–45. doi: 10.1098/rstl.1808.0001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rstl. 1808. 0001). .
[13] CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 2004
[14] " Sodium found in Mercury's atmosphere (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1200/ is_v128/
ai_3898126)". BNET. 1985-08-17. . Retrieved 2008-09-18.
[15] Eggeman, Tim. Sodium and Sodium Alloys. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. Published online 2007. doi: 10.1002/0471238961.1915040912051311.a01.pub2 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1002/ 0471238961. 1915040912051311. a01. pub2)
[16] Pauling, Linus, General Chemistry, 1970 ed., Dover Publications
[17] " Los Alamos National Laboratory – Sodium (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 11. html)". . Retrieved
2007-06-08.
[18] Merck Index, 9th ed., monograph 8325
[19] Campbell, Neil (1987). Biology. Menlo Park, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co.. pp. 795. ISBN
0-8053-1840-2.
[20] Implementing recommendations for dietary salt reduction: Where are we?. DIANE Publishing. ISBN
1428929096.
[21] http:/ / video. google. de/ videoplay?docid=-2158222101210607510& q=sodium
[22] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=YvSkXd_VVYk
[23] http:/ / www. balashon. com/ 2008/ 07/ neter-and-nitrogen. html
[24] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ sodium/
[25] http:/ / www. theodoregray. com/ PeriodicTable/ Elements/ 011/ index. html
[26] http:/ / www. americanheart. org/ presenter. jhtml?identifier=4708
[27] http:/ / ie. lbl. gov/ education/ parent/ Na_iso. htm

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License
Magnesium 1
Magnesium
sodium ← magnesium → aluminiumBe
↑
Mg
↓
Ca

12Mg
Periodic table
Appearance silvery white solid

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 701 773 861 971 1132 1361

Magnesium 2

(more) 2nd: 1450.7 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 7732.7 kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radiusVan der
Waals radius Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingElectrical
resistivityThermal conductivityThermal expansionSpeed of sound (thin rod) Young's
modulusShear modulusBulk modulusPoisson ratioMohs hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS
registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of magnesium
24 78.99% 24
Mg Mg is stable with 12 neutron
25 10% 25
26 11.01% 26
magnesium, Mg, 12 alkaline earth metal2, 3, s24.3050(6) g·mol−1 [Ne] 3s2 2, 8, 2 (Image)
solid 1.738 g·cm−3 1.584 g·cm−3 923 K,650 °C,1202 °F 1363 K,1091 °C,1994 °F 8.48
kJ·mol−1 128 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 24.869 J·mol−1·K−12, 1 [1]
hexagonal paramagnetic (20 °C) 43.9 nΩ·m (300 K) 156 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 24.8
µm·m−1·K−1 (r.t.) (annealed)
4940 m·s−1 45 GPa 17 GPa 45 GPa 0.290 2.5 260 MPa 7439-95-4
Magnesium (pronounced /mæɡˈniːziəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Mg,
atomic number 12, atomic weight 24.3050 and common oxidation number +2.
Magnesium, an alkaline earth metal, is the ninth most abundant element in the universe by
mass.[2] This preponderance of magnesium is related to the fact that it is easily built up in
supernova stars from a sequential addition of three helium nuclei to carbon (which in turn
is made from a single reaction between three helium nuclei at once). Magnesium
constitutes about 2% of the Earth's crust by mass, which makes it the eighth most abundant
element in the crust.[3] Magnesium ion's high solubility in water helps ensure that it is the
third most abundant element dissolved in seawater.[4]
Magnesium is the 11th most abundant element by mass in the human body; its ions are
essential to all living cells, where they play a major role in manipulating important
biological polyphosphate compounds like ATP, DNA, and RNA. Hundreds of enzymes thus
require magnesium ions in order to function. Magnesium is also the metallic ion at the
center of chlorophyll, and is thus a common additive to fertilizers.[5] Magnesium compounds
are used medicinally as common laxatives, antacids (i.e., milk of magnesia), and in a
number of situations where stabilization of abnormal nerve excitation and blood vessel
spasm is required (i.e., to treat eclampsia). Magnesium ions are sour to the taste, and in
low concentrations help to impart a natural tartness to fresh mineral waters.
The free element (metal) is not found naturally on Earth, since it is highly reactive (though
once produced, is coated in a thin layer of oxide—see passivation—which partly masks this
reactivity). The free metal burns with a characteristic brilliant white light, making it a
useful ingredient in flares. The metal is now mainly obtained by electrolysis of magnesium
salts obtained from brine. Commercially, the chief use for the metal is as an alloying agent
to make aluminium-magnesium alloys, sometimes called "magnalium" or "magnelium".
Since magnesium is less dense than aluminium, these alloys are prized for their relative
lightness and strength.
Magnesium 3
Notable characteristics
Elemental magnesium is a fairly strong, silvery-white, light-weight metal (two thirds the
density of aluminium). It tarnishes slightly when exposed to air, although unlike the alkaline
metals, storage in an oxygen-free environment is unnecessary because magnesium is
protected by a thin layer of oxide which is fairly impermeable and hard to remove. Like its
lower periodic table group neighbor calcium, magnesium reacts with water at room
temperature, though it reacts much more slowly than calcium. When it is submerged in
water, hydrogen bubbles will almost unnoticeably begin to form on the surface of the metal,
though if powdered it will react much more rapidly. The reaction will occur faster with
higher temperatures (see precautions). Magnesium also reacts exothermically with most
acids, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl). As with aluminium, zinc and many other metals, the
reaction with hydrochloric acid produces the chloride of the metal and releases hydrogen
gas.
Magnesium is a highly flammable metal, but while it is easy to ignite when powdered or
shaved into thin strips, it is difficult to ignite in mass or bulk. Once ignited, it is difficult to
extinguish, being able to burn in both nitrogen (forming magnesium nitride), and carbon
dioxide (forming magnesium oxide and carbon). On burning in air, magnesium produces a
brilliant white light. Thus magnesium powder (flash powder) was used as a source of
illumination in the early days of photography. Later, magnesium ribbon was used in
electrically ignited flash bulbs. Magnesium powder is used in the manufacture of fireworks
and marine flares where a brilliant white light is required. Flame temperatures of
magnesium and magnesium alloys can reach 1371 °C (2500 °F), although flame height
above the burning metal is usually less than 300 mm (12 in).[6]
Magnesium compounds are typically white crystals. Most are soluble in water, providing
the sour-tasting magnesium ion Mg2+. Small amounts of dissolved magnesium ion
contributes to the tartness and taste of natural waters. Magnesium ion in large amounts is
an ionic laxative, and magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) is sometimes used for this purpose.
So-called "milk of magnesia" is a water suspension of one of the few insoluble magnesium
compounds, magnesium hydroxide. The undissolved particles give rise to its appearance
and name. Milk of magnesia is a mild base commonly used as an antacid.
Applications
As the metal
Magnesium 4
Magnesium is the third most commonly used structural

metal, following steel and aluminium.
Magnesium compounds, primarily magnesium oxide
(MgO), are used mainly as refractory material in
furnace linings for producing iron, steel, nonferrous
metals, glass and cement. Magnesium oxide and other
compounds also are used in agricultural, chemical and
construction industries. As a metal, this element's
principal use is as an alloying additive to aluminium
An unusual application of magnesium
with these aluminium-magnesium alloys being used
as an illumination source while
wakeskating in 1931 mainly for beverage cans.
Magnesium, in its purest form, can be compared with

aluminium, and is strong and light, so it is used in several high volume part manufacturing
applications, including automotive and truck components. Specialty, high-grade car wheels
of magnesium alloy are called "mag wheels". In 1957 a Corvette SS, designed for racing,
was constructed with magnesium body panels. An earlier Mercedes-Benz race car model,
the Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR, had a body made from Elektron, a magnesium alloy; these
cars ran (with successes) at Le Mans, the Mille Miglia, and other world-class race events in
1955 (though one was involved in the single worst accident in auto racing history, in terms
of human casualties, at the Le Mans race.) Porsche's all-out quest to decrease the weight of
their race cars led to the use of magnesium frames in the famous 917/053 which won Le
Mans in 1971, and still holds the absolute distance record. The 917/30 Can-Am car also
featured a magnesium spaceframe, helping it to make the most of its prodigious
1100-1500hp. Volkswagen has used magnesium in its engine components for many years.
For a long time, Porsche used magnesium alloy for its engine blocks due to the weight
advantage. There is renewed interest in magnesium engine blocks, as featured in the 2006
BMW 325i and 330i models. The BMW engine uses an aluminium alloy insert for the
cylinder walls and cooling jackets surrounded by a high temperature magnesium alloy
AJ62A. The application of magnesium AE44 alloy in the 2006 Corvette Z06 engine cradle
has advanced the technology of designing robust automotive parts in magnesium. Both of
these alloys are recent developments in high temperature low creep magnesium alloys.
Mitsubishi Motors also uses magnesium (branded magnesium alloy) for its paddle shifters.
The general strategy for such alloys is to form intermetallic precipitates at the grain
boundaries, for example by adding mischmetal or calcium.[7] New alloy development and
lower costs, which are becoming competitive to aluminium, will further the number of
automotive applications.
Magnesium 5
The second application field of magnesium is electronic

devices. Due to low weight, good mechanical and
electrical properties, magnesium is widely used for
manufacturing of mobile phones, laptop computers,
cameras, and other electronic components.
Historically, magnesium was one of the main aerospace
construction metals and was used for German military
aircraft as early as World War I and extensively for
German aircraft in World War II. The Germans coined
Products made of magnesium:
firestarter and shavings, sharpener, the name 'Elektron' for magnesium alloy which is still
magnesium ribbon used today. Due to perceived hazards with magnesium
parts in the event of fire, the application of magnesium
in the commercial aerospace industry was generally restricted to engine related
components. Currently the use of magnesium alloys in aerospace is increasing, mostly
driven by the increasing importance of fuel economy and the need to reduce weight. The
development and testing of new magnesium alloys continues, notably Elektron 21 which
has successfully undergone extensive aerospace testing for suitability in engine, internal
and airframe components. The European Community runs three R&D magnesium projects
in the Aerospace priority of Six Framework Program.
• Incendiary use: Magnesium is flammable, burning at

a temperature of approximately 2500 K (2200 °C,
4000 °F), and the autoignition temperature of
magnesium is approximately 744 K (473 °C, 883 °F)
in air. The extremely high temperature at which
magnesium burns makes it a handy tool for starting
emergency fires during outdoor recreation. Other
related uses include flashlight photography, flares,
pyrotechnics, fireworks sparklers, and incendiary
bombs.
Magnesium firestarter (in left hand),
Magnesium is also used: used with a pocket knife and flint to
• To remove sulfur from iron and steel. create sparks which ignite the
shavings
• To refine titanium in the Kroll process.
• To photoengrave plates in the printing industry.
• To combine in alloys, where this metal is essential for airplane and missile construction.
• In the form of turnings or ribbons, to prepare Grignard reagents, which are useful in
organic synthesis.
• As an alloying agent, improving the mechanical, fabrication and welding characteristics
of aluminium.
• As an additive agent in conventional propellants and the production of nodular graphite
in cast iron.
• As a reducing agent for the production of uranium and other metals from their salts.
• As a desiccant, since it easily reacts with water.
• As a sacrificial (galvanic) anode to protect underground tanks, pipelines, buried
structures, and water heaters.
Magnesium 6
In magnesium compounds
• The magnesium ion is necessary for all life (see magnesium in biology), so magnesium
salts are an additive for foods, fertilizers (Mg is a component of chlorophyll), and culture
media.
• Magnesium hydroxide is used in milk of magnesia, its chloride, oxide, gluconate, malate,
orotate and citrate used as oral magnesium supplements, and its sulfate (Epsom salts) for
various purposes in medicine, and elsewhere (see the article for more). Oral magnesium
supplements have been claimed to be therapeutic for some individuals who suffer from
Restless Leg Syndrome (RLS).
• Magnesium borate, magnesium salicylate and magnesium sulfate are used as antiseptics.
• Magnesium bromide is used as a mild sedative (this action is due to the bromide, not the
magnesium).
• Dead-burned magnesite is used for refractory purposes such as brick and liners in
furnaces and converters.
• Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) powder is also used by athletes, such as gymnasts and
weightlifters, to improve the grip on objects – the apparatus or lifting bar.
• Magnesium stearate is a slightly flammable white powder with lubricative properties. In
pharmaceutical technology it is used in the manufacturing of tablets, to prevent the
tablets from sticking to the equipment during the tablet compression process (i.e., when
the tablet's substance is pressed into tablet form).
• Magnesium sulfite is used in the manufacture of paper (sulfite process).
• Magnesium phosphate is used to fireproof wood for construction.
• Magnesium hexafluorosilicate is used in mothproofing of textiles.
History
The name originates from the Greek word for a district in Thessaly called Magnesia. It is
related to magnetite and manganese, which also originated from this area, and required
differentiation as separate substances. See manganese for this history.
Magnesium is the seventh most abundant element in the Earth's crust by mass and eighth
by molarity.[3] It is found in large deposits of magnesite, dolomite, and other minerals, and
in mineral waters, where magnesium ion is soluble. In 1618 a farmer at Epsom in England
attempted to give his cows water from a well. They refused to drink because of the water's
bitter taste. However the farmer noticed that the water seemed to heal scratches and
rashes. The fame of Epsom salts spread. Eventually they were recognized to be hydrated
magnesium sulfate, MgSO4.
The metal itself was first produced in England by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808 using
electrolysis of a mixture of magnesia and mercury oxide. Antoine Bussy prepared it in
coherent form in 1831. Davy's first suggestion for a name was magnium, but the name
magnesium is now used.
Magnesium 7
Sources
Ores
Although magnesium is found in over 60 minerals, only dolomite, magnesite, brucite,
carnallite, talc, and olivine are of commercial importance.
Sea water
The Mg2+ cation is the second most abundant cation in sea water (occurring at about 12%
of the mass of sodium there), which makes sea water and sea-salt an attractive commercial
source of Mg. To extract the magnesium, calcium hydroxide is added to sea water to form
magnesium hydroxide precipitate.
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2
Magnesium hydroxide is insoluble in water so it can be filtered out, and reacted with
hydrochloric acid to obtain concentrated magnesium chloride.
Mg(OH)2 + 2 HCl → MgCl2 + 2 H2O
From magnesium chloride, electrolysis produces magnesium.
Electrolysis
In the United States, magnesium is principally obtained by electrolysis of fused magnesium
chloride from brines, wells, and sea water. At the cathode, the Mg2+ ion is reduced by two
electrons to magnesium metal:
Mg2+ + 2 e− → Mg
At the anode, each pair of Cl− ions is oxidised to chlorine gas, releasing two electrons to
complete the circuit:
2 Cl− → Cl2 (g) + 2 e−
The United States has traditionally been the major world supplier of this metal, supplying
45% of world production even as recently as 1995. Today, the US market share is at 7%,
with a single domestic producer left, US Magnesium, a company born from now-defunct
Magcorp.[8]
As of 2005, China has taken over as the dominant supplier, pegged at 60% world market
share, which increased from 4% in 1995. Unlike the above described electrolytic process,
China is almost completely reliant on a different method of obtaining the metal from its
ores, the silicothermic Pidgeon process (the reduction of the oxide at high temperatures
with silicon).
Biological role
Due to the important interaction between phosphate and magnesium ions, magnesium ions
are essential to the basic nucleic acid chemistry of life, and thus are essential to all cells of
all known living organisms. Over 300 enzymes require the presence of magnesium ions for
their catalytic action, including all enzymes utilizing or synthesizing ATP, or those which
use other nucleotides to synthesize DNA and RNA. ATP exists in cells normally as a chelate
of ATP and a magnesium ion.
Plants have an additional use for magnesium in that chlorophylls are magnesium-centered
porphyrins. Magnesium deficiency in plants causes late-season yellowing between leaf
Magnesium 8
veins, especially in older leaves, and can be corrected by applying Epsom salts (which is
rapidly leached), or else crushed dolomitic limestone to the soil.
Magnesium is a vital component of a healthy human
diet. Human magnesium deficiency (including
conditions which show few overt symptoms) is
relatively common, with only 32% of the United States
meeting the RDA-DRI,[9] and has been implicated in the
development of a number of human illnesses such as
asthma, osteoporosis, and ADHD.[10]
Adult human bodies contain about 24 grams of

magnesium, with 60% in the skeleton, 39% intracellular
(20% in skeletal muscle), and 1% extracellular. Serum
levels are typically 0.7 – 1.0 mmol/L. Serum magnesium
levels may appear normal even in cases of underlying
intracellular deficiency, although no known mechanism
maintains a homeostatic level in the blood other than
renal excretion of high blood levels. Intracellular
magnesium is correlated with intracellular potassium.
Magnesium is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract,
Food sources of magnesium
with more absorbed when status is lower. In humans,
magnesium appears to facilitate calcium absorption.
Low and high protein intake inhibit magnesium absorption, and other factors such as
phosphate, phytate, and fat affect absorption. Absorbed dietary magnesium is largely
excreted through the urine, although most magnesium "administered orally" is excreted
through the feces.[11] Magnesium status may be assessed roughly through serum and
erythrocyte Mg concentrations and urinary and fecal excretion, but intravenous magnesium
loading tests are likely the most accurate and practical in most people.[12] In these tests,
magnesium is injected intravenously; a retention of 20% or more indicates deficiency.[13]
Other nutrient deficiencies are identified through biomarkers, but none are established for
magnesium.[14]
Spices, nuts, cereals, coffee, cocoa, tea, and vegetables (especially green leafy ones) are
rich sources of magnesium. Observations of reduced dietary magnesium intake in modern
Western countries as compared to earlier generations may be related to food refining and
modern fertilizers which contain no magnesium.[11]
There are a number of magnesium dietary supplements available. Magnesium oxide, one of
the most common because it has a high magnesium content per weight, has been reported
to be the least bioavailable.[15] [16] Magnesium citrate has been reported as more
bioavailable than oxide or amino-acid chelate (glycinate) forms.[17]
Excess magnesium in the blood is freely filtered at the kidneys, and for this reason it is
difficult to overdose on magnesium from dietary sources alone.[10] With supplements,
overdose is possible, however, particularly in people with poor renal function; occasionally,
with use of high cathartic doses of magnesium salts, severe hypermagnesemia has been
reported to occur even without renal dysfunction.[18] Alcoholism can produce a magnesium
deficiency which is easily reversed by oral or parenteral administration, depending on the
degree of deficiency.[19]
Magnesium 9
Isotopes
Magnesium has three stable isotopes: 24Mg, 25Mg, 26Mg. All are present in significant
amounts (see table of isotopes above). About 79% of Mg is 24Mg. The isotope 28Mg is
radioactive and in the 1950s to 1970s was made commercially by several nuclear power
plants for use in scientific experiments. This isotope has a relatively short half-life (21
hours) and so its use was limited by shipping times.
26
Mg has found application in isotopic geology, similar to that of aluminium. 26Mg is a
radiogenic daughter product of 26Al, which has a half-life of 717,000 years. Large
enrichments of stable 26Mg have been observed in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions of some
carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. The anomalous abundance of 26Mg is attributed to the
decay of its parent 26Al in the inclusions. Therefore, the meteorite must have formed in the
solar nebula before the 26Al had decayed. Hence, these fragments are among the oldest
objects in the solar system and have preserved information about its early history.
It is conventional to plot 26Mg/24Mg against an Al/Mg ratio. In an isochron dating plot, the
Al/Mg ratio plotted is27Al/24Mg. The slope of the isochron has no age significance, but
indicates the initial 26Al/27Al ratio in the sample at the time when the systems were
separated from a common reservoir.
Precautions
Magnesium metal and its alloys are explosive hazards;
they are highly flammable in their pure form when
molten or in powder or in ribbon form. Burning or
molten magnesium metal reacts violently with water.
When working with powdered magnesium, safety
glasses with welding eye protection are employed,
because the bright white light produced by burning
magnesium contains ultraviolet light that can
permanently damage the retinas of the eyes.[20] The magnesium-bodied Honda RA302
of Jo Schlesser crashes and burns
Magnesium is capable of reducing water to the during the 1968 French Grand Prix.
highly-flammable hydrogen gas:[21] Schlesser was killed.
Mg (s) + 2 H2O → Mg(OH)2 (s) + H2 (g)

As a result, water cannot be used to extinguish magnesium fires; the hydrogen gas
produced will only intensify the fire.
Magnesium also reacts with carbon dioxide to form magnesium oxide and carbon:
2 Mg (s) + CO2 → 2 MgO (s) + C (s)
Hence, carbon dioxide fire extinguishers cannot be used for extinguishing magnesium fires
either.[22]
Burning magnesium is usually quenched by using a Class D dry chemical fire extinguisher,
or by covering the fire with sand or magnesium foundry flux to remove its air source.
Magnesium 10
External links
• WebElements.com – Magnesium [23]
[24]
• Online Resource for industry professionals - Magnesium.com
[25]
• The Magnesium Website – Includes full text papers and textbook chapters by leading
magnesium authorities Mildred Seelig, Jean Durlach, Burton M. Altura and Bella T.
Altura. Links to over 300 articles discussing magnesium and magnesium deficiency.
• Magnesium in Health [26] - Mg12.info
References
[1] Bernath, P. F., Black, J. H., & Brault, J. W. (1985). " The spectrum of magnesium hydride (http:/ / bernath.
uwaterloo. ca/ media/ 24. pdf)". Astrophysical Journal 298: 375. .
[2] Ash, Russell (2005), The Top 10 of Everything 2006: The Ultimate Book of Lists (http:/ / plymouthlibrary. org/
faqelements. htm), Dk Pub, ISBN 0756613213, .
[3] (PDF) Abundance and form of the most abundant elements in Earth’s continental crust (http:/ / www. gly. uga.
edu/ railsback/ Fundamentals/ ElementalAbundanceTableP. pdf). . Retrieved 2008-02-15.
[4] http:/ / www. seafriends. org. nz/ oceano/ seawater. htm#composition. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2009
[5] , http:/ / www. mg12. info
[6] DOE Handbook - Primer on Spontaneous Heating and Pyrophoricity (http:/ / www. hss. doe. gov/ nuclearsafety/
ns/ techstds/ standard/ hdbk1081/ hbk1081c. html). U.S. Department of Energy. December 1994. p. 20.
DOE-HDBK-1081-94. .
[7] Alan A. Luo and Bob R. Powell (2001) (PDF). Tensile and Compressive Creep of Magnesium-Aluminum-Calcium
Based Alloys (http:/ / doc. tms. org/ ezmerchant/ prodtms. nsf/ productlookupitemid/ 01-481x-137/ $FILE/
01-481X-137F. pdf). Materials & Processes Laboratory, General Motors Research & Development Center. .
[8] Vardi, Nathan (February 22 2007). " Man With Many Enemies (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ forbes/ 2002/ 0722/
044_print. html)". Forbes.com. . Retrieved 2006-06-26.
[9] " Lack Energy? Maybe It's Your Magnesium Level (http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ is/ AR/ archive/ may04/
energy0504. htm?pf=1)". United States Department of Agriculture. . Retrieved 2008-09-18. Last paragraph
[10] University of Maryland Medical Center. Magnesium (http:/ / www. umm. edu/ altmed/ articles/
magnesium-000313. htm)
[11] Wester PO (May 1987). " Magnesium (http:/ / www. ajcn. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=3578120)".
Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 45 (5 Suppl): 1305–12. PMID 3578120. .
[12] Arnaud MJ (June 2008). "Update on the assessment of magnesium status". Br. J. Nutr. 99 Suppl 3: S24–36.
doi: 10.1017/S000711450800682X (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1017/ S000711450800682X). PMID 18598586.
[13] Rob PM, Dick K, Bley N, et al. (October 1999). " Can one really measure magnesium deficiency using the
short-term magnesium loading test? (http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ openurl?genre=article&
sid=nlm:pubmed& issn=0954-6820& date=1999& volume=246& issue=4& spage=373)". J. Intern. Med. 246
(4): 373–8. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2796.1999.00580.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1046/ j. 1365-2796. 1999. 00580. x).
PMID 10583708. .
[14] Franz KB (December 2004). " A functional biological marker is needed for diagnosing magnesium deficiency
(http:/ / www. jacn. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=15637224)". J Am Coll Nutr 23 (6): 738S–41S.
PMID 15637224. .
[15] Firoz M, Graber M (December 2001). "Bioavailability of US commercial magnesium preparations". Magnes
Res 14 (4): 257–62. PMID 11794633.
[16] Lindberg JS, Zobitz MM, Poindexter JR, Pak CY (February 1990). "Magnesium bioavailability from magnesium
citrate and magnesium oxide". J Am Coll Nutr 9 (1): 48–55. PMID 2407766.
[17] Walker AF, Marakis G, Christie S, Byng M (September 2003). " Mg citrate found more bioavailable than other
Mg preparations in a randomised, double-blind study (http:/ / www. john-libbey-eurotext. fr/ medline.
md?issn=0953-1424& vol=16& iss=3& page=183)". Magnes Res 16 (3): 183–91. PMID 14596323. .
[18] Kontani M, Hara A, Ohta S, Ikeda T (2005). "Hypermagnesemia induced by massive cathartic ingestion in an
elderly woman without pre-existing renal dysfunction". Intern. Med. 44 (5): 448–52. doi:
10.2169/internalmedicine.44.448 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2169/ internalmedicine. 44. 448). PMID 15942092.
[19] AJ Giannini. Drugs of Abuse--Second Edition. Los Angeles, Physicians Management Information Co., 1997.
[20] " Science Safety: Chapter 8 (http:/ / www. edu. gov. mb. ca/ k12/ docs/ support/ scisafe/ chapter8. html)".
Government of Manitoba. . Retrieved 2007-08-21.
Magnesium 11
[21] " Chemistry : Periodic Table : magnesium : chemical reaction data (http:/ / www. webelements. com/
webelements/ elements/ text/ Mg/ chem. html)". webelements.com. . Retrieved 2006-06-26.
[22] " Demo Lab: Reaction Of Magnesium Metal With Carbon Dioxide (http:/ / www. ilpi. com/ genchem/ demo/
co2mg/ )". . Retrieved 2006-06-26.
[23] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ magnesium/
[24] http:/ / www. magnesium. com
[25] http:/ / www. mgwater. com/ index. shtml
[26] http:/ / www. mg12. info

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Aluminium 1
Aluminium
magnesium ← aluminium → siliconB
↑
Al
↓
Ga

13Al
Periodic table
Appearance grey

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1482 1632 1817 2054 2364 2790

Aluminium 2

modulusBulk modulusPoisson ratioMohs hardnessVickers hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS
registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of aluminium
26 syn 1.17
7.17×105y β+ 26
Al Mg
ε - 26
Mg
γ 1.8086 -
27 100% 27
Al Al is stable with 14 neutron
aluminium, Al, 13 poor metal13, 3, p26.9815386(13) g·mol−1 [Ne] 3s2 3p1 2, 8, 3 (Image)
solid 2.70 g·cm−3 2.375 g·cm−3 933.47 K,660.32 °C,1220.58 °F 2792 K,2519 °C,4566 °F
10.71 kJ·mol−1 294.0 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 24.200 J·mol−1·K−13, 2[1] , 1[2]
(amphoteric oxide) 1.61 (Pauling scale) 1st: 577.5 kJ·mol−1143 pm121±4 pm face-centered
cubic paramagnetic[3] (20 °C) 28.2 nΩ·m (300 K) 237 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 23.1 µm·m−1·K−1
(r.t.) (rolled) 5,000 m·s−1 70 GPa 26 GPa 76 GPa 0.35 2.75 167 MPa 245 MPa 7429-90-5
Aluminium ( ˌæljʊˈmɪniəm Wikipedia:Media helpFile:En-uk-aluminium1.ogg) or
aluminum ( /əˈluːmɪnəm/ Wikipedia:Media helpFile:En-uk-aluminum.ogg, see spelling
below) is a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of chemical elements. It
has the symbol Al; its atomic number is 13. It is not soluble in water under normal
circumstances. Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust, and the third
most abundant element therein, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight
of the Earth’s solid surface. Aluminium is too reactive chemically to occur in nature as a
free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals.[4] The chief source
of aluminium is bauxite ore.
Aluminium is remarkable for its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of
passivation and for the metal's low density. Structural components made from aluminium
and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and very important in other areas of
transportation and building. Its reactive nature makes it useful as a catalyst or additive in
chemical mixtures, including being used in ammonium nitrate explosives to enhance blast
power.
Characteristics
Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, malleable metal with appearance ranging from
silvery to dull grey, depending on the surface roughness. Aluminium is nonmagnetic and
nonsparking. It is also insoluble in alcohol, though it can be soluble in water in certain
forms. The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield
strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.[5] Aluminium has about one-third the density
and stiffness of steel. It is ductile, and easily machined, cast, and extruded.
Corrosion resistance can be excellent due to a thin surface layer of aluminium oxide that
forms when the metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing further oxidation. The
strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with
alloyed copper.[5] This corrosion resistance is also often greatly reduced when many
aqueous salts are present however, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.
Aluminium 3
Aluminium atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure. Aluminium has a
stacking-fault energy of approximately 200 mJ/m².[6]
Aluminium is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered
form, making it an important component of silver paints. Aluminium mirror finish has the
highest reflectance of any metal in the 200–400 nm (UV) and the 3000–10000 nm (far IR)
regions, while in the 400–700 nm visible range it is slightly outdone by tin and silver and in
the 700–3000 (near IR) by silver, gold, and copper.[7]
Aluminium is a good thermal and electrical conductor, by weight better than copper.
Aluminium is capable of being a superconductor, with a superconducting critical
temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss.[8]
Isotopes
Aluminium has nine isotopes, whose mass numbers range from 23 to 30. Only 27Al (stable
isotope) and 26Al (radioactive isotope, t1/2 = 7.2 × 105 y) occur naturally; however, 27Al has
a natural abundance of 99.9+ %. 26Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by
spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. Aluminium isotopes have found practical
application in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock
exposures, and meteorites. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used to study the role of
transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion on 105 to 106 year time
scales.[9] Cosmogenic 26Al was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites.
Meteoroid fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense
cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial 26Al
production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments
from further 26Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's
terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that 26Al was relatively abundant at the
time of formation of our planetary system. Most meteoriticists believe that the energy
released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some
asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.[10]
Natural occurrence
In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant (8.3% by weight) metallic element and
the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).[11] Because of its strong
affinity to oxygen, however, it is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is
found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's
crust, are aluminosilicates. Native aluminium metal can be found as a minor phase in low
oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.[12] It also occurs
in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel and turquoise.[11] Impurities in Al2O3, such as
chromium or cobalt yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively. Pure Al2O3,
known as Corundum, is one of the hardest materials known.[11]
Although aluminium is an extremely common and widespread element, the common
aluminium minerals are not economic sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is
produced from the ore bauxite (AlOx(OH)3-2x). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of
low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.[13] Large deposits of bauxite
occur in Australia, Brazil, Guinea and Jamaica but the primary mining areas for the ore are
in Ghana, Indonesia, Jamaica, Russia and Surinam.[14] Smelting of the ore mainly occurs in
Australia, Brazil, Canada, Norway, Russia and the United States. Because smelting is an
Aluminium 4
energy-intensive process, regions with excess natural gas supplies (such as the United Arab
Emirates) are becoming aluminium refiners.
Production and refinement

Although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust (believed to
be 7.5 to 8.1 percent), it is rare in its free form, occurring in oxygen-deficient environments
such as volcanic mud, and it was once considered a precious metal more valuable than
gold. Napoleon III, emperor of France, is reputed to have given a banquet where the most
honoured guests were given aluminium utensils, while the other guests had to make do
with gold.[15] [16] The Washington Monument was completed, with the 100 ounce (2.8 kg)
aluminium capstone being put in place on December 6, 1884, in an elaborate dedication
ceremony. It was the largest single piece of aluminium cast at the time. At that time,
aluminium was as expensive as silver.[17] Aluminium has been produced in commercial
quantities for just over 100 years.
Aluminium is a strongly reactive metal that forms a
high-energy chemical bond with oxygen. Compared to
most other metals, it is difficult to extract from ore,
such as bauxite, due to the energy required to reduce
aluminium oxide (Al2O3). For example, direct reduction
with carbon, as is used to produce iron, is not
chemically possible, since aluminium is a stronger
reducing agent than carbon. Aluminium oxide has a
melting point of about 2,000 °C. Therefore, it must be
Bauxite
extracted by electrolysis. In this process, the aluminium
oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite and then reduced
to the pure metal. The operational temperature of the reduction cells is around 950 to 980
°C. Cryolite is found as a mineral in Greenland, but in industrial use it has been replaced by
a synthetic substance. Cryolite is a chemical compound of aluminium, sodium, and calcium
fluorides: (Na3AlF6). The aluminium oxide (a white powder) is obtained by refining bauxite
in the Bayer process of Karl Bayer. (Previously, the Deville process was the predominant
refining technology.)
The electrolytic process replaced the Wöhler process, which involved the reduction of
anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium. Both of the electrodes used in the
electrolysis of aluminium oxide are carbon. Once the refined alumina is dissolved in the
electrolyte, its ions are free to move around. The reaction at the cathode (negative
electrode) is
Al3+ + 3 e− → Al
Here the aluminium ion is being reduced (electrons are added). The aluminium metal then
sinks to the bottom and is tapped off, usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets
for further processing.
At the anode (positive electrode), oxygen is formed:
2 O2− → O2 + 4 e−
This carbon anode is then oxidized by the oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide.
O2 + C → CO2
Aluminium 5
The anodes in a reduction cell must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are
consumed in the process.
Unlike the anodes, the cathodes are not oxidized because there is no oxygen present, as the
carbon cathodes are protected by the liquid aluminium inside the cells. Nevertheless,
cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes and metal movement. After five
to ten years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to be rebuilt
because of cathode wear.
Aluminium electrolysis with the Hall-Héroult process
consumes a lot of energy, but alternative processes
were always found to be less viable economically and/or
ecologically. The worldwide average specific energy
consumption is approximately 15±0.5 kilowatt-hours
per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 MJ/kg).
The most modern smelters achieve approximately
12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). (Compare this to the heat of
reaction, 31 MJ/kg, and the Gibbs free energy of World production trend of aluminium
reaction, 29 MJ/kg.) Reduction line currents for older

technologies are typically 100 to 200 kA; state-of-the-art smelters[18] operate at about 350
kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells.
Electric power represents about 20% to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending
on the location of the smelter. Smelters tend to be situated where electric power is both
plentiful and inexpensive, such as South Africa, Ghana, the South Island of New Zealand,
Australia, the People's Republic of China, the Middle East, Russia, Quebec and British
Columbia in Canada, and Iceland.[19]
In 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top
producer of aluminium with almost a one-fifth world
share, followed by Russia, Canada, and the USA,
reports the British Geological Survey.
Over the last 50 years, Australia has become a major
producer of bauxite ore and a major producer and Aluminium output in 2005
[20]
exporter of alumina. Australia produced 62 million
tonnes of bauxite in 2005. The Australian deposits have some refining problems, some
being high in silica but have the advantage of being shallow and relatively easy to mine.[21]
Aluminium 6
Recycling
Aluminium is 100% recyclable without any loss of its natural
qualities. Recovery of the metal via recycling has become an
important facet of the aluminium industry.
Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires
only five percent of the energy used to produce aluminium
from ore. However, a significant part (up to 15% of the input
material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide).[22]
Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s,
when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it
to the public awareness. Aluminium Recycling Code
In Europe aluminium experiences high rates of recycling, ranging from 42% of beverage
cans, 85% of construction materials and 95% of transport vehicles.[23]
Recycled aluminium is known as secondary aluminium, but maintains the same physical
properties as primary aluminium. Secondary aluminium is produced in a wide range of
formats and is employed in 80% of the alloy injections. Another important use is for
extrusion.
White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations
still contains useful quantities of aluminium which can be extracted industrially.[24] The
process produces aluminium billets, together with a highly complex waste material. This
waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including,
among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia) which spontaneously ignites on contact
with air;[25] contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia
gas. Despite these difficulties, however, the waste has found use as a filler in asphalt and
concrete.[26]
Chemistry
Oxidation state one

AlH is produced when aluminium is heated in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Al2O is made by
heating the normal oxide, Al2O3, with silicon at 1800 °C in a vacuum.[27]
Al2S can be made by heating Al2S3 with aluminium shavings at 1300 °C in a vacuum.[27] It
quickly disproportionates to the starting materials. The selenide is made in a parallel
manner.
AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri-halide is heated with aluminium.
Aluminium halides usually exist in the form AlX3. e.g. AlF3, AlCl3, AlBr3, AlI3 etc.[27]
Aluminium 7
Oxidation state two

Aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion[28] and in
stellar absorption spectra.[29]
Oxidation state three

Fajans' rules show that the simple trivalent cation Al3+ is not expected to be found in
anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as Al2O3. The hydroxide is a weak base and
aluminium salts of weak acids, such as carbonate, can't be prepared. The salts of strong
acids, such as nitrate, are stable and soluble in water, forming hydrates with at least six
molecules of water of crystallization.
Aluminium hydride, (AlH3)n, can be produced from trimethylaluminium and an excess of
hydrogen. It burns explosively in air. It can also be prepared by the action of aluminium
chloride on lithium hydride in ether solution, but cannot be isolated free from the solvent.
Alumino-hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known, the most useful being
lithium aluminium hydride, Li[AlH4]. It decomposes into lithium hydride, aluminium and
hydrogen when heated, and is hydrolysed by water. It has many uses in organic chemistry,
particularly as a reducing agent. The aluminohalides have a similar structure.
Aluminium hydroxide may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an
aqueous solution of an aluminium salt. It is amphoteric, being both a very weak acid, and
forming aluminates with alkalis. It exists in various crystalline forms.
Aluminium carbide, Al4C3 is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1000 °C. The
pale yellow crystals have a complex lattice structure, and react with water or dilute acids to
give methane. The acetylide, Al2(C2)3, is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium.
Aluminium nitride, AlN, can be made from the elements at 800 °C. It is hydrolysed by water
to form ammonia and aluminium hydroxide. Aluminium phosphide, AlP, is made similarly,
and hydrolyses to give phosphine.
Aluminium oxide, Al2O3, occurs naturally as corundum, and can be made by burning
aluminium in oxygen or by heating the hydroxide, nitrate or sulfate. As a gemstone, its
hardness is only exceeded by diamond, boron nitride, and carborundum. It is almost
insoluble in water. Aluminium sulfide, Al2S3, may be prepared by passing hydrogen sulfide
over aluminium powder. It is polymorphic.
Aluminium iodide, AlI3, is a dimer with applications in organic synthesis. Aluminium
fluoride, AlF3, is made by treating the hydroxide with HF, or can be made from the
elements. It consists of a giant molecule which sublimes without melting at 1291 °C. It is
very inert. The other trihalides are dimeric, having a bridge-like structure. Aluminium
fluoride/water complexes: When aluminium and fluoride are together in aqueous solution,
they readily form complex ions such as AlF(H2O)5+2, AlF3(H2O)30, AlF6−3. Of these, AlF6−3
is the most stable. This is explained by the fact that aluminium and fluoride, which are both
very compact ions, fit together just right to form the octahedral aluminium hexafluoride
complex. When aluminium and fluoride are together in water in a 1:6 molar ratio, AlF6−3 is
the most common form, even in rather low concentrations.
Organo-metallic compounds of empirical formula AlR3 exist and, if not also giant molecules,
are at least dimers or trimers. They have some uses in organic synthesis, for instance
trimethylaluminium.
Analysis
Aluminium 8
The presence of aluminium can be detected in qualitative analysis using aluminon.
Applications
General use
Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal.[30] Global production of aluminium in
2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million
tonnes).[31] Relatively pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance
and/or workability is more important than strength or hardness. A thin layer of aluminium
can be deposited onto a flat surface by physical vapor deposition or (very infrequently)
chemical vapor deposition or other chemical means to form optical coatings and mirrors.
When so deposited, a fresh, pure aluminium film serves as a good reflector (approximately
92%) of visible light and an excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared
radiation.
Pure aluminium has a low tensile strength, but when combined with thermo-mechanical
processing, aluminium alloys display a marked improvement in mechanical properties,
especially when tempered. Aluminium alloys form vital components of aircraft and rockets
as a result of their high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminium readily forms alloys with many
elements such as copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese and silicon (e.g., duralumin). Today,
almost all bulk metal materials that are referred to loosely as "aluminium," are actually
alloys. For example, the common aluminium foils are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium.[32]
Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:
• Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway
cars, marine vessels, bicycles etc.) as sheet, tube,
castings etc.
• Packaging (cans, foil, etc.)
• Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire,
etc.)
• A wide range of household items, from cooking
utensils to baseball bats, watches[33] and notebook
computers (Apple)
• Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking Household aluminium foil
poles etc.
• Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for
equipment e.g. photographic equipment.
• Electrical transmission lines for power distribution
• MKM steel and Alnico magnets
• Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999%
Al), used in electronics and CDs.
• Heat sinks for electronic appliances such as
transistors and CPUs. Aluminium-bodied Austin "A40
• Substrate material of metal-core copper clad Sports"(circa 1951)
laminates used in high brightness LED lighting.

• Powdered aluminium is used in paint, and in pyrotechnics such as solid rocket fuels and
thermite.
Aluminium 9
Aluminium compounds
• Aluminium ammonium sulfate ([Al(NH4)](SO4)2),
ammonium alum is used as a mordant, in water
purification and sewage treatment, in paper
production, as a food additive, and in leather tanning.
• Aluminium acetate is a salt used in solution as an
astringent.
• Aluminium borate (Al2O3 B2O3) is used in the
Aluminium slab being transported from
production of glass and ceramic.
the smelters
• Aluminium borohydride (Al(BH4)3) is used as an
additive to jet fuel.
• Aluminium bronze (CuAl5)
• Aluminium chloride (AlCl3) is used: in paint manufacturing, in antiperspirants, in
petroleum refining and in the production of synthetic rubber.
• Aluminium chlorohydrate is used as an antiperspirant and in the treatment of
hyperhidrosis.
• Aluminium fluorosilicate (Al2(SiF6)3) is used in the production of synthetic gemstones,
glass and ceramic.
• Aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) is used: as an antacid, as a mordant, in water
purification, in the manufacture of glass and ceramic and in the waterproofing of fabrics.
• Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), alumina, is found naturally as corundum (rubies and sapphires),
emery, and is used in glass making. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in lasers for
the production of coherent light. Used as a refractory, essential for the production of
high pressure sodium lamps.
• Aluminium phosphate (AlPO4) is used in the manufacture: of glass and ceramic, pulp and
paper products, cosmetics, paints and varnishes and in making dental cement.
• Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3) is used: in the manufacture of paper, as a mordant, in a
fire extinguisher, in water purification and sewage treatment, as a food additive, in
fireproofing, and in leather tanning.
• Aqueous Aluminium ions (such as found in aqueous Aluminium Sulfate) are use to treat
against fish parasites such as Gyrodactylus salaris.
• In many vaccines, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune adjuvant (immune
response booster) to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an
immune stimulant.
Aluminium 10
Aluminium alloys in structural applications

Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are
used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are
classified by a number system (ANSI) or by names
indicating their main alloying constituents (DIN and
ISO).
The strength and durability of aluminium alloys vary
widely, not only as a result of the components of the
specific alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments
and manufacturing processes. A lack of knowledge of
these aspects has from time to time led to improperly
designed structures and gained aluminium a bad
reputation. (See main article)
One important structural limitation of aluminium alloys
is their fatigue strength. Unlike steels, aluminium alloys
have no well-defined fatigue limit, meaning that fatigue
Aluminium foam
failure will eventually occur under even very small
cyclic loadings. This implies that engineers must assess
these loads and design for a fixed life rather than an infinite life.
Another important property of aluminium alloys is their sensitivity to heat. Workshop

procedures involving heating are complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, will
melt without first glowing red. Forming operations where a blow torch is used therefore
requires some expertise, since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting.
Aluminium alloys, like all structural alloys, also are subject to internal stresses following
heating operations such as welding and casting. The problem with aluminium alloys in this
regard is their low melting point, which make them more susceptible to distortions from
thermally induced stress relief. Controlled stress relief can be done during manufacturing
by heat-treating the parts in an oven, followed by gradual cooling—in effect annealing the
stresses.
The low melting point of aluminium alloys has not precluded their use in rocketry; even for
use in constructing combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. The Agena upper
stage engine used a regeneratively cooled aluminium design for some parts of the nozzle,
including the thermally critical throat region.
Household wiring
Compared to copper, aluminium has about 65% of the electrical conductivity by volume,
although 200% by weight. Traditionally copper is used as household wiring material. In the
1960s aluminium was considerably cheaper than copper, and so was introduced for
household electrical wiring in the United States, even though many fixtures had not been
designed to accept aluminium wire. In some cases the greater coefficient of thermal
expansion of aluminium causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the dissimilar
metal screw connection, eventually loosening the connection. Also, pure aluminium has a
tendency to creep under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the temperature
rises), again loosening the connection. Finally, Galvanic corrosion from the dissimilar
metals increased the electrical resistance of the connection.
Aluminium 11
All of this resulted in overheated and loose connections, and this in turn resulted in fires.
Builders then became wary of using the wire, and many jurisdictions outlawed its use in
very small sizes in new construction. Eventually, newer fixtures were introduced with
connections designed to avoid loosening and overheating. The first generation fixtures were
marked "Al/Cu" and were ultimately found suitable only for copper-clad aluminium wire,
but the second generation fixtures, which bear a "CO/ALR" coding, are rated for unclad
aluminium wire. To adapt older assemblies, workers forestall the heating problem using a
properly-done crimp of the aluminium wire to a short "pigtail" of copper wire. Today, new
alloys, designs, and methods are used for aluminium wiring in combination with aluminium
termination.
History
Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as
dyeing mordants and as astringents for dressing
wounds; alum is still used as a styptic. In 1761 Guyton
de Morveau suggested calling the base alum alumine.
In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a
metal base of alum, which he at first termed alumium
and later aluminum (see Etymology section, below).
The metal was first produced in 1825 (in an impure

form) by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian
Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with
potassium amalgam and yielded a lump of metal looking
similar to tin.[34] Friedrich Wöhler was aware of these
experiments and cited them, but after redoing the
experiments of Ørsted he concluded that this metal was
pure potassium. He conducted a similar experiment in
1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with
potassium and yielded aluminium.[34] Wöhler is The statue of the Anteros (commonly
generally credited with isolating aluminium (Latin mistaken for either The Angel of
Christian Charity or Eros) in Piccadilly
alumen, alum), but also Ørsted can be listed as its
Circus London, was made in 1893 and
discoverer.[35] Further, Pierre Berthier discovered is one of the first statues to be cast in
aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted aluminium.
it.[36] Frenchman Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville
improved Wöhler's method in 1846, and described his improvements in a book in 1859,
chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the considerably more expensive
potassium.
(Note: The title of Deville's book is De l'aluminium, ses propriétés, sa fabrication [37] (Paris,
1859). Deville likely also conceived the idea of the electrolysis of aluminium oxide dissolved
in cryolite; however, Charles Martin Hall and Paul Héroult might have developed the more
practical process after Deville.)
Before the Hall-Héroult process was developed, aluminium was exceedingly difficult to
extract from its various ores. This made pure aluminium more valuable than gold. Bars of
aluminium were exhibited alongside the French crown jewels at the Exposition Universelle
of 1855, and Napoleon III was said to have reserved a set of aluminium dinner plates for his
Aluminium 12
most honoured guests.

Aluminium was selected as the material to be used for the apex of the Washington
Monument in 1884, a time when one ounce (30 grams) cost the daily wage of a common
worker on the project;[38] aluminium was about the same value as silver.
The Cowles companies supplied aluminium alloy in quantity in the United States and
England using smelters like the furnace of Carl Wilhelm Siemens by 1886.[39] Charles
Martin Hall of Ohio in the U.S. and Paul Héroult of France independently developed the
Hall-Héroult electrolytic process that made extracting aluminium from minerals cheaper
and is now the principal method used worldwide. The Hall-Heroult process cannot produce
Super Purity Aluminium directly. Hall's process,[40] in 1888 with the financial backing of
Alfred E. Hunt, started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company today known as Alcoa. Héroult's
process was in production by 1889 in Switzerland at Aluminium Industrie, now Alcan, and
[41]
at British Aluminium, now Luxfer Group and Alcoa, by 1896 in Scotland.
By 1895 the metal was being used as a building material as far away as Sydney, Australia in
the dome of the Chief Secretary's Building.
Many navies use an aluminium superstructure for their vessels, however, the 1975 fire
aboard USS Belknap that gutted her aluminium superstructure, as well as observation of
battle damage to British ships during the Falklands War, led to many navies switching to all
steel superstructures. The Arleigh Burke class was the first such U.S. ship, being
constructed entirely of steel.
In 2008 the price of aluminium peaked at $1.45/lb in July but dropped to $0.7/lb by
December.[42]
Etymology
Nomenclature history
The earliest citation given in the Oxford English Dictionary for any word used as a name for
this element is alumium, which British chemist and inventor Humphry Davy employed in
1808 for the metal he was trying to isolate electrolytically from the mineral alumina. The
citation is from his journal Philosophical Transactions: "Had I been so fortunate as..to have
procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the
names of silicium, alumium, zirconium, and glucium."[43]
By 1812, Davy had settled on aluminum. He wrote in the journal Chemical Philosophy: "As
yet Aluminum has not been obtained in a perfectly free state."[44] But the same year, an
anonymous contributor to the Quarterly Review, a British political-literary journal, objected
to aluminum and proposed the name aluminium, "for so we shall take the liberty of writing
the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound."[45]
The -ium suffix had the advantage of conforming to the precedent set in other newly
discovered elements of the time: potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium
(all of which Davy had isolated himself). Nevertheless, -um spellings for elements were not
unknown at the time, as for example platinum, known to Europeans since the sixteenth
century, molybdenum, discovered in 1778, and tantalum, discovered in 1802.
The -um suffix on the other hand, has the advantage of being more consistent with the
universal spelling alumina for the oxide, as lanthana is the oxide of lanthanum, and
magnesia, ceria, and thoria are the oxides of magnesium, cerium, and thorium respectively.
Aluminium 13
The spelling used throughout the 19th century by most U.S. chemists ended in -ium, but
common usage is less clear.[46] The -um spelling is used in the Webster's Dictionary of
1828, as it was in 1892 when Charles Martin Hall published an advertising handbill for his
new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the -ium
spelling in all the patents[40] he filed between 1886 and 1903.[47] It has consequently been
suggested that the spelling reflects an easier to pronounce word with one fewer syllable, or
that the spelling on the flier was a mistake. Hall's domination of production of the metal
ensured that the spelling aluminum became the standard in North America; the Webster
Unabridged Dictionary of 1913, though, continued to use the -ium version.
In 1926, the American Chemical Society officially decided to use aluminum in its
publications; American dictionaries typically label the spelling aluminium as a British
variant.
Present-day spelling
Most countries spell aluminium with an i before -um. In the United States, the spelling
aluminium is largely unknown, and the spelling aluminum predominates.[48] [49] The
Canadian Oxford Dictionary prefers aluminum, whereas the Australian Macquarie
Dictionary prefers aluminium.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the
standard international name for the element in 1990, but three years later recognized
aluminum as an acceptable variant. Hence their periodic table includes both.[50] IUPAC
officially prefers the use of aluminium in its internal publications, although several IUPAC
publications use the spelling aluminum.[51]
Health concerns
Despite its natural abundance, aluminium has no known function in living cells and
presents some toxic effects in elevated concentrations. Its toxicity can be traced to
deposition in bone and the central nervous system, which is particularly increased in
patients with reduced renal function. Because aluminium competes with calcium for
absorption, increased amounts of dietary aluminium may contribute to the reduced skeletal
mineralization (osteopenia) observed in preterm infants and infants with growth
retardation. In very high doses, aluminium can cause neurotoxicity, and is associated with
altered function of the blood-brain barrier.[52] A small percentage of people are allergic to
aluminium and experience contact dermatitis, digestive disorders, vomiting or other
symptoms upon contact or ingestion of products containing aluminium, such as deodorants
or antacids. In those without allergies, aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals, but there
is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts.[53] Although the use of
aluminium cookware has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general, excessive
consumption of antacids containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of
aluminium-containing antiperspirants provide more significant exposure levels. Studies
have shown that consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium significantly
increases aluminium absorption,[54] and maltol has been shown to increase the
accumulation of aluminium in nervous and osseus tissue.[55] Furthermore, aluminium
increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the
laboratory.[56] These salts' estrogen-like effects have led to their classification as a
metalloestrogen.
Aluminium 14
Because of its potentially toxic effects, aluminium's use in some antiperspirants, dyes (such
as aluminum lake), and food additives is controversial. Although there is little evidence that
normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adults,[57] several studies point to
risks associated with increased exposure to the metal. Aluminium in food may be absorbed
[58]
more than aluminium from water. Some researchers have expressed concerns that the
aluminium in antiperspirants may increase the risk of breast cancer,[59] and aluminium has
controversially been implicated as a factor in Alzheimer's disease.[60]
According to The Alzheimer's Society, the overwhelming medical and scientific opinion is
that studies have not convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium
and Alzheimer's disease.[61] Nevertheless, some studies cite aluminium exposure as a risk
factor for Alzheimer's disease, as some brain plaques have been found to contain increased
levels of the metal. Research in this area has been inconclusive; aluminium accumulation
may be a consequence of the disease rather than a causal agent. In any event, if there is
any toxicity of aluminium, it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human
exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is
enormously large over a lifetime.[62] [63] Scientific consensus does not yet exist about
whether aluminium exposure could directly increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease.[61]
Effect on plants
Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acid soils. Although it
is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of
toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs root growth and function.[64] [65] [66]
Most acid soils are saturated with aluminium rather than hydrogen ions. The acidity of the
soil is therefore a result of hydrolysis of aluminium compounds.[67] This concept of
"corrected lime potential"[68] to define the degree of base saturation in soils became the
basis for procedures now used in soil testing laboratories to determine the "lime
requirement" of soils.[69]
Wheat's adaptation to allow aluminium tolerance is such that the aluminium induces a
release of organic compounds that bind to the harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is
believed to have the same tolerance mechanism. The first gene for aluminium tolerance has
been identified in wheat. It was shown that sorghum's aluminium tolerance is controlled by
a single gene, as for wheat.[70] This is not the case in all plants.
See also
• Aluminium alloy
• Aluminium battery
• Aluminium foil
• Beverage can
• Institute for the History of Aluminium (IHA)
• List of countries by aluminium production
• Aluminium industry in Russia
Aluminium 15
External links
• WebElements.com – Aluminium [71]
• Electrolytic production [72]
• World production of primary aluminium, by country [73]
• Price history of aluminum, according to the IMF [74]
[75]
• History of Aluminium (from the website of the International Aluminium Institute)
• Emedicine - Aluminium [76]
pnb:‫مینمولا‬
References
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[2] Aluminium iodide
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[5] Polmear, I. J. (1995). Light Alloys: Metallurgy of the Light Metals. Arnold. ISBN 9780340632079.
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[15] S Venetski (July 1969). ""Silver" from clay". Metallurgist 13: 451. doi: 10.1007/BF00741130 (http:/ / dx. doi.
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[16] ChemMatters October 1990 p. 14.
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Silicon 1
Silicon
aluminium ← silicon → phosphorusC
↑
Si
↓
Ge

14Si
Periodic table
Appearance crystalline, reflective with bluish-tinged faces
Broken silicon ingot General Name,

symbol, numberElement categoryGroup, period, blockStandard atomic weightElectron
configurationElectrons per shell Physical properties PhaseDensity (near r.t.) Liquid density
at m.p.Melting pointBoiling pointHeat of fusionHeat of vaporizationSpecific heat
capacityVapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

Silicon 2
at T/K 1908 2102 2339 2636 3021 3537

(more) 2nd: 1577.1 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 3231.6 kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radiusVan der
Waals radius Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingElectrical
resistivityThermal conductivityThermal expansionSpeed of sound (thin rod) Young's
modulusShear modulusBulk modulusPoisson ratioMohs hardnessCAS registry numberBand
gap energy at 300 K Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of silicon
28 92.23% 28
Si Si is stable with 14 neutron
29 4.67% 29
30 3.1% 30
32 syn 170 y 13.020

β− 32
Si P
silicon, Si, 14 metalloid14, 3, p28.0855(3) g·mol−1 [Ne] 3s2 3p2 2, 8, 4 (Image) solid 2.3290
g·cm−3 2.57 g·cm−3 1687 K,1414 °C,2577 °F 3538 K,3265 °C,5909 °F 50.21 kJ·mol−1 359
kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 19.789 J·mol−1·K−14, 3 , 2 , 1[1] -1, -2, -3, -4
(amphoteric oxide) 1.90 (Pauling scale) 1st: 786.5 kJ·mol−1111 pm111 pm 210 pm diamond
cubic diamagnetic[2] (20 °C) 103 [3] Ω·m (300 K) 149 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 2.6 µm·m−1·K−1 (20
°C) 8433 m/s 185[3] GPa 52[3] GPa 100 GPa 0.28[3] 7 7440-21-3 1.12 eV
Silicon (pronounced /ˈsɪlɨkən/ or English pronunciation: /ˈsɪlɨkɒn/, Latin: silicium) is the most
common metalloid. It is a chemical element, which has the symbol Si and atomic number
14. The atomic mass is 28.0855. A tetravalent metalloid, silicon is less reactive than its
chemical analog carbon. As the eighth most common element in the universe by mass,
silicon very rarely occurs as the pure free element in nature, but is more widely distributed
in dusts, planetoids and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or silicates. On
Earth, silicon is the second most abundant element (after oxygen) in the crust,[4] making up
25.7% of the crust by mass.
Silicon has many industrial uses. It is the principal component of most semiconductor
devices, most importantly integrated circuits or microchips. Silicon is widely used in
semiconductors because it remains a semiconductor at higher temperatures than the
semiconductor germanium and because its native oxide is easily grown in a furnace and
forms a better semiconductor/dielectric interface than any other material.
In the form of silica and silicates, silicon forms useful glasses, cements, and ceramics. It is
also a constituent of silicones, a class-name for various synthetic plastic substances made of
silicon, oxygen, carbon and hydrogen, often confused with silicon itself.
Silicon is an essential element in biology, although only tiny traces of it appear to be
required by animals.[5] It is much more important to the metabolism of plants, particularly
many grasses, and silicic acid (a type of silica) forms the basis of the striking array of
protective shells of the microscopic diatoms.
Silicon 3
The outer electron orbitals (half filled subshell holding up to eight electrons) have the same
structure as in carbon and the two elements are sometimes similar chemically. Even though
it is a relatively inert element, silicon still reacts with halogens and dilute alkalis, but most
acids (except for some hyper-reactive combinations of nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid) do
not affect it. Having four bonding electrons however gives it, like carbon, many
opportunities to combine with other elements or compounds under the right circumstances.
Both silicon and (in certain aspects) carbon are semiconductors, readily either donating or
sharing their four outer electrons allowing many different forms of chemical bonding. Pure
silicon has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance, since the number of free
charge carriers increases with temperature. The electrical resistance of single crystal
silicon significantly changes under the application of mechanical stress due to the
piezoresistive effect.
In its crystalline form, pure silicon has a gray color and a metallic luster. It is similar to
glass in that it is rather strong, very brittle, and prone to chipping.
History
Silicon was first identified by Antoine Lavoisier in 1787 (as a component of the Latin silex,
silicis for flint, flints), and was later mistaken by Humphry Davy in 1800 for a compound. In
1811 Gay-Lussac and Thénard probably prepared impure amorphous silicon through the
heating of potassium with silicon tetrafluoride. In 1824, Berzelius prepared amorphous
silicon using approximately the same method as Lussac. Berzelius also purified the product
by repeatedly washing it.[6]
Occurrence
Measured by mass, silicon makes up 25.7% of the Earth's crust and is the second most
abundant element in the crust, after oxygen. Pure silicon crystals are very rarely found in
nature; they can be found as inclusions with gold and in volcanic exhalations. Silicon is
usually found in the form of silicon dioxide (also known as quartz), and other more complex
silicate minerals.
Silica occurs in minerals consisting of (practically) pure silicon dioxide in different
crystalline forms. Amethyst, agate, quartz, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, jasper, and opal
are some of the forms in which silicon dioxide appears. Biogenic silica occurs in the form of
diatoms, radiolaria and siliceous sponges.
Silicon also occurs as silicate minerals (various minerals containing silicon, oxygen and one
or another metal), for example the feldspar group. These minerals occur in clay, sand and
various types of rock such as granite and sandstone. Feldspar, pyroxene, amphibole, and
mica are a few of the many common silicate mineral groups.
Silicon is a principal component of many meteorites, and also is a component of obsidian
and tektites, which are natural forms of glass.
See also Category:Silicate minerals
Silicon 4
Isotopes
Silicon has numerous known isotopes, with mass numbers ranging from 22 to 44. 28Si (the
most abundant isotope, at 92.23%), 29Si (4.67%), and 30Si (3.1%) are stable; 32Si is a
radioactive isotope produced by cosmic ray spallation of argon. Its half-life has been
determined to be approximately 170 years (0.21 MeV), and it decays by beta - emission to
32
P (which has a 14.28 day half-life )[7] and then to 32S.
Production
Silicon is commercially prepared by the reaction of high-purity silica with wood, charcoal,
and coal, in an electric arc furnace using carbon electrodes. At temperatures over 1900 °C
(3450 °F), the carbon reduces the silica to silicon according to the chemical equations:
SiO2 + C → Si + CO2
SiO2 + 2 C → Si + 2 CO
Liquid silicon collects in the bottom of the furnace, and is then drained and cooled. The
silicon produced via this process is called metallurgical grade silicon and is at least 98%
pure. Using this method, silicon carbide (SiC) may form. However, provided the
concentration of SiO2 is kept high, the silicon carbide can be eliminated:
2 SiC + SiO2 → 3 Si + 2 CO
In September 2008, metallurgical grade silicon cost about USD 1.45 per pound
($3.20/kg),[8] up from $0.77 per pound ($1.70/kg) in 2005.[9]
Recently, it has been reported that pure silicon can be extracted directly from solid silica by
molten salt electrolysis. This new method, known as the FFC Cambridge Process, has the
potential to directly produce solar grade silicon without any CO2 emission and at much
lower energy consumption.[10] [11] [12]
Crystallization
Silicon, like carbon and other group IV elements form
face-centered diamond cubic crystal structure. Silicon,
in particular, forms a face-centered cubic structure
with a lattice spacing of 5.430710 Å (0.5430710 nm).[13]
The majority of silicon crystals grown for device
production are produced by the Czochralski process,
(CZ-Si) since it is the cheapest method available and it
is capable of producing large size crystals. However,
silicon single-crystals grown by the Czochralski method
contain impurities since the crucible which contains the
melt dissolves. For certain electronic devices,
Diamond Cubic Crystal Structure,
particularly those required for high power applications,
Silicon unit cell
silicon grown by the Czochralski method is not pure
enough. For these applications, float-zone silicon
(FZ-Si) can be used instead. It is worth mentioning though, in contrast with CZ-Si method in
which the seed is dipped into the silicon melt and the growing crystal is pulled upward, the
thin seed crystal in the FZ-Si method sustains the growing crystal as well as the polysilicon
Silicon 5
rod from the bottom. As a result, it is difficult to grow large size crystals using the
float-zone method. Today, all the dislocation-free silicon crystals used in semiconductor
industry with diameter 300 mm or larger are grown by the Czochralski method with purity
level significantly improved.
Purification
The use of silicon in semiconductor devices demands a much
greater purity than afforded by metallurgical grade silicon.
Historically, a number of methods have been used to produce
high-purity silicon.
Physical methods
Early silicon purification techniques were based on the fact
that if silicon is melted and re-solidified, the last parts of the
mass to solidify contain most of the impurities. The earliest
method of silicon purification, first described in 1919 and used
on a limited basis to make radar components during World War
II, involved crushing metallurgical grade silicon and then
partially dissolving the silicon powder in an acid. When
crushed, the silicon cracked so that the weaker impurity-rich
regions were on the outside of the resulting grains of silicon.
As a result, the impurity-rich silicon was the first to be
dissolved when treated with acid, leaving behind a more pure
product.
In zone melting, also called zone refining, the first silicon

purification method to be widely used industrially, rods of
metallurgical grade silicon are heated to melt at one end. Then,
the heater is slowly moved down the length of the rod, keeping
Silicon ingot
a small length of the rod molten as the silicon cools and
re-solidifies behind it. Since most impurities tend to remain in
the molten region rather than re-solidify, when the process is complete, most of the
impurities in the rod will have been moved into the end that was the last to be melted. This
end is then cut off and discarded, and the process repeated if a still higher purity is desired.
Chemical methods
Today, silicon is purified by converting it to a silicon compound that can be more easily
purified by distillation than in its original state, and then converting that silicon compound
back into pure silicon. Trichlorosilane is the silicon compound most commonly used as the
intermediate, although silicon tetrachloride and silane are also used. When these gases are
blown over silicon at high temperature, they decompose to high-purity silicon.
At one time, DuPont produced ultra-pure silicon by reacting silicon tetrachloride with
high-purity zinc vapors at 950 °C, producing silicon:
SiCl4 + 2 Zn → Si + 2 ZnCl2
Silicon 6
However, this technique was plagued with practical problems (such as the zinc chloride
byproduct solidifying and clogging lines) and was eventually abandoned in favor of the
Siemens process.
In the Siemens process, high-purity silicon rods are
exposed to trichlorosilane at 1150 °C. The
trichlorosilane gas decomposes and deposits additional
silicon onto the rods, enlarging them:
2 HSiCl3 → Si + 2 HCl + SiCl4
Silicon produced from this and similar processes is
called polycrystalline silicon. Polycrystalline silicon
typically has impurity levels of less than 10−9.
In 2006 REC announced construction of a plant based A polycrystalline silicon rod made by
on fluidized bed technology using silane:[14] the Siemens process
3 SiCl + Si + 2 H → 4 HSiCl
4 2 3
4 HSiCl3 → 3 SiCl4 + SiH4
SiH4 → Si + 2 H2
Different forms of silicon
Nanocrystalline silicon powder
Silicon powder
Silicon wafer with mirror finish

(NASA)
One can notice the colour change in silicon nanopowder. This is caused by the quantum
effects which occur in particles of nanometric dimensions. See also Potential well, Quantum
dot, and Nanoparticle.
Silicon 7
Compounds
Silicon forms binary compounds called silicides with many metallic
elements whose properties range from reactive compounds, e.g.
magnesium silicide, Mg2Si through high melting refractory
compounds such as molybdenum disilicide, MoSi2.[15] Silicon carbide,
SiC (carborundum) is a hard, high melting solid and a well known PDMS – a silicone
abrasive. Silane, SiH4, is a pyrophoric gas with a similar tetrahedral compound
structure to methane, CH4. Additionally there is a range of catenated
silicon hydrides that form a homologous series of compounds, SinH2n+2 where n = 2-8
(analogous to the alkanes).[16] These are all readily hydrolysed and are thermally unstable,
particularly the heavier members.[16] Disilenes contain a silicon-silicon double bond
(analogous to the alkenes) and are generally highly reactive requiring large substituent
groups to stabilise them.[17] A disilyne with a silicon-silicon triple bond was first isolated in
2004; although as the compound is non-linear, the bonding is dissimilar to that in
alkynes.[18] Tetrahalides, SiX4, are formed with all of the halogens.[15] Silicon tetrachloride,
for example, readily reacts with water; unlike its carbon analogue, carbon tetrachloride.[16]
Silicon dihalides are formed by the high temperature reaction of tetrahalides and silicon;
with a structure analogous to a carbene they are reactive compounds.[16] Silicon difluoride
condenses to form a polymeric compound, (SiF2)n.[16] Silicon dioxide is a high melting solid
with a number of different crystal forms; the most familiar of which is the mineral
quartz.[15] In quartz each silicon atom is surrounded by four oxygen atoms that bridge to
other silicon atoms to form a three dimensional lattice.[15] Silica is soluble in water at high
temperatures forming monosilicic acid, (Si(OH)4)[16] and this property is used in the
manufacture of quartz crystals used in electronics.[15]
Under the right conditions monosilicic acid readily polymerises to form more complex silicic
acids, ranging from the simplest condensate, disilicic acid (H6Si2O7) to linear, ribbon, layer
and lattice structures which form the basis of the many different silicate minerals.[16]
Silicates are also important constituents of concretes.[15] With oxides of other elements the
high temperature reaction of silicon dioxide can give a wide range of glasses with various
properties.[16] Examples include soda lime glass, borosilicate glass and lead crystal glass.
Silicon sulfide, SiS2 is a polymeric solid (unlike its carbon analogue the liquid CS2).[15]
Silicon forms a nitride, Si3N4 which is a ceramic.[15] Silatranes, a group of tricyclic
compounds containing five-coordinate silicon, may have physiological properties.[19]
Many transition metal complexes containing a metal-silicon bond are now known, which
include complexes containing SiHnX3−n ligands, SiX3 ligands, and Si(OR)3 ligands.[19]
Silicones are large group of polymeric compounds with an (Si-O-Si) backbone. An example
is the silicone oil PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane).[15] These polymers can be crosslinked to
produce resins and elastomers.[15] Many organosilicon compounds are known which
contain a silicon-carbon single bond. Many of these are based on a central tetrahedral
silicon atom, and some are optically active when central chirality exists. Long chain
polymers containing a silicon backbone are known, such as polydimethysilylene
(SiMe2)n.[20] Polycarbosilane, [(SiMe2)2CH2]n with a backbone containing a repeating
-Si-Si-C unit, is a precursor in the production of silicon carbide fibres.[20]
Silicon 8
Applications
As the second most abundant element in the earth's crust, silicon is vital to the construction
industry as a principal constituent of natural stone, glass, concrete and cement. Silicon's
greatest impact on the modern world's economy and lifestyle has resulted from silicon
wafers used as substrates in the manufacture of discrete electronic devices such as power
transistors, and in the development of integrated circuits such as computer chips.
Alloys
The largest application of metallurgical grade silicon, representing about 55% of the world
consumption, is in the manufacture of aluminium-silicon alloys to produce cast parts,
mainly for the automotive industry. Silicon is an important constituent of electrical steel,
modifying its resistivity and ferromagnetic properties. Silicon is added to molten cast iron
as ferrosilicon or silicocalcium alloys to improve its performance in casting thin sections,
and to prevent the formation of cementite at the surface.
In electronic applications
Pure silicon is used to produce ultra-pure silicon wafers used in the semiconductor
industry, in electronics and in photovoltaic applications. Ultra-pure silicon can be doped
with other elements to adjust its electrical response by controlling the number and charge
(positive or negative) of current carriers. Such control is necessary for transistors, solar
cells, integrated circuits, microprocessors, semiconductor detectors and other
semiconductor devices which are used in electronics and other high-tech applications. In
silicon photonics, it can be used as a continuous wave Raman laser medium to produce
coherent light, though it is ineffective as a light source. Hydrogenated amorphous silicon is
used in the production of low-cost, large-area electronics in applications such as LCDs, and
of large-area, low-cost thin-film solar cells.
Silicones
The second largest application of silicon (about 40% of world consumption) is as a raw
material in the production of silicones, compounds containing silicon-oxygen and
silicon-carbon bonds that have the capability to act as bonding intermediates between glass
and organic compounds, and to form polymers with useful properties such as
impermeability to water, flexibility and resistance to chemical attack. Silicones are used in
waterproofing treatments, molding compounds and mold-release agents, mechanical seals,
high temperature greases and waxes, caulking compounds and even in applications as
diverse as breast implants, contact lenses, explosives and pyrotechnics.[21]
• Construction: Silicon dioxide or silica in the form of sand and clay is an important
ingredient of concrete and brick and is also used to produce Portland cement.
• Pottery/Enamel is a refractory material used in high-temperature material production
and its silicates are used in making enamels and pottery.
• Glass: Silica from sand is a principal component of glass. Glass can be made into a great
variety of shapes and with many different physical properties. Silica is used as a base
material to make window glass, containers, insulators, and many other useful objects.
• Abrasives: Silicon carbide is one of the most important abrasives.
• Silly Putty was originally made by adding boric acid to silicone oil.[22]
See also Category:Silicon compounds
Silicon 9
In popular culture
Because silicon is an important element in semiconductors and high-tech devices, the
high-tech region of Silicon Valley, California is named after this element. Other geographic
locations with connections to the industry have since characterized themselves as Siliconia
as well, for example Silicon Forest in Oregon, Silicon Saxony in Germany, and Silicon
Border in Mexicali.
See also
• Black silicon
• Covalent superconductors
• Crystalline silicon
• Electronics
• List of silicon producers
• Printed silicon electronics
• RCA clean
• Silicone
• Wafer (electronics)
External links
• Mineral.Galleries.com – Silicon [23]
• WebElements.com – Silicon [24]
References
[1] R. S. Ram et al. "Fourier Transform Emission Spectroscopy of the A2D–X2P Transition of SiH and SiD" J. Mol.
Spectr. 190, 341–352 (1998) (http:/ / bernath. uwaterloo. ca/ media/ 184. pdf)
[3] http:/ / www. ioffe. ru/ SVA/ NSM/ Semicond/ Si
[4] " The periodic table (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ )". webelements.com. . Retrieved 2008-02-20.
[5] Nielsen, Forrest H. (1984). "Ultratrace Elements in Nutrition". Annual Review of Nutrition 4: 21–41. doi:
10.1146/annurev.nu.04.070184.000321 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1146/ annurev. nu. 04. 070184. 000321).
[6] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements: XII. Other elements isolated with the aid of
potassium and sodium: beryllium, boron, silicon, and aluminum". Journal of Chemical Education: 1386–1412.
[7] " Phosphorus - 32 (http:/ / sciencegateway. org/ isotope/ phosp32. html)". sciencegateway.org. . Retrieved
2008-02-20.
[8] " Metallurgical silicon could become a rare commodity – just how quickly that happens depends to a certain
extent on the current financial crisis (http:/ / www. photon-magazine. com/ news_archiv/ details.
aspx?cat=News_PI& sub=worldwide& pub=4& parent=1555)". Photon International. . Retrieved 2009-03-04.
[9] " Silicon (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ silicon/ silicmcs06. pdf)". usgs.gov. .
[10] " New silicon production method with no carbon reductant (http:/ / www. acr. net. au/ ~coastwatchers/
charcoalition/ noreductant. html)". . Referering to Chen, George Zheng; Fray, Derek J.; Farthing, Tom W.
(2000). "Direct electrochemical reduction of titanium dioxide to titanium in molten calcium chloride". Nature
407 (6802): 361–364. doi: 10.1038/35030069 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ 35030069).
[11] Xianbo Jin, Pei Gao, Dihua Wang, Xiaohong Hu, George Z. Chen (2004). "Electrochemical Preparation of
Silicon and Its Alloys from Solid Oxides in Molten Calcium Chloride". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 43: 733–736. doi:
10.1002/anie.200352786 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ anie. 200352786).
[12] Nohira, Toshiyuki; Yasuda, Kouji; Ito, Yasuhiko (2003). "Pinpoint and bulk electrochemical reduction of
insulating silicon dioxide to silicon". Nature Materials 2: 397–401. doi: 10.1038/nmat900 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1038/ nmat900).
Silicon 10
[13] O'Mara, William C. (1990). Handbook of Semiconductor Silicon Technology (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=COcVgAtqeKkC& pg=PA351& dq=Czochralski+ Silicon+ Crystal+ Face+ Cubic& lr=& as_brr=3&
sig=ht-dgSy1lzBMYC7IXPp9W5QBqYo). William Andrew Inc.. p. 349-352. ISBN 0815512376. . Retrieved
2008-02-24.
[14] " Analyst_silicon_field_trip_March_28,_2007 (http:/ / hugin. info/ 136555/ R/ 1115224/ 203491. pdf)".
hugin.info. . Retrieved 2008-02-20.
[15] Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.).
Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.
[16] Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E.; Wiberg, N. (2001). Inorganic Chemistry, 1st Edition. Academic Press. ISBN
0123526515.
[17] (Multiply Bonded Main Group Metals and Metalloids: Multiple Bonded Main Group Metals and Metalloids, F.
G. Stone, Robert West, Academic Press, 1996, ISBN 0120311399)
[18] A Stable Compound Containing a Silicon-Silicon Triple Bond, Akira Sekiguchi, Rei Kinjo, Masaaki Ichinohe,
Science 17 September 2004:Vol. 305. no. 5691, pp. 1755 - 1757 doi: 10.1126/science.1102209 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1126/ science. 1102209)
[19] Lickiss, Paul D. (1994). Inorganic Compounds of Silicon, in Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry. John Wiley
& Sons. pp. 3770 - 3805. ISBN 0471936200.
[20] Mark, James. E (2005). Inorganic polymers. Oxford University Press. pp. 200-245. ISBN 0195131193.
[21] Koch, E.C.; Clement, D.. Special Materials in Pyrotechnics: VI. Silicon - An Old Fuel with New Perspectives
(http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ cgi-bin/ abstract/ 114279686/ ABSTRACT). .
[22] Walsh, Tim (2005). " Silly Putty (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=jftapGDTmYUC& pg=PA90)". Timeless
toys: classic toys and the playmakers who created them. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 9780740755712. .
[23] http:/ / mineral. galleries. com/ minerals/ elements/ silicon/ silicon. htm
[24] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Si/ key. html

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License
Phosphorus 1
Phosphorus
silicon ← phosphorus → sulfurN
↑
P
↓
As

15P
Periodic table
Appearance colorless, waxy white, yellow, scarlet, red, violet, black
waxy white (yellow cut), red, violet and

black phoshorus General Name, symbol, numberElement categoryGroup, period,
Density (near r.t.) Melting pointSublimation pointBoiling pointHeat of fusionHeat of
vaporizationSpecific heat capacityVapor pressure (white)
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 279 307 342 388 453 549
Vapor pressure (red, bp. 431 °C)
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 455 489 529 576 635 704

Phosphorus 2

(more) 2nd: 1907 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 2914.1 kJ·mol−1Covalent radiusVan der Waals radius
Miscellaneous Magnetic orderingThermal conductivityBulk modulusCAS registry number
Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of phosphorus
31 100% 31
P P is stable with 16 neutron
32 syn 14.28 d 1.709

β− 32
P S
33 syn 25.3 d 0.249

β− 33
P S
phosphorus, P, 15 nonmetal15, 3, p30.973762(2) g·mol−1 [Ne] 3s2 3p3 2, 8, 5 (Image)

(white) 1.823, (red) ≈ 2.2 – 2.34, (violet) 2.36, (black) 2.69 g·cm−3 (white) 44.2 °C, (black)
610 °C (red) ≈ 416 – 590 °C, (violet) 620 °C (white) 280.5 °C (white) 0.66 kJ·mol−1 (white)
12.4 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) (white)
23.824 J·mol−1·K−15, 4, 3, 2[1] , 1 [2] , -1, -2, -3
(mildly acidic oxide) 2.19 (Pauling scale) 1st: 1011.8 kJ·mol−1107±3 pm 180 pm
(white,red,violet,black) diamagnetic[3] (300 K) (white) 0.236, (black) 12.1 W·m−1·K−1
(white) 5, (red) 11 GPa 7723-14-0
Phosphorus (pronounced /ˈfɒsfərəs/) is the chemical element that has the symbol P and
atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus is commonly
found in inorganic phosphate rocks. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms - white
phosphorus and red phosphorus. Although the term "phosphorescence", meaning glow after
illumination, derives from phosphorus, glow of phosphorus originates from oxidation of the
white (but not red) phosphorus and should be called chemiluminescence.
Due to its high reactivity, phosphorus is never found as a free element in nature on Earth.
The first form of phosphorus to be discovered (white phosphorus, discovered in 1669) emits
a faint glow upon exposure to oxygen — hence its name given from Greek mythology,
Φωσφόρος meaning "light-bearer" (Latin Lucifer), referring to the "Morning Star", the
planet Venus.
Phosphorus is a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and also the phospholipids which form all
cell membranes. It is thus an essential element for all living cells. The most important
commercial use of phosphorus-based chemicals is the production of fertilizers.
Phosphorus compounds are also widely used in explosives, nerve agents, friction matches,
fireworks, pesticides, toothpaste and detergents.
Physical properties
Glow from white phosphorus

Phosphorus was discovered by German alchemist Hennig Brand in 1674 or 1675. Working
in Hamburg, Brand attempted to distil some kind of "life essence" from his urine, and in the
process produced a white material that glowed in the dark.[4] The phosphorus had in fact
been produced from inorganic phosphate, which is a significant component of dissolved
urine solids. White phosphorus is highly reactive and gives off a faint greenish glow upon
uniting with oxygen. The glow observed by Brand was actually caused by the very slow
burning of the phosphorus, but as he neither saw flame nor felt any heat he did not
Phosphorus 3
recognize it as burning.
It was known from early times that the glow would persist for a time in a stoppered jar but
then cease. Robert Boyle in the 1680s ascribed it to "debilitation" of the air; in fact, it is
oxygen being consumed. By the 18th century, it was known that in pure oxygen,
phosphorus does not glow at all;[5] there is only a range of partial pressure at which it does.
Heat can be applied to drive the reaction at higher pressures.[6]
In 1974, the glow was explained by R. J. van Zee and A. U. Khan.[7] A reaction with oxygen
takes place at the surface of the solid (or liquid) phosphorus, forming the short-lived
molecules HPO and P2O2 that both emit visible light. The reaction is slow and only very
little of the intermediates are required to produce the luminescence, hence the extended
time the glow continues in a stoppered jar.
Although the term phosphorescence is derived from phosphorus, the reaction which gives
phosphorus its glow is properly called chemiluminescence (glowing due to a cold chemical
reaction), not phosphorescence (re-emitting light that previously fell onto a substance and
excited it).
Phosphorescence is the slow decay of a metastable electronic state to a lower energy state
through emission of light. The decay is slow because the transition from the excited to the
lower state requires a spin flip, making it classically forbidden. Often it involves a transition
from an excited triplet state to a singlet ground state. The metastable excited state may
have been populated by thermal excitations or some light source. Since phosphorescence is
slow, it persists for some time after the exciting source is removed. In contrast,
chemiluminescence occurs when the product molecules of a chemical reaction (HPO and
P2O2 in this case) leave the reaction in an electronically excited state. These excited
molecules then release their excess energy in the form of light. The frequency (colour) of
the light emitted is proportional to the energy difference of the two electronic states
involved.[8]
Allotropes
Phosphorus has several forms (allotropes) which have strikingly
different properties.[9] The two most common allotropes are white
phosphorus and red phosphorus. Red phosphorus is an intermediate
phase between white and violet phosphorus. Another form, scarlet
phosphorus, is obtained by allowing a solution of white phosphorus in
carbon disulfide to evaporate in sunlight. Black phosphorus is
P4 molecule obtained by heating white phosphorus under high pressures (about
12,000 atmospheres). In appearance, properties, and structure, it
resembles graphite, being black and flaky, a conductor of electricity, and has puckered
sheets of linked atoms. Another allotrope is diphosphorus; it contains a phosphorus dimer
as a structural unit and is highly reactive.[]
Phosphorus 4
White phosphorus has two forms, low-temperature β form and

high-temperature α form. They both contain a phosphorus P4
tetrahedron as a structural unit, in which each atom is bound to the
other three atoms by a single bond. This P4 tetrahedron is also
present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of
800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules.[10] White
phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, more volatile, less
P4O10 molecule
dense, and more toxic than the other allotropes. The toxicity of white
phosphorus led to its discontinued use in matches. White phosphorus
is thermodynamically unstable at normal condition and will gradually change to red
phosphorus. This transformation, which is accelerated by light and heat, makes white
phosphorus almost always contain some red phosphorus and therefore appear yellow. For
this reason, it is also called yellow phosphorus. It glows greenish in the dark (when exposed
to oxygen), is highly flammable and pyrophoric (self-igniting) upon contact with air as well
as toxic (causing severe liver damage on ingestion). Because of pyrophoricity, white
phosphorus is used as an additive in napalm. The odour of combustion of this form has a
characteristic garlic smell, and samples are commonly coated with white "(di)phosphorus
pentoxide", which consists of P4O10 tetrahedra with oxygen inserted between the
phosphorus atoms and at their vertices. White phosphorus is insoluble in water but soluble
in carbon disulfide.[11]
The white allotrope can be produced using several different methods. In one process,
calcium phosphate, which is derived from phosphate rock, is heated in an electric or
fuel-fired furnace in the presence of carbon and silica.[12] Elemental phosphorus is then
liberated as a vapour and can be collected under phosphoric acid. This process is similar to
the first synthesis of phosphorus from calcium phosphate in urine.
In the red phosphorus, one of the P bonds is broken,
4
and one additional bond is formed with a neighbouring
tetrahedron resulting in a more chain-like structure.
Red phosphorus may be formed by heating white
phosphorus to 250 °C (482 °F) or by exposing white
phosphorus to sunlight.[13] Phosphorus after this
treatment exists as an amorphous network of atoms Crystal structure of red phosphorus
which reduces strain and gives greater stability; further

heating results in the red phosphorus becoming crystalline. Therefore red phosphorus is
not a certain allotrope, but rather an intermediate phase between the white and violet
phosphorus, and most of its properties have a range of values. Red phosphorus does not
catch fire in air at temperatures below 260 °C, whereas white phosphorus ignites at about
30 °C.[14]
Violet phosphorus is a thermodynamic stable form of phosphorus which can be produced

by day-long temper of red phosphorus above 550 °C. In 1865, Hittorf discovered that when
phosphorus was recrystallized from molten lead, a red/purple form is obtained. Therefore
this form is sometimes known as "Hittorf's phosphorus" (or violet or α-metallic
phosphorus).[]
Phosphorus 5
Black phosphorus is the least reactive allotrope and the

thermodynamic stable form below 550 °C. It is also known as
β-metallic phosphorus and has a structure somewhat
resembling that of graphite.[15] [16] High pressures are usually
required to produce black phosphorus, but it can also be
produced at ambient conditions using metal salts as
catalysts.[17]
The diphosphorus allotrope, P2, is stable only at high

temperatures. The dimeric unit contains a triple bond and is Crystal structure of black
phosphorus
analogous to N2. The diphosphorus allotrope (P2) can be
obtained normally only under extreme conditions (for example,
from P4 at 1100 kelvin). Nevertheless, some advancements were obtained in generating the
diatomic molecule in homogeneous solution, under normal conditions with the use by some
transitional metal complexes (based on, for example, tungsten and niobium).[18]
Properties of some allotropes of phosphorus

Form white(α) white(β) violet black
Symmetry Body-centred cubic Triclinic Monoclinic Orthorhombic
Pearson symbol aP24 mP84 oS8
Space group I-43m P-1 No.2 P2/c No.13 Cmca No.64
1.828 1.88 2.36 2.69

Density (g/cm3)
Bandgap (eV) 2.1 1.5 0.34
Refractive index 1.8244 2.6 2.4
Isotopes
Although twenty-three isotopes of phosphorus are known[19] (all possibilities from 24P up to
46
P), only 31P, with spin 1/2, is stable and is therefore present at 100% abundance. The
half-integer spin and high abundance of 31P make it useful for nuclear magnetic resonance
studies of biomolecules, particularly DNA.
Two radioactive isotopes of phosphorus have half-lives which make them useful for
scientific experiments. 32P has a half-life of 14.262 days and 33P has a half-life of 25.34
days. Biomolecules can be "tagged" with a radioisotope to allow for the study of very dilute
samples.
Radioactive isotopes of phosphorus include
32
• P; a beta-emitter (1.71 MeV) with a half-life of 14.3 days which is used routinely in
life-science laboratories, primarily to produce radiolabeled DNA and RNA probes, e.g. for
use in Northern blots or Southern blots. Because the high energy beta particles produced
penetrate skin and corneas, and because any 32P ingested, inhaled, or absorbed is readily
incorporated into bone and nucleic acids, Occupational Safety and Health Administration
in the United States, and similar institutions in other developed countries require that a
lab coat, disposable gloves, and safety glasses or goggles be worn when working with
32
P, and that working directly over an open container be avoided in order to protect the
eyes. Monitoring personal, clothing, and surface contamination is also required. In
Phosphorus 6
addition, due to the high energy of the beta particles, shielding this radiation with the
normally used dense materials (e.g. lead), gives rise to secondary emission of X-rays via a
process known as Bremsstrahlung, meaning braking radiation. Therefore shielding must
be accomplished with low density materials, e.g. Plexiglas, Lucite, plastic, wood, or
[20]
water.
• 33P; a beta-emitter (0.25 MeV) with a half-life of 25.4 days. It is used in life-science
laboratories in applications in which lower energy beta emissions are advantageous such
as DNA sequencing.
Chemical properties
See also Phosphorus compounds
• Hydrides: PH3,P2H4
• Halides: PBr5, PBr3, PCl3, PI3
• Oxides:P4O6, P4O10
• Sulfides: P4S6, P4S10
• Acids: H3PO2, H3PO4
• Phosphates: (NH4)3PO4, Ca3(PO4)2, FePO4, Fe3(PO4)2, Na3PO4, Ca(H2PO4)2, KH2PO4
• Phosphides: Ca3P2, GaP, Zn3P2 Cu3P
• Organophosphorus and organophosphates: Lawesson's reagent, Parathion, Sarin, Soman,
Tabun, Triphenyl phosphine, VX nerve gas
Chemical bonding
Because phosphorus is just below nitrogen in the periodic table, the two elements share
many of their bonding characteristics. For instance, phosphine, PH3, is an analogue of
ammonia, NH3. Phosphorus, like nitrogen, is trivalent in this molecule.
The "trivalent" or simple 3-bond view is the pre-quantum mechanical Lewis structure,
which although somewhat of a simplification from a quantum chemical point of view,
illustrates some of the distinguishing chemistry of the element. In quantum chemical
valence bond theory, the valence electrons are seen to be in mixtures of four s and p atomic
orbitals, so-called hybrids. In this view, the three unpaired electrons in the three 3p orbitals
combine with the two electrons in the 3s orbital to form three electron pairs of opposite
spin, available for the formation of three bonds. The remaining hybrid orbital contains two
paired non-bonding electrons, which show as a lone pair in the Lewis structure.
The phosphorus cation is very similar to the nitrogen cation. In the same way that nitrogen
forms the tetravalent ammonium ion, phosphorus can form the tetravalent phosphonium
ion, and form salts such as phosphonium iodide [PH4]+[I−].
Like other elements in the third or lower rows of the periodic table, phosphorus atoms can
expand their valence to make penta- and hexavalent compounds. The phosphorus chloride
molecule is an example. When the phosphorus ligands are not identical, the more
electronegative ligands are located in the apical positions and the least electronegative
ligands are located in the axial positions.
With strongly electronegative ions, in particular fluorine, hexavalency as in PF6− occurs as
well. This octahedral ion is isoelectronic with SF6. In the bonding the six octahedral sp3d2
hybrid atomic orbitals play an important role.
Phosphorus 7
Before extensive computer calculations were feasible, it was generally assumed that the
nearby d orbitals in the n = 3 shell were the obvious cause of the difference in binding
between nitrogen and phosphorus (i.e., phosphorus had 3d orbitals available for 3s and 3p
shell bonding electron hybridisation, but nitrogen did not). However, in the early eighties
the German theoretical chemist Werner Kutzelnigg[21] found from an analysis of computer
calculations that the difference in binding is more likely due to differences in character
between the valence 2p and valence 3p orbitals of nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively.
The 2s and 2p orbitals of first row atoms are localized in roughly the same region of space,
while the 3p orbitals of phosphorus are much more extended in space. The violation of the
octet rule observed in compounds of phosphorus is then due to the size of the phosphorus
atom, and the corresponding reduction of steric hindrance between its ligands. In modern
theoretical chemistry, Kutzelnigg's analysis is generally accepted.
The simple Lewis structure for the trigonal bipyramidal PCl5 molecule contains five
covalent bonds, implying a hypervalent molecule with ten valence electrons contrary to the
octet rule.
An alternate description of the bonding, however, respects the octet rule by using
3-centre-4-electron (3c-4e) bonds. In this model the octet on the P atom corresponds to six
electrons which form three Lewis (2c-2e) bonds to the three equatorial Cl atoms, plus the
two electrons in the 3-centre Cl-P-Cl bonding molecular orbital for the two axial Cl
electrons. The two electrons in the corresponding nonbonding molecular orbital are not
included because this orbital is localized on the two Cl atoms and does not contribute to the
electron density on the phosphorus atom. (However, it should always be remembered that
the octet rule is not some universal rule of chemical bonding, and while many compounds
obey it, there are many elements to which it does not apply).
Phosphine, diphosphine and phosphonium salts

Phosphine (PH3) and arsine (AsH3) are structural analogs with ammonia (NH3) and form
pyramidal structures with the phosphorus or arsenic atom in the center bound to three
hydrogen atoms and one lone electron pair. Both are colourless, ill-smelling, toxic
compounds. Phosphine is produced in a manner similar to the production of ammonia.
Hydrolysis of calcium phosphide, Ca3P2, or calcium nitride, Ca3N2 produces phosphine or
ammonia, respectively. Unlike ammonia, phosphine is unstable and it reacts instantly with
air giving off phosphoric acid clouds. Arsine is even less stable. Although phosphine is less
basic than ammonia, it can form some phosphonium salts (like PH4I), analogs of ammonium
salts, but these salts immediately decompose in water and do not yield phosphonium (PH4+)
ions. Diphosphine (P2H4 or H2P-PH2) is an analog of hydrazine (N2H4) that is a colourless
liquid which spontaneously ignites in air and can disproportionate into phosphine and
complex hydrides.
Halides
The trihalides PF3, PCl3, PBr3 and PI3 and the pentahalides, PCl5 and PBr5 are all known
and mixed halides can also be formed. The trihalides can be formed simply by mixing the
appropriate stoichiometric amounts of phosphorus and a halide. For safety reasons,
however, PF3 is typically made by reacting PCl3 with AsF5 and fractional distillation
because the direct reaction of phosphorus with fluorine can be explosive. The pentahalides,
PX5, are synthesized by reacting excess halide with either elemental phosphorus or with the
Phosphorus 8
corresponding trihalide. Mixed phosphorus halides are unstable and decompose to form
simple halides. Thus 5PF3Br2 decomposes into 3PF5 and 2PBr5.
Oxides and oxyacids

Phosphorus(III) oxide, P4O6 (also called tetraphosphorus hexoxide) and phosphorus(IV)
oxide, P4O10 (or tetraphosphorus decoxide) are acid anhydrides of phosphorus oxyacids and
hence readily react with water. P4O10 is a particularly good dehydrating agent that can
even remove water from nitric acid, HNO3. The structure of P4O6 is like that of P4 with an
oxygen atom inserted between each of the P-P bonds. The structure of P4O10 is like that of
P4O6 with the addition of one oxygen bond to each phosphorus atom via a double bond and
protruding away from the tetrahedral structure.
Phosphorous oxyacids can have acidic protons bound to oxygen atoms and nonacidic
protons which are bonded directly to the phosphorus atom. Although many oxyacids of
phosphorus are formed, only six are important (see table), and three of them,
hypophosphorous acid, phosphorous acid and phosphoric acid are particularly important
ones.
Oxidation State Formula Name Acidic Protons Compounds
+1 H3PO2 hypophosphorous acid 1 acid, salts
+3 H3PO3 (ortho)phosphorous acid 2 acid, salts
+5 (HPO3)n metaphosphoric acids n salts (n=3,4)
+5 H5P3O10 triphosphoric acid 3 salts
+5 H4P2O7 pyrophosphoric acid 4 acid, salts
+5 H3PO4 (ortho)phosphoric acid 3 acid, salts
History and discovery

The name Phosphorus in Ancient Greece was the name for the planet Venus and is derived
from the Greek words (φως = light, φορέω = carry) which roughly translates as
light-bringer or light carrier.[13] (In Greek mythology, Hesperus (evening star) and
Eosphorus (dawnbearer) are close homologues, and also associated with
Phosphorus-the-planet).
The first recorded production of elemental phosphorus was in 1674 or 1675 by the German
alchemist Hennig Brand through a preparation of urine, which contains considerable
quantities of dissolved phosphates from normal metabolism.[13] Working in Hamburg,
Brand attempted to create the fabled Philosopher's stone through the distillation of some
salts by evaporating urine, and in the process produced a white material that glowed in the
dark and burned brilliantly. His process originally involved letting urine stand for days until
it gave off a terrible smell. Then he boiled it down to a paste, heated this paste to a high
temperature, and led the vapours through water where he hoped they would condense to
gold. Instead, he obtained a white, waxy substance that glowed in the dark. Brand had
discovered phosphorus, the first element discovered since antiquity. We now know that
Brand produced ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate, (NH4)NaHPO4. While the
quantities were essentially correct (it took about 1,100 L of urine to make about 60 g of
phosphorus), it was unnecessary to allow the urine to rot. Later scientists would discover
that fresh urine yielded the same amount of phosphorus.
Phosphorus 9
Since that time, phosphors and phosphorescence were used loosely to describe substances
that shine in the dark without burning. However, as mentioned above, even though the
term phosphorescence was originally coined as a term by analogy with the glow from
oxidation of elemental phosphorus, is now reserved for another fundamentally different
process—re-emission of light after illumination.
Phosphorus was gradually recognized as a chemical element in its own right at the
emergence of the atomic theory that gradually occurred in the late part of the 18th century
and the early 19th century (see John Dalton for more history).
Brand at first tried to keep the method secret,[22] but later sold the recipe for 200 thaler to
D Krafft from Dresden,[13] who could now make it as well, and toured much of Europe with
it, including England, where he met with Robert Boyle. The secret that it was made from
urine leaked out and first Johann Kunckel (1630-1703) in Sweden (1678) and later Boyle in
London (1680) also managed to make phosphorus. Boyle states that Krafft gave him no
information as to the preparation of phosphorus other than that it was derived from
"somewhat that belonged to the body of man". This gave Boyle a valuable clue, however, so
that he, too, managed to make phosphorus and published the method of its manufacture.[13]
Later he improved Brand's process by using sand in the reaction (still using urine as base
material),
4 NaPO3 + 2 SiO2 + 10 C → 2 Na2SiO3 + 10 CO + P4
Robert Boyle was the first to use phosphorus to ignite sulfur-tipped wooden splints,
forerunners of our modern matches, in 1680.
In 1769 Johan Gottlieb Gahn and Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that calcium phosphate
(Ca3(PO4)2) is found in bones and they obtained phosphorus from bone ash. Antoine
Lavoisier recognized phosphorus as an element in 1777. Bone ash was the major source of
phosphorus until the 1840s. Phosphate rock, a mineral containing calcium phosphate, was
first used in 1850 and following the introduction of the electric arc furnace in 1890 this
became the only source of phosphorus. Phosphorus, phosphates and phosphoric acid are
still obtained from phosphate rock. Phosphate rock is a major feedstock in the fertilizer
industry.
Early matches used white phosphorus in their composition, which was dangerous due to its
toxicity. Murders, suicides and accidental poisonings resulted from its use. (An apocryphal
tale tells of a woman attempting to murder her husband with white phosphorus in his food,
which was detected by the stew giving off luminous steam).[7] In addition, exposure to the
vapours gave match workers a necrosis of the bones of the jaw, the infamous "phossy jaw."
When a safe process for manufacturing red phosphorus was discovered, with its far lower
flammability and toxicity, laws were enacted, under the Berne Convention (1906), requiring
its adoption as a safer alternative for match manufacture. [11]
Spelling and etymology

According to the Oxford English Dictionary the correct spelling of the element is
phosphorus. The word phosphorous is the adjectival form of the P3+ valence: so, just as
sulfur forms sulfurous and sulfuric compounds, phosphorus forms phosphorous
compounds (see, e.g., phosphorous acid) and P5+ valency phosphoric compounds (see, e.g.,
phosphoric acids and phosphates).
Phosphorus 10
Occurrence
Due to its reactivity with air and many other oxygen-containing substances, phosphorus is
not found free in nature but it is widely distributed in many different minerals.
Phosphate rock, which is partially made of apatite (an impure tri-calcium phosphate
mineral), is an important commercial source of this element. About 50 percent of the global
phosphorus reserves are in the Arab nations.[23] Large deposits of apatite are located in
China, Russia, Morocco, Florida, Idaho, Tennessee, Utah, and elsewhere. Albright and
Wilson in the United Kingdom and their Niagara Falls plant, for instance, were using
phosphate rock in the 1890s and 1900s from Connetable, Tennessee and Florida; by 1950
they were using phosphate rock mainly from Tennessee and North Africa.[12] In the early
1990s Albright and Wilson's purified wet phosphoric acid business was being adversely
affected by phosphate rock sales by China and the entry of their long-standing Moroccan
phosphate suppliers into the purified wet phosphoric acid business.[24]
In 2007, at the current rate of consumption, the supply of phosphorus was estimated to run
out in 345 years.[25] However, scientists are now claiming that a "Peak Phosphorus" will
occur in 30 years and that "At current rates, reserves will be depleted in the next 50 to 100
years."[26]
Production
White phosphorus was first made commercially, for the match industry in the 19th century,
by distilling off phosphorus vapour from precipitated phosphates, mixed with ground coal
or charcoal, which was heated in an iron pot, in retort.[27] The precipitated phosphates
were made from ground-up bones that had been de-greased and treated with strong acids.
Carbon monoxide and other flammable gases produced during the reduction process were
burnt off in a flare stack.
This process became obsolete in the late 1890s when the electric arc furnace was adapted
to reduce phosphate rock.[28] [4] Calcium phosphate (phosphate rock), mostly mined in
Florida and North Africa, can be heated to 1,200-1,500 °C with sand, which is mostly SiO2,
and coke (impure carbon) to produce vaporized tetraphosphorus, P4, (mp. 44.2 C) which is
subsequently condensed into a white powder under water to prevent oxidation. Even under
water, white phosphorus is slowly converted to the more stable red phosphorus allotrope
(mp. 597 C). Both the white and red allotropes of phosphorus are insoluble in water.
The electric furnace method allowed production to increase to the point where phosphorus
could be used in weapons of war.[7] [12] In World War I it was used in incendiaries, smoke
screens and tracer bullets.[12] A special incendiary bullet was developed to shoot at
hydrogen-filled Zeppelins over Britain (hydrogen being highly inflammable if it can be
ignited).[12] During World War II, Molotov cocktails of benzene and phosphorus were
distributed in Britain to specially selected civilians within the British resistance operation,
for defence; and phosphorus incendiary bombs were used in war on a large scale. Burning
phosphorus is difficult to extinguish and if it splashes onto human skin it has horrific effects
(see precautions below).[11]
Today phosphorus production is larger than ever. It is used as a precursor for various
chemicals,[29] in particular the herbicide glyphosate sold under the brand name Roundup.
Production of white phosphorus takes place at large facilities and it is transported heated in
liquid form. Some major accidents have occurred during transportation, train derailments
Phosphorus 11
at Brownston, Nebraska and Miamisburg, Ohio led to large fires. The worst accident in
recent times was an environmental one in 1968 when phosphorus spilled into the sea from
a plant at Placentia Bay, Newfoundland.[30]
Applications
Match striking surface made of a

mixture of red phosphorus, glue and
ground glass. (The glass is used to
increase the friction.)
Widely used compounds Use
Ca(H2PO4)2•H2O Baking powder & fertilizers
CaHPO4•2H2O Animal food additive, toothpowder
H3PO4 Manufacture of phosphate fertilizers
PCl3 Manufacture of POCl3 and pesticides
POCl3 Manufacturing plasticizer
P4S10 Manufacturing of additives and pesticides
Na5P3O10 Detergents
Phosphorus, being an essential plant nutrient, finds its major use as a constituent of
fertilizers for agriculture and farm production in the form of concentrated phosphoric acids,
which can consist of 70% to 75% P2O5. Global demand for fertilizers led to large increase in
phosphate (PO43-) production in the second half of the 20th century. Due to the essential
nature of phosphorus to living organisms, the low solubility of natural
phosphorus-containing compounds, and the slow natural cycle of phosphorus, the
agricultural industry is heavily reliant on fertilizers which contain phosphate, mostly in the
form of superphosphate of lime. Superphosphate of lime is a mixture of two phosphate
salts, calcium dihydrogen phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2 and calcium sulfate dihydrate
CaSO4•2H2O produced by the reaction of sulfuric acid and water with calcium phosphate.
• Phosphorus is widely used to make organophosphorus compounds, through the
intermediates phosphorus chlorides and two phosphorus sulfides: phosphorus
pentasulfide, and phosphorus sesquisulfide.[12] Organophosphorus compounds have many
applications, including in plasticizers, flame retardants, pesticides, extraction agents, and
water treatment. [11]
• Phosphorus is also an important component in steel production, in the making of
phosphor bronze, and in many other related products.
Phosphorus 12
• Phosphates are utilized in the making of special glasses that are used for sodium
lamps.[31]
• Bone-ash, calcium phosphate, is used in the production of fine china. [31]
• Sodium tripolyphosphate made from phosphoric acid is used in laundry detergents in
[31]
some countries, but banned for this use in others.
• Phosphoric acid made from elemental phosphorus is used in food applications such as
some soda beverages. The acid is also a starting point to make food grade phosphates.[12]
These include mono-calcium phosphate which is employed in baking powder and sodium
tripolyphosphate and other sodium phosphates[12] . Among other uses these are used to
improve the characteristics of processed meat and cheese. Others are used in
toothpaste.[12] Trisodium phosphate is used in cleaning agents to soften water and for
preventing pipe/boiler tube corrosion.
• White phosphorus, called "WP" (slang term "Willie Peter") is used in military applications
as incendiary bombs, for smoke-screening as smoke pots and smoke bombs, and in tracer
ammunition. It is also a part of an obsolete M34 White Phosphorus US hand grenade.
This multipurpose grenade was mostly used for signaling, smoke screens and
inflammation; it could also cause severe burns and had a psychological impact on the
enemy.[32] [33]
• Red phosphorus is essential for manufacturing matchbook strikers, flares,[12] safety
matches, pharmaceutical grade and street methamphetamine, and is used in cap gun
caps.
• Phosphorus sesquisulfide is used in heads of strike-anywhere matches.[12]
• In trace amounts, phosphorus is used as a dopant for n-type semiconductors.
• 32P and 33P are used as radioactive tracers in biochemical laboratories (see Isotopes).
Biological role
Phosphorus is a key element in all known forms of life. Inorganic phosphorus in the form of
the phosphate PO43- plays a major role in biological molecules such as DNA and RNA where
it forms part of the structural framework of these molecules. Living cells also use
phosphate to transport cellular energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Nearly
every cellular process that uses energy obtains it in the form of ATP. ATP is also important
for phosphorylation, a key regulatory event in cells. Phospholipids are the main structural
components of all cellular membranes. Calcium phosphate salts assist in stiffening bones.
[11]
Every cell has a membrane that separates it from its surrounding environment. Biological
membranes are made from a phospholipid matrix and proteins, typically in the form of a
bilayer. Phospholipids are derived from glycerol, such that two of the glycerol hydroxyl
(OH) protons have been replaced with fatty acids as an ester, and the third hydroxyl proton
has been replaced with phosphate bonded to another alcohol. [11]
An average adult human contains a little less than 1 kg of phosphorus, about 85% of which
is present in bones and teeth in the form of apatite, and the remainder inside cells in soft
tissues. A well-fed adult in the industrialized world consumes and excretes about 1-3 g of
phosphorus per day, with consumption in the form of inorganic phosphate and
phosphorus-containing biomolecules such as nucleic acids and phospholipids; and excretion
almost exclusively in the form of urine phosphate ion. Only about 0.1% of body phosphate
circulates in the blood, but this amount reflects the amount of phosphate available to soft
Phosphorus 13
[11]
tissue cells.
In medicine, low phosphate syndromes are caused by malnutrition, by failure to absorb
phosphate, and by metabolic syndromes which draw phosphate from the blood (such as
re-feeding after malnutrition) or pass too much of it into the urine. All are characterized by
hypophosphatemia (see article for medical details), which is a condition of low levels of
soluble phosphate levels in the blood serum, and therefore inside cells. Symptoms of
hypophosphatemia include muscle and neurological dysfunction, and disruption of muscle
and blood cells due to lack of ATP. Too much phosphate can lead to diarrhea and
calcification (hardening) of organs and soft tissue, and can interfere with the body's ability
to use iron, calcium, magnesium, and zinc.[34]
Phosphorus is an essential macromineral for plants, which is studied extensively in
edaphology in order to understand plant uptake from soil systems. In ecological terms,
phosphorus is often a limiting factor in many environments; i.e. the availability of
phosphorus governs the rate of growth of many organisms. In ecosystems an excess of
phosphorus can be problematic, especially in aquatic systems, see eutrophication and algal
blooms.
Precautions
Organic compounds of phosphorus form a wide class of materials,
some of which are extremely toxic. Fluorophosphate esters are among
the most potent neurotoxins known. A wide range of
organophosphorus compounds are used for their toxicity to certain
organisms as pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, etc.) and
weaponised as nerve agents. Most inorganic phosphates are relatively
nontoxic and essential nutrients. For environmentally adverse effects
of phosphates see eutrophication and algal blooms. [11]
The white phosphorus allotrope should be kept under water at all

times as it presents a significant fire hazard due to its extreme
reactivity with atmospheric oxygen, and it should only be manipulated
with forceps since contact with skin can cause severe burns. Chronic
white phosphorus poisoning leads to necrosis of the jaw called
"phossy jaw". Ingestion of white phosphorus may cause a medical
condition known as "Smoking Stool Syndrome". [35]
When the white form is exposed to sunlight or when it is heated in its own vapour to
250 °C, it is transmuted to the red form, which does not chemoluminesce in air. The red
allotrope does not spontaneously ignite in air and is not as dangerous as the white form.
Nevertheless, it should be handled with care because it reverts to white phosphorus in
some temperature ranges and it also emits highly toxic fumes that consist of phosphorus
oxides when it is heated. [11]
Phosphorus 14
Upon exposure to elemental phosphorus, in the past it

was suggested to wash the affected area with 2%
copper sulfate solution to form harmless compounds
that can be washed away. According to the recent US
Navy's Treatment of Chemical Agent Casualties and
Conventional Military Chemical Injuries: FM8-285: Part
2 Conventional Military Chemical Injuries, "Cupric
(copper(II)) sulfate has been used by U.S. personnel in
the past and is still being used by some nations.
However, copper sulfate is toxic and its use will be Phosphorus explosion
discontinued. Copper sulfate may produce kidney and

cerebral toxicity as well as intravascular hemolysis."[36]
The manual suggests instead "a bicarbonate solution to neutralize phosphoric acid, which
will then allow removal of visible white phosphorus. Particles often can be located by their
emission of smoke when air strikes them, or by their phosphorescence in the dark. In dark
surroundings, fragments are seen as luminescent spots." Then, "Promptly debride the burn
if the patient's condition will permit removal of bits of WP which might be absorbed later
and possibly produce systemic poisoning. DO NOT apply oily-based ointments until it is
certain that all WP has been removed. Following complete removal of the particles, treat
the lesions as thermal burns."[37] As white phosphorus readily mixes with oils, any oily
substances or ointments are not recommended until the area is thoroughly cleaned and all
white phosphorus removed.
US DEA List I status

Phosphorus can reduce elemental iodine to hydroiodic acid, which is a reagent effective for
reducing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine.[38] For this reason, two
allotropes of elemental phosphorus—red phosphorus and white phosphorus—were
designated by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration as List I precursor
chemicals under 21 CFR 1310.02 effective on November 17, 2001.[39] As a result, in the
United States, handlers of red phosphorus or white phosphorus are subject to stringent
regulatory controls pursuant to the Controlled Substances Act in order to reduce diversion
of these substances for use in clandestine production of controlled substances.[39] [40] [41]
See also
• White phosphorus (weapon)
References
Notes
[1] webelements (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ compounds/ text/ P/ H4P2-13445506. html)
[2] B. D. Ellis and C. L. B. Macdonald* "Phosphorus(I) Iodide: A Versatile Metathesis Reagent for the Synthesis of
Low Oxidation State Phosphorus Compounds" Inorg. Chem., 2006, 45 (17), pp 6864 (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ doi/
abs/ 10. 1021/ ic060186o)
[4] Parkes and Mellor, pp. 718-720.
Phosphorus 15
[5] " Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1956 - Presentation Speech by Professor A. Ölander (committee member) (http:/ /
nobelprize. org/ chemistry/ laureates/ 1956/ press. html)". . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[6] " Phosphorus Topics page, at Lateral Science (http:/ / www. lateralscience. co. uk/ phos/ index. html)". .
[7] Emsley, John (2000). The Shocking History of Phosphorus. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-330-39005-8.
[8] Ana M. García-Campaña, Willy R. G. Baeyens (2001). Chemiluminescence in analytical chemistry (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=-EPSISOfCxYC). CRC Press. pp. 2–12. ISBN 0824704649. .
[9] A. Holleman, N. Wiberg (1985). "XV 2.1.3". Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie. de Gruyter.
[10] Simon, Arndt (1997). "On the Polymorphism of White Phosphorus". Chemische Berichte 130: 1235. doi:
10.1002/cber.19971300911 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ cber. 19971300911).
[11] Lewis R. Goldfrank, Neal Flomenbaum, Mary Ann Howland, Robert S. Hoffman, Neal A. Lewin, Lewis S.
Nelson (2006). Goldfrank's toxicologic emergencies (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cvJuLqBxGUcC&
pg=PA1487). McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 1486–1489. ISBN 0071437630. .
[12] Threlfall, R.E. (1951). 100 years of Phosphorus Making: 1851 - 1951. Oldbury: Albright and Wilson Ltd.
[13] Parkes and Mellor, p. 717.
[14] Parkes and Mellor, pp. 721-722.
[15] A. Brown, S. Runquist (1965). "Refinement of the crystal structure of black phosphorus". Acta Crystallogr.
19: 684. doi: 10.1107/S0365110X65004140 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1107/ S0365110X65004140).
[16] Cartz, L.;Srinivasa, S.R.;Riedner, R.J.;Jorgensen, J.D.;Worlton, T.G. (1979). "Effect of pressure on bonding in
black phosphorus". Journal of Chemical Physics 71: 1718–1721. doi: 10.1063/1.438523 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1063/ 1. 438523).
[17] Stefan Lange, Peer Schmidt, and Tom Nilges (2007). "Au3SnP7@Black Phosphorus: An Easy Access to Black
Phosphorus". Inorg. Chem. 46: 4028. doi: 10.1021/ic062192q (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ic062192q).
[18] Piro, N. A. (2006). "Triple-Bond Reactivity of Diphosphorus Molecules". Science 313 (5791): 1276. doi:
10.1126/science.1129630 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1126/ science. 1129630). PMID 16946068.
[19] " The Berkeley Laboratory Isotopes Project (http:/ / ie. lbl. gov/ education/ parent/ P_iso. htm)". . Retrieved
2009-05-05.
[20] " Occupational Safety & Environmental Health: Phsophorus-21 (http:/ / www. oseh. umich. edu/ TrainP32.
pdf)". . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[21] W. Kutzelnigg (1984). " Chemical Bonding in Higher Main Group Elements (http:/ / web. uvic. ca/ ~chem421/
ACIE_1984_Kutzelnigg_review. pdf)". Angewandte Chemie Int. (English) Ed. 23: 272–295. doi:
10.1002/anie.198402721 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ anie. 198402721). .
[22] J. M. Stillman (1960). The Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry. New York: Dover. pp. 418–419.
[23] " Phosphate Rock: Statistics and Information (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
phosphate_rock/ )". USGS. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[24] Podger (2002), pages 297–298.
[25] "How Long Will it Last?". New Scientist 194 (2605): 38–39. May 26, 2007. ISSN 4079 0262 4079 (http:/ /
worldcat. org/ issn/ 0262).
[26] Leo Lewis (2008-06-23). " Scientists warn of lack of vital phosphorus as biofuels raise demand (http:/ /
business. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ business/ industry_sectors/ natural_resources/ article4193017. ece)". The
Times. .
[27] Threlfall (1951), Chapter V: The foundations:1844–56: The phosphorus retort.
[28] Threlfall (1951), Chapter VII: The second generation:1880–1915: Part 1: The electric furnace.
[29] Aall C. H. (1952). "The American Phosphorus Industry". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry 44 (7):
1520–1525. doi: 10.1021/ie50511a018 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ie50511a018).
[30] " ERCO and Long Harbour (http:/ / www. heritage. nf. ca/ law/ erco. html)". Memorial University of
Newfoundland and the C.R.B. Foundation. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
0849304814.
[32] " Obsolete hand grenades (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ library/ policy/ army/ fm/ 3-23-30/ appe.
htm)". GlobalSecurity.Org. . Retrieved 2009-08-03.
[33] Dockery, Kevin (1997). Special Warfare Special Weapons. Chicago: Emperor's Press. ISBN 1-883-47600-3.
[34] Anderson, John J. B. (01 Apr 1996). " Calcium, Phosphorus and Human Bone Development (http:/ / jn.
nutrition. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 126/ 4_Suppl/ 1153S)". Journal of Nutrition 126 (4 Suppl.): 1153S–1158S.
PMID 8642449. .
[35] " CBRNE - Incendiary Agents, White Phosphorus (Smoking Stool Syndrome) (http:/ / www. emedicine. com/
EMERG/ topic918. htm)". . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[36] " US Navy's Treatment of Chemical Agent Casualties and Conventional Military Chemical Injuries: FM8-285:
Part 2 Conventional Military Chemical Injuries (http:/ / www. vnh. org/ FM8285/ Chapter/ chapter9. html)". .
Phosphorus 16
[37] This quote uses the word "phosphorescence", which is actually incorrect, WP, (White Phosphorous), exhibits
chemoluminescence upon exposure to air and if there is any WP in the wound, covered by tissue or fluids such
as blood serum, it will not chemoluminescence until it is moved to a position where the air can get at it and
activate the chemoluminescent glow which requires a very dark room and dark adapted eyes to see clearly.
[38] Skinner, H.F. (1990). "Methamphetamine synthesis via hydriodic acid/red phosphorus reduction of
ephedrine". Forensic Science International 48 (2): 123–134. doi: 10.1016/0379-0738(90)90104-7 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0379-0738(90)90104-7).
[39] " 66 FR 52670—52675 (http:/ / frwebgate. access. gpo. gov/ cgi-bin/ getdoc. cgi?dbname=2001_register&
docid=01-26013-filed)". 17 October 2001. . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[40] " 21 CFR 1309 (http:/ / www. access. gpo. gov/ nara/ cfr/ waisidx_06/ 21cfr1309_06. html)". . Retrieved
2009-05-05.
[41] " 21 USC, Chapter 13 (Controlled Substances Act) (http:/ / www. usdoj. gov/ dea/ pubs/ csa. html)". .
Sources
• Emsley, John (2000). The Shocking history of Phosphorus. A biography of the Devil's
Element. London: MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-76638-5.
• Parkes, G.D. and Mellor, J.W. (1939). Mellor's Modern Inorganic Chemistry. London:
Longman's Green and Co.
• Podger, Hugh (2002). Albright & Wilson. The Last 50 years. Studley: Brewin Books. ISBN
1-85858-223-7.
• Threlfall, Richard E. (1951). The Story of 100 years of Phosphorus Making: 1851–1951.
Oldbury: Albright & Wilson ltd.
External links
• Further warnings of toxic effects and recommendations for treatment can be found in "
Emergency War Surgery NATO Handbook: Part I: Types of Wounds and Injuries: Chapter
III: Burn Injury: Chemical Burns And White Phosphorus injury (http:/ / www.
brooksidepress. org/ Products/ OperationalMedicine/ DATA/ operationalmed/ Manuals/
NATOEWS/ ch03/ 03ChemicalBurns. html)". http:/ / www. brooksidepress. org/ Products/
OperationalMedicine/ DATA/ operationalmed/ Manuals/ NATOEWS/ ch03/
03ChemicalBurns. html. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
• WebElements.com: Phosphorus (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/
elements/ text/ P/ index. html)
• Simon, Fa; Pickering, Lk (Mar 1976). " Acute yellow phosphorus poisoning. "Smoking
stool syndrome". (http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+
@rn+ 7723-14-0)" (Free full text). JAMA : the journal of the American Medical
Association 235 (13): 1343–4. ISSN 0098-7484 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 0098-7484).
PMID 946251. http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+
@rn+ 7723-14-0.
• eMedicine.com: Article on White Phophorus as used as weapon (http:/ / www. emedicine.
com/ EMERG/ topic918. htm)
• Website of the Technische Universität Darmstadt and the CEEP about Phosphorus
Recovery (http:/ / www. phosphorus-recovery. tu-darmstadt. de)

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License
Sulfur 1
Sulfur
phosphorus ← sulfur → chlorineO
↑
S
↓
Se

16S
Periodic table
Appearance Lemon yellow crystals.

shell Physical properties PhaseDensity (near r.t.) Density (near r.t.) Density (near r.t.)
Liquid density at m.p.Melting pointBoiling pointCritical pointHeat of fusionHeat of
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 375 408 449 508 591 717

Sulfur 2

(more) 2nd: 2252 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 3357 kJ·mol−1Covalent radiusVan der Waals radius
conductivityBulk modulusMohs hardnessCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main
article: Isotopes of sulfur
32 95.02% 32
S S is stable with 16 neutron
33 0.75% 33
34 4.21% 34
35 syn 87.32 d 0.167

β− 35
S Cl
36 0.02% 36
sulfur, S, 16 nonmetal16, 3, p32.065(5) g·mol−1 [Ne] 3s2 3p4 2, 8, 6 (Image) solid (alpha)
2.07 g·cm−3 (beta) 1.96 g·cm−3 (gamma) 1.92 g·cm−3 1.819 g·cm−3
388.36 K,115.21 °C,239.38 °F 717.8 K,444.6 °C,832.3 °F 1314 K, 20.7 MPa (mono) 1.727
kJ·mol−1 (mono) 45 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 22.75 J·mol−1·K−16, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1, -2
(strongly acidic oxide) 2.58 (Pauling scale) 1st: 999.6 kJ·mol−1105±3 pm 180 pm
orthorhombic diamagnetic[1] (20 °C) (amorphous)
2×1015Ω·m (300 K) (amorphous)
0.205 W·m−1·K−1 7.7 GPa 2.0 7704-34-9
Sulfur or sulphur (pronounced /ˈsʌlfər/, see spelling below) is the chemical element that has
the atomic number 16. It is denoted with the symbol S. It is an abundant, multivalent
non-metal. Sulfur in its native form is a yellow crystalline solid. In nature, it can be found as
the pure element and as sulfide and sulfate minerals. It is an essential element for life and
is found in two amino acids, cysteine and methionine. Its commercial uses are primarily in
fertilizers, but it is also widely used in black gunpowder, matches, insecticides and
fungicides. Elemental sulfur crystals are commonly sought after by mineral collectors for
their brightly colored polyhedron shapes. In nonscientific contexts, it can also be referred
to as brimstone.
History
Sulfur (Sanskrit, sulvari; Latin sulfur or sulpur) was
known in ancient times and is referred to in the Torah
(Genesis).
English translations of the Bible commonly referred to
burning sulfur as "brimstone", giving rise to the name
of 'fire-and-brimstone' sermons, in which listeners are
reminded of the fate of eternal damnation that await
the unbelieving and unrepentant. It is from this part of
the Bible that Hell is implied to "smell of sulfur",
Rough sulfur crystal
although sulfur, in itself, is in fact odorless. The "smell
Sulfur 3
of sulfur" usually refers to either the odor of hydrogen

sulfide, e.g. from rotten egg, or of burning sulfur, which
produces sulfur dioxide, the smell associated with burnt
matches. The smell emanating from raw sulfur
originates from a slow oxidation in the presence of air.
Hydrogen sulfide is the principal odor of untreated
sewage and is one of several unpleasant smelling
sulfur-containing components of flatulence (along with
Sulfur crystal from Agrigento, Sicily.
sulfur-containing mercaptans).
A natural form of sulfur known as shiliuhuang was known in China since the 6th century BC
and found in Hanzhong.[2] By the 3rd century, the Chinese discovered that sulfur could be
extracted from pyrite.[2] Chinese Daoists were interested in sulfur's flammability and its
reactivity with certain metals, yet its earliest practical uses were found in traditional
Chinese medicine.[2] A Song Dynasty military treatise of 1044 AD described different
formulas for Chinese black powder, which is a mixture of potassium nitrate (KNO3),
charcoal, and sulfur. Early alchemists gave sulfur its own alchemical symbol which was a
triangle at the top of a cross.
In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier helped convince the scientific community that sulfur was an
element and not a compound. In 1867, sulfur was discovered in underground deposits in
Louisiana and Texas. The overlying layer of earth was quicksand, prohibiting ordinary
mining operations; therefore, the Frasch process was developed.
Spelling and etymology

The element has traditionally been spelled sulphur in the United Kingdom (since the 14th
Century),[3] most of the Commonwealth including India, Malaysia, South Africa, and Hong
Kong, along with the rest of the Caribbean and Ireland, but sulfur in the United States,
while both spellings are used in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the Philippines.
IUPAC adopted the spelling “sulfur” in 1990, as did the Royal Society of Chemistry
Nomenclature Committee in 1992[4] and the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority for
England and Wales recommended its use in 2000.[5]
In Latin, the word is variously written sulpur, sulphur, and sulfur (the Oxford Latin
Dictionary lists the spellings in this order). It is an original Latin name and not a Classical
Greek loan, so the ph variant does not denote the Greek letter φ. Sulfur in Greek is thion
(θείον), whence comes the prefix thio-. The simplification of the Latin words p or ph to an f
appears to have taken place towards the end of the classical period, with the f spelling
becoming dominant in the medieval period.[6] [7]
Sulfur 4
Characteristics
At room temperature, sulfur is a soft, bright-yellow
solid. Elemental sulfur has only a faint odor, similar to
that of matches. The odor associated with rotten eggs is
due to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and organic sulfur
compounds rather than elemental sulfur. Sulfur burns
with a blue flame that emits sulfur dioxide, notable for
its peculiar suffocating odor due to dissolving in the
mucosa to form dilute sulfurous acid. Sulfur itself is
insoluble in water, but soluble in carbon disulfide —
and to a lesser extent in other non-polar organic
solvents such as benzene and toluene. Common
oxidation states of sulfur include −2, +2, +4 and +6.
Sulfur forms stable compounds with all elements except
the noble gases. Sulfur in the solid state ordinarily
Sulfur melts to a blood-red liquid.
exists as cyclic crown-shaped S8 molecules. When burned, it emits a blue flame.
The crystallography of sulfur is complex. Depending on

the specific conditions, the sulfur allotropes form several distinct crystal structures, with
rhombic and monoclinic S8 best known.
A noteworthy property of sulfur is that its viscosity in its molten state, unlike most other
liquids, increases above temperatures of 200 °C due to the formation of polymers. The
molten sulfur assumes a dark red color above this temperature. At higher temperatures,
however, the viscosity is decreased as depolymerization occurs.
Amorphous or "plastic" sulfur can be produced through the rapid cooling of molten sulfur.
X-ray crystallography studies show that the amorphous form may have a helical structure
with eight atoms per turn. This form is metastable at room temperature and gradually
reverts back to crystalline form. This process happens within a matter of hours to days but
can be rapidly catalyzed.
Allotropes
Sulfur forms more than 30 solid allotropes, more than
any other element.[8] Besides S8, several other rings are
known.[9] Removing one atom from the crown gives S7,
which is more deeply yellow than S8. HPLC analysis of
"elemental sulfur" reveals an equilibrium mixture of
mainly S8, but also S7 and small amounts of S6.[10]
Larger rings have been prepared, including S12 and
S18.[11] [12] By contrast, sulfur's lighter neighbor oxygen
only exists in two states of allotropic significance: O2
The structure of the cyclooctasulfur
molecule, S8. and O3. Selenium, the heavier analogue of sulfur, can
form rings but is more often found as a polymer chain.
Sulfur 5
Isotopes
Sulfur has 25 known isotopes, four of which are stable: 32S (95.02%), 33S (0.75%), 34S
(4.21%), and 36S (0.02%). Other than 35S, the radioactive isotopes of sulfur are all short
lived. 35S is formed from cosmic ray spallation of 40argon in the atmosphere. It has a
half-life of 87 days.
When sulfide minerals are precipitated, isotopic equilibration among solids and liquid may
cause small differences in the δS-34 values of co-genetic minerals. The differences between
minerals can be used to estimate the temperature of equilibration. The δC-13 and δS-34 of
coexisting carbonates and sulfides can be used to determine the pH and oxygen fugacity of
the ore-bearing fluid during ore formation.
In most forest ecosystems, sulfate is derived mostly from the atmosphere; weathering of ore
minerals and evaporites also contribute some sulfur. Sulfur with a distinctive isotopic
composition has been used to identify pollution sources, and enriched sulfur has been
added as a tracer in hydrologic studies. Differences in the natural abundances can also be
used in systems where there is sufficient variation in the 34S of ecosystem components.
Rocky Mountain lakes thought to be dominated by atmospheric sources of sulfate have
been found to have different δS-34 values from lakes believed to be dominated by
watershed sources of sulfate.
Occurrence
Elemental sulfur can be found near hot springs and
volcanic regions in many parts of the world, especially
along the Pacific Ring of Fire. Such volcanic deposits
are currently mined in Indonesia, Chile, and Japan.
Sicily is also famous for its sulfur mines. Sulfur deposits
are polycrystalline, and the largest documented single
crystal measured 22x16x11 cm3.[13] [14]
Significant deposits of elemental sulfur also exist in salt

domes along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and in
Sulfur crystallites at Waiotapu hot
springs, New Zealand evaporites in eastern Europe and western Asia. The
sulfur in these deposits is believed to come from the
action of anaerobic bacteria on sulfate minerals, especially gypsum, although apparently
native sulfur may be produced by geological processes alone, without the aid of living
organisms (see below). However, fossil-based sulfur deposits from salt domes are the basis
for commercial production in the United States, Poland, Russia, Turkmenistan, and
Ukraine.
Sulfur 6
Sulfur production through hydrodesulfurization of oil,

gas, and the Athabasca Oil Sands has produced a
surplus — huge stockpiles of sulfur now exist
throughout Alberta, Canada.
Common naturally occurring sulfur compounds include
the sulfide minerals, such as pyrite (iron sulfide),
cinnabar (mercury sulfide), galena (lead sulfide), Sulfur recovered from hydrocarbons in
sphalerite (zinc sulfide) and stibnite (antimony sulfide); Alberta, stockpiled for shipment at
and the sulfates, such as gypsum (calcium sulfate), Vancouver, B.C.
alunite (potassium aluminium sulfate), and barite

(barium sulfate). It occurs naturally in volcanic emissions, such as from hydrothermal vents,
and from bacterial action on decaying sulfur-containing organic matter.
The distinctive colors of Jupiter's volcanic moon, Io, are from various forms of molten, solid
and gaseous sulfur. There is also a dark area near the Lunar crater Aristarchus that may be
a sulfur deposit.
Sulfur is present in many types of meteorites. Ordinary chondrites contain on average 2.1%
sulfur, and carbonaceous chondrites may contain as much as 6.6%. Sulfur in meteorites is
normally present entirely as troilite (FeS), but other sulfides are found in some meteorites,
and carbonaceous chondrites contain free sulfur, sulfates, and possibly other sulfur
compounds.[15]
Extraction and production
Extraction from natural resources

Sulfur is extracted by mainly two processes: the Sicilian process and the Frasch process.
The Sicilian process, which was first used in Sicily, was used in ancient times to get sulfur
from rocks present in volcanic regions. In this process, the sulfur deposits are piled and
stacked in brick kilns built on sloping hillsides, and with airspaces between them. Then
powdered sulfur is put on top of the sulfur deposit and ignited. As the sulfur burns, the heat
melts the sulfur deposits, causing the molten sulfur to flow down the sloping hillside. The
molten sulfur can then be collected in wooden buckets.
The second process used to obtain sulfur is the Frasch process. In this method, three
concentric pipes are used: the outermost pipe contains superheated water, which melts the
sulfur, and the innermost pipe is filled with hot compressed air, which serves to create foam
and pressure. The resulting sulfur foam is then expelled through the middle pipe.[16]
The Frasch process produces sulfur with a 99.5% purity content, and which needs no
further purification. The sulfur produced by the Sicilian process must be purified by
distillation.
Sulfur 7
Production from hydrogen sulfide
Chemically
The Claus process is used to extract elemental sulfur from hydrogen sulfide produced in
hydrodesulfurization of petroleum or from natural gas.
Biologically
In the biological route, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from natural gas or refinery gas is absorbed
with a slight alkaline solution in a wet scrubber. Or the sulfide is produced by biological
sulfate reduction. In the subsequent process step, the dissolved sulfide is biologically
converted to elemental sulfur. This solid sulfur is removed from the reactor. This process
has been built on commercial scale. The main advantages of this process are:
1. no use of expensive chemicals,
2. the process is safe as the H2S is directly absorbed in an alkaline solution,
3. no production of a polluted waste stream,
4. re-usable sulfur is produced, and
5. the process occurs under ambient conditions.
The biosulfur product is different from other processes in which sulfur is produced because
the sulfur is hydrophillic. Next to straightforward reuses as source for sulfuric acid
production, it can also be applied as sulfur fertilizer.[17]
Chemistry
Inorganic compounds
When dissolved in water, hydrogen sulfide is acidic and
will react with metals to form a series of metal sulfides.
Natural metal sulfides are common, especially those of
iron. Iron sulfide is called pyrite, the so-called fool's
gold. Pyrite can show semiconductor properties.[18]
Galena, a naturally occurring lead sulfide, was the first
semiconductor discovered, and found a use as a signal
rectifier in the "cat's whiskers" of early crystal radios.
Polymeric sulfur nitride has metallic properties even Sulfur powder.

though it does not contain any metal atoms. This
compound also has unusual electrical and optical properties. This polymer can be made
from tetrasulfur tetranitride S4N4.
Phosphorus sulfides are useful in synthesis. For example, P4S10 and its derivatives
Lawesson's reagent and naphthalen-1,8-diyl 1,3,2,4-dithiadiphosphetane 2,4-disulfide are
used to replace oxygen from some organic molecules with sulfur.
Sulfur 8
• Sulfides (S2−), a complex family of compounds

usually derived from S2−. Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is
an example.
• Sulfites (SO32−), the salts of sulfurous acid (H2SO3)
which is generated by dissolving SO2 in water.
Sulfurous acid and the corresponding sulfites are
fairly strong reducing agents. Other compounds
derived from SO2 include the pyrosulfite or
metabisulfite ion (S2O52−).
• Sulfates (SO42−), the salts of sulfuric acid. Sulfuric
acid also reacts with SO3 in equimolar ratios to form
pyrosulfuric acid (H2S2O7). The sulfate anion, SO42−
2−
• Thiosulfates (S O ). Sometimes referred as
2 3
thiosulfites or "hyposulfites", Thiosulfates are used in photographic fixing (HYPO) as
reducing agents. Ammonium thiosulfate is being investigated as a cyanide replacement in
leaching gold.[19]
• Sodium dithionite, Na2S2O4, is the highly reducing dianion derived from
hyposulfurous/dithionous acid.
• Sodium dithionate (Na2S2O6).
• Polythionic acids (H2SnO6), where n can range from 3 to 80.
• Peroxymonosulfuric acid (H2SO5) and peroxydisulfuric acids (H2S2O8), made from the
action of SO3 on concentrated H2O2, and H2SO4 on concentrated H2O2 respectively.
• Sodium polysulfides (Na2Sx)
• Sulfur hexafluoride, SF6, a dense gas at ambient conditions, is used as nonreactive and
nontoxic propellant
• Sulfur nitrides are chain and cyclic compounds containing only S and N. Tetrasulfur
tetranitride S4N4 is an example.
• Thiocyanates contain the SCN− group. Oxidation of thiocyanoate gives thiocyanogen,
(SCN)2 with the connectivity NCS-SCN.
Organic compounds
Many of the unpleasant odors of organic matter are based on sulfur-containing compounds
such as methyl mercaptan and dimethyl sulfide. Thiols and sulfides are used in the
odoriation of natural gas, notably, 2-methyl-2-propanethiol (t-butyl mercaptan). The odor of
garlic and "skunk stink" are also caused by sulfur-containing organic compounds. Not all
organic sulfur compounds smell unpleasant; for example, grapefruit mercaptan, a
sulfur-containing monoterpenoid is responsible for the characteristic scent of grapefruit. It
should be noted that this thiol is present in very low concentrations. In larger
concentrations, the odor of this compound is that typical of all thiols, unpleasant.
Sulfur-containing organic compounds include the following (R, R', and R are organic groups
such as CH3):
Sulfur 9
• Thioethers have the form R-S-R′. These compounds

are the sulfur equivalents of ethers.
• Sulfonium ions have the formula RR'S-'R'", i.e. where
three groups are attached to the cationic sulfur
center. Dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP;
(CH3)2S+CH2CH2COO−) is a sulfonium ion, which is
important in the marine organic sulfur cycle.
• Thiols (also known as mercaptans) have the form
R-SH. These are the sulfur equivalents of alcohols.
• Thiolates ions have the form R-S-. Such anions arise
upon treatment of thiols with base.
• Sulfoxides have the form R-S(=O)-R′. The simplest An organic sulfur compound, dithiane.
sulfoxide, DMSO, is a common solvent.
• Sulfones have the form R-S(=O)2-R′. A common sulfone is sulfolane C4H8SO2.

See also Category: sulfur compounds and organosulfur chemistry
Applications
One of the direct uses of sulfur is in vulcanization of rubber, where polysulfides crosslink
organic polymers. Sulfur is a component of gunpowder. It reacts directly with methane to
give carbon disulfide, which is used to manufacture cellophane and rayon.[20]
Elemental sulfur is mainly used as a precursor to other chemicals. Approximately 85%
(1989) is converted to sulfuric acid (H2SO4), which is of such prime importance to the
world's economies that the production and consumption of sulfuric acid is an indicator of a
nation's industrial development.[21] For example, more sulfuric acid is produced in the
United States every year than any other industrial chemical. The principal use for the acid
is the extraction of phosphate ores for the production of fertilizer manufacturing. Other
applications of sulfuric acid include oil refining, wastewater processing, and mineral
extraction.[20]
Sulfur compounds are also used in detergents, fungicides, dyestuffs, and agrichemicals. In
silver-based photography sodium and ammonium thiosulfate are used as "fixing agents."
Sulfur is an ingredient in some acne treatments.
An increasing application is as fertilizer. Standard sulfur is hydrophobic and therefore has
to be covered with a surfactant by bacteria in the ground before it can be oxidized to
sulfate. This makes it a slow release fertilizer, which cannot be taken up by the plants
instantly, but has to be oxidized to sulfate over the growth season. Sulfur also improves the
use efficiency of other essential plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus.[22]
Biologically produced sulfur particles are naturally hydrophilic due to a biopolymer coating.
This sulfur is therefore easier to disperse over the land (via spraying as a diluted slurry),
and results in a faster release.
Sulfites, derived from burning sulfur, are heavily used to bleach paper. They are also used
as preservatives in dried fruit.
Magnesium sulfate, better known as Epsom salts, can be used as a laxative, a bath additive,
an exfoliant, a magnesium supplement for plants, or a desiccant.
Sulfur 10
Specialized applications
Sulfur is used as a light-generating medium in the rare lighting fixtures known as sulfur
lamps.
Historical applications
In the late 18th century, furniture makers used molten sulfur to produce decorative inlays
in their craft. Because of the sulfur dioxide produced during the process of melting sulfur,
the craft of sulfur inlays was soon abandoned. Molten sulfur is sometimes still used for
setting steel bolts into drilled concrete holes where high shock resistance is desired for
floor-mounted equipment attachment points. Pure powdered sulfur was also used as a
medicinal tonic and laxative. Sulfur was also used in baths for people who had fits.
Fungicide and pesticide

Sulfur is one of the oldest fungicides and pesticides. Dusting sulfur, elemental sulfur in
powdered form, is a common fungicide for grapes, strawberry, many vegetables and several
other crops. It has a good efficacy against a wide range of powdery mildew diseases as well
as black spot. In organic production, sulfur is the most important fungicide. It is the only
fungicide used in organically farmed apple production against the main disease apple scab
under colder conditions. Biosulfur (biologically produced elemental sulfur with hydrophillic
characteristics) can be used well for these applications.
Standard-formulation dusting sulfur is applied to crops with a sulfur duster or from a
dusting plane. Wettable sulfur is the commercial name for dusting sulfur formulated with
additional ingredients to make it water soluble. It has similar applications, and is used as a
fungicide against mildew and other mold-related problems with plants and soil.
Sulfur is also used as an "organic" (i.e. "green") insecticide (actually an acaricide) against
ticks and mites. A common method of use is to dust clothing or limbs with sulfur powder.
Some livestock owners set out a sulfur salt block as a salt lick.
Biological role
See sulfur cycle for more on the inorganic and organic natural transformations of sulfur.
Sulfur is an essential component of all living cells.
Inorganic sulfur forms a part of iron-sulfur clusters, and sulfur is the bridging ligand in the
CuA site of cytochrome c oxidase, a basic substance involved in utilization of oxygen by all
aerobic life.
Sulfur may also serve as chemical food source for some primitive organisms: some forms of
bacteria use hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the place of water as the electron donor in a
primitive photosynthesis-like process in which oxygen is the electron receptor. The
photosynthetic green and purple sulfur bacteria and some chemolithotrophs use elemental
oxygen to carry out such oxidization of hydrogen sulfide to produce elemental sulfur (So),
oxidation state = 0. Primitive bacteria which live around deep ocean volcanic vents oxidize
hydrogen sulfide in this way with oxygen: see giant tube worm for an example of large
organisms (via bacteria) making metabolic use of hydrogen sulfide as food to be oxidized.
The so-called sulfur bacteria, by contrast, "breathe sulfate" instead of oxygen. They use
sulfur as the electron acceptor, and reduce various oxidized sulfur compounds back into
sulfide, often into hydrogen sulfide. They also can grow on a number of other partially
Sulfur 11
oxidized sulfur compounds (e. g. thiosulfates, thionates, polysulfides, sulfites). The

hydrogen sulfide produced by these bacteria is responsible for the smell of some intestinal
gases and decomposition products.
Sulfur is a part of many bacterial defense molecules. For example, though sulfur is not a
part of the lactam ring, it is a part of most beta lactam antibiotics, including the penicillins,
cephalosporins, and monobactams.
Sulfur is absorbed by plants via the roots from soil as the sulfate ion and reduced to sulfide
before it is incorporated into cysteine and other organic sulfur compounds (see sulfur
assimilation for details of this process).
Sulfur is regarded as secondary nutrient although plant requirements for sulfur are equal
to and sometimes exceed those for phosphorus. However sulfur is recognized as one of the
major nutrients essential for plant growth, root nodule formation of legumes and plants
protection mechanisms. Sulfur deficiency has become widespread in many countries in
Europe. Because atmospheric inputs of sulfur will continue to decrease, the deficit in the
sulfur input/output is likely to increase, unless sulfur fertilizers are used.
In plants and animals the amino acids cysteine and methionine contain sulfur, as do all
polypeptides, proteins, and enzymes which contain these amino acids. Homocysteine and
taurine are other sulfur-containing acids which are similar in structure, but which are not
coded for by DNA, and are not part of the primary structure of proteins. Glutathione is an
important sulfur-containing tripeptide which plays a role in cells as a source of chemical
reduction potential in the cell, through its sulfhydryl (-SH) moiety. Many important cellular
enzymes use prosthetic groups ending with -SH moieties to handle reactions involving
acyl-containing biochemicals: two common examples from basic metabolism are coenzyme
A and alpha-lipoic acid.
Disulfide bonds (S-S bonds) formed between cysteine residues in peptide chains are very
important in protein assembly and structure. These strong covalent bonds between peptide
chains give proteins a great deal of extra toughness and resiliency. For example, the high
strength of feathers and hair is in part due to their high content of S-S bonds and their high
content of cysteine and sulfur (eggs are high in sulfur because large amounts of the
element are necessary for feather formation). The high disulfide content of hair and
feathers contributes to their indigestibility, and also their odor when burned.
Traditional medical role for elemental sulfur

In traditional medical skin treatment which predates modern era of scientific medicine,
elemental sulfur has been used mainly as part of creams to alleviate various conditions such
as psoriasis, eczema and acne. The mechanism of action is not known, although elemental
sulfur does oxidize slowly to sulfurous acid, which in turn (though the action of sulfite) acts
as a mild reducing and antibacterial agent.
Sulfur 12
Precautions
Carbon disulfide, carbon oxysulfide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide should all be
handled with care.
Although sulfur dioxide is sufficiently safe to be used as a food additive in small amounts, at
high concentrations it reacts with moisture to form sulfurous acid which in sufficient
quantities may harm the lungs, eyes or other tissues. In organisms without lungs such as
insects or plants, it otherwise prevents respiration.
Hydrogen sulfide is toxic. Although very pungent at first, it quickly deadens the sense of
smell, so potential victims may be unaware of its presence until death or other symptoms
occur.
Environmental impact
The burning of coal and/or petroleum by industry and power plants generates sulfur dioxide
(SO2), which reacts with atmospheric water and oxygen to produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
This sulfuric acid is a component of acid rain, which lowers the pH of soil and freshwater
bodies, sometimes resulting in substantial damage to the environment and chemical
weathering of statues and structures. Fuel standards increasingly require sulfur to be
extracted from fossil fuels to prevent the formation of acid rain. This extracted sulfur is
then refined and represents a large portion of sulfur production. In coal fired power plants,
the flue gases are sometimes purified. In more modern power plants that use syngas the
sulfur is extracted before the gas is burned.
See also
• Sulfur cycle
• Stratospheric sulfur aerosols
• Disulfide bond
• Sulfonium S+, S+R3
• Ultra-low sulfur diesel
• Claus process
• Shell-Paques sulfide removal/sulfur recovery process
References
[1] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
(http:/ / www-d0. fnal. gov/ hardware/ cal/ lvps_info/ engineering/ elementmagn. pdf). CRC press. 2000. ISBN
0849304814. .
[2] Zhang Yunming (1986). "The History of Science Society: Ancient Chinese Sulfur Manufacturing Processes".
Isis 77: 487. doi: 10.1086/354207 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1086/ 354207).
[3] http:/ / www. rod. beavon. clara. net/ sulphur. htm, retrieved 2nd April 2009 18:29 GMT.
[4] Spelling of Sulfur (PDF) (http:/ / www. rsc. org/ delivery/ _ArticleLinking/ DisplayArticleForFree.
cfm?doi=JM99101FP055& JournalCode=JM)
[5] Worldwidewords (http:/ / www. worldwidewords. org/ topicalwords/ tw-sul1. htm), 9 December 2000.
[6] Vanderkrogt.net (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ elem/ s. html).
[7] Kelly DP (1995) Sulfur and its Doppelgänger. Arch. Microbiol. 163: 157-158.
[8] Ralf Steudel, Bodo Eckert (2003). "Solid Sulfur Allotropes Sulfur Allotropes". Topics in Current Chemistry 230:
1–80. doi: 10.1007/b12110 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ b12110).
[9] Steudel, R. (1982). "Homocyclic Sulfur Molecules". Topics Curr. Chem. 102: 149.
[10] Tebbe, F. N.; Wasserman, E.; Peet, W. G.; Vatvars, A. and Hayman, A. C. (1982). "Composition of Elemental
Sulfur in Solution: Equilibrium of S6, S7, and S8 at Ambient Temperatures". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 104: 4971. doi:
Sulfur 13
10.1021/ja00382a050 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ja00382a050).

[11] Beat Meyer (1964). "Solid Allotropes of Sulfur". Chem. Rev. 64 (4): 429–451. doi: 10.1021/cr60230a004
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ cr60230a004).
[12] Beat Meyer (1976). "Elemental sulfur". Chem. Rev. 76: 367–388. doi: 10.1021/cr60301a003 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1021/ cr60301a003).
[13] P. C. Rickwood (1981). " The largest crystals (http:/ / www. minsocam. org/ ammin/ AM66/ AM66_885. pdf)".
American Mineralogist 66: 885-907. .
[14] " The giant crystal project site (http:/ / giantcrystals. strahlen. org/ europe/ perticara. htm)". . Retrieved
2009-06-06.
[15] B. Mason, Meteorites, (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962), p. 160.
[16] Botsch, Walter (2001). "Chemiker, Techniker, Unternehmer: Zum 150. Geburtstag von Hermann Frasch" (in
German). Chemie in unserer Zeit 35 (5): 324–331. doi:
10.1002/1521-3781(200110)35:5<324::AID-CIUZ324>3.0.CO;2-9 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/
1521-3781(200110)35:5<324::AID-CIUZ324>3. 0. CO;2-9).
[17] Zessen, E. van, et al. (2004). "Application of THIOPAQ(TM) biosulphur in agriculture". Proceedings of
Sulphur 2004, Barcelona (Spain), 24 - 27 Oct. 57 - 68.
[18] Nyle Steiner (22 February 1). " Iron Pyrites Negative Resistance Oscillator (http:/ / home. earthlink. net/
~lenyr/ iposc. htm)". . Retrieved 2007-08-15.
[19] http:/ / doccopper. tripod. com/ gold/ AltLixiv. html
[20] Nehb, Wolfgang; Vydra, Karel (2006). "Sulfur". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH
Verlag. doi: 10.1002/14356007.a25_507.pub2 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ 14356007. a25_507. pub2).
[21] Sulfuric Acid Growth (http:/ / www. pafko. com/ history/ h_s_acid. html)
[22] Sulfur as a fertilizer (http:/ / www. sulphurinstitute. org/ learnmore/ faq. cfm#plants)
Leslie KS, Millington GWM, Levell NJ. (2004) Sulphur and skin: from Satan to Saddam! J
Cosm Dermatol 3: 94-98.
External links
• Sulfur phase diagram (http:/ / library. tedankara. k12. tr/ chemistry/ vol2/ allotropy/ z129.
htm)
• WebElements.com – Sulfur (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/
text/ S/ index. html)
• chemicalelements.com/sulfur (http:/ / www. chemicalelements. com/ elements/ s. html)
• Crystalline, liquid and polymerization of sulphur on Vulcano Island, Italy (http:/ / www.
stromboli. net/ perm/ vulcano/ sulphur-vulcano-en. html)
• Sulfur and its use as a pesticide (http:/ / extoxnet. orst. edu/ pips/ sulfur. htm)
• The Sulphur Institute (http:/ / www. sulphurinstitute. org/ )

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License
Chlorine 1
Chlorine
sulfur ← chlorine → argonF
↑
Cl
↓
Br

17Cl
Periodic table
Appearance pale green gas

shell Physical properties PhaseDensityMelting pointBoiling pointCritical pointHeat of
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 128 139 153 170 197 239

(more) 2nd: 2298 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 3822 kJ·mol−1Covalent radiusVan der Waals radius
Chlorine 2

conductivitySpeed of soundCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes
of chlorine
35 75.77% 35
Cl Cl is stable with 18 neutron
36 syn 0.709
3.01×105 y β− 36
Cl Ar
ε - 36
S
37 24.23% 37
Cl Cl is stable with 20 neutron
chlorine, Cl, 17 Halogen17, 3, p35.453(2) g·mol−1 [Ne] 3s2 3p5 2, 8, 7 (Image) gas (0 °C,
101.325 kPa)
3.2 g/L 171.6 K,-101.5 °C,-150.7 °F 239.11 K,-34.4 °C,-29.27 °F 416.9 K, 7.991 MPa (Cl2)
6.406 kJ·mol−1 (Cl2) 20.41 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) (Cl2)
33.949 J·mol−1·K−17, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1
(strongly acidic oxide) 3.16 (Pauling scale) 1st: 1251.2 kJ·mol−1102±4 pm 175 pm
orthorhombic diamagnetic[1] (20 °C) > 10 Ω·m (300 K) 8.9x10-3 W·m−1·K−1 (gas, 0 °C) 206
m/s 7782-50-5
Chlorine (pronounced /ˈklɔərin/, from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' (khlôros, meaning 'pale
green'), is the chemical element with atomic number 17 and symbol Cl. It is a halogen,
found in the periodic table in group 17 (formerly VII, VIIa, or VIIb). As the chloride ion,
which is part of common salt and other compounds, it is abundant in nature and necessary
to most forms of life, including humans. In its elemental form (Cl2 or "dichlorine") under
standard conditions, chlorine is a powerful oxidant and is used in bleaching and
disinfectants. As a common disinfectant, chlorine compounds are used in swimming pools to
keep them clean and sanitary. In the upper atmosphere, chlorine-containing molecules such
as chlorofluorocarbons have been implicated in the destruction of the ozone layer.
Characteristics
At standard temperature and pressure, two chlorine atoms form the diatomic molecule Cl2.
This is a pale yellow-green gas that has its distinctive strong smell, the smell of bleach. The
bonding between the two atoms is relatively weak (only of 242.580 ±0.004 kJ/mol) which
makes the Cl2 molecule highly reactive.
Along with fluorine, bromine, iodine and astatine, chlorine is a member of the halogen
series that forms the group 17 of the periodic table—the most reactive group of elements. It
combines readily with nearly all elements.
Compounds with oxygen, nitrogen, xenon, and krypton are known, but do not form by direct
reaction of the elements.[2] Chlorine, though very reactive, is not as extremely reactive as
fluorine. Pure chlorine gas does, however, support combustion of organic compounds such
as hydrocarbons, although the carbon component tends to burn incompletely, with much of
it remaining as soot.[3] At 10 °C and atmospheric pressure, one liter of water dissolves
3.10 L of gaseous chlorine, and at 30 °C, 1 L of water dissolves only 1.77 liters of
chlorine.[4]
Chlorine is a member of the salt-forming halogen series and is extracted from chlorides
through oxidation often by electrolysis. With metals, it forms salts called chlorides. As the
Chlorine 3
chloride ion, Cl−, it is also the most abundant dissolved ion in ocean water.
Isotopes
Chlorine has isotopes with mass numbers ranging from 32 to 40. There are two principal
stable isotopes, 35Cl (75.77%) and 37Cl (24.23%), giving chlorine atoms in bulk an apparent
atomic weight of 35.4527 g/mol.
Trace amounts of radioactive 36Cl exist in the environment, in a ratio of about 7x10−13 to 1
with stable isotopes. 36Cl is produced in the atmosphere by spallation of 36Ar by
interactions with cosmic ray protons. In the subsurface environment, 36Cl is generated
primarily as a result of neutron capture by 35Cl or muon capture by 40Ca. 36Cl decays to 36S
and to 36Ar, with a combined half-life of 308,000 years. The half-life of this hydrophilic
nonreactive isotope makes it suitable for geologic dating in the range of 60,000 to 1 million
years. Additionally, large amounts of 36Cl were produced by irradiation of seawater during
atmospheric detonations of nuclear weapons between 1952 and 1958. The residence time
of 36Cl in the atmosphere is about 1 week. Thus, as an event marker of 1950s water in soil
and ground water, 36Cl is also useful for dating waters less than 50 years before the
present. 36Cl has seen use in other areas of the geological sciences, including dating ice
and sediments.
Occurrence
In nature, chlorine is found primarily as the chloride ion, a component of the salt that is
deposited in the earth or dissolved in the oceans — about 1.9% of the mass of seawater is
chloride ions. Even higher concentrations of chloride are found in the Dead Sea and in
underground brine deposits. Most chloride salts are soluble in water, thus,
chloride-containing minerals are usually only found in abundance in dry climates or deep
underground. Common chloride minerals include halite (sodium chloride), sylvite
(potassium chloride), and carnallite (potassium magnesium chloride hexahydrate). Over
2000 naturally-occurring organic chlorine compounds are known.[5]
Industrially, elemental chlorine is usually produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride
dissolved in water. Along with chlorine, this chloralkali process yields hydrogen gas and
sodium hydroxide, according to the following chemical equation:
2 NaCl + 2 H2O → Cl2 + H2 + 2 NaOH
Chlorine 4
History
The most common compound of chlorine, sodium
chloride, has been known since ancient times;
archaeologists have found evidence that rock salt was
used as early as 3000 BC and brine as early as 6000
BC.[6] The first compound of chlorine synthesized was
probably hydrochloric acid (as a solution), which was
prepared by the Persian alchemist Rhazes around 900
AD. Around 1200 AD, aqua regia (a mixture of nitric
acid and hydrochloric acid) began to be used to dissolve
gold, and today this is still one of the few reagents that
will dissolve gold. Upon dissolving gold in aqua regia,
chlorine gas is released along with other nauseating
and irritating gases, but this wasn't known until much
more recently.
Chlorine was first prepared and studied in 1774 by

Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and therefore
he is credited for its discovery.[7] He called it
"dephlogisticated muriatic acid air" since it was a gas
(then called "airs") and it came from hydrochloric acid
(then known as "muriatic acid").[7] However, he failed
Liquid chlorine to establish chlorine as an element, mistakenly thinking
that it was the oxide obtained from the hydrochloric
[7]
acid (see phlogiston theory). He named the new element within this oxide as
[7]
muriaticum. Regardless of what he thought, Scheele did isolate chlorine by reacting
MnO2 with HCl:
4 HCl + MnO2 → MnCl2 + 2 H2O + Cl2

Scheele observed several of the properties of chlorine: the bleaching effect on litmus, the
deadly effect on insects, the yellow green color, and the smell similar to aqua regia.
Claude Berthollet suggested that Scheele's dephlogisticated muratic acid air must be a
combination of oxygen and an undiscovered element, muriaticum.
In 1809 Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard tried to decompose
dephlogisticated muratic acid air by reacting it with charcoal to release the free element
muriaticum (and carbon dioxide).[7] They did not succeed and published a report in which
they considered the possibility that dephlogisticated muratic acid air is an element, but
were not convinced.[8]
In 1810, Sir Humphry Davy tried the same experiment again, and concluded that it was an
element, and not a compound.[7] He named this new element as chlorine, from the Greek
word χλωρος (chlōros), meaning green-yellow.[9] The name halogen, meaning salt producer,
was originally defined for chlorine (in 1811 by Johann Salomo Christoph Schweigger), and
it was later applied to the rest of the elements in this family. In 1822, Michael Faraday
liquefied chlorine for the first time.[10]
Chlorine was first used to bleach textiles in 1785.[11] In 1826, silver chloride was used to
produce photographic images for the first time.[12] Chloroform was first used as an
anesthetic in 1847.[12] Chlorine was first used as a germicide to prevent the spread of
Chlorine 5
puerperal fever in the maternity wards of Vienna General Hospital in Austria in 1847,[13]
and in 1850 by John Snow to disinfect the water supply in London after an outbreak of
cholera. The US Department of Treasury called for all water to be disinfected with chlorine
by 1918.[12] Polyvinylchloride (PVC) was invented in 1912, initially without a purpose.[12]
Chlorine gas was first introduced as a weapon on April 22, 1915 at Ypres by the German
Army,[14] [15] and the results of this weapon were disastrous because gas masks had not yet
been invented.
Production
Gas extraction
Chlorine can be manufactured by electrolysis of a
sodium chloride solution (brine). The production of
chlorine results in the co-products caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide, NaOH) and hydrogen gas (H2).
These two products, as well as chlorine itself, are
highly reactive. Chlorine can also be produced by
the electrolysis of a solution of potassium chloride,
in which case the co-products are hydrogen and
caustic potash (potassium hydroxide). There are
three industrial methods for the extraction of
chlorine by electrolysis of chloride solutions, all
proceeding according to the following equations:
Cathode: 2 H+ (aq) + 2 e− → H (g)

2
Anode: 2 Cl− (aq) → Cl (g) + 2 e−
2
Overall process: 2 NaCl (or KCl) + 2 H O → Cl + H
2 2 2
+ 2 NaOH (or KOH)
Mercury cell electrolysis
Mercury cell electrolysis, also known as the
Castner-Kellner process, was the first method used
at the end of the nineteenth century to produce
chlorine on an industrial scale.[16] [17] The "rocking"
Chlorine gas
cells used have been improved over the years.[18]
Today, in the "primary cell", titanium anodes
(formerly graphite ones) are placed in a sodium (or potassium) chloride solution flowing
over a liquid mercury cathode. When a potential difference is applied and current flows,
chlorine is released at the titanium anode and sodium (or potassium) dissolves in the
mercury cathode forming an amalgam. This flows continuously into a separate reactor
("denuder" or "secondary cell"), where it is usually converted back to mercury by reaction
with water, producing hydrogen and sodium (or potassium) hydroxide at a commercially
useful concentration (50% by weight). The mercury is then recycled to the primary cell.
The mercury process is the least energy-efficient of the three main technologies (mercury,
diaphragm and membrane) and there are also concerns about mercury emissions.
It is estimated that there are still around 100 mercury-cell plants operating worldwide. In
Japan, mercury-based chloralkali production was virtually phased out by 1987 (except for
Chlorine 6
the last two potassium chloride units shut down in 2003). In the United States, there will be
only five mercury plants remaining in operation by the end of 2008. In Europe, mercury
cells accounted for 43% of capacity in 2006 and Western European producers have
committed to closing or converting all remaining chloralkali mercury plants by 2020.[19]
Diaphragm cell electrolysis
In diaphragm cell electrolysis, an asbestos (or polymer-fiber) diaphragm separates a
cathode and an anode, preventing the chlorine forming at the anode from re-mixing with
the sodium hydroxide and the hydrogen formed at the cathode.[20] This technology was also
developed at the end of the nineteenth century. There are several variants of this process:
the Le Sueur cell (1893), the Hargreaves-Bird cell (1901), the Gibbs cell (1908), and the
Townsend cell (1904).[21] [22] The cells vary in construction and placement of the
diaphragm, with some having the diaphragm in direct contact with the cathode.
The salt solution (brine) is continuously fed to the anode compartment and flows through
the diaphragm to the cathode compartment, where the caustic alkali is produced and the
brine is partially depleted.
As a result, diaphragm methods produce alkali that is quite dilute (about 12%) and of lower
purity than do mercury cell methods. But diaphragm cells are not burdened with the
problem of preventing mercury discharge into the environment. They also operate at a
lower voltage, resulting in an energy savings over the mercury cell method,[22] but large
amounts of steam are required if the caustic has to be evaporated to the commercial
concentration of 50%.
Membrane cell electrolysis
Development of this technology began in the 1970s. The electrolysis cell is divided into two
"rooms" by a cation permeable membrane acting as an ion exchanger. Saturated sodium (or
potassium) chloride solution is passed through the anode compartment, leaving at a lower
concentration.[23] Sodium (or potassium) hydroxide solution is circulated through the
cathode compartment, exiting at a higher concentration. A portion of the concentrated
sodium hydroxide solution leaving the cell is diverted as product, while the remainder is
diluted with deionized water and passed through the electrolysis apparatus again.
This method is more efficient than the diaphragm cell and produces very pure sodium (or
potassium) hydroxide at about 32% concentration, but requires very pure brine.
Other electrolytic processes
Although a much lower production scale is involved, electrolytic diaphragm and membrane
technologies are also used industrially to recover chlorine from hydrochloric acid solutions,
producing hydrogen (but no caustic alkali) as a co-product.
Furthermore, electrolysis of fused chloride salts (Downs process) also enables chlorine to
be produced, in this case as a by-product of the manufacture of metallic sodium or
magnesium.
Chlorine 7
Other methods
Before electrolytic methods were used for chlorine production, the direct oxidation of
hydrogen chloride with oxygen or air was exercised in the Deacon process:
4 HCl + O2 → 2 Cl2 + 2 H2O
This reaction is accomplished with the use of copper(II) chloride (CuCl2) as a catalyst and is
performed at high temperature (about 400 °C). The amount of extracted chlorine is
approximately 80%. Due to the extremely corrosive reaction mixture, industrial use of this
method is difficult and several pilot trials failed in the past. Nevertheless, recent
developments are promising. Recently Sumitomo patented a catalyst for the Deacon
process using ruthenium(IV) oxide (RuO2).[24]
Another earlier process to produce chlorine was to heat brine with acid and manganese
dioxide.
2 NaCl + 2 H2SO4 + MnO2 → Na2SO4 + MnSO4 + 2 H2O + Cl2
Using this process, chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele was the first to isolate chlorine in a
laboratory. The manganese can be recovered by the Weldon process.[25]
In the latter half of the 19th century, prior to the adoption of electrolytic methods of
chlorine production, there was substantial production of chlorine by these reactions to meet
demand for bleach and bleaching powder for use by textile industries; by the 1880s the UK,
as well as supporting its own (then not inconsiderable) domestic textile production was
exporting 70,000 tons per year of bleaching powder.[26] This demand was met by capturing
hydrochloric acid driven off as a gas during the production of alkali by the Leblanc process,
oxidizing this to chlorine (originally by reaction with manganese dioxide), later by direct
oxidation by air using the Deacon process (in which case impurities capable of poisoning
the catalyst had first to be removed), and subsequently absorbing the chlorine onto lime.
Small amounts of chlorine gas can be made in the laboratory by putting concentrated
hydrochloric acid in a flask with a side arm and rubber tubing attached. Manganese dioxide
is then added and the flask stoppered. The reaction is not greatly exothermic. As chlorine is
denser than air, it can be collected by placing the tube inside a flask where it will displace
the air. Once full, the collecting flask can be stoppered.
Another method for producing small amounts of chlorine gas in a lab is by adding
concentrated hydrochloric acid (typically about 5M) to sodium hypochlorite or sodium
chlorate solution.
Chlorine 8
Large-scale production of chlorine involves several steps and many
pieces of equipment. The description below is typical of a membrane
plant. The plant also simultaneously produces sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda) and hydrogen gas. A typical plant consists of brine
production/treatment, cell operations, chlorine cooling & drying,
chlorine compression & liquefaction, liquid chlorine storage &
loading, caustic handling, evaporation, storage & loading and
hydrogen handling.
Brine
Key to the production of chlorine is the operation of the brine
saturation/treatment system. Maintaining a properly saturated
solution with the correct purity is vital, especially for membrane cells.
Many plants have a salt pile which is sprayed with recycled brine.
Liquid Chlorine
Analysis
Others have slurry tanks that are fed raw salt.
The raw brine is partially or totally treated with sodium hydroxide,
sodium carbonate and a flocculant to reduce calcium, magnesium and other impurities. The
brine proceeds to a large clarifier or a filter where the impurities are removed. The total
brine is additionally filtered before entering ion exchangers to further remove impurities. At
several points in this process, the brine is tested for hardness and strength.
After the ion exchangers, the brine is considered pure, and is transferred to storage tanks
to be pumped into the cell room. Brine, fed to the cell line, is heated to the correct
temperature to control exit brine temperatures according to the electrical load. Brine
exiting the cell room must be treated to remove residual chlorine and control pH levels
before being returned to the saturation stage. This can be accomplished via dechlorination
towers with acid and sodium bisulfite addition. Failure to remove chlorine can result in
damage to the cells. Brine should be monitored for accumulation of both chlorate anions
and sulfate anions, and either have a treatment system in place, or purging of the brine
loop to maintain safe levels, since chlorate anions can diffuse through the membranes and
contaminate the caustic, while sulfate anions can damage the anode surface coating.
Cell room
The building that houses many electrolytic cells is usually called a cell room or cell house,
although some plants are built outdoors. This building contains support structures for the
cells, connections for supplying electrical power to the cells and piping for the fluids.
Monitoring and control of the temperatures of the feed caustic and brine is done to control
exit temperatures. Also monitored are the voltages of each cell which vary with the
electrical load on the cell room that is used to control the rate of production. Monitoring
and control of the pressures in the chlorine and hydrogen headers is also done via pressure
control valves.
Direct current is supplied via a rectified power source. Plant load is controlled by varying
the current to the cells. As the current is increased, flow rates for brine and caustic and
deionized water are increased, while lowering the feed temperatures.
Cooling and drying
Chlorine gas exiting the cell line must be cooled and dried since the exit gas can be over
80°C and contains moisture that allows chlorine gas to be corrosive to iron piping. Cooling
Chlorine 9
the gas allows for a large amount of moisture from the brine to condense out of the gas
stream. This reduces both the cooling requirements and feed flow of sulfuric acid required
in the drying towers. Cooling also improves the efficiency of both the compression and the
liquefaction stage that follows. Chlorine exiting is ideally between 18°C and 25°C. After
cooling the gas stream passes through a series of towers with counter flowing sulfuric acid.
The sulfuric acid is fed into the final tower at 98% and the first tower typically has a
strength between 66% and 76% depending on materials of construction. These towers
progressively remove any remaining moisture from the chlorine gas. After exiting the
drying towers the chlorine is filtered to remove any remaining sulfuric acid.
Compression and liquefaction
Several methods of compression may be used: liquid ring, reciprocating, or centrifugal. The
chlorine gas is compressed at this stage and may be further cooled by inter- and
after-coolers. After compression it flows to the liquefiers, where it is cooled enough to
liquefy. Non condensable gases and remaining chlorine gas are vented off as part of the
pressure control of the liquefaction systems. These gases are routed to a gas scrubber,
producing sodium hypochlorite, or used in the production of hydrochloric acid (by
combustion with hydrogen) or ethylene dichloride (by reaction with ethylene).
Storage and loading
Liquid chlorine is typically gravity-fed to storage tanks. It can be loaded into rail or road
tankers via pumps or padded with compressed dry gas.
Caustic handling, evaporation, storage and loading
Caustic, fed to the cell room flows in a loop that is simultaneously bled off to storage with a
part diluted with deionized water and returned to the cell line for strengthening within the
cells. The caustic exiting the cell line must be monitored for strength, to maintain safe
concentrations. Too strong or too weak a solution may damage the membranes. Membrane
cells typically produce caustic in the range of 30% to 33% by weight. The feed caustic flow
is heated at low electrical loads to control its exit temperature. Higher loads require the
caustic to be cooled, to maintain correct exit temperatures. The caustic exiting to storage is
pulled from a storage tank and may be diluted for sale to customers who require weak
caustic or for use on site. Another stream may be pumped into a multiple effect evaporator
set to produce commercial 50% caustic. Rail cars and tanker trucks are loaded at loading
stations via pumps.
Hydrogen handling
Hydrogen produced may be vented unprocessed directly to the atmosphere or cooled,
compressed and dried for use in other processes on site or sold to a customer via pipeline,
cylinders or trucks. Some possible uses include the manufacture of hydrochloric acid or
hydrogen peroxide, as well as desulfurization of petroleum oils, or use as a fuel in boilers or
fuel cells. In Porsgrunn the byproduct is used for the hydrogen fueling station at Hynor.
Energy consumption
Production of chlorine is extremely energy intensive.[27] Energy consumption per unit
weight of product is not far below that for iron and steel manufacture[28] and greater than
for the production of glass[29] or cement.[30]
Since electricity is an indispensable raw material for the production of chlorine, the energy
consumption corresponding to the electrochemical reaction cannot be reduced. Energy
savings arise primarily through applying more efficient technologies and reducing ancillary
Chlorine 10
energy use.
Compounds
See also Chlorine compounds
For general references to the chloride ion (Cl−), including references to specific chlorides,
see chloride. For other chlorine compounds see chlorate (ClO−3), chlorite (ClO−2),
hypochlorite (ClO−), and perchlorate (ClO−4), and chloramine (NH2Cl).[31]
Other chlorine-containing compounds include:
• Fluorides: chlorine monofluoride (ClF), chlorine trifluoride (ClF3), chlorine pentafluoride
(ClF5)
• Oxides: chlorine dioxide (ClO2), dichlorine monoxide (Cl2O), dichlorine heptoxide (Cl2O7)
• Acids: hydrochloric acid (HCl), chloric acid (HClO3), and perchloric acid (HClO4)
Oxidation states
Oxidation Name Formula Example compounds

state
−1 chlorides ionic chlorides, organic chlorides, hydrochloric acid

Cl−
0 chlorine Cl2 elemental chlorine
+1 hypochlorites sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite

ClO−
+3 chlorites ClO−2 sodium chlorite
+5 chlorates ClO−3 sodium chlorate, potassium chlorate, chloric acid
+7 perchlorates ClO−4 potassium perchlorate, perchloric acid, magnesium

perchlorate
organic perchlorates, ammonium perchlorate
Chlorine exists in all odd numbered oxidation states from −1 to +7, as well as the elemental
state of zero. Progressing through the states, hydrochloric acid can be oxidized using
manganese dioxide, or hydrogen chloride gas oxidized catalytically by air to form elemental
chlorine gas. The solubility of chlorine in water is increased if the water contains dissolved
alkali hydroxide. This is due to disproportionation:
Cl2 + 2 OH− → Cl− + ClO− + H2O
In hot concentrated alkali solution disproportionation continues:
2 ClO− → Cl− + ClO−2
ClO− + ClO−2 → Cl− + ClO−3
Sodium chlorate and potassium chlorate can be crystallized from solutions formed by the
above reactions. If their crystals are heated, they undergo the final disproportionation step.
4 ClO−3 → Cl− + 3 ClO−4
This same progression from chloride to perchlorate can be accomplished by electrolysis.
The anode reaction progression is:[32]
Reaction Electrode
potential
Chlorine 11
+0.89 volts
Cl− + 2 OH− → ClO− + H2O + 2 e−
+0.67 volts
ClO− + 2 OH− → ClO−2 + H2O + 2 e−
+0.33 volts
ClO−2 + 2 OH− → ClO−3 + H2O + 2 e−
+0.35 volts
ClO−3 + 2 OH− → ClO−4 + H2O + 2 e−
Each step is accompanied at the cathode by

2 H2O + 2 e− → 2 OH− + H2 (−0.83 volts)
Applications and uses
Production of industrial and consumer products

Chlorine's principal applications are in the production of a wide range of industrial and
consumer products.[33] [34] For example, it is used in making plastics, solvents for dry
cleaning and metal degreasing, textiles, agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals, insecticides,
dyestuffs, household cleaning products, etc.
Purification and disinfection

Chlorine is an important chemical for water purification (such as water treatment plants),
in disinfectants, and in bleach. Chlorine in water is more than three times more effective as
a disinfectant against Escherichia coli than an equivalent concentration of bromine, and is
more than six times more effective than an equivalent concentration of iodine.[35]
Chlorine is usually used (in the form of hypochlorous acid) to kill bacteria and other
microbes in drinking water supplies and public swimming pools. In most private swimming
pools chlorine itself is not used, but rather sodium hypochlorite, formed from chlorine and
sodium hydroxide, or solid tablets of chlorinated isocyanurates. Even small water supplies
are now routinely chlorinated.[3] (See also chlorination)
It is often impractical to store and use poisonous chlorine gas for water treatment, so
alternative methods of adding chlorine are used. These include hypochlorite solutions,
which gradually release chlorine into the water, and compounds like sodium
dichloro-s-triazinetrione (dihydrate or anhydrous), sometimes referred to as "dichlor", and
trichloro-s-triazinetrione, sometimes referred to as "trichlor". These compounds are stable
while solid and may be used in powdered, granular, or tablet form. When added in small
amounts to pool water or industrial water systems, the chlorine atoms hydrolyze from the
rest of the molecule forming hypochlorous acid (HOCl) which acts as a general biocide
killing germs, micro-organisms, algae, and so on.
Chlorine 12
Chemistry
Elemental chlorine is an oxidizer. It undergoes halogen substitution reactions with lower
halide salts. For example, chlorine gas bubbled through a solution of bromide or iodide
anions oxidizes them to bromine and iodine respectively.
Like the other halogens, chlorine participates in free-radical substitution reactions with
hydrogen-containing organic compounds. This reaction is often—but not
invariably—non-regioselective, and hence, may result in a mixture of isomeric products. It
is often difficult to control the degree of substitution as well, so multiple substitutions are
common. If the different reaction products are easily separated, e.g. by distillation,
substitutive free-radical chlorination (in some cases accompanied by concurrent thermal
dehydrochlorination) may be a useful synthetic route. Industrial examples of this are the
production of methyl chloride, methylene chloride, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride
from methane, allyl chloride from propylene, and trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene
from 1,2-dichloroethane.
Like the other halides, chlorine undergoes electrophilic additions reactions, most notably,
the chlorination of alkenes and aromatic compounds with a Lewis acid catalyst. Organic
chlorine compounds tend to be less reactive in nucleophilic substitution reactions than the
corresponding bromine or iodine derivatives, but they tend to be cheaper. They may be
activated for reaction by substituting with a tosylate group, or by the use of a catalytic
amount of sodium iodide.
Chlorine is used extensively in organic and inorganic chemistry as an oxidizing agent and in
substitution reactions because chlorine often imparts many desired properties to an organic
compound, due to its electronegativity.
Chlorine compounds are used as intermediates in the production of a number of important
commercial products that do not contain chlorine. Examples are: polycarbonates,
polyurethanes, silicones, polytetrafluoroethylene, carboxymethyl cellulose and propylene
oxide.
Use as a weapon
• World War I
Chlorine gas, also known as bertholite, was first used as a weapon in World War I by
Germany on April 22, 1915 in the Second Battle of Ypres. As described by the soldiers it
had a distinctive smell of a mixture between pepper and pineapple. It also tasted metallic
and stung the back of the throat and chest. Chlorine can react with water in the mucosa of
the lungs to form hydrochloric acid, an irritant which can be lethal. The damage done by
chlorine gas can be prevented by a gas mask, or other filtration method, which makes the
overall chance of death by chlorine gas much lower than those of other chemical weapons.
It was pioneered by a German scientist later to be a Nobel laureate, Fritz Haber of the
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, in collaboration with the German chemical conglomerate
IG Farben, who developed methods for discharging chlorine gas against an entrenched
enemy. It is alleged that Haber's role in the use of chlorine as a deadly weapon drove his
wife, Clara Immerwahr, to suicide. After its first use, chlorine was utilized by both sides as
a chemical weapon, but it was soon replaced by the more deadly gases phosgene and
mustard gas.[36]
• Iraq War
Chlorine 13
Chlorine gas has also been used by insurgents against the local population and coalition
forces in the Iraq War in the form of Chlorine bombs. On March 17, 2007, for example,
three chlorine filled trucks were detonated in the Anbar province killing two and sickening
over 350.[37] Other chlorine bomb attacks resulted in higher death tolls, with more than 30
deaths on two separate occasions.[38] Most of the deaths were caused by the force of the
explosions rather than the effects of chlorine, since the toxic gas is readily dispersed and
diluted in the atmosphere by the blast. The Iraqi authorities have tightened up security for
chlorine, which is essential for providing safe drinking water for the population.
Chlorine cracking
The element is widely used for purifying water owing to
its powerful oxidizing properties, especially potable
water supplies and water used in swimming pools.
Several catastrophic collapses of swimming pool
ceilings have occurred owing to stress corrosion
cracking of stainless steel rods used to suspend them.
Some polymers are also sensitive to attack, including
acetal resin and polybutene. Both materials were used
in hot and cold water domestic supplies, and stress Chlorine "attack" of an acetal resin
corrosion cracking caused widespread failures in the plumbing joint.
USA in the 1980s and '90s. One example shows an

acetal joint in a water supply system, which when it fractured, caused substantial physical
damage to computers in the labs below the supply. The cracks started at injection molding
defects in the joint and grew slowly until finally triggered. The fracture surface shows iron
and calcium salts which were deposited in the leaking joint from the water supply before
failure.
Other uses
Chlorine is used in the manufacture of numerous organic chlorine compounds, the most
significant of which in terms of production volume are 1,2-dichloroethane and vinyl
chloride, intermediates in the production of PVC. Other particularly important
organochlorines are methyl chloride, methylene chloride, chloroform, vinylidene chloride,
trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, allyl chloride, epichlorohydrin, chlorobenzene,
dichlorobenzenes and trichlorobenzenes.
Chlorine is also used in the production of chlorates and in bromine extraction.
Chlorine 14
Health effects
NFPA 704
0
3
0
OX
Chlorine is a toxic gas that irritates the respiratory system. Because it is heavier than air, it
tends to accumulate at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces. Chlorine gas is a strong
oxidizer, which may react with flammable materials.[39]
Chlorine is detectable in concentrations of as low as 1 ppm. Coughing and vomiting may
occur at 30 ppm and lung damage at 60 ppm. About 1000 ppm can be fatal after a few deep
breaths of the gas.[4] Breathing lower concentrations can aggravate the respiratory system,
and exposure to the gas can irritate the eyes.[40]
Chlorine's toxicity comes from its oxidizing power. When chlorine is inhaled at
concentrations above 30ppm it begins to react with water and cells which change it into
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HClO).
When used at specified levels for water disinfection, although chlorine reaction with water
itself usually doesn't represent a major concern for human health, other materials present
in the water can generate disinfection by-products that can damage human health.[41] [42]
See also
• Chloride
• Polymer degradation
External links
• Chlorine Institute [43] - Trade association and lobby group representing the interests of
the chlorine industry
• Chlorine Online [44] - Chlorine Online is an information resource produced by Eurochlor -
the business association of the European chlor-alkali industry
• Electrolytic production [45]
• Chlorine Production Using Mercury, Environmental Considerations and Alternatives [47]
• National Pollutant Inventory - Chlorine [48]
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Chlorine Page [49]
[50]
• WebElements.com — Chlorine
Chlorine 15
References
[2] Martha Windholz, editor ; Susan Budavari, associate editor ; Lorraine Y. Stroumtsos, assistant editor ;
Margaret Noether Fertig, assistant editor. (1976). Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, 9th ed.. Rahway, N.J.:
Merck & Co.. ISBN 0911910263.
0849304814.
[4] " WebElements.com – Chlorine (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Cl/ index.
html)". Mark Winter [The University of Sheffield and WebElements Ltd, UK]. . Retrieved 2007-03-17.
[5] " Risk assessment and the cycling of natural organochlorines (http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/ upload/ documents/
document236. pdf)". Euro Chlor. . Retrieved 2007-08-12.
[6] " The earliest salt production in the world: an early Neolithic exploitation in Poiana Slatinei-Lunca, Romania
(http:/ / antiquity. ac. uk/ ProjGall/ weller/ )". . Retrieved 2008-07-10.
[7] " 17 Chlorine (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ elem/ cl. html)". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved
2008-09-12.
[8] Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac, Louis-Jacques Thénard (1809). " On the nature and the properties of muriatic acid
and of oxygenated muriatic acid (http:/ / web. lemoyne. edu/ ~giunta/ thenard. html)". Mémoires de Physique et
de Chimie de la Société d'Arcueil 2: 339–358. .
[9] Sir Humphry Davy (1811). " On a Combination of Oxymuriatic Gas and Oxygene Gas (http:/ / www. chemteam.
info/ Chem-History/ Davy-Chlorine-1811. html)". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 101: 155–162.
doi: 10.1098/rstl.1811.0008 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rstl. 1811. 0008). .
[10] " Discovery of Chlorine (http:/ / badley. info/ history/ Discovery-of-Chlorine-Great-Britain. event. html)". .
[11] " History of Chlorine (http:/ / members. aol. com/ manbio999/ chlorine. htm)". . Retrieved 2008-07-10.
[12] Jacqueline Brazin. " Chlorine & its Consequences (http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ NR/ rdonlyres/
Earth--Atmospheric--and-Planetary-Sciences/ 12-091January--IAP--2006/
0EF9264B-3205-44A3-8306-8E8364917DF0/ 0/ brazin. pdf)". . Retrieved 2008-07-10.
[13] " Chlorine Story (http:/ / www. americanchemistry. com/ s_chlorine/ sec_content. asp?CID=1166&
DID=4476& CTYPEID=109)". americanchemistry. . Retrieved 2008-07-10.
[14] " Chlorine - History (http:/ / www. drcordas. com/ education/ weaponsmassd/ Chlorine. pdf)". . Retrieved
2008-07-10.
[15] " Weaponry: Use of Chlorine Gas Cylinders in World War I (http:/ / www. historynet. com/
weaponry-use-of-chlorine-gas-cylinders-in-world-war-i. htm)". historynet.com. . Retrieved 2008-07-10.
[16] Pauling, Linus (1970). General Chemistry. Dover publications. ISBN 0-486-65622-5.
[17] " Electrolytic Processes for Chlorine and Caustic Soda (http:/ / www. lenntech. com/ Chemistry/
electolytic-chlorine-caustic. htm)". Lenntech Water treatment & air purification Holding B.V., Rotterdamseweg
402 M, 2629 HH Delft, The Netherlands. . Retrieved 2007-03-17.
[18] " Mercury cell (http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/ animations/ mercury-cell. asp)". Euro Chlor. . Retrieved
2007-08-15.
[19] " Regional Awareness-raising Workshop on Mercury Pollution (http:/ / www. chem. unep. ch/ Mercury/
Pretoria-proceedings-finalPDFwriter. pdf)". UNEP. . Retrieved 2007-10-28.
[20] " Diaphragm cell (http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/ animations/ diaphragm-cell. asp)". Euro Chlor. . Retrieved
2007-08-15.
[21] " The Electrolysis of Brine (http:/ / www. saltsense. co. uk/ hist-chem12. htm)". Salt Manufacturers'
Association. . Retrieved 2007-03-17.
[22] Kiefer, David M.. " When the Industry Charged Ahead (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ subscribe/ journals/ tcaw/ 11/
i04/ html/ 04chemistry. html)". Chemistry Chronicles. . Retrieved 2007-03-17.
[23] " Membrane cell (http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/ animations/ membrane-cell. asp)". Euro Chlor. . Retrieved
2007-08-15.
[24] Lopez, N (2008). "Mechanism of HCl oxidation (Deacon process) over RuO2". Journal of Catalysis 255: 29.
doi: 10.1016/j.jcat.2008.01.020 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. jcat. 2008. 01. 020).
[25] " The Chlorine Industry (http:/ / www. lenntech. com/ Chemistry/ chlorine-industry. htm)". Lenntech Water
treatment & air purification Holding B.V., Rotterdamseweg 402 M, 2629 HH Delft, The Netherlands. . Retrieved
2007-03-17.
[26] Reader W J (1970 SBN 19 215937 2). Imperial Chemical Industries; A History. Volume 1. The Forerunners
1870-1926. Oxford University Press. p. 102. citing Haber L F (1958). The Chemical Industry during the
Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Chlorine 16
[27] " Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) - Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in
the Chlor-Alkali Manufacturing Industry (http:/ / www. jrc. es/ pub/ english. cgi/ d733217/ 05 Reference
Document on Best Available Techniques in the Chlor-Alkali Manufacturing industry (adopted Dec 2001) - 5. 2
Mb)". European Commission. . Retrieved 2007-09-02.
[28] " Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) - Best Available Techniques Reference Document on the
Production of Iron and Steel (http:/ / www. jrc. es/ pub/ english. cgi/ d733208/ 02 Best Available Techniques
Reference Document on the Production of Iron and Steel (adopted Dec 2001) - 9. 4Mb)". European Commission.
. Retrieved 2007-09-02.
the Glass Manufacturing Industry (http:/ / www. jrc. es/ pub/ english. cgi/ d733226/ 08 Reference Document on
Best Available Techniques in the Glass Manufacturing Industry (adopted Dec 2001) - 2. 7 Mb)". European
Commission. . Retrieved 2007-09-02.
the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries (http:/ / www. jrc. es/ pub/ english. cgi/ d733211/ 03 Reference
Document on Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries (adopted Dec 2001)
- 1. 3 Mb)". European Commission. . Retrieved 2007-09-02.
[31] " Chlorine compounds of the month (http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/ index. asp?page=678)". Euro Chlor. .
[32] Cotton, F. Albert and Wilkinson, Geoffrey (1966). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd ed.. John Wiley & sons.
p. 568.
[33] " Uses (http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/ uses)". Euro Chlor. . Retrieved 2007-08-20.
[34] " Chlorine Tree (http:/ / www. chlorinetree. org)". Chlorine Tree. . Retrieved 2007-08-20.
[35] Koski TA, Stuart LS, Ortenzio LF (1966). " Comparison of chlorine, bromine, iodine as disinfectants for
swimming pool water (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pubmed&
pubmedid=4959984)". Applied Microbiology 14 (2): 276–279. PMID 4959984. .
[36] " Weapons of War: Poison Gas (http:/ / www. firstworldwar. com/ weaponry/ gas. htm)". First World War.com.
. Retrieved 2007-08-12.
[37] Mahdi, Basim (2007-03-17). " Iraq gas attack makes hundreds ill (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2007/ WORLD/
meast/ 03/ 17/ iraq. main/ index. html)". CNN. . Retrieved 2007-03-17.
[38] " 'Chlorine bomb' hits Iraq village (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 6660585. stm)". BBC News.
2007-05-17. . Retrieved 2007-05-17.
[39] " Chlorine MSDS (http:/ / www. westlake. com/ datasheets/ MSDS_Chlorine. pdf)". October 23, 1997 (Revised
November 1999. .
[40] Chris Winder (2001). "The Toxicology of Chlorine". Environmental Research 85 (2): 105–114. doi:
10.1006/enrs.2000.4110 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1006/ enrs. 2000. 4110).
[41] " What's in your Water?: Disinfectants Create Toxic By-products (http:/ / www. aces. uiuc. edu/ news/ stories/
news4724. html)". ACES News. College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences - University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 2009-03-31. . Retrieved 2009-03-31.
[42] Richardson, Sd; Plewa, Mj; Wagner, Ed; Schoeny, R; Demarini, Dm (Nov 2007). "Occurrence, genotoxicity,
and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and
roadmap for research". Mutation research 636 (1-3): 178–242. doi: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2007.09.001 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. mrrev. 2007. 09. 001). PMID 17980649. edit (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/
Template:cite_pmid/ 17980649)
[43] http:/ / www. chlorineinstitute. org/
[44] http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/
[45] http:/ / electrochem. cwru. edu/ encycl/ art-b01-brine. htm
[46] http:/ / www. compchemwiki. org/ index. php?title=Cl2
[47] http:/ / www. oceana. org/ chlorine
[49] http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ topics/ chlorine/
[50] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Cl/ index. html

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Argon 1
Argon
chlorine ← argon → potassiumNe
↑
Ar
↓
Kr

18Ar
Periodic table
Appearance tasteless, odorless, colorless gas General Name, symbol, numberElement

shell Physical properties PhaseDensityMelting pointBoiling pointTriple pointCritical
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 47 53 61 71 87

(more) 2nd: 2665.8 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 3931 kJ·mol−1Covalent radiusVan der Waals radius
registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of argon
36 0.337% 36
Ar Ar is stable with 18 neutron
37 syn 35 d ε 0.813 37
Ar Cl
38 0.063% 38
39 syn 269 y 0.565

β− 39
Ar K
Argon 2
40 99.600% 40
41 syn 109.34 min 2.49

β− 41
Ar K
42 syn 32.9 y 0.600

β− 42
Ar K
argon, Ar, 18 noble gases 18, 3, p39.948(1) g·mol−1 [Ne] 3s2 3p6 2, 8, 8 (Image) gas (0 °C,
101.325 kPa)
1.784 g/L 83.80 K,−189.35 °C,−308.83 °F 87.30 K,−185.85 °C,−302.53 °F
83.8058 K (-189°C), 69 kPa 150.87 K, 4.898 MPa 1.18 kJ·mol−1 6.43 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C)
20.786 J·mol−1·K−1 0 no data (Pauling scale) 1st: 1520.6 kJ·mol−1106±10 pm 188 pm
face-centered cubic diamagnetic[1] (300 K) 17.72x10-3 W·m−1·K−1 (gas, 27 °C) 323 m/s
7440–37–1
Argon (pronounced /ˈɑrɡɒn/) is a chemical element
designated by the symbol Ar. Argon has atomic number 18
and is the third element in group 18 of the periodic table
(noble gases). Argon is present in the Earth's atmosphere
at 0.94%. Terrestrially, it is the most abundant and most
frequently used of the noble gases. Argon's full outer shell
makes it stable and resistant to bonding with other
elements. Its triple point temperature of 83.8058 K is a
defining fixed point in the International Temperature Scale
of 1990.
Cavendish's method for the

isolation of argon. The gases are
contained in a test-tube (A)
standing over a large quantity of
weak alkali (B), and the current is
conveyed in wires insulated by
U-shaped glass tubes (CC) passing
through the liquid and round the
mouth of the test-tube. The inner
platinum ends (DD) of the wire
receive a current from a battery of
five Grove cells and a Ruhmkorff
coil of medium size.
Argon 3
Characteristics
Argon has approximately the same solubility in
water as oxygen gas and is 2.5 times more soluble in
water than nitrogen gas. Argon is colorless,
odorless, tasteless and nontoxic in both its liquid
and gaseous forms. Argon is inert under most
conditions and forms no confirmed stable
compounds at room temperature.
Although argon is a noble gas, it has been found to

have the capability of forming some compounds. For
example, the creation of argon fluorohydride
(HArF), a marginally stable compound of argon with
A small piece of rapidly melting argon ice. fluorine and hydrogen, was reported by researchers
at the University of Helsinki in 2000.[2] Although the
neutral ground-state chemical compounds of argon are presently limited to HArF, argon
can form clathrates with water when atoms of it are trapped in a lattice of the water
molecules.[3] Also argon-containing ions and excited state complexes, such as ArH+ and
ArF, respectively, are known to exist. Theoretical calculations have shown several argon
compounds that should be stable but for which no synthesis routes are currently known.
History
Argon (αργος, Greek meaning "inactive", in reference to its chemical inactivity)[4] [5] [6] was
suspected to be present in air by Henry Cavendish in 1785 but was not isolated until 1894
by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in Scotland in an experiment in which they
removed all of the oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen from a sample of clean air.[7]
[8]
They had determined that nitrogen produced from chemical compounds was one-half
percent lighter than nitrogen from the atmosphere. The difference seemed insignificant,
but it was important enough to attract their attention for many months. They concluded
that there was another gas in the air mixed in with the nitrogen.[9] Argon was also
encountered in 1882 through independent research of H. F. Newall and W.N. Hartley. Each
observed new lines in the color spectrum of air but were unable to identify the element
responsible for the lines. Argon became the first member of the noble gases to be
discovered. The symbol for argon is now Ar, but up until 1957 it was A.[10]
Occurrence
Argon constitutes 0.934% by volume and 1.29% by mass of the Earth's atmosphere, and air
is the primary raw material used by industry to produce purified argon products. Argon is
isolated from air by fractionation, most commonly by cryogenic fractional distillation, a
process that also produces purified nitrogen, oxygen, neon, krypton and xenon.[11]
The Martian atmosphere in contrast contains 1.6% of argon-40 and 5 ppm of argon-36. The
Mariner space probe fly-by of the planet Mercury in 1973 found that Mercury has a very
thin atmosphere with 70% argon, believed to result from releases of the gas as a decay
product from radioactive materials on the planet. In 2005, the Huygens probe also
discovered the presence of argon-40 on Titan, the largest moon of Saturn.[12]
Argon 4
Isotopes
The main isotopes of argon found on Earth are 40Ar (99.6%), 36Ar (0.34%), and 38Ar
(0.06%). Naturally occurring 40K with a half-life of 1.25 × 109 years, decays to stable 40Ar
(11.2%) by electron capture and positron emission, and also to stable 40Ca (88.8%) via beta
decay. These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of rocks.[13]
In the Earth's atmosphere, 39Ar is made by cosmic ray activity, primarily with 40Ar. In the
subsurface environment, it is also produced through neutron capture by 39K or alpha
emission by calcium. 37Ar is created from the decay of 40Ca as a result of subsurface
nuclear explosions. It has a half-life of 35 days.[13]
Compounds
Argon’s complete octet of electrons indicates full s and p subshells. This full outer energy
level makes argon very stable and extremely resistant to bonding with other elements.
Before 1962, argon and the other noble gases were considered to be chemically inert and
unable to form compounds; however, compounds of the heavier noble gases have since
been synthesized. In August 2000, the first argon compounds were formed by researchers
at the University of Helsinki. By shining ultraviolet light onto frozen argon containing a
small amount of hydrogen fluoride, argon fluorohydride (HArF) was formed.[2] [14] It is
stable up to 40 kelvins (−233 °C).
Production
Industrial
Argon is produced industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air, a process that
separates liquid nitrogen, which boils at 77.3 K, from argon, which boils at 87.3 K and
oxygen, which boils at 90.2 K. About 700,000 tons of argon are produced worldwide every
year. [15]
In radioactive decays
40
Ar, the most abundant isotope of argon, is produced by the decay of 40K with a half-life of
1.25 × 109 years by electron capture or positron emission. Because of this, it is used in
potassium-argon dating to determine the age of rocks.
Argon 5
Applications
There are several different reasons why argon is used
in particular applications:
• An inert gas is needed. In particular, argon is the
cheapest alternative when diatomic nitrogen is not
sufficiently inert.
• Low thermal conductivity is required.
• The electronic properties (ionization and/or the
emission spectrum) are necessary.
Other noble gases would probably work as well in most
of these applications, but argon is by far the cheapest.
Argon is inexpensive since it is a byproduct of the
production of liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen, both of
which are used on a large industrial scale. The other
noble gases (except helium) are produced this way as
well, but argon is the most plentiful since it has the
highest concentration in the atmosphere. The bulk of
Cylinders containing argon gas for use argon applications arise simply because it is inert and
in extinguishing fire without damaging relatively cheap.
server equipment
Industrial processes
Argon is used in some high-temperature industrial processes, where ordinarily non-reactive
substances become reactive. For example, an argon atmosphere is used in graphite electric
furnaces to prevent the graphite from burning.
For some of these processes, the presence of nitrogen or oxygen gases might cause defects
within the material. Argon is used in various types of metal inert gas welding such as
tungsten inert gas welding, as well as in the processing of titanium and other reactive
elements. An argon atmosphere is also used for growing crystals of silicon and germanium.
Argon is an asphyxiant in the poultry industry, either for mass culling following disease
outbreaks, or as a means of slaughter more humane than the electric bath. Argon's
relatively high density causes it to remain close to the ground during gassing. Its
non-reactive nature makes it suitable in a food product, and since it replaces oxygen within
the dead bird, argon also enhances shelf life.[16]
Argon is sometimes used for extinguishing fires where damage to equipment is to be
avoided (see photo).
Argon 6
Preservative
Argon is used to displace oxygen- and
moisture-containing air in packaging material to extend
the shelf-lives of the contents. Aerial oxidation,
hydrolysis, and other chemical reactions which degrade
the products are retarded or prevented entirely. Bottles
of high-purity chemicals and certain pharmaceutical
products are available in sealed bottles or ampoules
packed in argon. In wine making, argon is used to
top-off barrels to avoid the aerial oxidation of ethanol to A sample of caesium is packed under
argon to avoid reactions with air
acetic acid during the aging process.
Argon is also available in aerosol-type cans, which may be used to preserve compounds
such as varnish, polyurethane, paint, etc. for storage after opening.[17]
Since 2001 the American National Archives stores important national documents such as
the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution within argon-filled cases to retard
their degradation. Using argon reduces gas leakage, compared with the helium used in the
preceding five decades. [18]
Laboratory equipment
Argon may be used as the inert gas within Schlenk lines
and gloveboxes. The use of argon over comparatively
less expensive dinitrogen is preferred where nitrogen
may react.
Argon may be used as the carrier gas in gas
chromatography and in electrospray ionization mass
spectrometry; it is the gas of choice for the plasma used
in ICP spectroscopy. Argon is preferred for the sputter
coating of specimens for scanning electron microscopy.
Gloveboxes are typically filled with
Argon ions are also used for sputtering in argon, which recirculate over
microelectronics. scrubbers to maintain an oxygen- and
moisture-free atmosphere
Medical use
Cryosurgery procedures such as cryoablation use liquefied argon to destroy cancer cells. In
surgery it is used in a procedure called "argon enhanced coagulation" which is a form of
argon plasma beam electrosurgery. The procedure carries a risk of producing gas embolism
in the patient and has resulted in the death of one person via this type of accident.[19] Blue
argon lasers are used in surgery to weld arteries, destroy tumors, and to correct eye
defects.[20] It has also used experimentally to replace nitrogen in the breathing or
decompression mix, to speed the elimination of dissolved nitrogen from the blood.[21] See
Argox (scuba).
Argon 7
Lighting
Incandescent lights are filled with argon, to preserve
the filaments at high temperature. It is used for the
specific way it ionizes and emits light, such as in plasma
globes and calorimetry in experimental particle physics.
Gas-discharge lamps filled with argon provide blue
light. Argon is also used for the creation of blue laser
light.
Miscellaneous uses
An argon & mercury vapor discharge
It is used for thermal insulation in energy efficient tube.
windows.[22] Argon is also used in technical scuba

diving to inflate a dry suit, because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity.[23]
Compressed argon is allowed to expand, to cool the seeker heads of the AIM-9 Sidewinder
missile, and other missiles that use cooled thermal seeker heads. The gas is stored at high
pressure.[24]
Argon-39, with a half-life of 269 years, has been used for a number of applications,
primarily ice core and ground water dating. Also, potassium-argon dating is used in dating
igneous rocks.
Safety
Although argon is non-toxic, it does not satisfy the body's need for oxygen and is thus an
asphyxiant. Argon is 25% more dense than air and is considered highly dangerous in closed
areas. It is also difficult to detect because it is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. In confined
spaces, it is known to result in death due to asphyxiation. A 1994 incident in Alaska that
resulted in one fatality highlights the dangers of argon tank leakage in confined spaces, and
emphasizes the need for proper use, storage and handling.[25]
Further reading
[26]
• USGS Periodic Table - Argon
• Emsley, J., Nature’s Building Blocks; Oxford University Press: Oxford, NY, 2001; pp.
35–39.
• Brown, T. L.; Bursten, B. E.; LeMay, H. E., In Chemistry: The Central Science, 10th ed.;
Challice, J.; Draper, P.; Folchetti, N. et al.; Eds.; Pearson Education, Inc.: Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 2006; pp. 276 and 289.
• Triple point temperature: 83.8058 K - Preston-Thomas, H. (1990). "The International
Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) [27]". Metrologia 27: 3–10.
doi:10.1088/0026-1394/27/1/002 [28]. http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ publications/ its-90.
html.
• Triple point pressure: 69 kPa - "Section 4, Properties of the Elements and Inorganic
Compounds; Melting, boiling, triple, and critical temperatures of the elements". CRC
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. 2005.
Argon 8
External links
• WebElements.com – Argon [29]
• Diving applications: Why Argon? [30]
• Argon Ar Properties, Uses, Applications [31]
• Leftover Finish Preserver – Bloxygen [32]
• Periodic Table of the Elements: Argon [33]
pnb:‫نوگرآ‬
References
[2] " HArF! Argon's not so noble after all - researchers make argon fluorohydride (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/
articles/ mi_m1200/ is_9_158/ ai_65368548)". .
[3] Belosludov, V. R.; O. S. Subbotin, D. S. Krupskii, O. V. Prokuda, and Y. Kawazoe (2006). "Microscopic model of
clathrate compounds". J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 29: 1. doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/29/1/001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1088/ 1742-6596/ 29/ 1/ 001).
[4] Hiebert, E. N. (1963). "In Noble-Gas Compounds". in Hyman, H. H.. Historical Remarks on the Discovery of
Argon: The First Noble Gas. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. pp. 3–20.
[5] Travers, M. W. (1928). The Discovery of the Rare Gases. London: Edward Arnold & Co.. pp. 1–7.
[6] Rayleigh, Lord; Ramsay, W. (1895). "Argon: A New Constituent of the Atmosphere". Chemical News 71,:
51–58.
[7] Lord Rayleigh;William Ramsay (1894 - 1895). " Argon, a New Constituent of the Atmosphere (http:/ / www.
jstor. org/ pss/ 115394)". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 57 (1): 265–287. doi:
10.1098/rspl.1894.0149 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rspl. 1894. 0149). .
[8] William Ramsay. " Nobel Lecture in Chemistry, 1904 (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ chemistry/
laureates/ 1904/ ramsay-lecture. html)". .
[9] " About Argon, the Inert; The New Element Supposedly Found in the Atmosphere (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/
gst/ abstract. html?res=9B04E3D61139E033A25750C0A9659C94649ED7CF)". The New York Times. .
[10] Holden, Norman E. (12). " History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers (http:/ /
www. nndc. bnl. gov/ content/ elements. html)". National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC). .
[11] " Argon, Ar (http:/ / elements. etacude. com/ Ar. php)". . Retrieved 2007-03-08.
[12] " Seeing, touching and smelling the extraordinarily Earth-like world of Titan (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/
SEMHB881Y3E_index_0. html)". European Space Agency. 21. .
[13] " 40Ar/39Ar dating and errors (http:/ / www. geoberg. de/ text/ geology/ 07011601. php)". . Retrieved
2007-03-07.
[14] Bartlett, Neil. " The Noble Gases (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ noblegases. html)". Chemical &
Engineering News. .
[15] " Periodic Table of Elements: Argon – Ar (http:/ / environmentalchemistry. com/ yogi/ periodic/ Ar. html)".
Environmentalchemistry.com. . Retrieved 2008-09-12.
[16] D. L. Fletcher. "[Downbound.com Symposium: Recent Advances in Poultry Slaughter Technology Slaughter
Technology]". Downbound.com. Retrieved 2009-08-01.
[17] US Patent 6629402
[18] " Schedule for Renovation of the National Archives Building (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ press/ press-kits/
charters. html#pressrelaese1)". . Retrieved 2009-07-07.
[19] " Fatal Gas Embolism Caused by Overpressurization during Laparoscopic Use of Argon Enhanced
Coagulation (http:/ / www. mdsr. ecri. org/ summary/ detail. aspx?doc_id=8248)". MDSR. 24. .
[20] Fujimoto, James; Rox Anderson, R. (2006). " Tissue Optics, Laser-Tissue Interaction, and Tissue Engineering
(http:/ / www. spie. org/ Conferences/ Programs/ 06/ pw/ BiOSAbstracts. pdf)" (pdf). Biomedical Optics. pp.
77-88. . Retrieved 2007-03-08.
[21] Pilmanis Andrew A, Balldin UI, Webb James T, Krause KM (December 2003). "Staged decompression to 3.5
psi using argon-oxygen and 100% oxygen breathing mixtures". Aviation, Space, Environmental Medicine 74
(12): 1243–50. PMID 14692466.
[22] " Energy-Efficient Windows (http:/ / www. finehomebuilding. com/ how-to/ articles/
understanding-energy-efficient-windows. aspx)". FineHomebuilding.com. . Retrieved 2009-08-01.
Argon 9
[23] Nuckols ML, Giblo J, Wood-Putnam JL. (September 15-18, 2008). " Thermal Characteristics of Diving
Garments When Using Argon as a Suit Inflation Gas. (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 7962)".
Proceedings of the Oceans 08 MTS/IEEE Quebec, Canada Meeting (MTS/IEEE). . Retrieved 2009-03-02.
[24] " Description of Aim-9 Operation (http:/ / home. wanadoo. nl/ tcc/ rnlaf/ aim9. html)". planken.org. . Retrieved
2009-02-01.
[25] Middaugh, John (1994-06-23). " Welder's Helper Asphyxiated in Argon-Inerted Pipe (FACE AK-94-012) (http:/
/ www. hss. state. ak. us/ dph/ ipems/ occupation_injury/ reports/ docs/ 94ak012. htm)". State of Alaska
Department of Public Health. . Retrieved 2009-02-01.
[26] http:/ / wwwrcamnl. wr. usgs. gov/ isoig/ period/ ar_iig. html
[27] http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ publications/ its-90. html
[28] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1088%2F0026-1394%2F27%2F1%2F002
[29] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Ar/ index. html
[30] http:/ / www. decompression. org/ maiken/ Why_Argon. htm
[31] http:/ / www. uigi. com/ argon. html
[32] http:/ / www. bloxygen. com
[33] http:/ / www. lenntech. com/ Periodic-chart-elements/ Ar-en. htm

Argon Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308216912 Contributors: 2D, ABF, Abce2, Abrech, Adashiel, Addshore, Ahoerstemeier,
AirdishStraus, Aitias, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Alexius08, Ali@gwc.org.uk, All Is One, Alvis, Andre Engels, AndreasJS, Andres, Anonymous editor, Anoop.m,
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Arjun01, Art LaPella, Atlant, Auximines, Awolf002, Azn king28, B.d.mills, BRG, BW, Bachrach44, Badocter, Beardo, Beetstra, Bergsten, Bettia, Bjweeks,
Bkonrad, BlueEarth, Bobblewik, Bobbo, Bobet, Bobo192, Bomac, Brian0918, Brockert, Brooknet, Bryan Derksen, BunsenH, CTZMSC3, CYD, Caltas,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CaptainVindaloo, Carnildo, Casper2k3, Catgut, Ceranthor, ChicXulub, Chris Dybala, Christian List, Chuto, Closedmouth,
Computermix, ConradPino, Conversion script, Corpx, Crazy Boris with a red beard, Cremepuff222, Cryptic C62, Cureden, Curps, Cyclist 1977,
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Icairns, Iluvcapra, Indon, Indosauros, Insanity Incarnate, Itub, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JaGa, Jacek Kendysz, Jagun, Jake Nelson, Jaknouse, Janke, Jaraalbe,
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License
Potassium 1
Potassium
argon ← potassium → calciumNa
↑
K
↓
Rb

19K
Periodic table
Appearance silvery white

pointTriple pointHeat of fusionHeat of vaporizationSpecific heat capacity Atomic properties
Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energies
(more) 2nd: 3052 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 4420 kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radiusVan der Waals
radius Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingThermal conductivityThermal
Potassium 2
expansionSpeed of sound (thin rod) Young's modulusShear modulusBulk modulusMohs

hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes
of potassium
39 93.26% 39
K K is stable with 20 neutron
40 0.012% 1.311
1.248(3)×109 y β− 40
K Ca
ε 1.505 40
Ar
1.505
β+ 40
Ar
41 6.73% 41
K K is stable with 22 neutron
potassium, K, 19 alkali metal1, 4, s39.0983(1) g·mol−1 [Ar] 4s1 2, 8, 8, 1 (Image) solid 0.89
g·cm−3 0.828 g·cm−3 336.53 K,63.38 °C,146.08 °F 1032 K,759 °C,1398 °F
−1 −1 −1 −1
336.35 K (63°C), kPa 2.33 kJ·mol 76.9 kJ·mol (25 °C) 29.6 J·mol ·K 1
body-centered cubic paramagnetic (300 K) 102.5 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 83.3 µm·m−1·K−1 (20
°C) 2000 m/s 3.53 GPa 1.3 GPa 3.1 GPa 0.4 0.363 MPa 7440-09-7
Potassium (pronounced /pɵˈtæsiəm/) is the chemical element with the symbol K (Latin:
kalium, from Arabic: ‫هَيْلَقلا‬‎ al-qalyah “plant ashes”, cf. Alkali from the same root), atomic
number 19, and atomic mass 39.0983. Potassium was first isolated from potash. Elemental
potassium is a soft silvery-white metallic alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and is very
reactive with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite the evolved hydrogen.
Potassium in nature occurs only as ionic salt. As such, it is found dissolved in seawater, and
as part of many minerals. Potassium ion is necessary for the function of all living cells, and
is thus present in all plant and animal tissues. It is found in especially high concentrations
in plant cells, and in a mixed diet, it is most highly concentrated in fruits.
In many respects, potassium and sodium are chemically similar, although they have very
different functions in organisms in general, and in animal cells in particular.
Occurrence
Elemental potassium does not occur in nature because
it reacts violently with water.[1] As various compounds,
potassium makes up about 1.5% of the weight of the
Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant
element.[1] As it is very electropositive, potassium metal
is difficult to obtain from its minerals.
History of the free element

Elemental potassium was not known in Roman times,
Potassium in feldspar and its names are not Classical Latin but rather
neo-Latin. The name kalium was taken from the word
"alkali", which came from Arabic al qalīy = "the calcined ashes". The name potassium was
made from the word "potash", which is English, and originally meant an alkali extracted in
Potassium 3
a pot from the ash of burnt wood or tree leaves. The structure of potash was not then
known, but is now understood to be mostly potassium carbonate. By heating, the carbonate
could be freed of carbon dioxide, leaving "caustic potash", so called because it caused
chemical burns in contact with human tissue.
Potassium metal was discovered in 1807 in England by Sir Humphry Davy, who derived it
from caustic potash (KOH), by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly
discovered voltaic pile. Before the 18th century, no distinction was made between
potassium and sodium. Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis.[2]
Davy extracted sodium by a similar technique, demonstrating the elements to be
different.[3]
Production
Pure potassium metal may be isolated by electrolysis of its hydroxide in a process that has
changed little since Davy.[1] Thermal methods also are employed in potassium production,
using potassium chloride
Potassium salts such as carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite, and sylvite form extensive
deposits in ancient lake and seabeds, making extraction of potassium salts in these
environments commercially viable. The principal source of potassium, potash, is mined in
Saskatchewan, California, Germany, New Mexico, Utah, and in other places around the
world. It is also found abundantly in the Dead Sea. Three thousand feet below the surface of
Saskatchewan are large deposits of potash which are important sources of this element and
its salts, with several large mines in operation since the 1960s. Saskatchewan pioneered
the use of freezing of wet sands (the Blairmore formation) in order to drive mine shafts
through them. The main mining company is the Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan. The
oceans are another source of potassium, but the quantity present in a given volume of
seawater is relatively low compared with sodium.[4] [5]
Isotopes
39 40
There are 24 known isotopes of potassium. Three isotopes occur naturally: K (93.3%), K
(0.0117%) and 41K (6.7%). Naturally occurring 40K decays to stable 40Ar (11.2%) by
electron capture and by positron emission, and decays to stable 40Ca (88.8%) by beta
decay; 40K has a half-life of 1.250×109 years. The decay of 40K to 40Ar enables a commonly
used method for dating rocks. The conventional K-Ar dating method depends on the
assumption that the rocks contained no argon at the time of formation and that all the
subsequent radiogenic argon (i.e., 40Ar) was quantitatively retained. Minerals are dated by
measurement of the concentration of potassium and the amount of radiogenic 40Ar that has
accumulated. The minerals that are best suited for dating include biotite, muscovite,
plutonic/high grade metamorphic hornblende, and volcanic feldspar; whole rock samples
from volcanic flows and shallow instrusives can also be dated if they are unaltered.
Outside of dating, potassium isotopes have been used extensively as tracers in studies of
weathering. They have also been used for nutrient cycling studies because potassium is a
macronutrient required for life.
40
K occurs in natural potassium (and thus in some commercial salt substitutes) in sufficient
quantity that large bags of those substitutes can be used as a radioactive source for
classroom demonstrations. In healthy animals and people, 40K represents the largest source
Potassium 4
14
of radioactivity, greater even than C. In a human body of 70 kg mass, about 4,400 nuclei
of 40K decay per second.[6]
The activity of natural potassium is 31 Bq/g.
Properties
Physical
Potassium is the second least dense metal; only lithium is less dense.
It is a soft, low-melting solid that can easily be cut with a knife.
Freshly cut potassium is silvery in appearance, but in air it begins to
tarnish toward grey immediately.[1]
In a flame test, potassium and its compounds emit a pale violet color,
which may be masked by the strong yellow emission of sodium if it is
also present. Cobalt glass can be used to filter out the yellow sodium
color.[7] Potassium concentration in solution is commonly determined
by flame photometry, atomic absorption spectrophotometry,
inductively coupled plasma, or ion selective electrodes.
Chemical
Potassium must be protected from air for storage to prevent
disintegration of the metal from oxide and hydroxide corrosion. Often
samples are maintained under a hydrocarbon medium which does not
react with alkali metals, such as mineral oil or kerosene.
Like the other alkali metals, potassium reacts violently with water,
producing hydrogen. The reaction is notably more violent than that of The flame-test color
lithium or sodium with water, and is sufficiently exothermic that the for potassium
evolved hydrogen gas ignites.
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → H2(g) + 2KOH(aq)

Because potassium reacts quickly with even traces of water, and its reaction products are
nonvolatile, it is sometimes used alone, or as NaK (an alloy with sodium which is liquid at
room temperature) to dry solvents prior to distillation. In this role, it serves as a potent
desiccant.
Potassium hydroxide reacts strongly with carbon dioxide to produce potassium carbonate,
and is used to remove traces of CO2 from air.
Potassium compounds generally have excellent water solubility, due to the high hydration
energy of the K+ ion. The potassium ion is colorless in water.
Methods of separating potassium by precipitation, sometimes used for gravimetric analysis,
include the use of sodium tetraphenylborate, hexachloroplatinic acid, and sodium
cobaltinitrite
Potassium 5
Potassium cations in the body
Biochemical function
Potassium cations are important in neuron (brain and nerve) function, and in influencing
osmotic balance between cells and the interstitial fluid, with their distribution mediated in
all animals (but not in all plants) by the so-called Na+/K+-ATPase pump.[8]
Potassium may be detected by taste because it triggers three of the five types of taste
sensations, according to concentration. Dilute solutions of potassium ion taste sweet
(allowing moderate concentrations in milk and juices), while higher concentrations become
increasingly bitter/alkaline, and finally also salty to the taste. The combined bitterness and
saltiness of high potassium content solutions makes high-dose potassium supplementation
by liquid drinks a palatability challenge.[9]
Membrane polarization
Potassium is also important in allowing muscle contraction and the sending of all nerve
impulses in animals through action potentials. By nature of their electrostatic and chemical
properties, K+ ions are larger than Na+ ions, and ion channels and pumps in cell
membranes can distinguish between the two types of ions, actively pumping or passively
allowing one of the two ions to pass, while blocking the other. [10]
A shortage of potassium in body fluids may cause a potentially fatal condition known as
hypokalemia, typically resulting from diarrhea, increased diuresis and vomiting. Deficiency
symptoms include muscle weakness, paralytic ileus, ECG abnormalities, decreased reflex
response and in severe cases respiratory paralysis, alkalosis and cardiac arrhythmia.
Filtration and excretion

Potassium is an essential mineral micronutrient in human nutrition; it is the major cation
(positive ion) inside animal cells, and it is thus important in maintaining fluid and
electrolyte balance in the body. Sodium makes up most of the cations of blood plasma at a
reference range of about 145 milliequivalents per liter (3345 milligrams) and potassium
makes up most of the cell fluid cations at about 150 milliequivalents per liter (4800
milligrams). Plasma is filtered through the glomerulus of the kidneys in enormous amounts,
about 180 liters per day.[11] Thus 602,000 milligrams of sodium and 33,000 milligrams of
potassium are filtered each day. All but the 1000-10,000 milligrams of sodium and the
1000-4000 milligrams of potassium likely to be in the diet must be reabsorbed. Sodium
must be reabsorbed in such a way as to keep the blood volume exactly right and the
osmotic pressure correct; potassium must be reabsorbed in such a way as to keep serum
concentration as close as possible to 4.8 milliequivalents (about 190 milligrams) per
liter.[12] Sodium pumps in the kidneys must always operate to conserve sodium. Potassium
must sometimes be conserved also, but since the amount of potassium in the blood plasma
is very small and the pool of potassium in the cells is about thirty times as large, the
situation is not so critical for potassium. Since potassium is moved passively[13] [14] in
counter flow to sodium in response to an apparent (but not actual) Donnan equilibrium,[15]
the urine can never sink below the concentration of potassium in serum except sometimes
by actively excreting water at the end of the processing. Potassium is secreted twice and
reabsorbed three times before the urine reaches the collecting tubules.[16] At that point, it
usually has about the same potassium concentration as plasma. If potassium were removed
Potassium 6
from the diet, there would remain a minimum obligatory kidney excretion of about 200 mg
per day when the serum declines to 3.0-3.5 milliequivalents per liter in about one week,[17]
and can never be cut off completely. Because it cannot be cut off completely, death will
result when the whole body potassium declines to the vicinity of one-half full capacity. At
the end of the processing, potassium is secreted one more time if the serum levels are too
high.
Reference ranges for blood tests, showing blood content of potassium (3.6 to 5.2 mmol/l) in blue in right part of the
spectrum.
The potassium moves passively through pores in the cell wall. When ions move through
pumps there is a gate in the pumps on either side of the cell wall and only one gate can be
open at once. As a result, 100 ions are forced through per second. Pores have only one
gate, and there only one kind of ion can stream through, at 10 million to 100 million ions
per second.[18] The pores require calcium in order to open[19] although it is thought that the
calcium works in reverse by blocking at least one of the pores.[20] Carbonyl groups inside
the pore on the amino acids mimics the water hydration that takes place in water
solution[21] by the nature of the electrostatic charges on four carbonyl groups inside the
pore.[22]
Potassium in the diet and by supplement
Adequate intake
A potassium intake sufficient to support life can generally be guaranteed by eating a variety
of foods, especially plant foods. Clear cases of potassium deficiency (as defined by
symptoms, signs and a below-normal blood level of the element) are rare in healthy
individuals eating a balanced diet. Foods with high sources of potassium include orange
juice, potatoes, bananas, avocados, tomatoes, broccoli, soybeans, brown rice, garlic and
apricots, although it is also common in most fruits, vegetables and meats.[23]
Optimal intake
Epidemiological studies and studies in animals subject to hypertension indicate that diets
high in potassium can reduce the risk of hypertension and possibly stroke (by a mechanism
independent of blood pressure), and a potassium deficiency combined with an inadequate
thiamine intake has produced heart disease in rats.[24] With these findings, the question of
what is the intake of potassium consistent with optimal health, is debated. For example, the
2004 guidelines of the Institute of Medicine specify a DRI of 4,000 mg of potassium (100
mEq), though most Americans consume only half that amount per day, which would make
them formally deficient as regards this particular recommendation.[25] Similarly, in the
European Union, particularly in Germany and Italy, insufficient potassium intake is
somewhat common.[26]
Potassium 7
Medical supplementation and disease

Supplements of potassium in medicine are most widely used in conjunction with loop
diuretics and thiazides, classes of diuretics which rid the body of sodium and water, but
have the side effect of also causing potassium loss in urine. A variety of medical and
non-medical supplements are available. Potassium salts such as potassium chloride may be
dissolved in water, but the salty/bitter taste of high concentrations of potassium ion make
palatable high concentration liquid supplements difficult to formulate.[9] Typical medical
supplemental doses range from 10 milliequivalents (400 mg, about equal to a cup of milk or
6 oz. of orange juice) to 20 milliequivalents (800 mg) per dose. Potassium salts are also
available in tablets or capsules, which for therapeutic purposes are formulated to allow
potassium to leach slowly out of a matrix, since very high concentrations of potassium ion
(which might occur next to a solid tablet of potassium chloride) can kill tissue, and cause
injury to the gastric or intestinal mucosa. For this reason, non prescription supplement
potassium pills are limited by law in the U.S. to only 99 mg of potassium.
Individuals suffering from kidney diseases may suffer adverse health effects from
consuming large quantities of dietary potassium. End stage renal failure patients
undergoing therapy by renal dialysis must observe strict dietary limits on potassium intake,
since the kidneys control potassium excretion, and buildup of blood concentrations of
potassium (hyperkalemia) may trigger fatal cardiac arrhythmia.
Applications
About 93% of the world potassium production was consumed by the fertilizer industry.[5]
Biological applications
Potassium ions are an essential component of plant
nutrition and are found in most soil types. Its primary
use in agriculture, horticulture and hydroponic culture
is as a fertilizer as the chloride (KCl), sulfate (K2SO4) or
nitrate (KNO3).
In animal cells, potassium ions are vital to keeping cells
alive (see Na-K pump).
In the form of potassium chloride, it is used to stop the
heart, e.g. in cardiac surgery and in a solution used in
executions by lethal injection.
Food applications Potassium and Magnesium sulfate

fertilizer
Potassium ion is a nutrient necessary for human life and
health. Potassium chloride is used as a substitute for
table salt by those seeking to reduce sodium intake so as to control hypertension. The
USDA lists tomato paste, orange juice, beet greens, white beans, potatoes, bananas and
many other good dietary sources of potassium, ranked according to potassium content per
measure shown.[27]
Potassium sodium tartrate, or Rochelle salt (KNaC4H4O6) is the main constituent of baking
powder. Potassium bromate (KBrO3) is a strong oxidiser, used as a flour improver (E924) to
Potassium 8
improve dough strength and rise height.

The sulfite compound, potassium bisulfite (KHSO3) is used as a food preservative, for
example in wine and beer-making (but not in meats). It is also used to bleach textiles and
straw, and in the tanning of leathers.
Industrial applications
Potassium vapor is used in several types of magnetometers. An alloy of sodium and
potassium, NaK (usually pronounced "nack"), that is liquid at room temperature, is used as
a heat-transfer medium. It can also be used as a desiccant for producing dry and air-free
solvents.
Potassium metal reacts vigorously with all of the halogens to form the corresponding
potassium halides, which are white, water-soluble salts with cubic crystal morphology.
Potassium bromide (KBr), potassium iodide (KI) and potassium chloride (KCl) are used in
photographic emulsion to make the corresponding photosensitive silver halides.
Potassium hydroxide KOH is a strong base, used in industry to neutralize strong and weak
acids and thereby finding uses in pH control and in the manufacture of potassium salts.
Potassium hydroxide is also used to saponify fats and oils and in hydrolysis reactions, for
example of esters and in industrial cleaners.
Potassium nitrate KNO3 or saltpeter is obtained from natural sources such as guano and
evaporites or manufactured by the Haber process and is the oxidant in gunpowder (black
powder) and an important agricultural fertilizer. Potassium cyanide KCN is used
industrially to dissolve copper and precious metals particularly silver and gold by forming
complexes; applications include gold mining, electroplating and electroforming of these
metals. It is also used in organic synthesis to make nitriles. Potassium carbonate K2CO3,
also known as potash, is used in the manufacture of glass and soap and as a mild desiccant.
Potassium chromate (K2CrO4) is used in inks, dyes, and stains (bright yellowish-red colour),
in explosives and fireworks, in safety matches, in the tanning of leather and in fly paper.
Potassium fluorosilicate (K2SiF6) is used in specialized glasses, ceramics, and enamels.
Potassium sodium tartrate, or Rochelle salt (KNaC4H4O6) is used in the silvering of mirrors.
The superoxide KO2 is an orange-colored solid used as a portable source of oxygen and as a
carbon dioxide absorber. It is useful in portable respiration systems. It is widely used in
submarines and spacecraft as it takes less volume than O2 (g).
4KO2 + 2CO2 --> 2K2CO3 + 3O2
Potassium chlorate KClO3 is a strong oxidant, used in percussion caps and safety matches
and in agriculture as a weedkiller. Glass may be treated with molten potassium nitrate
KNO3 to make toughened glass, which is much stronger than regular glass.
Precautions
Potassium reacts very violently with water producing hydrogen gas which then usually
catches fire. Potassium is usually kept under a hydrocarbon oil such as mineral oil or
kerosene to stop the metal from reacting with water vapour present in the air. Unlike
lithium and sodium, however, potassium should not be stored under oil indefinitely. If
stored longer than 6 months to a year, dangerous shock-sensitive peroxides can form on the
metal and under the lid of the container, which can detonate upon opening. It is
recommended that potassium, rubidium or caesium not be stored for longer than three
Potassium 9
months unless stored in an inert (oxygen free) atmosphere, or under vacuum.[28]

As potassium reacts with water to produce highly flammable hydrogen gas, a potassium fire
is only exacerbated by the addition of water, and only a few dry chemicals are effective for
putting out such a fire (see the precaution section in sodium).
Potassium also produces potassium hydroxide (KOH) in the reaction with water. Potassium
hydroxide is a strong alkali and so is a caustic hazard, causing burns.
Due to the highly reactive nature of potassium metal, it must be handled with great care,
with full skin and eye protection being used and preferably an explosive resistant barrier
between the user and the potassium.
See also
• Potassium compounds
• Potassium in biology
External links
[29]
• WebElements.com – Potassium
References
[1] Mark Winter. " Potassium: Key Information (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ K/
key. html)". Webelements. .
[2] Enghag, P. (2004). "11. Sodium and Potassium". Encyclopedia of the elements. Wiley-VCH Weinheim. ISBN
3527306668.
[3] Davy, Humphry (1808). " On some new Phenomena of Chemical Changes produced by Electricity, particularly
the Decomposition of the fixed Alkalies, and the Exhibition of the new Substances, which constitute their Bases
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Kg9GAAAAMAAJ)". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 98: 1–45. doi: 10.1098/rstl.1808.0001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rstl. 1808. 0001). .
[4] Ober, Joyce A.. " Mineral Commodity Summaries 2008:Potash (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/
commodity/ potash/ mcs-2008-potas. pdf)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-11-20.
[5] Ober, Joyce A.. " Mineral Yearbook 2006:Potash (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
potash/ myb1-2006-potas. pdf)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-11-20.
[6] " background radiation - potassium-40 - γ radiation (http:/ / www. fas. harvard. edu/ ~scdiroff/ lds/
QuantumRelativity/ RadioactiveHumanBody/ RadioactiveHumanBody. html)". .
[7] Anne Marie Helmenstine. " Qualitative Analysis - Flame Tests (http:/ / chemistry. about. com/ library/ weekly/
aa110401a. htm)". About.com. .
[8] Campbell, Neil (1987). Biology. Menlo Park, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co.. pp. 795. ISBN
0-8053-1840-2.
[9] " Potassium Without the Taste (http:/ / www. foodnavigator. com/ Science-Nutrition/
Potassium-without-the-taste)". . Retrieved Feb 14, 2009.
[10] Lockless SW, Zhou M, MacKinnon R.. " Structural and thermodynamic properties of selective ion binding in a
K+ channel (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 17472437)". Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology and
Biophysics, Rockefeller University. . Retrieved 2008-03-08.
[11] Potts, W.T.W.; Parry, G. (1964). Osmotic and ionic regulation in animals. Pergamon Press.
[12] Lans HS, Stein IF, Meyer KA (1952). "The relation of serum potassium to erythrocyte potassium in normal
subjects and patients with potassium deficiency". Am. J. Med. Sci. 223 (1): 65–74. doi:
10.1097/00000441-195201000-00011 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1097/ 00000441-195201000-00011). PMID
14902792.
[13] Bennett CM, Brenner BM, Berliner RW (1968). "Micropuncture study of nephron function in the rhesus
monkey". J Clin Invest 47 (1): 203–216. PMID 16695942.
[14] Solomon AK (1962). "Pumps in the living cell". Sci. Am. 207: 100–8. PMID 13914986.
[15] Kernan, Roderick P. (1980). Cell potassium (Transport in the life sciences). New York: Wiley. ISBN
0471048062.; p. 40 & 48.
Potassium 10
[16] Wright FS (1977). "Sites and mechanisms of potassium transport along the renal tubule". Kidney Int. 11 (6):
415–32. doi: 10.1038/ki.1977.60 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ ki. 1977. 60). PMID 875263.
[17] Squires RD, Huth EJ (1959). "Experimental potassium depletion in normal human subjects. I. Relation of ionic
intakes to the renal conservation of potassium". J. Clin. Invest. 38 (7): 1134–48. doi: 10.1172/JCI103890 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1172/ JCI103890). PMID 13664789.
[18] Gadsby DC (2004). "Ion transport: spot the difference". Nature 427 (6977): 795–7. doi: 10.1038/427795a
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ 427795a). PMID 14985745.; for a diagram of the potassium pores are viewed,
see Miller C (2001). "See potassium run". Nature 414 (6859): 23–4. doi: 10.1038/35102126 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1038/ 35102126). PMID 11689922.
[19] Jiang Y, Lee A, Chen J, Cadene M, Chait BT, MacKinnon R (2002). "Crystal structure and mechanism of a
calcium-gated potassium channel". Nature 417 (6888): 515–22. doi: 10.1038/417515a (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1038/ 417515a). PMID 12037559.
[20] Shi N, Ye S, Alam A, Chen L, Jiang Y (2006). "Atomic structure of a Na+- and K+-conducting channel". Nature
440 (7083): 570–4. doi: 10.1038/nature04508 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ nature04508). PMID 16467789.;
includes a detailed picture of atoms in the pump.
[21] Zhou Y, Morais-Cabral JH, Kaufman A, MacKinnon R (2001). "Chemistry of ion coordination and hydration
revealed by a K+ channel-Fab complex at 2.0 A resolution". Nature 414 (6859): 43–8. doi: 10.1038/35102009
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ 35102009). PMID 11689936.
[22] Noskov SY, Bernèche S, Roux B (2004). "Control of ion selectivity in potassium channels by electrostatic and
dynamic properties of carbonyl ligands". Nature 431 (7010): 830–4. doi: 10.1038/nature02943 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1038/ nature02943). PMID 15483608.
[23] " Potassium Content of Food and Drink (http:/ / www. pamf. org/ patients/ pdf/ potassium_count. pdf)". .
[24] Folis, R.H. (1942). "Myocardial Necrosis in Rats on a Potassium Low Diet Prevented by Thiamine Deficiency".
Bull. Johns-Hopkins Hospital 71: 235.
[25] Grim CE, Luft FC, Miller JZ, et al. (1980). "Racial differences in blood pressure in Evans County, Georgia:
relationship to sodium and potassium intake and plasma renin activity". J Chronic Dis 33 (2): 87–94. doi:
10.1016/0021-9681(80)90032-6 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0021-9681(80)90032-6). PMID 6986391.
[26] Karger, S. (2004). " Energy and nutrient intake in the European Union (http:/ / content. karger. com/
ProdukteDB/ produkte. asp?Aktion=ShowPDF& ProduktNr=223977& Ausgabe=230671& ArtikelNr=83312&
filename=83312. pdf)" (pdf). Ann Nutr Metab 48 (2 (suppl)): 1–16. .
[27] )Potassium / K (mg.) Content of Selected Foods per Common Measure, sorted by nutrient content | USDA
National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20 http:/ / www. nal. usda. gov/ fnic/ foodcomp/
Data/ SR20/ nutrlist/ sr20w306. pdf
[28] Thomas K. Wray. " DANGER: PEROXIDIZABLE CHEMICALS (http:/ / www. ncsu. edu/ ehs/ www99/ right/
handsMan/ lab/ Peroxide. pdf)". Environmental Health & Public Safety (North Carolina State University). .
[29] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ K/ index. html

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License
Calcium 1
Calcium
potassium ← calcium → scandiumMg
↑
Ca
↓
Sr

20Ca
Periodic table
Appearance Dull grey, silver

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 864 956 1071 1227 1443 1755

Calcium 2

modulusBulk modulusPoisson ratioMohs hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS registry number
Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of calcium
40 96.941% 40
Ca Ca is stable with 20 neutron
41 syn ε -
1.03×105 y 41
Ca K
42 0.647% 42
43 0.135% 43
44 2.086% 44
45 syn 162.7 d 0.258

β− 45
Ca Sc
46 0.004% ?
>2.8×1015 y β−β− 46
Ca Ti
47 syn 4.536 d 0.694, 1.99

β− 47
Ca Sc
γ 1.297 -
48 0.187% ?
>4×1019 y β−β− 48
Ca Ti
calcium, Ca, 20 alkaline earth metal2, 4, s40.078(4) g·mol−1 [Ar] 4s2 2, 8, 8, 2 (Image) solid
154.7 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 25.929 J·mol−1·K−1 2
(strongly basic oxide) 1.00 (Pauling scale) 1st: 589.8 kJ·mol−1197 pm176±10 pm
face-centered cubic diamagnetic (20 °C) 33.6 nΩ·m (300 K) 201 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 22.3
µm·m−1·K−1 (20 °C) 3810 m/s 20 GPa 7.4 GPa 17 GPa 0.31 1.75 167 MPa 7440-70-2
Calcium (pronounced /ˈkælsiəm/) is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic
number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth
metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. Calcium is also
the fifth most abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium,
chloride, magnesium, and sulfate.[1]
Calcium is essential for living organisms, particularly in cell physiology, where movement of
the calcium ion Ca2+ into and out of the cytoplasm functions as a signal for many cellular
processes. As a major material used in mineralization of bones and shells, calcium is the
most abundant metal by mass in many animals.
Calcium 3
Chemically calcium is reactive and soft for a metal
(though harder than lead, it can be cut with a knife with
difficulty). It is a silvery metallic element that must be
extracted by electrolysis from a fused salt like calcium
chloride.[2] Once produced, it rapidly forms a
grey-white oxide and nitride coating when exposed to
air. It is somewhat difficult to ignite, unlike magnesium,
but when lit, the metal burns in air with a brilliant
high-intensity red light. Calcium metal reacts with
Calcium carbonate wetted with water, evolving hydrogen gas at a rate rapid enough to
hydrochloric acid (thus forming CaCl2) be noticeable, but not fast enough at room temperature
held at a flame and showing
to generate much heat. In powdered form, however, the
red-orange flame color of Ca.
reaction with water is extremely rapid, as the increased
surface area of the powder accelerates the reaction
with the water. Part of the slowness of the calcium-water reaction results from the metal
being partly protected by insoluble white calcium hydroxide. In water solutions of acids
where the salt is water soluble, calcium reacts vigorously.
Calcium, with a specific mass of 1.55 g/cm3, is the lightest of the alkali earth metals;
magnesium is heavier (1.74) and beryllium even more heavy (1.84) despite these two
elements being lighter in atomic mass. From strontium on the alkali earth metals get
heavier along with the atomic mass.
Calcium has a higher resistivity than copper or aluminium. Yet, weight for weight, allowing
for its much lower density, it is a rather better conductor than either. However, its use in
terrestrial applications is usually limited by its high reactivity with air.
Calcium salts are colorless from any contribution of the calcium, and ionic solutions of
calcium (Ca2+) are colorless as well. Many calcium salts are not soluble in water. When in
solution, the calcium ion to the human taste varies remarkably, being reported as mildly
salty, sour, "mineral like" or even "soothing." It is apparent that many animals can taste, or
develop a taste, for calcium, and use this sense to detect the mineral in salt licks or other
sources.[3] In human nutrition, soluble calcium salts may be added to tart juices without
much effect to the average palate.
Calcium is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the human body, where it is a
common cellular ionic messenger with many functions, and serves also as a structural
element in bone. It is the relatively high atomic-numbered calcium in the skeleton which
causes bone to be radio-opaque. Of the human body's solid components after drying (as for
example, after cremation), about a third of the total mass is the approximately one kilogram
of calcium which composes the average skeleton (the remainder being mostly phosphorus
and oxygen).
Calcium 4
Occurrence
Calcium is not naturally found in its elemental state. Calcium occurs most commonly in
sedimentary rocks in the minerals calcite, dolomite and gypsum. It also occurs in igneous
and metamorphic rocks chiefly in the silicate minerals: plagioclase, amphiboles, pyroxenes
and garnets.
See also Calcium minerals.
Applications
Some uses are:
• as a reducing agent in the extraction of other metals, such as uranium, zirconium, and
thorium.
• as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, or decarbonizer for various ferrous and nonferrous alloys.
• as an alloying agent used in the production of aluminium, beryllium, copper, lead, and
magnesium alloys.
• in the making of cements and mortars to be used in construction.
• in the making of cheese, where calcium ions influence the activity of rennin in bringing
about the coagulation of milk.
Calcium compounds
• Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone
(usually used in the steel industry); aids in production in the glass industry, also has
chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes, for example.
• Calcium hydroxide solution (Ca(OH)2) (also known as limewater) is used to detect the
presence of carbon dioxide by being bubbled through a solution. It turns cloudy where
CO2 is present.
• Calcium arsenate (Ca3(AsO4)2) is used in insecticides.
• Calcium carbide (CaC2) is used: to make acetylene gas (for use in acetylene torches for
welding) and in the manufacturing of plastics.
• Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is used: in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, in
conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for
automobile tires.
• Calcium cyclamate (Ca(C6H11NHSO3)2) was used as a sweetening agent but is no longer
permitted for use because of suspected cancer-causing properties.
• Calcium gluconate (Ca(C6H11O7)2) is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills.
• Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) is used: as a swimming pool disinfectant, as a bleaching
agent, as an ingredient in deodorant, and in algaecide and fungicide.
• Calcium permanganate (Ca(MnO4)2) is used in liquid rocket propellant, textile
production, as a water sterilizing agent and in dental procedures.
• Calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in
commercial production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass, and in
dental products.
• Calcium phosphide (Ca3P2) is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes and flares.
• Calcium stearate (Ca(C18H35O2)2) is used in the manufacture of wax crayons, cements,
certain kinds of plastics and cosmetics, as a food additive, in the production of water
resistant materials and in the production of paints.
Calcium 5
• Calcium sulfate (CaSO4·2H2O) is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its
hemihydrate form being more well known as Plaster of Paris.
• Calcium tungstate (CaWO4) is used in luminous paints, fluorescent lights and in X-ray
studies.
• Hydroxylapatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH), but is usually written Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) makes up
seventy percent of bone. Also carbonated-calcium deficient hydroxylapatite is the main
mineral of which dental enamel and dentin are comprised.
H and K lines
In the visible portion of the spectrum of many stars, including the Sun, strong absorption
lines of singly-ionized calcium are shown. Prominent among these are the H-line at
3968.5 Å and the K line at 3933.7 Å of singly-ionized calcium, or Ca II. For the Sun and
stars with low temperatures, the prominence of the H and K lines can be an indication of
strong magnetic activity in the chromosphere. Measurement of periodic variations of these
active regions can also be used to deduce the rotation periods of these stars.[4]
History
Calcium (Latin word calcis meaning "lime") was known as early as the first century when
the Ancient Romans prepared lime as calcium oxide. Literature dating back to 975 AD notes
that plaster of paris (calcium sulphate), is useful for setting broken bones. It was not
isolated until 1808 in England when Sir Humphry Davy electrolyzed a mixture of lime and
mercuric oxide. Davy was trying to isolate calcium; when he heard that Swedish chemist
Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Pontin prepared calcium amalgam by electrolyzing lime in
mercury, he tried it himself. He worked with electrolysis throughout his life and also
discovered/isolated sodium, potassium, magnesium, boron and barium. Calcium metal was
not available in large scale until the beginning of the 20th century.
Compounds
Calcium, combined with phosphate to form hydroxylapatite, is the mineral portion of human
and animal bones and teeth. The mineral portion of some corals can also be transformed
into hydroxylapatite.
Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) is used in many chemical refinery processes and is made
by heating limestone at high temperature (above 825°C) and then carefully adding water to
it. When lime is mixed with sand, it hardens into a mortar and is turned into plaster by
carbon dioxide uptake. Mixed with other compounds, lime forms an important part of
Portland cement.
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is one of the common compounds of calcium. It is heated to
form quicklime (CaO), which is then added to water (H2O). This forms another material
known as slaked lime (Ca(OH)2), which is an inexpensive base material used throughout the
chemical industry. Chalk, marble, and limestone are all forms of calcium carbonate.
When water percolates through limestone or other soluble carbonate rocks, it partially
dissolves the rock and causes cave formation and characteristic stalactites and stalagmites
and also forms hard water. Other important calcium compounds are calcium nitrate,
calcium sulfide, calcium chloride, calcium carbide, calcium cyanamide and calcium
hypochlorite.
Calcium 6
Isotopes
Calcium has four stable isotopes (40Ca and 42Ca through 44Ca), plus two more isotopes
(46Ca and 48Ca) that have such long half-lives that for all practical purposes they can be
considered stable. It also has a cosmogenic isotope, radioactive 41Ca, which has a half-life
of 103,000 years. Unlike cosmogenic isotopes that are produced in the atmosphere, 41Ca is
produced by neutron activation of 40Ca. Most of its production is in the upper metre or so of
the soil column, where the cosmogenic neutron flux is still sufficiently strong. 41Ca has
received much attention in stellar studies because it decays to 41K, a critical indicator of
solar-system anomalies.
97% of naturally occurring calcium is in the form of 40Ca. 40Ca is one of the daughter
products of 40K decay, along with 40Ar. While K-Ar dating has been used extensively in the
geological sciences, the prevalence of 40Ca in nature has impeded its use in dating.
Techniques using mass spectrometry and a double spike isotope dilution have been used for
K-Ca age dating.
The most abundant isotope, 40Ca, has a nucleus of 20 protons and 20 neutrons. This is the
heaviest stable isotope of any element which has equal numbers of protons and neutrons. In
supernova explosions, calcium is formed from the reaction of carbon with various numbers
of alpha particles (helium nuclei), until the most common calcium isotope (containing 10
helium nuclei) has been synthesized.
Nutrition
Recommended Adequate Intake by the IOM for Calcium:
Age Calcium (mg/day)
0–6 months 210
7–12 months 270
1–3 years 500
4–8 years 800
9–18 years 1300
19–50 years 1000
51+ years 1200
Calcium is an important component of a healthy diet and a mineral necessary for life. The
National Osteoporosis Foundation says, "Calcium plays an important role in building
stronger, denser bones early in life and keeping bones strong and healthy later in life."
Approximately ninety-nine percent of the body's calcium is stored in the bones and teeth.[5]
The rest of the calcium in the body has other important uses, such as some exocytosis,
especially neurotransmitter release, and muscle contraction. In the electrical conduction
system of the heart, calcium replaces sodium as the mineral that depolarizes the cell,
proliferating the action potential. In cardiac muscle, sodium influx commences an action
potential, but during potassium efflux, the cardiac myocyte experiences calcium influx,
prolonging the action potential and creating a plateau phase of dynamic equilibrium.
Long-term calcium deficiency can lead to rickets and poor blood clotting and in case of a
menopausal woman, it can lead to osteoporosis, in which the bone deteriorates and there is
an increased risk of fractures. While a lifelong deficit can affect bone and tooth formation,
Calcium 7
over-retention can cause hypercalcemia (elevated levels of calcium in the blood), impaired
kidney function and decreased absorption of other minerals.[6] High calcium intakes or high
calcium absorption were previously thought to contribute to the development of kidney
stones. However, a high calcium intake has been associated with a lower risk for kidney
[7] [8] [9]
stones in more recent research. Vitamin D is needed to absorb calcium.
Dairy products, such as milk and cheese, are a well-known source of calcium. However,
some individuals are allergic to dairy products and even more people, particularly those of
non Indo-European descent, are lactose-intolerant, leaving them unable to consume
non-fermented dairy products in quantities larger than about half a liter per serving.
Others, such as vegans, avoid dairy products for ethical and health reasons. Fortunately,
many good sources of calcium exist. These include seaweeds such as kelp, wakame and
hijiki; nuts and seeds (like almonds and sesame); blackstrap molasses; beans; oranges; figs;
quinoa; amaranth; collard greens; okra; rutabaga; broccoli; dandelion leaves; kale; and
fortified products such as orange juice and soy milk. (However, calcium fortified orange
juice often contains vitamin D3 derived from lanolin, and is thus unacceptable for
vegans.[10] ) An overlooked source of calcium is eggshell, which can be ground into a
powder and mixed into food or a glass of water.[11] [12] [13] Cultivated vegetables generally
have less calcium than wild plants.[14]
The calcium content of most foods can be found in the USDA National Nutrient
Database.[15]
Dietary calcium supplements

Calcium supplements are used to prevent and to treat
calcium deficiencies. Most experts recommend that
supplements be taken with food and that no more than
600 mg should be taken at a time because the percent
of calcium absorbed decreases as the amount of
calcium in the supplement increases.[] It is
recommended to spread doses throughout the day.
Recommended daily calcium intake for adults ranges
from 1000 to 1500 mg. It is recommended to take 500 milligram calcium supplements
made from calcium carbonate
supplements with food to aid in absorption.
Vitamin D is added to some calcium supplements. Proper vitamin D status is important

because vitamin D is converted to a hormone in the body which then induces the synthesis
of intestinal proteins responsible for calcium absorption.[16]
• The absorption of calcium from most food and commonly-used dietary supplements is
very similar.[17] This is contrary to what many calcium supplement manufacturers claim
in their promotional materials.
• Milk is an excellent source of dietary calcium because it has a high concentration of
calcium and the calcium in milk is excellently absorbed.[17]
• Calcium carbonate is the most common and least expensive calcium supplement. It
should be taken with food. It depends on low pH levels for proper absorption in the
intestine.[18] Some studies suggests that the absorption of calcium from calcium
carbonate is similar to the absorption of calcium from milk.[19] [20] While most people
digest calcium carbonate very well, some might develop gastrointestinal discomfort or
gas. Taking magnesium with it can help to avoid constipation. Calcium carbonate is 40%
Calcium 8
elemental calcium. 1000 mg will provide 400 mg of calcium. However, supplement labels
will usually indicate how much calcium is present in each serving, not how much calcium
carbonate is present.
• Antacids, such as Tums, frequently contain calcium carbonate, and are a very
commonly-used, inexpensive calcium supplement.
• Coral Calcium is a salt of calcium derived from fossilized coral reefs. Coral calcium is
composed of calcium carbonate and trace minerals.
• Calcium citrate can be taken without food and is the supplement of choice for individuals
with achlorhydria or who are taking histamine-2 blockers or proton-pump inhibitors.[21] It
is more easily digested and absorbed than calcium carbonate if taken on empty stomach
and less likely to cause constipation and gas than calcium carbonate. It also has a lower
risk of contributing to the formation of kidney stones. Calcium citrate is about 21%
elemental calcium. 1000 mg will provide 210 mg of calcium. It is more expensive than
calcium carbonate and more of it must be taken to get the same amount of calcium.
• Calcium phosphate costs more than calcium carbonate, but less than calcium citrate. It is
easily absorbed and is less likely to cause constipation and gas than either.
• Calcium lactate has similar absorption as calcium carbonate[22] , but is more expensive.
Calcium lactate and calcium gluconate are less concentrated forms of calcium and are
not practical oral supplements.[21]
• Calcium chelates are synthetic calcium compounds, with calcium bound to an organic
molecule, such as malate, aspartate, or fumarate. These forms of calcium may be better
absorbed on an empty stomach. However, in general they are absorbed similarly to
calcium carbonate and other common calcium supplements when taken with food.[23] The
'chelate' mimics the action that natural food performs by keeping the calcium soluble in
the intestine. Thus, on an empty stomach, in some individuals, chelates might
theoretically be absorbed better.
• Microcrystalline hydroxyapatite (MH) is marketed as a calcium supplement, and has in
some randomized trials been found to be more effective than calcium carbonate.
• Orange juice with calcium added is a good dietary source for persons who have lactose
intolerance.
In July 2006, a report citing research from Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in
Seattle, Washington claimed that women in their 50s gained 5 pounds less in a period of 10
years by taking more than 500 mg of calcium supplements than those who did not.
However, the doctor in charge of the study, Dr. Alejandro J. Gonzalez also noted it would be
"going out on a limb" to suggest calcium supplements as a weight-limiting aid.[24]
Prevention of fractures due to osteoporosis

Such studies often do not test calcium alone, but rather combinations of calcium and
vitamin D. Randomized controlled trials found both positive[25] [26] and negative[27] [28] [29]
[30]
effects. The different results may be explained by doses of calcium and underlying rates
of calcium supplementation in the control groups.[31] However, it is clear that increasing
the intake of calcium promotes deposition of calcium in the bones, where it is of more
benefit in preventing the compression fractures resulting from the osteoporotic thinning of
the dendritic web of the bodies of the vertebrae, than it is at preventing the more serious
cortical bone fractures which happen at hip and wrist.
Calcium 9
Possible cancer prevention

A meta-analysis[26] by the international Cochrane Collaboration of two randomized
controlled trials[32] [33] found that calcium "might contribute to a moderate degree to the
prevention of adenomatous colonic polyps".
More recent studies were conflicting, and one which was positive for effect (Lappe, et al.)
did control for a possible anti-carcinogenic effect of vitamin D, which was found to be an
independent positive influence from calcium-alone on cancer risk (see second study below)
[34]
.
• A randomized controlled trial found that 1000 mg of elemental calcium and 400 IU of
vitamin D3 had no effect on colorectal cancer[35]
• A randomized controlled trial found that 1400–1500 mg supplemental calcium and 1100
IU vitamin D3 reduced aggregated cancers with a relative risk of 0.402.[36]
• An observational cohort study found that high calcium and vitamin D intake was
associated with "lower risk of developing premenopausal breast cancer."[37]
Overdose
Exceeding the recommended daily calcium intake for an extended period of time can result
in hypercalcemia and calcium metabolism disorder.
See also
• Calcium metabolism
• Calcium in biology
• Calcium compounds
• Disorders of calcium metabolism
References
• Rebecca J. Donatelle. Health, The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc.
2005.
External links
• WebElements.com — Calcium [38]
[39]
• USDA National Nutrient Database, Calcium content of selected foods
• UK Food Standards Agency: Calcium [40]
Calcium 10
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Calcium 11
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Scandium 1
Scandium
calcium ← scandium → titanium -
↑
Sc
↓
Y

21Sc
Periodic table

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1645 1804 (2006) (2266) (2613) (3101)

Scandium 2

conductivityThermal expansionYoung's modulusShear modulusBulk modulusPoisson
ratioBrinell hardnessCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of
scandium
44m syn 58.61 h IT 0.2709 44

Sc Sc
γ 1.0, 1.1, 1.1 44

Sc
ε - 44
Ca
45 100% 45
Sc Sc is stable with 24 neutron
46 syn 83.79 d 0.3569

β− 46
Sc Ti
γ 0.889, 1.120 -
47 syn 3.3492 d 0.44, 0.60

β− 47
Sc Ti
γ 0.159 -
48 syn 43.67 h 0.661

β− 48
Sc Ti
γ 0.9, 1.3, 1.0 -
scandium, Sc, 21 transition metal3, 4, d44.955912(6) g·mol−1 [Ar] 3d1 4s2 2, 8, 9, 2 (Image)
kJ·mol−1 332.7 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 25.52 J·mol−1·K−13, 2[1] , 1 [2]
(weakly basic oxide) 1.36 (Pauling scale) 1st: 633.1 kJ·mol−1162 pm170±7 pm hexagonal
paramagnetic (r.t.) (α, poly)
calc. 562 nΩ·m (300 K) 15.8 W·m−1·K−1 (r.t.) (α, poly)
10.2 µm/(m·K) 74.4 GPa 29.1 GPa 56.6 GPa 0.279 750 MPa 7440-20-2
Scandium (pronounced /ˈskændiəm/) is a chemical element with symbol Sc and atomic
number 21. A silvery-white metallic transition metal, it has historically been sometimes
classified as a rare earth element, together with yttrium and the lanthanides. In 1879 Lars
Fredrik Nilson and his team, found a new element with spectral analysis, in the minerals
euxenite and gadolinite from Scandinavia.
Scandium is present in most of the rare earth element and uranium deposits, but it is
extracted from these ores in only a few mines worldwide. Due to the low availability and the
difficulties in the preparation of metallic scandium, which was first done in 1937, it took
until the 1970s before applications for scandium were developed. The positive effects of
scandium on aluminium alloys were discovered in the 1970s, and its use in such alloys
remains the only major application of scandium.
Scandium 3
History
Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of an element that he called ekaboron, with an
atomic mass between 40 and 48 in 1869. Ten years later Lars Fredrik Nilson found a new
element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite from Scandinavia. He was able to prepare 2
g of scandium oxide of high purity. [3] [4] He named it scandium, from the Latin Scandia
meaning "Scandinavia". Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev's prediction, but Per
Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev.[5]
Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic
mixture, at 700–800 °C, of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides.[6] The first pound of
99% pure scandium metal was produced in 1960. The use for aluminium alloys began in
1971, following a US patent. Aluminium-scandium alloys were also developed in the
USSR.[7]
Position in the periodic table

Groups 1 to 3 of the periodic table could be written as follows:
1 2 3
Li Be B
Na Mg Al
K Ca Sc
Rb Sr Y
Cs Ba La
Fr Ra Ac
This grouping is consistent with Mendeleev's prediction for scandium as "eka-boron". It

shows that the properties of Sc will be intermediate between the properties of Al and Y, in
the same way that the properties of Ca are intermediate between those of Mg and Sr. It
also shows that there will be a diagonal relationship between Mg and Sc, just as there is
between Be and Al.
However, in the standard periodic table boron and aluminium are placed in group 13,
where the relationships above are less obvious. As to the rest of group 3, there has been
controversy as to whether yttrium is in the same group as lanthanum or as lutetium.[8] In
the chemical compounds of the elements shown as group 3, above, the predominant
oxidation state is +3. The ions M3+ will all have the electronic configuration of a noble gas,
so it is reasonable that they should be in the same group of the periodic table. Most modern
text-books place Sc, Y, La and Ac in the same periodic group.
Occurrence
Scandium does not have a particularly low abundance in the earth's crust. Estimates vary
from 18 to 25 ppm, which is comparable to the abundance of cobalt (20–30 ppm). However,
scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals.[9] Rare
minerals from Scandinavia[10] and Madagascar[11] such as thortveitite, euxenite, and
gadolinite are the only known concentrated sources of this element. Thortveitite can
contain up to 45%, as scandium(III) oxide.[10]
Scandium 4
Scandium is more common in the sun and certain stars than on Earth. Scandium is only the
50th most common element on earth (35th most abundant in the Earth's crust), but it is the
23rd most common element in the sun.[12]
Production
World production of scandium is in the order of 2,000 kg per year as scandium oxide. The
primary production is 400 kg while the rest is from stockpiles of Russia created during the
Cold War. In 2003 only three mines produced scandium: the uranium and iron mines in
Zhovti Vody in Ukraine, the rare earth mines in Bayan Obo, China and the apatite mines in
the Kola peninsula, Russia. In each case scandium is a byproduct from the extraction of
other elements.[13] and is sold as scandium oxide. The production of metallic scandium is in
the order of 10 kg per year.[13] [14] The oxide is converted to scandium fluoride and reduced
with metallic calcium.
Madagascar and Iveland-Evje Region in Norway have the only deposits of minerals with
high scandium content, thortveitite (Y,Sc)2(Si2O7) and kolbeckite ScPO4·2H2O, but these
are not being exploited.[14] Other scandium sources include the nickel and cobalt mines at
Syerston and Lake Innes, New South Wales, Australia, iron, tin, and tungsten deposits in
China and uranium deposits in Russia and Kazakhstan. As of 2003, scandium was not being
extracted from the tailings at any of these mines, but some scandium extraction may be
started if there is sufficient demand.[13] There is currently no primary production of
scandium in the Americas, Europe, or Australia.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring scandium is composed of one stable isotope 45Sc with a nuclear spin of
7/2. 13 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 46Sc with a
half-life of 83.8 days, 47Sc with a half-life of 3.35 days, and 48Sc with a half-life of
43.7 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half lives that are less than
4 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 2 minutes. This element
also has 5 meta states with the most stable being 44mSc (t½ 58.6 h).[15]
The isotopes of scandium range in atomic weight from 40 u (40Sc) to 54 u (54Sc). The
primary decay mode at masses lower than the only stable isotope, 45Sc, is electron capture,
and the primary mode at masses above it is beta emission. The primary decay products at
atomic weights below 45Sc are calcium isotopes and the primary products from higher
atomic weights are titanium isotopes.[15]
Compounds
Scandium metal is hard and has a silvery appearance. It develops a slightly yellowish or
pinkish cast when exposed to air. It is not resistant to weathering and dissolves slowly in
most dilute acids. It does not react with a 1:1 mixture of nitric acid (HNO3) and hydrofluoric
acid, HF, presumably due to the formation of an impermeable passive layer on the surface
of the metal. In the compounds ScB and ScC, boron and carbon are incorporated
non-stoichiometrically into the lattice of the scandium.[16]
The radii of M3+ ions in the following table
Scandium 5
Ionic radii (pm)

Al Sc Y La Lu
53.5 74.5 90.0 103.2 86.1
indicate why the chemistry of scandium is more closely related to that of yttrium than that
of aluminium and explains why scandium has been classified as a lanthanide-like element.
The oxide Sc2O3 is weakly acidic and the hydroxide Sc(OH)3 is amphoteric
Sc3+ (aq.) ← H+ + Sc(OH)3 + OH− → Sc(OH)
The α- and γ - forms of scandium oxide hydroxide (ScO(OH)), are isostructural with their
aluminium oxide hydroxide counterparts.[17] Solutions of Sc3+ in water are acidic because
of hydrolysis.
The halides ScX3 (X = Cl, Br, I) are very soluble in water, but ScF3 is insoluble. In all four
halides the scandium is 6-coordinate. The halides are Lewis acids; for example, ScF3
dissolves a solution containing excess fluoride to form [ScF6]3−. This is a typical example of
a complex of Sc(III) in which the coordination number is 6. In the larger Y and La ions 8-
and 9- coordination are often found.
There are a few compounds known in which the oxidation state is less than 3. The cluster
[Sc6Cl12]3− has a similar structure to that of the Nb6Cl12 cluster in which chlorine atoms
bridge the 12 edges of an octahedron of metal atoms.[18] Other sub-halides are known. The
nature of the hydride ScH2 is not yet fully understood.[2] It appears not to be a saline
hydride of Sc(II), but may be a compound of Sc(III) with two hydrides and an electron which
is delocalized in a kind of metallic structure. ScH can be observed spectroscopically at high
temperatures in the gas phase.[1]
Scandium forms a series of organometallic compounds with cyclopentadienyl, based on the
Sc(Cp)2 motif. The chlorine-bridged dimer, [Sc(Cp)2Cl]2 is the starting point for the
preparation of many compounds by replacement of the chlorine.[19]
Applications
The addition of scandium to aluminium limits the
excessive grain growth that occurs in the heat-affected
zone of welded aluminium components. This has two
beneficial effects: the precipitated Al3Sc forms smaller
crystals than are formed in other aluminium alloys[20]
and the volume of precipitate-free zones that normally
exist at the grain boundaries of age-hardening
aluminium alloys is reduced.[21] Both of these effects
increase the usefulness of the alloy. However, titanium Parts of the Mig–29 are made from
[20]
Al-Sc alloy.
alloys, which are similar in lightness and strength, are
cheaper and much more widely used.[22]
The main application of scandium by weight is in aluminium-scandium alloys for minor

aerospace industry components. These alloys contain between 0.1% and 0.5% of scandium.
They were used in the Russian military aircraft Mig 21 and Mig 29.[21]
Some items of sports equipment, which rely on high performance materials, have been
made with scandium-aluminium alloys, including baseball bats[23] , lacrosse sticks, as well
Scandium 6
as bicycle[24] frames and components. U.S. gunmaker Smith & Wesson produces revolvers
with frames composed of scandium alloy and cylinders of titanium .[25]
Approximately 20 kg (as Sc2O3) of scandium is used annually in the United States to make
high-intensity discharge lamps.[26] Scandium iodide, along with Sodium Iodide, when added
to a modified form of mercury-vapor lamp, produces a form of metal halide lamp, an
artificial light source which produce a very white light with high colour rendering index
that sufficiently resembles sunlight to allow good color-reproduction with TV cameras.[27]
About 80 kg of scandium is used in metal halide lamps/light bulbs globally per year. The
first scandium based metal halide lamps were patented by General Electric and initially
made in North America, although they are now produced in all major industrialized
countries. The radioactive isotope 46Sc is used in oil refineries as a tracing agent.[26]
Scandium triflate is a catalytic Lewis acid used in organic chemistry.[28]
Health and safety

The pure metal is not considered to be toxic. Little animal testing of scandium compounds
has been done.[29] The median lethal dose (LD50) levels for scandium(III) chloride for rats
have been determined and were intraperitoneal 4 mg/kg and oral 755 mg/kg.[30] In the light
of these results compounds of scandium should be handled as compounds of moderate
toxicity.
See also
• Scandium compounds
• Scandium minerals
• Yttrium
• Rare earth element
External links
[31]
• WebElements.com – Scandium
References
[1] McGuire, Joseph C.; Kempter, Charles P. (1960). "Preparation and Properties of Scandium Dihydride". Journal
of Chemical Physics: 1584–1585. doi: 10.1063/1.1731452 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 1731452).
[2] Smith, R. E. (1973). "Diatomic Hydride and Deuteride Spectra of the Second Row Transition Metals".
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences (1588): 113–127. doi:
10.1098/rspa.1973.0015 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rspa. 1973. 0015).
[3] Lars Fredrik Nilson (1879). " Sur l'ytterbine, terre nouvelle de M. Marignac (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/
12148/ bpt6k30457/ f639. table)". Comptes Rendus 88: 642–647. .
[4] F. L. Nilson (1879). "Ueber Scandium, ein neues Erdmetall". Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft
12 (1): 554–557. doi: 10.1002/cber.187901201157 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ cber. 187901201157).
[5] Per Teodor Cleve (1879). " Sur le scandium (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3046j/ f432. table)".
Comptes Rendus 89: 419–422. .
[6] Fischer, Werner; Brünger, Karl; Grieneisen, Hans (1937). "Über das metallische Scandium". Zeitschrift für
anorganische und allgemeine Chemie 231 (1-2): 54–62. doi: 10.1002/zaac.19372310107 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1002/ zaac. 19372310107).
[7] Zakharov, V. V. (2003). "Effect of Scandium on the Structure and Properties of Aluminum Alloys". Metal
Science and Heat Treatment 45: 246. doi: 10.1023/A:1027368032062 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1023/
A:1027368032062).
[8] Lavelle, L. (2008). "Lanthanum (La) and Actinium (Ac) Should Remain in the d-block". J. Chem. Ed. 85: 1482.
Scandium 7
[9] Bernhard, F. (2001). "Scandium mineralization associated with hydrothermal lazurite-quartz veins in the
Lower Austroalpie Grobgneis complex, East Alps, Austria". Mineral Deposits in the Beginning of the 21st
Century. Lisse: Balkema. ISBN 9026518463.
[10] Kristiansen, Roy (2003). " Scandium - Mineraler I Norge (http:/ / www. nags. net/ Stein/ 2003/ Sc-minerals.
pdf)" (in Norwegian). Stein: 14–23. .
[11] von Knorring, O.; Condliffe, E. (1987). "Mineralized pegmatites in Africa". Geological Journal 22: 253. doi:
10.1002/gj.3350220619 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ gj. 3350220619).
[12] Lide, David R. (2004). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 4–28. ISBN
9780849304859.
[13] Deschamps, Y.. " Scandium (http:/ / www. mineralinfo. org/ Substance/ Scandium/ Sc. pdf)". mineralinfo.com.
. Retrieved 2008-10-21.
[14] " Mineral Commodity Summaries 2008: Scandium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
scandium/ mcs-2008-scand. pdf)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-10-20.
nuclphysa. 2003. 11. 001).
[16] Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils (1985). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (91–100 ed.).
Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1055–1056. ISBN 3110075113.
[17] Christensen, A. Nørlund; Stig Jorgo Jensen (1967). "Hydrothermal Preparation of alpha-ScOOH and of
gamma-ScOOH. Crystal Structure of alpha-ScOOH.". Acta Chemica Scandinavica 21: 1121–126.. doi:
10.3891/acta.chem.scand.21-0121 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 3891/ acta. chem. scand. 21-0121).
[18] Corbett, J.D. (1981). "Extended metal-metal bonding in halides of the early transition metals". Acc. Chem.
Res. 14: 239–246. doi: 10.1021/ar00068a003 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ar00068a003).
[19] Marks, T.J.; Ernst, R.D. (1982). "Chapter 21". Comprehensive Organometallic Chemistry (Pergamon Press) 3:
173–270.
[20] Ahmad, Zaki (2003). "The properties and application of scandium-reinforced aluminum". JOM 55: 35. doi:
10.1007/s11837-003-0224-6 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s11837-003-0224-6).
[21] Ahmad, Zaki (2003). "The properties and application of scandium-reinforced aluminum". JOM 55: 35. doi:
10.1007/s11837-003-0224-6 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s11837-003-0224-6).
[22] ed. by James A. Schwarz .... (2004). James A. Schwarz, Cristian I. Contescu, Karol Putyera (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=aveTxwZm40UC& pg=PA2274). CRC Press. p. 2274. ISBN 0824750497. .
[23] Bjerklie, Steve (2006). "A batty business: Anodized metal bats have revolutionized baseball. But are finishers
losing the sweet spot?". Metal Finishing 104: 61. doi: 10.1016/S0026-0576(06)80099-1 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1016/ S0026-0576(06)80099-1).
[24] " Easton Technology Report : Materials / Scandium (http:/ / www. eastonbike. com/
downloadable_files_unprotected/ r& d_files/ R& D-03 Scandium. pdf)". EastonBike.com. . Retrieved 2009-04-03.
[25] " Small Frame (J) - Model 340PD Revolver (http:/ / www. smith-wesson. com/ webapp/ wcs/ stores/ servlet/
ProductDisplay?storeId=10001& catalogId=11101& langId=-1& productId=14765& tabselected=tech&
isFirearm=Y& parent_category_rn=15704)". Smith & Wesson. . Retrieved 2008-10-20.
[26] C.R. Hammond in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 85th ed., Section 4; The Elements
[27] Simpson, Robert S. (2003). Lighting Control: Technology and Applications (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=GEIhCl2T-2EC& pg=PT147& ). Focal Press. pp. 108. ISBN 9780240515663. .
[28] Kobayashi, Shu; Manabe, Kei (2000). " Green Lewis acid catalysis in organic synthesis (http:/ / www. iupac.
org/ publications/ pac/ 2000/ 7207/ 7207pdf/ 7207kobayashi_1373. pdf)". Pure Appl. Chem. 72 (7): 1373–1380.
doi: 10.1351/pac200072071373 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/ pac200072071373). .
[29] Horovitz, Chaim T.; Birmingham, Scott D. (1999). Biochemistry of Scandium and Yttrium (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=1ZTQlCWKjmgC). Springer. ISBN 9780306456572. .
[30] Haley, Thomas J.; Komesu, L.; Mavis, N.; Cawthorne, J.; Upham, H. C. (1962). "Pharmacology and toxicology
of scandium chloride". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 51: 1043. doi: 10.1002/jps.2600511107 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1002/ jps. 2600511107).
[31] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Sc/ index. html

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Titanium 1
Titanium
scandium ← titanium → vanadium -
↑
Ti
↓
Zr

22Ti
Periodic table
Appearance silvery grey-white metallic

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1982 2171 (2403) 2692 3064 3558

Titanium 2

registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of titanium
44 syn 63 y ε - 44
Ti Sc
γ 0.07D, 0.08D -
46 8.0% 46
Ti Ti is stable with 24 neutron
47 7.3% 47
48 73.8% 48
49 5.5% 49
50 5.4% 50
titanium, Ti, 22 transition metal4, 4, d47.867(1) g·mol−1 [Ar] 3d2 4s2 2, 8, 10, 2 (Image)
kJ·mol−1 425 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 25.060 J·mol−1·K−14, 3, 2, 1[1]
(amphoteric oxide) 1.54 (Pauling scale) 1st: 658.8 kJ·mol−1147 pm160±8 pm hexagonal
paramagnetic (20 °C) 0.420 µΩ·m (300 K) 21.9 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 8.6 µm·m−1·K−1 (r.t.)
5,090 m·s−1 116 GPa 44 GPa 110 GPa 0.32 6.0 970 MPa 716 MPa 7440-32-6
Titanium (pronounced /taɪˈteɪniəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Ti and atomic
number 22. Sometimes called the “space age metal”, it has a low density and is a strong,
lustrous, corrosion-resistant (including to sea water, aqua regia and chlorine) transition
metal with a silver color. Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium,
molybdenum, among other elements, to produce strong lightweight alloys for aerospace (jet
engines, missiles, and spacecraft), military, industrial process (chemicals and
petro-chemicals, desalination plants, pulp, and paper), automotive, agri-food, medical
prostheses, orthopedic implants, dental and endodontic instruments and files, dental
implants, sporting goods, jewelry, mobile phones, and other applications.[2] Titanium was
discovered in England by William Gregor in 1791 and named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth
for the Titans of Greek mythology.
The element occurs within a number of mineral deposits, principally rutile and ilmenite,
which are widely distributed in the Earth's crust and lithosphere, and it is found in almost
all living things, rocks, water bodies, and soils.[2] The metal is extracted from its principal
mineral ores via the Kroll process[3] or the Hunter process. Its most common compound,
titanium dioxide, is used in the manufacture of white pigments.[4] Other compounds include
titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) (used in smoke screens/skywriting and as a catalyst) and
titanium trichloride (TiCl3) (used as a catalyst in the production of polypropylene).[2]
The two most useful properties of the metal form are corrosion resistance and the highest
strength-to-weight ratio of any metal.[5] In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as
some steels, but 45% lighter.[6] There are two allotropic forms[7] and five naturally
occurring isotopes of this element; 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant
(73.8%).[8] Titanium's properties are chemically and physically similar to zirconium.
Titanium 3
Characteristics
Physical
A metallic element, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio.[7] It is a
strong metal with low density that is quite ductile (especially in an oxygen-free
environment),[9] lustrous, and metallic-white in color.[10] The relatively high melting point
(over 1,649 °C or 3,000 °F) makes it useful as a refractory metal.
Commercial (99.2% pure) grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about
63,000 psi (434 MPa), equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, but are 45%
lighter.[6] Titanium is 60% more dense than aluminium, but more than twice as strong[6] as
the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys (e.g., Beta C)
achieve tensile strengths of over 200000 psi (1400 MPa).[11] However, titanium loses
strength when heated above 430 °C (806 °F).[12]
It is fairly hard although not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, non-magnetic
and a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Machining requires precautions, as the
material will soften and gall if sharp tools and proper cooling methods are not used. Like
those made from steel, titanium structures have a fatigue limit which guarantees longevity
in some applications.[10]
The metal is a dimorphic allotrope with the hexagonal alpha form changing into the
body-centered cubic (lattice) beta form at 882 °C (1620 °F).[12] The specific heat of the
alpha form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then
falls and remains fairly constant for the beta form regardless of temperature.[12] Similar to
zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically
stable at high pressures, but which may exist metastably at ambient pressures. This phase
is usually hexagonal (ideal) or trigonal (distorted) and can be viewed as being due to a soft
longitudinal acoustic phonon of the beta phase causing collapse of (111) planes of atoms.[13]
Chemical
The most noted chemical property of titanium is its excellent resistance to corrosion; it is
almost as resistant as platinum, capable of withstanding attack by acids, moist chlorine in
water but is soluble in concentrated acids.[14]
While the following pourbaix diagram shows that titanium is thermodynamically a very
reactive metal, it is slow to react with water and air.
Titanium 4
This metal forms a passive and protective

oxide coating (leading to increased
corrosion-resistance) when exposed to
elevated temperatures in air, but at room
temperatures it resists tarnishing.[9] When it
first forms, this protective layer is only
1–2 nm thick but continues to slowly grow;
reaching a thickness of 25 nm in four
years.[16]
Titanium burns in air when heated to

1200 °C (2190 °F) and in pure oxygen when
The Pourbaix diagram for titanium in pure water, heated to 610 °C (1130 °F) or higher,
[15]
perchloric acid or sodium hydroxide
forming titanium dioxide.[7] As a result, the
metal cannot be melted in open air as it
burns before the melting point is reached, so melting is only possible in an inert
atmosphere or in vacuum. It is also one of the few elements that burns in pure nitrogen gas
(it burns at 800 °C or 1,472 °F and forms titanium nitride, which causes embrittlement).[17]
Titanium is resistant to dilute sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid, along with chlorine gas,
chloride solutions, and most organic acids.[3] It is paramagnetic (weakly attracted to
magnets) and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity.[9]
Experiments have shown that natural titanium becomes radioactive after it is bombarded
with deuterons, emitting mainly positrons and hard gamma rays.[3] When it is red hot the
metal combines with oxygen, and when it reaches 550 °C (1022 °F) it combines with
chlorine.[3] It also reacts with the other halogens and absorbs hydrogen.[4]
Compounds
The +4 oxidation state dominates in titanium chemistry,[18] but
compounds in the +3 oxidation state are also common.[19] Because of
this high oxidation state, many titanium compounds have a high
degree of covalent bonding.
Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism from the titanium dioxide
impurities present in them.[16] Titanates are compounds made with
titanium dioxide. Barium titanate has piezoelectric properties, thus
making it possible to use it as a transducer in the interconversion of
sound and electricity.[7] Esters of titanium are formed by the reaction
of alcohols and titanium tetrachloride and are used to waterproof
fabrics.[7]
Titanium nitride (TiN) is often used to coat cutting tools, such as drill
bits.[20] It also finds use as a gold-colored decorative finish, and as a
barrier metal in semiconductor fabrication.[21]
Titanium tetrachloride (titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl4, sometimes called
TiN coated drill bit
"Tickle") is a colorless liquid which is used as an intermediate in the
manufacture of titanium dioxide for paint.[22] It is widely used in
Titanium 5
organic chemistry as a Lewis acid, for example in the Mukaiyama aldol condensation.[23]
Titanium also forms a lower chloride, titanium(III) chloride (TiCl3), which is used as a
reducing agent.[24]
Titanocene dichloride is an important catalyst for carbon-carbon bond formation. Titanium
isopropoxide is used for Sharpless epoxidation. Other compounds include titanium bromide
(used in metallurgy, superalloys, and high-temperature electrical wiring and coatings) and
titanium carbide (found in high-temperature cutting tools and coatings).[4]
Occurrence
Producer Thousands of tons % of total
Australia 1291.0 30.6
South Africa 850.0 20.1
Canada 767.0 18.2
Norway 382.9 9.1
Ukraine 357.0 8.5
Other countries 573.1 13.6
Total world 4221.0 100.0
[25]
Source: 2003 production of titanium dioxide.
Due to rounding, values do not sum to 100%.
Titanium is always bonded to other elements in nature. It is the ninth-most abundant

element in the Earth's crust (0.63% by mass)[26] and the seventh-most abundant metal. It is
present in most igneous rocks and in sediments derived from them (as well as in living
things and natural bodies of water).[3] [9] In fact, of the 801 types of igneous rocks analyzed
by the United States Geological Survey, 784 contained titanium.[26] Its proportion in soils is
approximately 0.5 to 1.5%.[26]
It is widely distributed and occurs primarily in the minerals anatase, brookite, ilmenite,
perovskite, rutile, titanite (sphene), as well in many iron ores.[16] Of these minerals, only
rutile and ilmenite have any economic importance, yet even they are difficult to find in high
concentrations. Significant titanium-bearing ilmenite deposits exist in western Australia,
Canada, China, India, New Zealand, Norway, and Ukraine.[16] Large quantities of rutile are
also mined in North America and South Africa and help contribute to the annual production
of 90,000 tonnes of the metal and 4.3 million tonnes of titanium dioxide.[16] Total known
reserves of titanium are estimated to exceed 600 million tonnes.[16]
Titanium is contained in meteorites and has been detected in the sun and in M-type stars;[3]
the coolest type of star with a surface temperature of 3200 °C (5790 °F).[27] Rocks brought
back from the moon during the Apollo 17 mission are composed of 12.1% TiO2.[3] It is also
found in coal ash, plants, and even the human body.
Titanium 6
Isotopes
Naturally occurring titanium is composed of 5 stable isotopes: 46Ti, 47Ti, 48Ti, 49Ti, and
50
Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant (73.8% natural abundance). Eleven radioisotopes
have been characterized, with the most stable being 44Ti with a half-life of 63 years, 45Ti
with a half-life of 184.8 minutes, 51Ti with a half-life of 5.76 minutes, and 52Ti with a
half-life of 1.7 minutes. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less
than 33 seconds and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than half a second.[8]
The isotopes of titanium range in atomic weight from 39.99 u (40Ti) to 57.966 u (58Ti). The
primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 48Ti, is electron capture and
the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay products before 48Ti are
element 21 (scandium) isotopes and the primary products after are element 23 (vanadium)
isotopes.[8]
History
Titanium was discovered included in a mineral in Cornwall, England, in 1791 by amateur
geologist and pastor William Gregor, then vicar of Creed parish.[28] He recognized the
presence of a new element in ilmenite[4] when he found black sand by a stream in the
nearby parish of Manaccan and noticed the sand was attracted by a magnet.[28] Analysis of
the sand determined the presence of two metal oxides; iron oxide (explaining the attraction
to the magnet) and 45.25% of a white metallic oxide he could not identify.[26] Gregor,
realizing that the unidentified oxide contained a metal that did not match the properties of
any known element, reported his findings to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall and in
the German science journal Crell's Annalen.[28]
Around the same time, Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein
produced a similar substance, but could not identify it.[4] The
oxide was independently rediscovered in 1795 by German
chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in rutile from Hungary.[28]
Klaproth found that it contained a new element and named it
for the Titans of Greek mythology.[27] After hearing about
Gregor's earlier discovery, he obtained a sample of
manaccanite and confirmed it contained titanium.
The processes required to extract titanium from its various ores

are laborious and costly; it is not possible to reduce in the
normal manner, by heating in the presence of carbon, because
that produces titanium carbide.[28] Pure metallic titanium Martin Heinrich Klaproth
named titanium for the
(99.9%) was first prepared in 1910 by Matthew A. Hunter at Titans of Greek mythology.
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute by heating TiCl4 with sodium
in a steel bomb at 700–800 °C in the Hunter process.[3] Titanium metal was not used
outside the laboratory until 1932 when William Justin Kroll proved that it could be
produced by reducing titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) with calcium.[29] Eight years later he
refined this process by using magnesium and even sodium in what became known as the
Kroll process.[29] Although research continues into more efficient and cheaper processes
(e.g., FFC Cambridge), the Kroll process is still used for commercial production.[3] [4]
Titanium 7
Titanium of very high purity was made in small

quantities when Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan
Hendrik de Boer discovered the iodide, or crystal bar,
process in 1925, by reacting with iodine and
decomposing the formed vapors over a hot filament to
pure metal.[30]
In the 1950s and 1960s the Soviet Union pioneered the

use of titanium in military and submarine applications
A titanium crystal bar made by the
iodide process (Alfa Class and Mike Class)[31] as part of programs
related to the Cold War.[32] Starting in the early 1950s,
titanium began to be used extensively for military aviation purposes, particularly in
high-performance jets, starting with aircraft such as the F100 Super Sabre and Lockheed
A-12.
In the USA, the Department of Defense realized the strategic importance of the metal[33]
and supported early efforts of commercialization.[34] Throughout the period of the Cold
War, titanium was considered a Strategic Material by the U.S. government, and a large
stockpile of titanium sponge was maintained by the Defense National Stockpile Center,
which was finally depleted in 2005.[35] Today, the world's largest producer, Russian-based
VSMPO-Avisma, is estimated to account for about 29% of the world market share.[36]
In 2006, the U.S. Defense Agency awarded $5.7 million to a two-company consortium to
develop a new process for making titanium metal powder. Under heat and pressure, the
powder can be used to create strong, lightweight items ranging from armor plating to
components for the aerospace, transportation, and chemical processing industries.[37]
Production and fabrication

The processing of titanium metal occurs in 4 major
steps:[38] reduction of titanium ore into "sponge", a
porous form; melting of sponge, or sponge plus a
master alloy to form an ingot; primary fabrication,
where an ingot is converted into general mill products
such as billet, bar, plate, sheet, strip, and tube; and
secondary fabrication of finished shapes from mill
products.
Because the metal reacts with oxygen at high Titanium (Mineral Concentrate)
temperatures it cannot be produced by reduction of its
dioxide.[10] Titanium metal is therefore produced commercially by the Kroll process, a
complex and expensive batch process. (The relatively high market value of titanium is
mainly due to its processing, which sacrifices another expensive metal, magnesium.[39] ) In
the Kroll process, the oxide is first converted to chloride through carbochlorination,
whereby chlorine gas is passed over red-hot rutile or ilmenite in the presence of carbon to
make TiCl4. This is condensed and purified by fractional distillation and then reduced with
800 °C molten magnesium in an argon atmosphere.[7]
A more recently developed method, the FFC Cambridge process,[40] may eventually replace
the Kroll process. This method uses titanium dioxide powder (which is a refined form of
rutile) as feedstock to make the end product which is either a powder or sponge. If mixed
Titanium 8
oxide powders are used, the product is an alloy manufactured at a much lower cost than the
conventional multi-step melting process. The FFC Cambridge process may render titanium
a less rare and expensive material for the aerospace industry and the luxury goods market,
and could be seen in many products currently manufactured using aluminium and specialist
grades of steel.
Common titanium alloys are made by reduction. For example, cuprotitanium (rutile with
copper added is reduced), ferrocarbon titanium (ilmenite reduced with coke in an electric
furnace), and manganotitanium (rutile with manganese or manganese oxides) are
reduced.[17]
2 FeTiO3 + 7 Cl2 + 6 C (900 °C) → 2 TiCl4 + 2 FeCl3 + 6 CO
TiCl4 + 2 Mg (1100 °C) → 2 MgCl2 + Ti
About 50 grades of titanium and titanium alloys are designated and currently used,
although only a couple of dozen are readily available commercially.[41] The ASTM
International recognizes 31 Grades of titanium metal and alloys, of which Grades 1 through
4 are commercially pure (unalloyed). These four are distinguished by their varying degrees
of tensile strength, as a function of oxygen content, with Grade 1 being the most ductile
(lowest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.18%), and Grade 4 the least (highest
tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.40%).[16] The remaining grades are alloys,
each designed for specific purposes, be it ductility, strength, hardness, electrical resistivity,
creep resistance, resistance to corrosion from specific media, or a combination thereof.[42]
The grades covered by ASTM and other alloys are also produced to meet Aerospace and
Military specifications (SAE-AMS, MIL-T), ISO standards, and country-specific
specifications, as well as proprietary end-user specifications for aerospace, military,
medical, and industrial applications.[43]
In terms of fabrication, all welding of titanium must be done in an inert atmosphere of
argon or helium in order to shield it from contamination with atmospheric gases such as
oxygen, nitrogen, or hydrogen.[12] Contamination will cause a variety of conditions, such as
embrittlement, which will reduce the integrity of the assembly welds and lead to joint
failure. Commercially pure flat product (sheet, plate) can be formed readily, but processing
must take into account the fact that the metal has a "memory" and tends to spring back.
This is especially true of certain high-strength alloys.[44] [45] The metal can be machined
using the same equipment and via the same processes as stainless steel.[12]
Applications
Titanium is used in steel as an alloying element (ferro-titanium) to reduce grain size and as
a deoxidizer, and in stainless steel to reduce carbon content.[9] Titanium is often alloyed
with aluminium (to refine grain size), vanadium, copper (to harden), iron, manganese,
molybdenum, and with other metals.[46] Applications for titanium mill products (sheet,
plate, bar, wire, forgings, castings) can be found in industrial, aerospace, recreational, and
emerging markets. Powdered titanium is used in pyrotechnics as a source of bright-burning
particles.
Titanium 9
Pigments, additives and coatings

About 95% of titanium ore extracted from the Earth is
destined for refinement into titanium dioxide (TiO2), an
intensely white permanent pigment used in paints,
paper, toothpaste, and plastics.[47] It is also used in
cement, in gemstones, as an optical opacifier in
paper,[48] and a strengthening agent in graphite
composite fishing rods and golf clubs.
TiO2 powder is chemically inert, resists fading in

Titanium dioxide is the most commonly sunlight, and is very opaque: this allows it to impart a
used compound of titanium pure and brilliant white color to the brown or gray
chemicals that form the majority of household
plastics.[4] In nature, this compound is found in the minerals anatase, brookite, and rutile.[9]
Paint made with titanium dioxide does well in severe temperatures, is somewhat
self-cleaning, and stands up to marine environments.[4] Pure titanium dioxide has a very
high index of refraction and an optical dispersion higher than diamond.[3] In addition to
being a very important pigment, titanium dioxide is also used in sunscreens due to its
ability to protect skin by itself.[10]
Recently, it has been put to use in air purifiers (as a filter coating), or in film used to coat
windows on buildings which when exposed to UV light (either solar or man-made) and
moisture in the air produces reactive redox species like hydroxyl radicals that can purify
the air or keep window surfaces clean.[49]
Aerospace and marine

Due to their high tensile strength to density ratio,[7] high corrosion resistance,[3] and ability
to withstand moderately high temperatures without creeping, titanium alloys are used in
aircraft, armor plating, naval ships, spacecraft, and missiles.[3] [4] For these applications
titanium alloyed with aluminium, vanadium, and other elements is used for a variety of
components including critical structural parts, fire walls, landing gear, exhaust ducts
(helicopters), and hydraulic systems. In fact, about two thirds of all titanium metal
produced is used in aircraft engines and frames.[50] The SR-71 "Blackbird" was one of the
first aircraft to make extensive use of titanium within its structure, paving the way for its
use in modern military and commercial aircraft. An estimated 59 metric tons (130,000
pounds) are used in the Boeing 777, 45 in the Boeing 747, 18 in the Boeing 737, 32 in the
Airbus A340, 18 in the Airbus A330, and 12 in the Airbus A320. The Airbus A380 may use
146 metric tons, including about 26 tons in the engines.[51] In engine applications, titanium
is used for rotors, compressor blades, hydraulic system components, and nacelles. The
titanium 6AL-4V alloy accounts for almost 50% of all alloys used in aircraft applications.[52]
Due to its high corrosion resistance to sea water, titanium is used to make propeller shafts
and rigging and in the heat exchangers of desalination plants;[3] in heater-chillers for salt
water aquariums, fishing line and leader, and for divers' knives. Titanium is used to
manufacture the housings and other components of ocean-deployed surveillance and
monitoring devices for scientific and military use. The former Soviet Union developed
techniques for making submarines largely out of titanium, which became both the fastest
and deepest diving submarines of their time.[53]
Titanium 10
Industrial
Welded titanium pipe and process equipment (heat exchangers, tanks, process vessels,
valves) are used in the chemical and petrochemical industries primarily for corrosion
resistance. Specific alloys are used in downhole and nickel hydrometallurgy applications
due to their high strength titanium Beta C, corrosion resistance, or combination of both.
The pulp and paper industry uses titanium in process equipment exposed to corrosive
media such as sodium hypochlorite or wet chlorine gas (in the bleachery).[54] Other
applications include: ultrasonic welding, wave soldering,[55] and sputtering targets.[56]
Titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), a colorless liquid, is important as an intermediate in the
process of making TiO2 and is also used to produce the Ziegler-Natta catalyst, and is used
to iridize glass and because it fumes strongly in moist air it is also used to make smoke
screens.[10]
Consumer and architectural

Titanium metal is used in automotive applications, particularly in automobile or motorcycle
racing, where weight reduction is critical while maintaining high strength and rigidity.[57]
The metal is generally too expensive to make it marketable to the general consumer
market, other than high-end products, particularly for the racing/performance market. Late
model Corvettes have been available with titanium exhausts.[58]
Titanium is used in many sporting goods: tennis rackets, golf
clubs, lacrosse stick shafts; cricket, hockey, lacrosse, and
football helmet grills; and bicycle frames and components.[10]
[59]
Titanium alloys are also used in spectacle frames.[60] This
results in a rather expensive, but highly durable and long
lasting frame which is light in weight and causes no skin
allergies. Many backpackers use titanium equipment, including
cookware, eating utensils, lanterns, and tent stakes.[60] Though
slightly more expensive than traditional steel or aluminium
alternatives, these titanium products can be significantly
lighter without compromising strength. Titanium is also favored
for use by farriers, since it is lighter and more durable than
steel when formed into horseshoes.[60]
The Guggenheim Museum
Bilbao is sheathed in Because of its durability, titanium has become more popular for
titanium panels.
designer jewelry.[60] Its inertness makes it a good choice for
those with allergies or those who will be wearing the jewelry in
environments such as swimming pools. Titanium's durability, light weight, dent- and
corrosion- resistance makes it useful in the production of watch cases.[60]
A number of artists work with titanium to produce artworks such as sculptures, decorative
objects and furniture.
Titanium has occasionally been used in architectural applications: the 40 m (120 foot)
memorial to Yuri Gagarin, the first man to travel in space, in Moscow, is made of titanium
for the metal's attractive color and association with rocketry.[61] The Guggenheim Museum
Bilbao and the Cerritos Millennium Library were the first buildings in Europe and North
America, respectively, to be sheathed in titanium panels.[50] Other construction uses of
titanium sheathing include the Frederic C. Hamilton Building in Denver, Colorado[62] and
Titanium 11
the 107 m (350 foot) Monument to the Conquerors of Space in Moscow.[63]

Due to its superior strength and light weight when compared to other metals traditionally
used in firearms (steel, stainless steel, and aluminium), and advances in metal-working
techniques, the use of titanium has become more widespread in the manufacture of
firearms. Primary uses include pistol frames and revolver cylinders.
For these same reasons, it is also used in the body of laptop computers (for example, in
Apple's PowerBook line).
Medical
Because it is biocompatible (non-toxic and is not
rejected by the body), titanium is used in a gamut of
medical applications including surgical implements and
implants, such as hip balls and sockets (joint
replacement) that can stay in place for up to 20
years.[28] Titanium has the inherent property to
osseointegrate, enabling use in dental implants that can
remain in place for over 30 years.[28] This property is
also useful for orthopedic implant applications.[28]
This left lateral cephalametric
Since titanium is non-ferromagnetic, patients with radiograph shows a profile of the
titanium implants can be safely examined with human skull. A fracture of the eye
socket was repaired by stabilizing the
magnetic resonance imaging (convenient for long-term
fractured bones with small titanium
implants). Preparing titanium for implantation in the plates and screws.
body involves subjecting it to a high-temperature
plasma arc which removes the surface atoms, exposing fresh titanium that is instantly
oxidized.[28] Titanium is also used for the surgical instruments used in image-guided
surgery, as well as wheelchairs, crutches, and any other products where high strength and
low weight are desirable.
Its inertness and ability to be attractively colored makes it a popular metal for use in body
piercing.[64] Titanium may be anodized to produce various colors.[65]
Precautions
Titanium is non-toxic even in large doses and does not
play any natural role inside the human body.[27] An
estimated 0.8 milligrams of titanium is ingested by
humans each day but most passes through without
being absorbed.[27] It does, however, have a tendency
to bio-accumulate in tissues that contain silica. An
unknown mechanism in plants may use titanium to
stimulate the production of carbohydrates and
encourage growth. This may explain why most plants
Nettle contains up to 80 parts per
contain about 1 part per million (ppm) of titanium, food
million of titanium
plants have about 2 ppm, and horsetail and nettle
contain up to 80 ppm.[27]
Titanium 12
As a powder or in the form of metal shavings, titanium metal poses a significant fire hazard
and, when heated in air, an explosion hazard.[66] Water and carbon dioxide-based methods
to extinguish fires are ineffective on burning titanium; Class D dry powder fire fighting
agents must be used instead.[4]
When used in the production or handling of chlorine, care must be taken to use titanium
only in locations where it will not be exposed to dry chlorine gas which can result in a
titanium/chlorine fire.[67] A fire hazard exists even when titanium is used in wet chlorine
due to possible unexpected drying brought about by extreme weather conditions.
Titanium can catch fire when a fresh, non-oxidized surface comes in contact with liquid
oxygen.[68] Such surfaces can appear when the oxidized surface is struck with a hard
object, or when a mechanical strain causes the emergence of a crack. This poses the
possible limitation for its use in liquid oxygen systems, such as those found in the aerospace
industry.
See also
• Titanium alloy
• Titanium coating
• Titanium compounds
• Titanium in Africa
• Titanium minerals
• VSMPO-AVISMA
• Titanium Metals Corporation
References
[1] N. Andersson et al. "Emission spectra of TiH and TiD near 938 nm" J. Chem. Phys. 118 (2003) 10543 (http:/ /
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Titanium 13
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Titanium 14
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Titanium 15
• Stwertka, Albert (1998). Guide to the Elements (Revised Edition). Oxford: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-508083-1.
• Winter, Mark (2006). " Chemistry: Periodic table: Titanium (http:/ / www. webelements.
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Bibliography
• Barksdale, Jelks (1968). "Titanium". in Clifford A. Hampel (editor). The Encyclopedia of
the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 732–738. LCCN
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• CRC contributors (2006). David R. Lide (editor). ed. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
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• Emsley, John (2001). "Titanium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements.
• Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.
External links
• A Cleaner, Cheaper Route to Titanium (http:/ / www. techreview. com/ read_article.
aspx?id=16963& ch=nanotech)
• International Titanium Association (http:/ / www. titanium. org)
• Metallurgy of Titanium and its Alloys, Cambridge University (http:/ / www. msm. cam. ac.
uk/ phase-trans/ 2003/ titanium. movies/ titanium. html)
• World Production of Titanium Concentrates, by Country (http:/ / www. indexmundi. com/
en/ commodities/ minerals/ titanium/ titanium_table15. html)
• Truth in Sparks: Titanium or Plain Ol' Steel? (http:/ / www. popsci. com/ popsci/ how20/
85f145ef7d2f6110vgnvcm1000004eecbccdrcrd. html) Popular Science Magazine

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Vanadium 1
Vanadium
titanium ← vanadium → chromium -
↑
V
↓
Nb

23V
Periodic table
Appearance blue-silver-grey metal

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 2101 2289 2523 2814 3187 3679

Vanadium 2

(more) 2nd: 1414 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 2830 kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radius Miscellaneous
Crystal structureMagnetic orderingElectrical resistivityThermal conductivityThermal
ratioMohs hardnessCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of
vanadium
48 syn 15.9735 d 4.0123

ε+β+ 48
V Ti
49 syn 330 d ε 0.6019 49

V Ti
50 0.25% ε 2.2083
1.5×1017y 50
V Ti
1.0369
β− 50
Cr
51 99.75% 51
V V is stable with 28 neutron
vanadium, V, 23 transition metal5, 4, d50.9415(1) g·mol−1 [Ar] 3d3 4s2 2, 8, 11, 2 (Image)
solid 6.0 g·cm−3 5.5 g·cm−3 2183 K,1910 °C,3470 °F 3680 K,3407 °C,6165 °F 21.5 kJ·mol−1
459 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 24.89 J·mol−1·K−15, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1
(amphoteric oxide) 1.63 (Pauling scale) 1st: 650.9 kJ·mol−1134 pm153±8 pm body-centered
cubic paramagnetic (20 °C) 197 nΩ·m (300 K) 30.7 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 8.4 µm·m−1·K−1 (20
°C) 4560 m/s 128 GPa 47 GPa 160 GPa 0.37 6.7 7440-62-2
Vanadium (pronounced /vəˈneɪdiəm/) is the chemical element with the symbol V and
atomic number 23. It is a soft, silvery grey, ductile transition metal. The formation of an
oxide layer stabilizes the metal against oxidation. Andrés Manuel del Río discovered
vanadium in 1801 by analyzing the mineral vanadinite, and named it erythronium. Four
years later, however, he was convinced by other scientists that erythronium was identical to
chromium. The element was rediscovered in 1831 by Nils Gabriel Sefström, who named it
vanadium after the Norse goddess of beauty and fertility, Vanadis (Freya). Both names were
attributed to the wide range of colors found in vanadium compounds.
The element occurs naturally in about 65 different minerals and in fossil fuel deposits. It is
produced in China and Russia from steel smelter slag; other countries produce it either
from the flue dust of heavy oil, or as a byproduct of uranium mining. It is mainly used to
produce specialty steel alloys such as high speed tool steels. The compound vanadium
pentoxide is used as a catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid. Vanadium is found in
many organisms, and is used by some life forms as an active center of enzymes.
History
Vanadium was originally discovered by Andrés Manuel del Río, a Spanish-born Mexican
mineralogist, in 1801. Del Río extracted the element from a sample of Mexican "brown
lead" ore, later named vanadinite. He found that its salts exhibit a wide variety of colors,
and as a result he named the element panchromium (Greek: all colors). Later, Del Río
renamed the element erythronium as most of its salts turned red upon heating. In 1805, the
French chemist Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils, backed by del Río's friend, Baron
Alexander von Humboldt, incorrectly declared that del Río's new element was only an
impure sample of chromium. Del Río accepted the Collet-Descotils' statement, and
retracted his claim.[1]
Vanadium 3
In 1831, the Swedish chemist, Nils Gabriel Sefström, rediscovered the element in a new
oxide he found while working with iron ores. Later that same year, Friedrich Wöhler
confirmed del Río's earlier work.[2] Sefström choose a name beginning with V, which had
not been assigned to any element yet. He called the element vanadium after Vanadis
(another name for Freya, the Norse goddess of beauty and fertility), because of the many
beautifully colored chemical compounds it produces.[2] In 1831, the geologist George
William Featherstonhaugh suggested that vanadium should be renamed "rionium" after del
Río, but this suggestion was not followed.[3]
The isolation of vanadium metal proved difficult. In
1831, Berzelius reported the production of the metal,
but Henry Enfield Roscoe showed that Berzelius had in
fact produced the nitride, vanadium nitride (VN).
Roscoe eventually produced the metal in 1867 by
reduction of vanadium(III) chloride, VCl3, with
hydrogen.[4] In 1927, pure vanadium was produced by
reducing vanadium pentoxide with calcium.[5] The first
large scale industrial use of vanadium in steels was
1910 Model T found in the chassis of the Ford Model T, inspired by
French race cars. Vanadium steel allowed for reduced
weight while simultaneously increasing tensile strength.[6]
Characteristics
Vanadium is a soft, ductile, silver-grey metal. It has good resistance to corrosion and it is
stable against alkalis, sulfuric and hydrochloric acids.[7] It is oxidized in air at about 933 K
(660 °C, 1220 °F), although an oxide layer forms even at room temperature.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring vanadium is composed of one stable isotope 51V and one radioactive
isotope 50V. The latter has a half-life of 1.5×1017 years and a natural abundance 0.25%. 51V
has a nuclear spin of 7/2 which is useful for NMR spectroscopy.[8] A number of 24 artificial
radioisotopes have been characterized, ranging in mass number from 40 to 65. The most
stable of these isotopes are 49V with a half-life of 330 days, and 48V with a half-life of
15.9735 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives shorter than an hour,
most of which are below 10 seconds. At least 4 isotopes have metastable excited states.[8]
Electron capture is the main decay mode for isotopes lighter than the 51V. For the heavier
ones, the most common mode is beta decay. The electron capture reactions lead to the
formation of element 22 (titanium) isotopes, while for beta decay, it leads to element 24
(chromium) isotopes.
Vanadium 4
Chemistry and compounds

The chemistry of vanadium is noteworthy for the accessibility of
four adjacent oxidation states. The common oxidation states of
vanadium are +2 (lilac), +3 (green), +4 (blue) and +5 (yellow).
Vanadium(II) compounds are reducing agents, and vanadium(V)
compounds are oxidizing agents. Vanadium(IV) compounds
often exist as vanadyl derivatives which contain the VO2+
center.[7]
Vanadium(V) oxide is a
catalyst in the Contact
process for producing
sulfuric acid
Ammonium vanadate(V) (NH VO ) can be successively

4 3
reduced with elemental zinc to obtain the different
colors of vanadium in these four oxidation states. Lower
oxidation states occur in compounds such as
V(CO)6,[V(CO)6]- and substituted derivatives.[7]
The vanadium redox battery utilizes these oxidation
states; conversions of these oxidation states is
illustrated by the reduction of a strongly acidic solution
of a vanadium(V) compound with zinc dust. The initial
yellow color characteristic of the vanadate ion, VO4, is
replaced by the blue color of [VO(H2O)5]2+, followed by
the green color of [V(H2O)6]3+ and then violet, due to
[V(H2O)6]2+.[7]
The most commercially important compound is

vanadium pentoxide, which is used as a catalyst for the
production of sulfuric acid.[7] This compound oxidizes
Metavanadate chains
sulfur dioxide (SO2) to the trioxide (SO3). In this redox
reaction, sulfur is oxidized from +4 to +6, and
vanadium is reduced from +5 to +3:
V2O5 + 2 SO2 → V2O3 + 2 SO3

The catalyst is regenerated by oxidation with air:
V2O3 + O2 → V2O5
Vanadium 5
Oxy and oxo compounds
The oxyanion chemistry of vanadium(V) is complex. The

vanadate ion, VO4, is present in dilute solutions at high
pH. On acidification, HVO4 and H2VO4 are formed,
analogous to HPO4 and H2PO4. The acid dissociation
constants for the vanadium and phosphorus series are
remarkably similar. In more concentrated solutions
many polyvanadates are formed. Chains, rings and
clusters involving tetrahedral vanadium, analogous to
the polyphosphates, are known. In addition, clusters
The Pourbaix diagram for vanadium in
[9] such as the decavanadates V10O28 and HV10O28, which
water.
predominate at pH 4-6, are formed in which compound
[7]
is octahedral about vanadium.
The correspondence between vanadate and phosphate chemistry can be attributed to the
similarity in size and charge of phosphorus(V) and vanadium(V). Orthovanadate VO4 is used
in protein crystallography[10] to study the biochemistry of phosphate.[11]
Halide compounds
Several halides are known for oxidation states +2, +3 and +4. VCl4 is the most important
commercially. This liquid is mainly used as a catalyst for polymerization of dienes.
Coordination compounds
Vanadium's early position in the transition metal series

lead to three rather unusual features of the
coordination chemistry of vanadium. Firstly, metallic
vanadium has the electronic configuration [Ar]4s23d3,
so compounds of vanadium are relatively electron-poor.
Consequently, most binary compounds are Lewis acids
(electron pair acceptors); examples are all the halides
forming octahedral adducts with the formula VXnL6-n (X
= halide; L = other ligand). Secondly, the vanadium ion A ball-and-stick model of VO(acac)2
is rather large and can achieve coordination numbers

higher than 6, as is the case in [V(CN)7]4−. Thirdly, the vanadyl ion, VO2+, is featured in
many complexes of vanadium(IV) such as vanadyl acetylacetonate (V(=O)(acac)2). In this
complex, the vanadium is 5-coordinate, square pyramidal, meaning that a sixth ligand, such
as pyridine, may be attached, though the association constant of this process is small. Many
5-coordinate vanadyl complexes have a trigonal bypyramidal geometry, such as
VOCl2(NMe3)2.[12]
Organometallic compounds
Organometallic chemistry of vanadium is well developed, but organometallic compounds
are of minor commercial significance. Vanadocene dichloride is a versatile starting reagent
and even finds minor applications in organic chemistry.[13] Vanadium carbonyl, V(CO)6, is a
rare example of a metal carbonyl containing an unpaired electron, but which exists without
dimerization. The addition of an electron yields V(CO)6 (isoelectronic with Cr(CO)6), which
may be further reduced with sodium in liquid ammonia to yield V(CO)6 (isoelectronic with
Vanadium 6
Fe(CO)5).[14] [15]
Occurrence
Metallic vanadium is not found in nature, but is known
to exist in about 65 different minerals. Economically
significant examples include patronite (VS4),[16]
vanadinite (Pb5(VO4)3Cl), and carnotite
(K2(UO2)2(VO4)2·3H2O). Much of the world's vanadium
production is sourced from vanadium-bearing
magnetite found in ultramafic gabbro bodies. Vanadium
is mined mostly in South Africa, north-western China,
Vanadinite
and eastern Russia. In 2007 these three countries
mined more than 95 % of the 58,600 tonnes of
produced vanadium.[17]
Vanadium is also present in bauxite and in fossil fuel deposits such as crude oil, coal, oil
shale and tar sands. In crude oil, concentrations up to 1200 ppm have been reported. When
such oil products are burned, the traces of vanadium may initiate corrosion in motors and
boilers.[18] An estimated 110,000 tonnes of vanadium per year are released into the
atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.[19] Vanadium has also been detected spectroscopically
in light from the Sun and some other stars.[20]
Production
Most vanadium is used as ferrovanadium as an additive to improve steels. Ferrovanadium is
produced directly by reducing a mixture of vanadium oxide, iron oxides and iron in an
electric furnace. Vanadium-bearing magnetite iron ore is the main source for the
production of vanadium.[21] The vanadium ends up in pig iron produced from vanadium
bearing magnetite. During steel production, oxygen is blown into the pig iron, oxidizing the
carbon and most of the other impurities, forming slag. Depending on the used ore, the slag
contains up to 25% of vanadium.[21]
Vanadium metal is obtained via a multistep process that begins with the roasting of crushed
ore with NaCl or Na2CO3 at about 850 °C to give sodium metavanadate (NaVO3). An
aqueous extract of this solid is acidified to give "red cake", a polyvanadate salt, which is
reduced with calcium metal. As an alternative for small scale production, vanadium
pentoxide is reduced with hydrogen or magnesium. Many other methods are also in use, in
all of which vanadium is produced as a byproduct of other processes.[21] Purification of
vanadium is possible by the crystal bar process developed by Anton Eduard van Arkel and
Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925. It involves the formation of the metal iodide, in this example
vanadium(III) iodide, and the subsequent decomposition to yield pure metal.[22]
2 V + 3 I2 2 VI3
Vanadium 7
Applications
Alloys
Approximately 85% of vanadium produced is used as
ferrovanadium or as a steel additive.[21] The
considerable increase of strength in steel containing
small amounts of vanadium was discovered in the
beginning of 20th century,[23] and from that time
vanadium steel was used for applications in axles,
bicycle frames, crankshafts, gears, and other critical
components. Vanadium forms stable nitrides and
carbides, resulting in a significant increase in the
strength of the steel. There are two groups of vanadium
Tool made from vanadium steel
containing steel alloy groups. Vanadium high-carbon
steel alloys containing 0.15 to 0.25 percent vanadium
and high speed tool steels (HSS) with a vanadium
content ranges from 1 % to 5 %. For high speed tool
steels, a hardness above HRC 60 can be achieved. HSS
steel is used in surgical instruments and tools.[24]
Vanadium stabilizes the beta form of titanium and

increases the strength and temperature stability of
titanium. Mixed with aluminium in titanium alloys it is
used in jet engines and high-speed airframes. One of
the common alloys is Ti 6Al 4V a titanium alloy with 6%
aluminium and 4% vanadium.[25]
Other uses
Vanadium is compatible with iron and titanium,
Vanadium therefore vanadium foil is used in cladding titanium to
steel.[26] The moderate thermal neutron-capture
cross-section and the short half-life of the isotopes produced by neutron capture makes
vanadium a suitable material for the inner structure of a fusion reactor.[27] [28] Several
vanadium alloys show superconducting behaviour. The first A15 phase superconductor was
a vanadium compound, V3Si, which was discovered in 1952.[29] Vanadium-gallium tape is
used in superconducting magnets (17.5 teslas or 175,000 gauss). The structure of the
superconducting A15 phase of V3Ga is similar to that of the more common Nb3Sn and
Nb3Ti.[30]
The most common oxide of vanadium Vanadium pentoxide, V2O5, is used as a catalyst in
manufacturing sulfuric acid by the contact process[31] and as an oxidizer in maleic
anhydride production.[32] Vanadium pentoxide is also used in making ceramics.[33] Another
oxide of vanadium, vanadium dioxide VO2, is used in the production of glass coatings, which
blocks infrared radiation (and not visible light) at a specific temperature.[34] Vanadium
oxide can be used to induce color centers in corundum to create simulated alexandrite
jewelry, although alexandrite in nature is a chrysoberyl.[35] The possibility to use vanadium
redox couples in both half-cells, thereby eliminating the problem of cross contamination by
Vanadium 8
diffusion of ions across the membrane is the advantage of vanadium redox rechargeable
batteries.[36] Vanadate can be used for protecting steel against rust and corrosion by
electrochemical conversion coating.[37] Lithium vanadium oxide has been proposed for use
as a high energy density anode for lithium ion batteries, at 745 Wh/l when paired with a
lithium cobalt oxide cathode.[38] It has been proposed by some researchers that a small
amount, 40 to 270 ppm, of vanadium in Wootz steel and Damascus steel, significantly
improves the strength of the material, although it is unclear what the source of the
vanadium was.[39]
Biological role
Vanadium plays a very limited role in biology. A
vanadium-containing nitrogenase is used by some
nitrogen-fixing micro-organisms. Vanadium is essential
to ascidians or sea squirts in vanadium chromagen
proteins. The concentration of vanadium in their blood
is more than 100 times higher than the concentration of
vanadium in the seawater around them. Rats and
chickens are also known to require vanadium in very
small amounts and deficiencies result in reduced
Ascidiacea contain vanadium.
growth and impaired reproduction.[40] Vanadium is a
relatively controversial dietary supplement, primarily
for increasing insulin sensitivity[41] and body-building.
Whether it works for the latter purpose has not been
proven, and there is some evidence that athletes who
take it are merely experiencing a placebo effect.[42]
Vanadyl sulfate may improve glucose control in people
with type 2 diabetes.[43] [44] [45] [46] [47] . In addition,
decavanadate and oxovanadates are species that
potentially have many biological activities and that have
been successfully used as tools in the comprehension of
Amanita muscaria contains amavadin. several biochemical processes.[48]
Ten percent of the blood cell pigment of the sea cucumber is vanadium. Just as the
horseshoe crab has blue blood due to copper in hemocyanin, and land animals have red
blood from the iron in hemoglobin, the blood of the sea cucumber is yellow because of the
vanadium in the vanabin pigment.[49] Nonetheless, there is no evidence that vanabins carry
oxygen, in contrast to hemoglobin and hemocyanin.[50] Several species of macrofungi,
namely Amanita muscaria and related species, accumulate vanadium (up to 500 mg/kg in
dry weight). Vanadium is present in the coordination complex, amavadin,[51] in fungal
fruit-bodies. However, the biological importance of the accumulation process is
unknown.[52] [53]
Vanadium 9
Safety
All vanadium compounds should be considered to be toxic. Tetravalent VOSO4 has been
reported to be over 5 times more toxic than trivalent V2O3.[54] The Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) has set an exposure limit of 0.05 mg/m3 for vanadium
pentoxide dust and 0.1 mg/m3 for vanadium pentoxide fumes in workplace air for an 8-hour
workday, 40-hour work week.[55] The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) has recommended that 35 mg/m3 of vanadium be considered immediately
dangerous to life and health. This is the exposure level of a chemical that is likely to cause
permanent health problems or death.[55]
Vanadium compounds are poorly absorbed through the gastrointestinal system. Inhalation
exposures to vanadium and vanadium compounds result primarily in adverse effects on the
respiratory system.[56] [57] [58] Quantitative data are, however, insufficient to derive a
subchronic or chronic inhalation reference dose. Other effects have been reported after
oral or inhalation exposures on blood parameters,[59] [60] on liver,[61] on neurological
development in rats,[62] and other organs.[63]
There is little evidence that vanadium or vanadium compounds are reproductive toxins or
teratogens. Vanadium pentoxide was reported to be carcinogenic in male rats and male and
female mice by inhalation in an NTP study,[64] although the interpretation of the results has
recently been disputed.[65] Vanadium has not been classified as to carcinogenicity by the
U.S. EPA.[66]
External links
• The periodic table of videos [67] videos of the chemistry of the elements
• WebElements.com – Vanadium [68]
• ATSDR – ToxFAQs: Vanadium [69]
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[5] Marden, J. W.; Rich, M. N. (1927). "Vanadium". Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 19: 786. doi:
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[10] Sinning, Irmgard (2004). "The power of vanadate in crystallographic investigations of phosphoryl transfer
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Vanadium 10
2004. 10. 022).

[11] Seargeant, Lorne E.; Stinson, Robert A. (1979). " Inhibition of Human Alkaline Phosphatases by Vanadate
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1107/ S0567740879003332).
[15] Elschenbroich, C.; Salzer A. (1992). Organometallics : A Concise Introduction. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527281657.
[16] " mineralogical data about Patrónite (http:/ / www. mindat. org/ min-3131. html)". mindata.org. . Retrieved
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[17] Magyar, Michael J.. " Mineral Commodity Summaries 2008: Vanadium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/
pubs/ commodity/ vanadium/ mcs-2008-vanad. pdf)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2009-01-15.
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sheet with titanium protective layer (review of foreign literature)". Chemical and Petroleum Engineering 2 (12):
[27] Matsui, H.; Fukumoto, K.; Smith, D. L.; Chung, Hee M.; Witzenburg, W. van; Votinov, S. N. (1996). "Status of
vanadium alloys for fusion reactors". Journal of Nuclear Materials 233–237 (1): 92–99. doi:
10.1016/S0022-3115(96)00331-5 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0022-3115(96)00331-5).
[28] " Vanadium Data Sheet (http:/ / www. wahchang. com/ pages/ products/ data/ pdf/ Vanadium. pdf)". Allegheny
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[29] Hardy, George F.; Hulm, John K. (1953). "Superconducting Silicides and Germanides". Physical Reviews 89:
[30] Markiewicz, W.; Mains, E.; Vankeuren, R.; Wilcox, R.; Rosner, C.; Inoue, H.; Hayashi, C.; Tachikawa, K.
(1977). "A 17.5 Tesla superconducting concentric Nb3Sn and V3Ga magnet system". IEEE Transactions on
Magnetics 13 (1): 35–37. doi: 10.1109/TMAG.1977.1059431 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ TMAG. 1977.
1059431).
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(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1006/ jcat. 1995. 1185).
[32] Abon, Michel; Volta, Jean-Claude (1997). "Vanadium phosphorus oxides for n-butane oxidation to maleic
anhydride". Applied Catalysis A: General 157: 173–193. doi: 10.1016/S0926-860X(97)00016-1 (http:/ / dx. doi.
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Vanadium 11
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(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0026-0495(00)90418-9).
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Complement Med. 5: 273–291. doi: 10.1089/acm.1999.5.273 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1089/ acm. 1999. 5. 273).
[47] Goldwaser, I, et al. (1999). "L-Glutamic Acid gamma -Monohydroxamate. A Potentiator of Vanadium-Evoked
Glucose Metabolism in vitro and in vivo". J Biol Chem 274: 26617–26624. doi: 10.1074/jbc.274.37.26617 (http:/
/ dx. doi. org/ 10. 1074/ jbc. 274. 37. 26617). PMID 10473627.
[48] Aureliano, Manuel; Crans, Debbie C. (2009). "Decavanadate and oxovanadates: Oxometalates with many
biological activities". Journal Inorganic Biochemistry 103: 536–546. doi: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2008.11010 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. jinorgbio. 2008. 11010).
[49] Natkin, Michael (2007). " Blood Color (http:/ / www. soak. com/ topic/ sciencefacts/ article/ tshow/ 98556/
blood+ color)". Science Facts. Soak (Source Of All Knowledge). . Retrieved 2007-11-16.
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[51] Kneifel, Helmut; Bayer, Ernst (1997). "Determination of the Structure of the Vanadium Compound,
Amavadine, from Fly Agaric". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English 12 (6): 508. ISSN
10.1002/anie.197305081 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 10. 1002/ anie. 197305081).
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elements in fly agaric Amanita muscaria". Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A 42 (11):
1615–1623. doi: 10.1080/10934520701517853 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 10934520701517853).
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Garner, David (1999). "The Structural Characterization of Amavadin". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 38 (6): 795–797.
doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19990315)38:6<795::AID-ANIE795>3.0.CO;2-7 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/
(SICI)1521-3773(19990315)38:6<795::AID-ANIE795>3. 0. CO;2-7).
[54] Roschin, A. V. (1967). "Toxicology of vanadium compounds used in modern industry". Gig Sanit. (Water Res.)
32: 26–32.
Vanadium 12
[55] " Occupational Safety and Health Guidelines for Vanadium Pentoxide (http:/ / www. osha. gov/ SLTC/
healthguidelines/ vanadiumpentoxidedust/ recognition. html)". Occupational Safety and Health Administration. .
[56] Sax, N. I. (1984). Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 6th ed.. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
pp. 2717–2720.
[57] N. B. Ress, B. J. Chou, R. A. Renne, J. A. Dill, R. A. Miller, J. H. Roycroft, J. R. Hailey, J. K. Haseman and J. R.
Bucher (2003). "Carcinogenicity of Inhaled Vanadium Pentoxide in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice".
Toxicological Sciences 74: 2876–296. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfg136 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ toxsci/ kfg136).
PMID 12773761.
[58] Jörg M. Wörle-Knirsch, Katrin Kern, Carsten Schleh, Christel Adelhelm, Claus Feldmann, and Harald F. Krug
(2007). "Nanoparticulate Vanadium Oxide Potentiated Vanadium Toxicity in Human Lung Cells". Environ. Sci.
Technol. 41: 331–336. doi: 10.1021/es061140x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ es061140x).
[59] Ścibior, A.; Zaporowska, H.; Ostrowski, J. (2006). "Selected haematological and biochemical parameters of
blood in rats after subchronic administration of vanadium and/or magnesium in drinking water". Archives of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 51 (2): 287–295. doi: 10.1007/s00244-005-0126-4 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1007/ s00244-005-0126-4).
[60] Gonzalez-Villalva, A.; et al. (2006). "Thrombocytosis induced in mice after subacute and subchronic V2O5
inhalation". Toxicology and Industrial Health 22 (3): 113–116. doi: 10.1191/0748233706th250oa (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1191/ 0748233706th250oa). PMID 16716040.
[61] Kazuo Kobayashia, Seiichiro Himeno, Masahiko Satoh, Junji Kuroda, Nobuo Shibata, Yoshiyuki Seko and
Tatsuya Hasegawa (2006,). "Pentavalent vanadium induces hepatic metallothionein through
interleukin-6-dependent and -independent mechanisms". Toxicology 228: 162–170. doi:
10.1016/j.tox.2006.08.022 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. tox. 2006. 08. 022).
[62] Soazo, Marina; Garcia, Graciela Beatriz (2007). "Vanadium exposure through lactation produces behavioral
alterations and CNS myelin deficit in neonatal rats". Neurotoxicology and Teratology 29 (4): 503–510. doi:
10.1016/j.ntt.2007.03.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. ntt. 2007. 03. 001).
[63] Barceloux, Donald G.; Barceloux, Donald (1999). "Vanadium". Clinical Toxicology 37 (2): 265–278. doi:
10.1081/CLT-100102425 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1081/ CLT-100102425).
[64] Ress, N. B.; et al. (2003). "Carcinogenicity of inhaled vanadium pentoxide in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice".
Toxicological Sciences 74 (2): 287–296. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfg136 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ toxsci/
kfg136). PMID 12773761.
[65] Duffus, J. H. (2007). "Carcinogenicity classification of vanadium pentoxide and inorganic vanadium
compounds, the NTP study of carcinogenicity of inhaled vanadium pentoxide, and vanadium chemistry".
Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 47 (1): 110–114. doi: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2006.08.006 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1016/ j. yrtph. 2006. 08. 006).
[66] Opreskos, Dennis M. (1991). " Toxicity Summary for Vanadium (http:/ / rais. ornl. gov/ tox/ profiles/ old/
vanadium_f_V1. htm)". Oak Ridge National Laboratory. . Retrieved 2008-11-08.
[67] http:/ / www. periodicvideos. com/
[68] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ V/ index. html
[69] http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ tfacts58. html

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License
Chromium 1
Chromium
vanadium ← chromium → manganese -
↑
Cr
↓
Mo

24Cr
Periodic table
Appearance silvery metallic

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1656 1807 1991 2223 2530 2942

Chromium 2

(more) 2nd: 1590.6 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 2987 kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radius
registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of chromium
50 4.345% εε -
> 1.8×1017y 50
Cr Ti
51 syn 27.7025 d ε - 51
Cr V
γ 0.320 -
52 83.789% 52
Cr Cr is stable with 28 neutron
53 9.501% 53
54 2.365% 54
chromium, Cr, 24 transition metal6, 4, d51.9961(6) g·mol−1 [Ar] 3d5 4s1 2, 8, 13, 1 (Image)
kJ·mol−1 339.5 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 23.35 J·mol−1·K−16, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1, -2
(strongly acidic oxide) 1.66 (Pauling scale) 1st: 652.9 kJ·mol−1128 pm139±5 pm
body-centered cubic AFM (rather: SDW[1] ) (20 °C) 125 nΩ·m (300 K) 93.9 W·m−1·K−1 (25
°C) 4.9 µm·m−1·K−1 (20 °C) 5940 m/s 279 GPa 115 GPa 160 GPa 0.21 8.5 1060 MPa 1120
MPa 7440-47-3
Chromium (pronounced /ˈkroʊmiəm/) is a chemical element which has the symbol Cr and
atomic number 24. It is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard metal that takes a high polish and has
a high melting point. It is also odourless, tasteless, and malleable. The name of the element
is derived from the Greek word "chrōma" (χρωμα), meaning color, because many of its
compounds are intensely colored. It was discovered by Louis Nicolas Vauquelin in the
mineral crocoite (lead chromate) in 1797. Crocoite was used as a pigment, and after the
discovery that the mineral chromite also contains chromium this latter mineral was used to
produce pigments as well.
Chromium was regarded with great interest because of its high corrosion resistance and
hardness. A major development was the discovery that steel could be made highly resistant
to corrosion and discoloration by adding chromium and nickel to form stainless steel. This
application, along with chrome plating (electroplating with chromium) are currently the
highest-volume uses of the metal. Chromium and ferrochromium are produced from the
single commercially viable ore, chromite, by silicothermic or aluminothermic reaction or by
roasting and leaching processes. Although trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) is required in trace
amounts for sugar and lipid metabolism in humans and its deficiency may cause a disease
called chromium deficiency, hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is toxic and carcinogenic, so that
abandoned chromium production sites need environmental cleanup.
Chromium 3
Characteristics
Occurrence
Chromium is the 21st most abundant element in Earth's crust with an average
concentration of 100 ppm.[2] Chromium compounds are found in the environment, due to
erosion of chromium-containing rocks and can be distributed by volcanic eruptions. The
concentrations range in soil is between 1 and 3000 mg/kg, in sea water 5 to 800 µg/liter,
and in rivers and lakes 26 µg/liter to 5.2 mg/liter.[3] The relation between Cr(III) and Cr(VI)
strongly depends on pH and oxidative properties of the location, but in most cases, the
Cr(III) is the dominating species,[3] although in some areas the ground water can contain up
to 39 µg of total chromium of which 30 µg is present as Cr(VI).[4]
Chromium is mined as chromite (FeCr2O4) ore.[5] About
two-fifths of the chromite ores and concentrates in the
world are produced in South Africa, while Kazakhstan,
India, Russia, and Turkey are also substantial
producers. Untapped chromite deposits are plentiful,
but geographically concentrated in Kazakhstan and
southern Africa.[6]
Though native chromium deposits are rare, some native

chromium metal has been discovered.[7] [8] The
Chromite ore Udachnaya Pipe in Russia produces samples of the
native metal. This mine is a kimberlite pipe rich in
diamonds, and the reducing environment helped produce both elemental chromium and
diamond.[9]
Isotopes
Naturally occurring chromium is composed of three stable isotopes; 52Cr, 53Cr and 54Cr
with 52Cr being the most abundant (83.789% natural abundance). Nineteen radioisotopes
have been characterized with the most stable being 50Cr with a half-life of (more than)
1.8x1017 years, and 51Cr with a half-life of 27.7 days. All of the remaining radioactive
isotopes have half-lives that are less than 24 hours and the majority of these have half-lives
that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 2 meta states.[10]
53
Cr is the radiogenic decay product of 53Mn. Chromium isotopic contents are typically
combined with manganese isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology.
Mn-Cr isotope ratios reinforce the evidence from 26Al and 107Pd for the early history of the
solar system. Variations in 53Cr/52Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an
initial 53Mn/55Mn ratio that suggests Mn-Cr isotopic composition must result from in-situ
decay of 53Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence 53Cr provides additional evidence
for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the solar system.[11]
The isotopes of chromium range in atomic mass from 43 u (43Cr) to 67 u (67Cr). The
primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 52Cr, is electron capture and
the primary mode after is beta decay.[10]
Chromium 4
Chemistry
Oxidation states
[12] [13]
of chromium
−2 Na2[Cr(CO)5]
−1 Na2[Cr2(CO)10]
0 Cr(C6H6)2
+1 K3[Cr(CN)5NO]
+2 CrCl2
+3 CrCl3
+4 K2CrF6
+5 K3CrO8
+6 K2CrO4
Chromium is a member of the transition metals, in group 6. Chromium(0) has an electronic

configuration of 4s13d5, due to the lower energy of the high spin configuration. Chromium
exhibits a wide range of possible oxidation states. The most common oxidation states of
chromium are +2, +3, and +6, with +3 being the most stable. +1, +4 and +5 are rare.
Chromium compounds of oxidation state +6
are powerful oxidants. All (except the
hexafluoride and chromium hexacarbonyl)
stable chromium compounds of the oxidation
state +6 contain oxygen as ligand, for
example the chromate (CrO42-) and Chromyl
chloride (CrO2Cl2).[15]

The oxidation state 3+ is the most stable one
and therefore a large number of
The Pourbaix diagram for chromium in pure water,
[3] [14] chromium(III) compounds is known.
perchloric acid or sodium hydroxide
Chromium(III) can be obtained by dissolving
chromium in acids like hydrochloric acid or
sulfuric acid. The aluminium(III) (ion radius 0.50 Å) and chromium(III) (ion radius 0.63 Å)
can replace each other in some compounds, for example chrome alum and alum. Another
example is aluminium oxide (corundum, Al2O3) where by replacement, the red colored ruby
is formed.
Chromium 5
Chromium tends to form complexes, for example with

water molecules (hydrates); the chromium ions in water
are usually octahedrally coordinated. The commercially
available chromium(III) chloride hydrate is the dark
green complex [CrCl2(H2O)4]Cl, but two other forms
are known, viz., pale green [CrCl(H2O)5]Cl2 and violet
[Cr(H2O)6]Cl3. If water-free green chromium(III)
chloride is dissolved in water then the green solution
turn violet after some time. This color change is due to
the substitution of water for chloride in the inner
coordination sphere. This kind of reactions is also
Chromium(III) chloride hexahydrate
observed in chrome alum solutions and some other
([CrCl2(H2O)4]Cl•2H2O)
water soluble chromium(III) salts, and the reverse
reaction can be induced by heating the solution. The
chromium(III) hydroxide Cr(OH)3 shows amphoteric reactions and dissolves in acid water
by forming [Cr(H2O)6]3+ and in basic water by forming [Cr(OH)6]3-. By heating the
chromium(III) hydroxide it is transformed into the green chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3),
which is the stable oxide (melting point of 2275 °C) with the crystal structure identical to
that of corundum.[15]
The second stable oxidation state is 6+, for example the

chromate, which is produced in large scale by oxidative
roasting of chromite ore with calcium or sodium
carbonate. Chromate and dichromate are in an
equilibrium, which is influenced in that case by the law
of mass action and therefore by the pH of the solution.
2-
+ 2 H O+ → Cr O 2-
2 CrO +2H O
4 3 2 7 2
The change in equilibrium is also visible by a change Chromium(III) chloride (CrCl3)
from yellow (chromate) to orange (dichromate) if an
acid is added to a neutral solution of potassium chromate. At lower pH, further
condensation to more complex oxyanions of chromium is possible. The chromate and
dichromate are strong oxidizing reagents at low pH[15]
Cr2O72- + 14 H3O+ + 6 e- → 2 Cr3+ + 21 H2O ε0 = 1.33V
but only moderate ones at high pH[15]
CrO42- + 4 H2O + 3 e- → Cr(OH)3+ + 5 OH- ε0 = - 0.13V.
Chromium(VI) compounds in solution can be detected
by adding acidic hydrogen peroxide solution. A dark
blue unstable chromium(VI) peroxide (CrO5) is formed
which can be stabilized as an ether adduct CrO5 •
OR2.[15] Chromic acid has the hypothetical structure
H2CrO4. Neither chromic nor dichromic acid is found in
nature, but their anions are found in a variety of
compounds, the chromates and dichromates.
chromium(VI) oxide CrO3, the acid anhydride of
Chromium(VI) oxide
Chromium 6
chromic acid, is sold industrially as "chromic acid".[15] The dark red chromium(VI) oxide
can be produced by mixing sulfuric acid with dichromate, and is an extremely strong
oxidizing agent.
The oxidation state 5+ is only realized in few
compounds. The only binary compound is the highly
volatile chromium(V) fluoride (CrF5). This red solid with
a melting point of 30°C and a boiling point of 117°C can
be synthesized by reacting fluorine with chromium at
400°C and 200 bar pressure. The peroxochromate(V) is
another example of the oxidation state 5+. The
potassium peroxochromate (K3[Cr(O2)4]) is made by
Sodium chromate
reacting potassium chromate with hydrogen peroxide at
low temperatures. This red brown compound is stable
at room temperature but decomposes spontaneously at 150–170 °C.[16] The chromium(IV)
compounds (4+) are slightly more stable than the chromium(V) compounds, and the
halogen compounds CrF4, CrCl4 and CrBr4 can be produced by the reaction of the
trihalogens with additional elementary halogens at elevated temperatures. Most of the
compounds are susceptible to disproportionation reactions and therefore are not stable in
water. An example for a Chromium(II) compounds (2+) is the water stable chromium(II)
chloride which can be produced by reduction of chromium(III) chloride with zinc. The
resulting light blue solutions are only stable at neutral pH when the solution is very
pure.[15]
Passivation
Chromium is passivated by oxygen, forming a thin protective oxide surface layer. This layer
is a spinel structure only a few atoms thick. It is very dense, preventing diffusion of oxygen
into the underlying material. (In iron or plain carbon steels the oxygen migrates into the
underlying material.)[17] Chromium is usually plated on top of a nickel layer which may first
have been copper plated.[15] Chromium, unlike metals such as iron and nickel, does not
suffer from hydrogen embrittlement. It does suffer from nitrogen embrittlement - chromium
reacts with nitrogen from air and forms brittle nitrides at temperatures necessary to work
the metal parts [18] . The Pourbaix diagram can be seen above. It is important to understand
that the diagram only displays the thermodynamic data and it does not display any details
of the rates of reaction.[3] The passivation can be increased by short contact with oxidizing
acids like nitric acid. The passivated chromium is stable against acids. The contrary effect
can be achieved if a strong reducing reactant destroys the oxide protection layer on the
metal, a metal treated in this way readily dissolves in weak acids.[15]
Chromium 7
Quintuple bond
Chromium is notable for its ability to form quintuple

covalent bonds. The synthesis of a compound of
chromium(I) and a hydrocarbon radical was shown via
X-ray diffraction to contain a quintuple bond of length
183.51(4) pm (1.835 angstroms) joining the two central
chromium atoms.[19] Extremely bulky monodentate
ligands prevent that bonds to other atoms can be
formed and therefore stabilizes this compound.
Physical properties
Chromium is remarkable for its magnetic properties: it
is the only elemental solid which shows
Chromium compound, which was
antiferromagnetic ordering at room temperature (and
determined experimentally to contain a
below). Above 38 °C, it transforms into a paramagnetic Cr-Cr quintuple bond
state [1] .
History
Weapons found in burial pits dating from the late 3rd
century BC Qin Dynasty of the Terracotta Army near
Xi'an, China have been analyzed by archaeologists.
Although buried more than 2,000 years ago, the ancient
bronze tips of crossbow bolts and swords found at the
site showed no sign of corrosion, because the bronze
was coated with chromium.[20]
Chromium came to the attention of westerners in the

Crocoite (PbCrO4)
18th century. On 26 July 1761, Johann Gottlob Lehmann
found an orange-red mineral in the Beryozovskoye
mines in the Ural Mountains which he named Siberian red lead. Though misidentified as a
lead compound with selenium and iron components, the mineral was Crocoite (lead
chromate) with a formula of PbCrO4.[21]
In 1770, Peter Simon Pallas visited the same site as Lehmann and found a red lead mineral
that had useful properties as a pigment in paints. The use of Siberian red lead as a paint
pigment developed rapidly. A bright yellow pigment made from crocoite also became
fashionable.[21]
Chromium 8
In 1797, Louis Nicolas Vauquelin received samples of

crocoite ore. He produced chromium oxide (CrO3) by
mixing crocoite with hydrochloric acid. In 1798,
Vauquelin discovered that he could isolate metallic
chromium by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven.[22]
He was also able to detect traces of chromium in
precious gemstones, such as ruby or emerald.[21] [23]
During the 1800s, chromium was primarily used as a

component of paints and in tanning salts. At first,
crocoite from Russia was the main source, but in 1827,
Ruby is colored by a small amount of
a larger chromite deposit was discovered near
chromium
Baltimore, United States. This made the United states
the largest producer of chromium products till 1848
when large deposits of chromite where found near Bursa, Turkey.[5]
Chromium is also known for its luster when polished. It is used as a protective and
decorative coating on car parts, plumbing fixtures, furniture parts and many other items,
usually applied by electroplating. Chromium was used for electroplating as early as 1848,
but this use only became widespread with the development of an improved process in
1924.[24]
Metal alloys now account for 85% of the use of chromium. The remainder is used in the
chemical industry and refractory and foundry industries.
Production
Approximately 4.4 million metric tons of marketable
chromite ore were produced in 2000, and converted
into ~3.3 million tons of ferro-chrome with an
approximate market value of 2.5 billion United States
dollars.[25] The largest producers of chromium ore have
been South Africa (44%) India (18%), Kazakhstan (16%)
Zimbabwe (5%), Finland (4%) Iran (4%) and Brazil (2%)
with several other countries producing the rest of less
than 10% of the world production.[25] World production trend of chromium
The two main products of chromium ore refining are

ferrochromium and metallic chromium. For those products the ore smelter process differs
considerably. For the production of ferrochromium, the chromite ore (FeCr2O4) is reduced
in large scale in electric arc furnace or in smaller smelters with either aluminium or silicon
in an aluminothermic reaction.[26]
Chromium 9
For the production of pure

chromium, the iron has to be
separated from the chromium in a
two step roasting and leaching
process. The chromite ore is
heated with a mixture of calcium
carbonate and sodium carbonate
in the presence of air. The
chromium is oxidized to the [25]
Chromium ore output in 2002
hexavalent form, while the iron
forms the stable Fe2O3. The
subsequent leaching at higher elevated temperatures dissolves the chromates and leaves
the insoluble iron oxide. The chromate is converted by sulfuric acid into the dichromate.[26]
4FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2CO3 + 7 O2 → 8 Na2CrO4 + 2 Fe2O3 + 8 CO2

2Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 → Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4 + H2O
The dichromate is converted to the chromium(III) oxide by reduction with carbon and then
reduced in an aluminothermic reaction to chromium.[26]
Na2Cr2O7 + 2 C → Cr2O3 + Na2CO3 + CO
Cr2O3 + 2 Al → Al2O3 + Cr
Applications
Metallurgy
The strengthening effect on steel by forming stable
carbide grains at the grain boundaries and the strong
increase in corrosion resistance made chromium an
important alloying material for steel. The high speed
tool steels contain between 3 and 5% chromium. An
important stainless steel is 18/10 stainless, made from
iron with 10% nickel and 18% chromium, is widely used
for cookware and cutlery. For these applications,
ferrochromium is added to the molten iron. Also
Decorative chrome plating on a
nickel-based alloys increase in strength due to the
motorcycle.
formation of stable carbide grains at the grain
boundaries. For example, Inconel 718 contains 18.6%
chromium. Because of the excellent heat stability of these nickel superalloys, they are used
in jet engines and gas turbines in large quantities.[27]
The relative high hardness and corrosion resistance of unalloyed chromium makes it a good
surface coating. A thin layer of chromium is deposited on pretreated metallic surfaces by
electroplating techniques. There are two deposition methods: Thin, below 1 µm thickness,
layers are deposited by chrome plating, and are used for decorative surfaces. If
wear-resistant surfaces are needed then thicker chromium layers of up to mm thickness are
deposited. Both methods normally use acidic chromate or dichromate solutions. To prevent
the energy consuming change in oxidation state, the use of Chromium(III) sulfate is under
development, but for most applications, the established process is used.[24]
Chromium 10
In the chromate conversion coating process, the strong oxidative properties of chromates
are used to deposit a protective oxide layer on metals like aluminium, zinc and cadmium.
This passivation and the self healing properties by the chromate stored in the chromate
conversion coating, which is capable to migrate to local defects, are the benefits of this
[28]
coating method. Because of environmental and health regulations on chromates,
alternative coating method are under development.[29]
Anodizing of aluminium is another electrochemical process, which does not lead to the
deposition of chromium, but uses chromic acid as electrolyte in the solution. During
anodization, an oxide layer is formed on the aluminium. The use of chromic acid, instead of
the normally used sulfuric acid, leads to a slight difference of these oxide layers.[30] The
high toxicity of Cr(VI) compounds, used in the established chromium electroplating process,
and the strengthening of safety and environmental regulations demand a search for
substitutes for chromium or at least a change to less toxic chromium(III) compounds.[24]
Dye and pigment

The mineral crocoite (lead chromate PbCrO ) was used
4
as a yellow pigment shortly after its discovery. After a
synthesis method became available starting from the
more abundant chromite, Chrome yellow was,
together with cadmium yellow, one of the most used
yellow pigments. The pigment does not degrade in the School bus painted in Chrome
[31]
light and has a strong color. The signaling effect of yellow
yellow was used for school buses in the United States
and for Postal Service (for example Deutsche Post) in Europe. The use of chrome yellow
declined due to environmental and safety concerns and was substituted by organic
pigments or other lead-free alternatives.[32] Other pigments based on chromium are, for
example, the bright red pigment Chrome red, which is a basic lead chromate
(PbCrO4•Pb(OH)2).[32] Chrome green is a mixture of Prussian blue and chrome yellow,
while the Chrome oxide green is Chromium(III) oxide.[32]
Glass is colored green by the addition of chromium(III) oxide. This is similar to emerald,
which is also colored by chromium.[33] A red color is achieved by doping chromium(III) into
the crystals of corundum, which are then called ruby. Therefore, chromium is used in
producing synthetic rubies.[34]
The toxicity of chromium(VI) salts is used in the preservation of wood. For example,
chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is used in timber treatment to prevent wood from decay
fungi, wood attacking insects, including termites, and marine borers.[35] The formulations
contain chromium based on the oxide CrO3 between 35.3% and 65.5%. In the United States,
65,300 metric tons of CCA solution have been used in 1996.[35]
Chromium 11
Tanning
Chromium(III) salts, especially chrome alum and chromium(III) sulfate, are used in the
tanning of leather. The chromium(III) stabilizes the leather by cross linking the collagen
fibers within the leather.[36] Chromium tanned leather can contains between 4 and 5% of
chromium, which is tightly bound to the proteins.[5]
Refractory material
The high heat resistivity and high melting point makes chromite and chromium(III) oxide a
material for high temperature refractory applications, like blast furnaces, cement kilns,
molds for the firing of bricks and as foundry sands for the casting of metals. In these
applications, the refractory materials are made from mixtures of chromite and magnesite.
The use is declining because of the environmental regulations due to the possibility of the
formation of chromium(VI).[26]
Other use
Several chromium compounds are used as catalyst. For example the Phillips catalysts for
the production polyethylene are mixtures of chromium and silicon dioxide or mixtures of
chromium and titanium and aluminium oxide.[37] Chromium(IV) oxide (CrO2) is a magnetic
compound. Its ideal shape anisotropy, which imparted high coercivity and remanent
magnetization, made it a compound superior to the γ-Fe2O3. Chromium(IV) oxide is used to
manufacture magnetic tape used in high performance audio tape and standard audio
cassette.[38] Chromates can prevent corrosion of steel under wet conditions, and therefore
chromates are added to the drilling muds.[39] The long known influence of chromium uptake
on diabetes conditions suggested the positive influence of dietary supplement containing
chromium(III) also on healthy persons. For this reason, dietary supplement or slimming aid
usually contain chromium(III) chloride, chromium(III) picolinate, chromium(III)
polynicotinate or amino acid chelate, such as chromium(III) D-phenylalanine. The benefit of
those supplements is still under investigation and is questioned by some studies.[40] [41]
• Chromium hexacarbonyl Cr(CO)6 is used as a gasoline additive.[42]
• Chromium(III) oxide is a metal polish known as green rouge.
• Chromic acid is a powerful oxidizing agent and is a useful compound for cleaning
laboratory glassware of any trace of organic compounds. It is prepared in situ by
dissolving potassium dichromate in concentrated sulfuric acid, which is then used to
wash the apparatus. Sodium dichromate is sometimes used because of its higher
solubility (5 g/100 ml vs. 20 g/100 ml respectively). Potassium dichromate is a chemical
reagent, used in cleaning laboratory glassware and as a titrating agent. It is also used as
a mordant (i.e., a fixing agent) for dyes in fabric.
Biological role
Trivalent chromium (Cr(III) or Cr3+) is required in trace amounts for sugar and lipid
metabolism in humans, and its deficiency may cause a disease called chromium
deficiency.[43] In contrast, hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI) or Cr6+) is very toxic and
mutagenic when inhaled. Cr(VI) has not been established as a carcinogen when in solution,
though it may cause allergic contact dermatitis (ACD).[44]
Chromium 12
The use of chromium-containing dietary supplements is controversial due to the complex

effects of the used supplements.[45] The popular dietary supplement chromium picolinate
complex generates chromosome damage in hamster cells.[46] In the United States the
dietary guidelines for daily chromium uptake were lowered from 50-200 µg for an adult to
[47]
35 µg (adult male) and to 25 µg (adult female).
Precautions
Water insoluble chromium(III) compounds and chromium metal are not considered a health
hazard, while the toxicity and carcinogenic properties of chromium(VI) are known for a long
time.[48] An actual investigation into hexavalent chromium release into drinking water was
used as the plot-basis of the motion picture Erin Brockovich.
Because of the specific transport mechanisms, only limited amounts of chromium(III)
enter the cells. Several in vitro studies indicated that high concentrations of chromium(III)
in the cell can lead to DNA damage.[49] Acute oral toxicity ranges between 1500 and
3300 µg/kg.[50] The proposed beneficial effects of chromium(III) and the use as dietary
supplements yielded some controversial results, but recent reviews suggest that moderate
uptake of chromium(III) through dietary supplements poses no risk.[49]
World Health Organization recommended maximum allowable concentration in drinking
water for chromium (VI) is 0.05 milligrams per liter. Hexavalent chromium is also one of
the substances whose use is restricted by the European Restriction of Hazardous
Substances Directive.
The acute oral toxicity for chromium(VI) ranges between 50 and 150 µg/kg.[50] In the body,
chromium(VI) is reduced by several mechanisms to chromium(III) already in the blood
before it enters the cells. The chromium(III) is excreted from the body, whereas the
chromate ion is transferred into the cell by a transport mechanism, by which also sulfate
and phosphate ions enter the cell. The acute toxicity of chromium(VI) is due to its strong
oxidational properties. After it reaches the blood stream, it damages the kidneys, the liver
and blood cells through oxidation reactions. Hemolysis, renal and liver failure are the
results of these damages. Aggressive dialysis can improve the situation.[51]
The carcinogenity of chromate dust is known for a long time, and in 1890 the first
publication described the elevated cancer risk of workers in a chromate dye company.[52]
[53]
Three mechanisms have been proposed to describe the genotoxicity of chromium(VI).
The first mechanism includes highly reactive hydroxyl radicals and other reactive radicals
which are by products of the reduction of chromium(VI) to chromium(III). The second
process includes the direct binding of chromium(V), produced by reduction in the cell, and
chromium(IV) compounds to the DNA. The last mechanism attributed the genotoxicity to
the binding to the DNA of the end product of the chromium(III) reduction.[54]
Chromium salts (chromates) are also the cause of allergic reactions in some people.
Chromates are often used to manufacture, amongst other things, leather products, paints,
cement, mortar and anti-corrosives. Contact with products containing chromates can lead
to allergic contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis, resulting in ulceration of the skin,
sometimes referred to as "chrome ulcers". This condition is often found in workers that
have been exposed to strong chromate solutions in electroplating, tanning and
chrome-producing manufacturers.[55] [56] [56]
In some parts of Russia, pentavalent chromium was reported as one of the causes of
premature senility.[57]
Chromium 13
Environmental issues
As chromium compounds were used in dyes and paints and the tanning of leather, these
compounds are often found in soil and groundwater at abandoned industrial sites, now
needing environmental cleanup and remediation per the treatment of brownfield land.
Primer paint containing hexavalent chromium is still widely used for aerospace and
automobile refinishing applications.
See also
• Chromium compounds
• Chromium minerals
• Chromium(III) picolinate
• Chromium VI
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Genotoxic Risk of an Essential Trace Element and Widely Used Human and Animal Nutritional Supplement".
Critical Reviews in Toxicology 38 (3): 173–190. doi: 10.1080/10408440701845401 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1080/ 10408440701845401).
[50] Katz, Sidney A.; Salem Harry (1992). "The toxicology of chromium with respect to its chemical speciation: A
review". Journal of Applied Toxicology 13 (3): 217–224. doi: 10.1002/jat.2550130314 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1002/ jat. 2550130314).
[51] Dayan, A. D.; Paine, A. J. (2001). "Mechanisms of chromium toxicity, carcinogenicity and allergenicity: Review
of the literature from 1985 to 2000". Human & Experimental Toxicology 20 (9): 439–451. doi:
10.1191/096032701682693062 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1191/ 096032701682693062). PMID 11776406.
[52] Newman, D. (1890). "A case of adeno-carcinoma of the left inferior turbinated body, and perforation of the
nasal septum, in the person of a worker in chrome pigments". Glasgow Med J 33: 469–470.
[53] Langard, Sverre (1990). "One Hundred Years of Chromium and Cancer: A Review of Epidemiological
Evidence and Selected Case Reports". American Journal of Industrial Medicine 17: 189–215. doi:
10.1002/ajim.4700170205 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ ajim. 4700170205).
[54] M. D., Cohen; Kargacin, B.; Klein, C. B.; Costa, M. (1993). "Mechanisms of chromium carcinogenicity and
toxicity". Critical reviews in toxicology 23 (3): 255–81. doi: 10.3109/10408449309105012 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 3109/ 10408449309105012).
[55] " Chrome Contact Allergy (http:/ / dermnetnz. org/ dermatitis/ chrome-allergy. html)". DermNet NZ. .
[56] Basketter, David; Horev, Liran; Slodovnik, Dany; Merimes, Sharon; Trattner, Akiva; Ingber, Arieh (2000).
"Investigation of the threshold for allergic reactivity to chromium". Contact Dermatitis 44 (2): 70–74. doi:
10.1034/j.1600-0536.2001.440202.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1034/ j. 1600-0536. 2001. 440202. x).
[57] Chromium Toxicity (http:/ / www. corrosion-doctors. org/ Pollution/ chromiumtoxicity. htm) on the Corrosion
Doctors Web site maintained by Canadian Physical Chemist, Pierre R. Roberge, PhD, P.Eng. (access date 27
april 2009)
External links
• ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Chromium Toxicity (http:/ / www. atsdr.
cdc. gov/ csem/ chromium) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
• Los Alamos National Laboratory - Chromium (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 24.
html)
• WebElements.com – Chromium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/
elements/ text/ Cr/ index. html)
• IARC Monograph "Chromium and Chromium compounds" (http:/ / www-cie. iarc. fr/
htdocs/ monographs/ vol49/ chromium. html)
• International Chromium Development Association (http:/ / www. chromium-asoc. com/ )
• It's Elemental – The Element Chromium (http:/ / education. jlab. org/ itselemental/
ele024. html)
• National Pollutant Inventory - Chromium (III) compounds fact sheet (http:/ / www. npi.
gov. au/ database/ substance-info/ profiles/ 24. html)
Chromium 16
• The Merck Manual – Mineral Deficiency and Toxicity (http:/ / www. merck. com/ mmpe/
sec01/ ch005/ ch005b. html)
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Chromium Page (http:/ / www.
cdc. gov/ niosh/ topics/ chromium/ )

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License
Manganese 1
Manganese
chromium ← manganese → iron -
↑
Mn
↓
Tc

25Mn
Periodic table

Manganese 2
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1228 1347 1493 1691 1955 2333

conductivityThermal expansionSpeed of sound (thin rod) Young's modulusBulk
modulusMohs hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main
article: Isotopes of manganese
52 syn 5.591 d ε - 52
Mn Cr
0.575
β+ 52
Cr
γ 0.7, 0.9, 1.4 -
53 syn ε -
3.74 ×106 y 53
Mn Cr
54 syn 312.3 d ε 1.377 54

Mn Cr
γ 0.834 -
55 100% 55
Mn Mn is stable with 30 neutron
manganese, Mn, 25 transition metal7, 4, d54.938045(5) g·mol−1 [Ar] 4s2 3d5 2, 8, 13, 2
(Image) solid 7.21 g·cm−3 5.95 g·cm−3 1519 K,1246 °C,2275 °F 2334 K,2061 °C,3742 °F
12.91 kJ·mol−1 221 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 26.32 J·mol−1·K−17, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1, -2, -3
(oxides: acidic, basic or amphoteric
depending on the oxidation state) 1.55 (Pauling scale) 1st: 717.3 kJ·mol−1127 pm139±5
(low spin), 161±8 (high spin) pm cubic paramagnetic (20 °C) 1.44 µΩ·m (300 K)
7.81 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 21.7 µm·m−1·K−1 (20 °C) 5150 m/s 198 GPa 120 GPa 6.0 196 MPa
7439-96-5
Manganese (pronounced /ˈmæŋɡəniːz/) is a chemical element, designated by the symbol
Mn. It has the atomic number 25. It is found as a free element in nature (often in
combination with iron), and in many minerals. As a free element, manganese is a metal with
important industrial metal alloy uses, particularly in stainless steels.
Manganese phosphating is used as a treatment for rust and corrosion prevention on steel.
Manganese ions have various colors, depending on their oxidation state, and are used
industrially as pigments. The permanganates of sodium, potassium and barium are powerful
oxidizers. Manganese dioxide is used as the cathode (electron acceptor) material in
standard and alkaline disposable dry cells and batteries.
Manganese(II) ions function as cofactors for a number of enzymes in higher organisms,
where they are essential in detoxification of superoxide free radicals. The element is a
required trace mineral for all known living organisms. In larger amounts, and apparently
with far greater activity by inhalation, manganese can cause a poisoning syndrome in
mammals, with neurological damage which is sometimes irreversible.
Manganese 3
Characteristics
Physical
Manganese is a gray–white metal, resembling iron. It is a hard metal and is very brittle,
fusible with difficulty, but easily oxidized.[1] Manganese metal and its common ions are
paramagnetic.[2]
Occurrence
See also manganese minerals.
Manganese makes up about 1000 ppm (0.1%) of the
Earth's crust, making it the 12th most abundant
element there.[3] Soil contains 7–9000 ppm of
manganese with an average of 440 ppm.[3] Seawater
has only 10 ppm manganese and the atmosphere
contains 0.01 µg/m3.[3]
Manganese occurs principally as pyrolusite (MnO2),

braunite, (Mn2+Mn3+6)(SiO12),[4] psilomelane
Manganese ore
(Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10, and to a lesser extent as
rhodochrosite (MnCO3). Land-based resources are large
but irregularly distributed. Over 80% of the known world manganese resources are found in
South Africa and Ukraine. Other important manganese deposits are in China, Australia,
Brazil, Gabon, Ghana, India, and Mexico.
In 1978 it was estimated that 500 billion tons of

manganese nodules exist on the ocean floor.[5] Attempts
to find economically viable methods of harvesting
manganese nodules were abandoned in the 1970s.[6]
Isotopes
Psilomelane (manganese ore)

Naturally occurring manganese is composed of 1 stable
55
isotope; Mn. 18 radioisotopes have been
53 54
characterized with the most stable being Mn with a half-life of 3.7 million years, Mn
with a half–life of 312.3 days, and 52Mn with a half–life of 5.591 days. All of the remaining
radioactive isotopes have half lives that are less than 3 hours and the majority of these have
half lives that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 3 meta states.[7]
Manganese is part of the iron group of elements, which are thought to be synthesized in
large stars shortly before the supernova explosion. 53Mn decays to 53Cr with a half-life of
3.7 million years. Because of its relatively short half-life, 53Mn is an extinct radionuclide.
Manganese isotopic contents are typically combined with chromium isotopic contents and
have found application in isotope geology and radiometric dating. Mn–Cr isotopic ratios
reinforce the evidence from 26Al and 107Pd for the early history of the solar system.
Variations in 53Cr/52Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an initial
53
Mn/55Mn ratio that suggests Mn–Cr isotopic systematics must result from in–situ decay of
53
Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence 53Mn provides additional evidence for
nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the solar system.[7]
Manganese 4
The isotopes of manganese range in atomic weight from 46 u (46Mn) to 65 u (65Mn). The
primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 55Mn, is electron capture and
the primary mode after is beta decay.[7]
Chemistry and Compounds
Oxidation states
[8] [9]
of manganese
0 Mn2(CO)10
+1 K5[Mn(CN)6NO]
+2 MnCl2
+3 MnF3
+4 MnO2
+5 Na3MnO4
+6 K2MnO4
+7 KMnO4
The most common oxidation states of manganese are +2, +3, +4, +6 and +7, though
oxidation states from 0 to +7 are observed. Mn2+ often competes with Mg2+ in biological
systems. Manganese compounds where manganese is in oxidation state +7, which are
restricted to the oxide Mn2O7 and compounds of the intensely purple permanganate anion
MnO4−, are powerful oxidizing agents.[1] . Oxidation states +5 (blue) and +6 (green) are
both oxidizing and vulnerable to disproportionation.
Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl is used
as an additive in unleaded gasoline to boost octane
rating and reduce engine knocking. The manganese in
this unusual organometallic compound is in the +1
oxidation state.[10]
The most stable oxidation state for manganese is +2,
which has a pink to red color, and many manganese(II)
compounds are known, such as manganese(II) sulfate
The mineral rhodochrosite is
manganese(II) carbonate (MnSO4) and manganese(II) chloride (MnCl2). This
oxidation state is also seen in the mineral
rhodochrosite, (manganese(II) carbonate). The +2 oxidation state is the state used in living
organisms for essential functions; all of the other states are much more toxic.
Manganese 5
The +3 oxidation state is known, in compounds such as

manganese(III) acetate, but these are quite powerful
oxidizing agents and also disproprotionate in solution to
Mn(II) and Mn(IV) Solid compounds of Mn(III) are
characterized by its preference for distorted octahedral
coordination due to the Jahn-Teller effect and its strong
purple-red colour.
Manganese(II) chloride
Manganese(IV) oxide (manganese dioxide, MnO2) is

used as a reagent in organic chemistry for the oxidation
of benzylic alcohols (i.e. adjacent to an aromatic ring).
Manganese dioxide has been used since antiquity to
oxidatively neutralize the greenish tinge in glass caused
by trace amounts of iron contamination.[11] MnO2 is
also used in the manufacture of oxygen and chlorine,
and in drying black paints. In some preparations it is a
brown pigment that can be used to make paint and is a
constituent of natural umber.
Manganese(IV) oxide was used in the original type of

dry cell battery as an electron acceptor from zinc, and
A solution of KMnO4 in water, in a is the blackish material found when opening
volumetric flask carbon–zinc type flashlight cells. The same material
also functions in newer alkaline batteries (usually
battery cells), which use the same basic reaction, but a different electrolyte mixture.[12] [13]
The oxidation state 5+ can be obtained if manganese dioxide is dissolved in molten sodium
nitrite.[14] Manganate (VI) salts can also be produced by dissolving Mn compounds in
alkaline melts in air.
Permanganate (+7 oxidation state) manganese compounds are purple, and can color glass
an amethyst color. Potassium permanganate, sodium permanganate and barium
permanganate are all potent oxidizers. Potassium permanganate, also called Condy's
crystals, is a commonly used laboratory reagent because of its oxidizing properties and
finds use as a topical medicine (for example, in the treatment of fish diseases). Solutions of
potassium permanganate were among the first stains and fixatives to be used in the
preparation of biological cells and tissues for electron microscopy.[15]
Substitutes: Manganese has no satisfactory substitute in its major applications, which are
related to metallurgical alloy use.[16] In minor applications, (e.g., manganese phosphating),
zinc and sometimes vanadium are viable substitutes. In disposable battery manufacture,
standard and alkaline cells using manganese will probably eventually be mostly replaced
with lithium battery technology.
Manganese 6
History
The origin of the name manganese is complex. In ancient times, two black minerals from
Magnesia in what is now modern Greece were both called magnes, but were thought to
differ in gender. The male magnes attracted iron, and was the iron ore we now know as
lodestone or magnetite, and which probably gave us the term magnet. The female magnes
ore did not attract iron, but was used to decolorize glass. This feminine magnes was later
called magnesia, known now in modern times as pyrolusite or manganese dioxide. This
mineral is never magnetic (although manganese itself is paramagnetic). In the 16th
century, the latter compound was called manganesum (note the two n's instead of one) by
glassmakers, possibly as a corruption of two words since alchemists and glassmakers
eventually had to differentiate a magnesia negra (the black ore) from magnesia alba (a
white ore, also from Magnesia, also useful in glassmaking). Michele Mercati called
magnesia negra Manganesa, and finally the metal isolated from it became known as
manganese (German: Mangan). The name magnesia eventually was then used to refer only
to the white magnesia alba (magnesium oxide), which provided the name magnesium for
that free element, when it was eventually isolated, much later. [17]
Several oxides of manganese, for example manganese
dioxide, are abundant in nature and due to color these
oxides have been used as since the Stone Age. The cave
paintings in Gargas contain manganese as pigments
and these cave paintings are 30,000 to 24,000 years
old.[19]
Manganese compounds where used by Egyptian and

Roman glass makers, to either remove color from glass
Some of the cave painting in Lascaux, or add color to it.[20] The use as glass makers soap
France use manganese-based continued through the middle ages until modern times
[18]
pigments.
and is evident in 14th century glass from Venice.[11]
Manganese 7
Due to the use in glass making manganese dioxide was

available to alchemists the first chemists and was used
for experiments. Ignatius Gottfried Kaim (1770) and
Johann Glauber ( 17th century) discovered that
manganese dioxide can be converted to permanganate,
a useful laboratory reagent.[21] By the mid-18th century
the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele used
manganese dioxide to produce chlorine. First
hydrochloric acid, or a mixture of dilute sulfuric acid
and sodium chloride was reacted with manganese
dioxide, later hydrochloric acid from the Leblanc
process was used and the manganese dioxide was
recycled by the Weldon process. The production of
chlorine and hypochlorite containing bleaching agents
was a large consumer of manganese ores.
Scheele and other chemists were aware that

Credit for first isolating of manganese
manganese dioxide contained a new element, but they
is usually given to Johan Gottlieb Gahn
were not able to isolate it. Johan Gottlieb Gahn was the
first to isolate an impure sample of manganese metal in
1774, by reducing the dioxide with carbon.
The manganese content of some iron ores used in Greece led to the speculations that the
steel produced from that ore contains inadvertent amounts of manganese making the
Spartan steel exceptionally hard.[22] Around the beginning of the 19th century, manganese
was used in steelmaking and several patents were granted. In 1816, it was noted that
adding manganese to iron made it harder, without making it any more brittle. In 1837,
British academic James Couper noted an association between heavy exposure to manganese
in mines with a form of Parkinson's Disease.[23] In 1912, manganese phosphating
electrochemical conversion coatings for protecting firearms against rust and corrosion
were patented in the United States, and have seen widespread use ever since.[24]
With the invention of the Leclanché cell in 1866 and the subsequent improvement of the
batteries containing manganese dioxide as cathodic depolarizer increased the demand of
manganese dioxide. Until the introduction of the nickel-cadmium battery and lithium
containing batteries most of the batteries on the market contained manganese. The
Zinc-carbon battery and the alkaline battery normally use industrially-produced manganese
dioxide, because natural occurring manganese dioxide contains impurities. In the 20th
century, manganese dioxide has seen wide commercial use as the chief cathodic material
for commercial disposable dry cells and dry batteries of both the standard (carbon–zinc)
and alkaline type.[25]
Manganese 8
Production
The most important
manganese ore is pyrolusite
(MnO2). Most of the other
economically important
manganese ores show a close
spatial relation to the iron
ores.[1] Land-based resources
are large but irregularly
distributed. Over 80% of the
known world manganese [16]
Percentage of manganese output in 2006 by countries
resources are found in South
Africa and Ukraine, other important manganese deposits are in Australia, India, China,
Gabon and Brazil.[16]
Manganese is mined in South Africa, Australia, China,

Brazil, Gabon, Ukraine, India and Ghana and
Kazakhstan.[16] [26] US Import Sources (1998–2001):
Manganese ore: Gabon, 70%; South Africa, 10%;
Australia, 9%; Mexico, 5%; and other, 6%.
Ferromanganese: South Africa, 47%; France, 22%;
Spiegeleisen is an iron alloy with a Mexico, 8%; Australia, 8%; and other, 15%. Manganese
manganese content of approximately contained in all manganese imports: South Africa, 31%;
15 %
Gabon, 21%; Australia, 13%; Mexico, 8%; and other,
27%.
For the production of ferromanganese the manganese ore are mixed with iron ore and
carbon and then reduced either in a blast furnace or in an electric arc furnace.[27] The
resulting ferromanganese has a manganese content of 30 to 80 %.[1] Pure manganese used
for the production of non-iron alloys is produced by leaching manganese ore with sulfuric
acid and a subsequent electrowinning process.[28]
Applications
Steel
Manganese is essential to iron and steel production by
virtue of its sulfur-fixing, deoxidizing, and alloying
properties. Steelmaking,[29] including its ironmaking
component, has accounted for most manganese
demand, presently in the range of 85% to 90% of the
total demand.[28] Among a variety of other uses,
manganese is a key component of low-cost stainless
steel formulations.[26] [30]
Small amounts of manganese improve the workability of British Brodie helmet
steel at high temperatures, because it forms a high

Manganese 9
melting sulfide and therefore prevents the formation of a liquid iron sulfide at the grain
boundaries. If the manganese content reaches 4% the embrittlement of the steel becomes a
dominat feature. The embrittlement decreases at higher manganese concentrations and
reaches an acceptable level at 8%. The fact that steel containing 8 to 15% of manganese is
[31] [32]
cold hardening and can obtain a high tensile strength of up to 863 MPa, steel with
12% manganese was used for the British steel helmets. This steel composition was
discovered in 1882 by Robert Hadfield and is still known as Hadfield steel.[33]
Aluminium alloys
The second large application for manganese is as alloying agent for aluminium. Aluminium
with a manganese content of roughly 1.5 % has an increased resistance against corrosion
due to the formation grains absorbing impurities which would lead to galvanic corrosion.[34]
The corrosion resistant aluminium alloy 3004 and 3104 with a manganese content of 0.8 to
1.5 % are the alloy used for most of the beverage cans.[35] For years prior to 2000 in excess
of 1.6 million metric tons have been used of those alloys, with a content of 1 % of
manganese this amount would need 16000 metric tons of manganese.[35]
Other use
A large amount of manganese dioxide is produced for the use
as depolarizer in Zinc-carbon battery and the alkaline
battery.[25] In 2002 more than 230,000 tons of manganese
dioxide were used for this purpose.[28] The manganese
dioxide is reduced to the manganese oxide-hydroxide
MnO(OH) during discharging, preventing the formation of
hydrogen at the anode of the battery.[12]
MnO + H O + e- → MnO(OH) + OH-

2 2
The metal is very occasionally used in coins; the only United
States coins to use manganese were the "wartime" nickel Wartime nickel made from a
[36] copper silver manganese alloy
from 1942–1945. Due to shortage of raw materials in the
war the nickel in the alloy (75 % copper and 25 % nickel)
used for the production of the nickel before was substituted by the less critical metals silver
and manganese (56 % copper, 35 % silver and 9 % manganese). Since 2000 dollar coins, for
example the Sacagawea dollar and the Presidential $1 Coins, are made from a brass
containing 7% of manganese with a pure copper core.[37]
Manganese compounds have been used as pigments and for the coloring of ceramics and
glass for a long time and still the brown color of ceramic is sometimes based on manganese
compounds.[38] In the glass industry two effects of manganese compounds are used.
Manganese(III) reacts with iron(II). The reaction induces a strong green color in glass by
forming less-colored iron(III) and slightly pink manganese(II), compensating the residual
color of the iron(III).[11] Larger amounts of manganese are used to produce pink colored
glass.
Manganese 10
Biological role
Manganese is an essential
trace nutrient in all forms of
life.[39] The classes of enzymes
that have manganese
cofactors are very broad and
include such classes as
oxidoreductases, transferases,
hydrolases, lyases,
isomerases, ligases, lectins,
and integrins. The reverse
transcriptases of many
retroviruses (though not
lentiviruses such as HIV)
Reactive center of arginase with boronic acid inhibitor. The
contain manganese. The best managanese is shown in yellow
known manganese-containing
polypeptides may be arginase, the diphtheria toxin, and Mn-containing superoxide
dismutase (Mn-SOD).[40]
Mn-SOD is the type of SOD present in eukaryotic mitochondria, and also in most bacteria
(this fact is in keeping with the bacterial-origin theory of mitochondria). The Mn-SOD
enzyme is probably one of the most ancient, for nearly all organisms living in the presence
of oxygen use it to deal with the toxic effects of superoxide, formed from the 1-electron
reduction of dioxygen. Exceptions include a few kinds of bacteria such as Lactobacillus
plantarum and related lactobacilli, which use a different non-enzymatic mechanism,
involving manganese (Mn2+) ions complexed with polyphosphate directly for this task,
indicating how this function possibly evolved in aerobic life.
The human body contains about 10 mg of manganese, which is stored mainly in the liver
and kidneys. In the human brain the manganese is bound to manganese metalloproteins
most notable glutamine synthetase in astrocytes.[41]
Manganese is also important in photosynthetic oxygen evolution in chloroplasts in plants.
The oxygen evolving complex (OEC) is a part of Photosystem II contained in the thylakoid
membranes of chloroplasts; it is responsible for the terminal photooxidation of water during
the light reactions of photosynthesis and has a metalloenzyme core containing four atoms of
manganese.[42] For this reason, most broad-spectrum plant fertilizers contain manganese.
Precautions
Manganese compounds are less toxic than those of other widespread metals such as nickel
and copper.[43] However, exposure to manganese dusts and fumes should not exceed the
ceiling value of 5 mg/m3[44] even for short periods because of its toxicity level. Manganese
poses a particular risk for children due to its propensity to bind to CH-7 receptors.
Manganese poisoning has been linked to impaired motor skills and cognitive disorders.[45]
The permanganate exhibits a higher toxicity than the manganese(II) compounds. Several
fatal intoxications have occurred, although the fatal dose is around 10 g. The strong
oxidative effect leads to necrosis of the mucous membrane. For example, the esophagus is
affected if the permanganate is swallowed. Only a limited amount is absorbed by the
Manganese 11
intestines but this small amount shows the severe effects on the kidneys and on the
liver.[46] [47]
In 2005, a study suggested a possible link between manganese inhalation and central
nervous system toxicity in rats.[48] It is hypothesized that long-term exposure to the
naturally occurring manganese in shower water puts up to 8.7 million Americans at risk.[49]
[50] [51]
A form of neurodegeneration[52] similar to Parkinson's Disease called "manganism" has

been linked to manganese exposure amongst miners and smelters since the early 19th
Century.[53] Allegations of inhalation-induced manganism have been made regarding the
welding industry. Manganese exposure in United States is regulated by Occupational Safety
and Health Administration. [54]
See also
• Parkerize
References
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Manganese 12
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pg=PA631)". Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses (7th ed.). SME. pp. 631–636. ISBN
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[29] Verhoeven., John D. (2007). Steel metallurgy for the non-metallurgist. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM
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[30] Dastur, Y. N. (1981). "Mechanism of work hardening in Hadfield manganese steel". Metallurgical
Transactions A 12: 749. doi: 10.1007/BF02648339 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF02648339).
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pg=PA351). Read Books. pp. 351–352. ISBN 9781408626160. .
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managers, technical professionals, purchasing and production managers, technicians, and supervisors (http:/ /
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[33] Tweedale, Geoffrey (1985). " Sir Robert Abbott Hadfield F.R.S. (1858-1940), and the Discovery of Manganese
Steel Geoffrey Tweedale (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 531536)". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of
London 40 (1): 63–74. doi: 10.1098/rsnr.1985.0004 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rsnr. 1985. 0004). .
[34] " chemical properties of 2024 aluminum allow (http:/ / www. suppliersonline. com/ propertypages/ 2024.
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[35] Kaufman, John Gilbert (2000). " Applications for Aluminium Alloys and Tempers (http:/ / books. google. de/
books?id=idmZIDcwCykC& pg=PA93)". Introduction to aluminum alloys and tempers. ASM International.
pp. 93–94. ISBN 9780871706898. .
[36] Kuwahara, Raymond T.; Skinner III, Robert B.; Skinner Jr., Robert B. (2001). " Nickel coinage in the United
States (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?artid=1071501)". Western Journal of
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[37] Design of the Sacagawea dollar (http:/ / www. usmint. gov/ mint_programs/ golden_dollar_coin/ index.
cfm?action=sacDesign). United States Mint. . Retrieved 2009-05-04.
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[38] Shepard, Anna Osler (1956). "Manganese and Iron–Manganese Paints". Ceramics for the archaeologist.
Carnegie Institution of Washington. pp. 40–42. ISBN 9780872796201.
[39] Emsley, John (2001). "Manganese". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press. pp. 249–253. ISBN 0198503407.
[40] Law, N. (1998). Manganese Redox Enzymes and Model Systems: Properties, Structures, and Reactivity. 46.
pp. 305. doi: 10.1016/S0898-8838(08)60152-X (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0898-8838(08)60152-X).
[41] Takeda, A. (2003). "Manganese action in brain function". Brain Research Reviews 41: 79. doi:
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[42] Dismukes, G. Charles; Willigen, Rogier T. van (2006). "Manganese: The Oxygen-Evolving Complex & Models".
Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry. doi: 10.1002/0470862106.ia128 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/
0470862106. ia128).
[43] Hasan, Heather (2008). Manganese (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=nRmpEaudmTYC& pg=PA31). The
Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 31. ISBN 9781404214088. .
[44] " Manganese Chemical Background (http:/ / www. environmentwriter. org/ resources/ backissues/ chemicals/
manganese. htm)". Metcalf Institute for Marine and Environmental Reporting University of Rhode Island.
2006-04. . Retrieved 2008-04-30.
[45] " Risk Assessment Information System Toxicity Summary for Manganese (http:/ / rais. ornl. gov/ tox/ profiles/
mn. shtml)". Oak Ridge National Laboratory. .
[46] Ong, K. L. (1997). "Potassium permanganate poisoning--a rare cause of fatal self poisoning.". Emergency
Medicine Journal 14: 43. doi: 10.1136/emj.14.1.43 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1136/ emj. 14. 1. 43). PMID
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[47] Young, R. (1996). "Fatal acute hepatorenal failure following potassium permanganate ingestion". Human &
Experimental Toxicology 15: 259. doi: 10.1177/096032719601500313 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1177/
096032719601500313). PMID 8839216.
[48] Elsner, Robert J. F.; Spangler, John G. (2005). "Neurotoxicity of inhaled manganese: Public health danger in
the shower?". Medical Hypotheses 65 (3): 607–616. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2005.01.043 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1016/ j. mehy. 2005. 01. 043).
[49] Elsner, Rj; Spangler, Jg (2005). "Neurotoxicity of inhaled manganese: public health danger in the shower?".
Medical hypotheses 65 (3): 607–616. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2005.01.043 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. mehy.
2005. 01. 043). ISSN 0306-9877 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 0306-9877). PMID 15913899.
[50] Finley, John Weldon (1999). "Manganese deficiency and toxicity: Are high or low dietary amounts of
manganese cause for concern?". BioFactors 10: 15. doi: 10.1002/biof.5520100102 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1002/ biof. 5520100102).
[51] Barceloux, Donald (1999). "Manganese". Clinical Toxicology 37: 293. doi: 10.1081/CLT-100102427 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1081/ CLT-100102427).
[52] Normandin, Louise (2002). Metabolic Brain Disease 17: 375. doi: 10.1023/A:1021970120965 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1023/ A:1021970120965).
[53] Crossgrove, J; Zheng, W (Dec 2004). "Manganese toxicity upon overexposure.". NMR in biomedicine 17 (8):
544–553. doi: 10.1002/nbm.931 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ nbm. 931). ISSN 0952-3480 (http:/ / worldcat.
org/ issn/ 0952-3480). PMID 15617053.
[54] " Safety and Health Topics: Manganese Compounds (as Mn) (http:/ / www. osha. gov/ dts/ chemicalsampling/
data/ CH_250190. html)". . 080225 osha.gov
External links
• National Pollutant Inventory – Manganese and compounds Fact Sheet (http:/ / www. npi.
gov. au/ database/ substance-info/ profiles/ 52. html)
• WebElements.com – Manganese (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/
elements/ text/ Mn/ index. html)
• International Manganese Institute (http:/ / www. manganese. org)
• Neurotoxicity of inhaled manganese: Public health danger in the shower? (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1016/ j. mehy. 2005. 01. 043)
• NIOSH Manganese Topic Page (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ topics/ manganese/ )
• Link Found Between Parkinson's Disease Genes And Manganese Poisoning (http:/ / www.
sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 02/ 090201141559. htm)

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License
Iron 1
Iron
manganese ← iron → cobalt -
↑
Fe
↓
Ru

26Fe
Periodic table
Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1728 1890 2091 2346 2679 3132
Atomic properties ElectronegativityIonization energies

Miscellaneous Magnetic ordering 1043 K Electrical resistivityThermal conductivityThermal
Iron 2

isotopes Main article: Isotopes of iron
54 5.8% 2ε capture ?
>3.1×1022y 54
Fe Cr
55 syn 2.73 y ε capture 0.231 55

Fe Mn
56 91.72% 56
Fe Fe is stable with 30 neutron
57 2.2% 57
58 0.28% 58
59 syn 44.503 d 1.565

β− 59
Fe Co
60 syn 3.978
1.5×106 y β− 60
Fe Co
iron, Fe, 26 transition metal8, 4, d55.845(2) g·mol−1 [Ar] 3d6 4s2 2, 8, 14, 2 (Image) solid
340 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 25.10 J·mol−1·K−1 1.83 (Pauling scale) 1st: 762.5 kJ·mol−1 126 pm
132±3 (low spin), 152±6 (high spin) pm ferromagnetic (20 °C) 96.1 nΩ·m (300 K)
80.4 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 11.8 µm·m−1·K−1 (r.t.) (electrolytic)
5120 m·s−1 211 GPa 82 GPa 170 GPa 0.29 4.0 608 MPa 490 MPa 7439-89-6
Iron (pronounced /ˈаɪ.ərn/) is a chemical element with the symbol Fe (Latin: ferrum) and
atomic number 26. Iron is a group 8 and period 4 element. Iron and iron alloys (steels) are
by far the most common metals and the most common ferromagnetic materials in everyday
use. Fresh iron surfaces are lustrous and silvery-grey in colour, but oxidise in air to form a
red or brown coating of ferrous oxide or rust. Pure single crystals of iron are soft (softer
than aluminium), and the addition of minute amounts of impurities, such as carbon,
significantly strengthens them. Alloying iron with appropriate small amounts (up to a few
per cent) of other metals and carbon produces steel, which can be 1,000 times harder than
pure iron.
Iron-56 is the heaviest stable isotope produced by the alpha process in stellar
nucleosynthesis; heavier elements than iron and nickel require a supernova for their
formation. Iron is the most abundant element in the core of red giants, and is the most
abundant metal in iron meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth.
Characteristics
Pure iron is a metal but is rarely found in this form on the surface of the earth because it
oxidizes readily in the presence of oxygen and moisture. In order to obtain metallic iron,
oxygen must be removed from naturally occurring ores by chemical reduction – mainly of
the iron ore hematite (Fe2O3) by carbon at high temperature. The properties of iron can be
modified by alloying it with various other metals (and some non-metals, notably carbon and
silicon) to form steels.
Nuclei of iron atoms have some of the highest binding energies per nucleon, surpassed only
by the nickel isotope 62Ni. The universally most abundant of the highly stable nuclides is,
however, 56Fe. This is formed by nuclear fusion in stars. Although a further tiny energy
gain could be extracted by synthesizing 62Ni, conditions in stars are unsuitable for this
Iron 3
process to be favoured. Elemental distribution on Earth greatly favours iron over nickel,
and also presumably in supernova element production.[1]
Iron (as Fe2+, ferrous ion) is a necessary trace element used by almost all living organisms.
The only exceptions are several organisms that live in iron-poor environments and have
evolved to use different elements in their metabolic processes, such as manganese instead
of iron for catalysis, or hemocyanin instead of hemoglobin. Iron-containing enzymes, usually
containing heme prosthetic groups, participate in catalysis of oxidation reactions in biology,
and in transport of a number of soluble gases. See hemoglobin, cytochrome, and catalase.
Mechanical properties
Characteristic values of tensile strength (TS) and Brinell hardness
(BH) of different forms of iron.
Material TS (MPa) BH (Brinell)
Iron whiskers 11000
Ausformed (hardened) steel 2930 850-1200
Martensitic steel 2070 600
Bainitic steel 1380 400
Pearlitic steel 1200 350
Cold-worked iron 690 200
Small-grain iron 340 100
Iron containing dissolved carbon 140 40
Single crystal of pure iron 10 3
Mechanical properties of iron and its alloys are traditionally evaluated using various
measurements, such as Brinell test, Rockwell test, tensile strength and other; their results
are so much consistent among each other that universal relations are often used to relate
results of one measurement to another.[] [2] Those measurements reveal that mechanical
properties of iron crucially depend on purity: Purest research-purpose single crystals of
iron are softer than aluminium. Addition of only 10 parts per million of carbon doubles their
strength.[] The hardness increases rapidly with carbon content up to 0.2% and saturates at
~0.6%.[3] The purest industrially produced iron (about 99.99% purity) has hardness of
20-30 Brinell [4]
Allotropes
Iron represents perhaps the best-known example of allotropy in a metal. There are three
allotropic forms of iron, known as α, γ and δ.
As molten iron cools down it crystallizes at 1538 °C into its δ allotrope, which has a
body-centred cubic (bcc) crystal structure. As it cools further its crystal structure changes
to face-centred cubic (fcc) at 1394 °C, when it is known as γ-iron, or austenite. At 912 °C
the crystal structure again becomes bcc as α-iron, or ferrite, is formed, and at 770 °C (the
Curie point, Tc) the iron becomes magnetic. As the iron passes through the Curie
temperature there is no change in crystalline structure, but there is a change in "domain
structure", where each domain contains iron atoms with a particular electronic spin. In
Iron 4
unmagnetized iron, all the electronic spins of the atoms within one domain are in the same
direction; however, in neighbouring domains they point in various directions and thus
cancel out. In magnetized iron, the electronic spins of all the domains are all aligned, so
that the magnetic effects of neighbouring domains reinforce each other. Although each
domain contains billions of atoms, they are very small, about 10 microns across.
Iron is of most importance when mixed with certain other metals and with carbon to form
steels. There are many types of steels, all with different properties; and an understanding of
the properties of the allotropes of iron is key to the manufacture of good quality steels.
Alpha iron, also known as ferrite, is the most stable form of iron at normal temperatures. It
is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon (no more than
0.021% by mass at 910 °C).[5]
Above 912 °C and up to 1400 °C α-iron undergoes a phase transition from body-centred
cubic to the face-centred cubic configuration of γ-iron, also called austenite. This is
similarly soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon (as much as 2.04% by
mass at 1146 °C). This form of iron is used in the type of stainless steel used for making
cutlery, and hospital and food-service equipment.
Occurrence
Iron is the sixth most abundant
element in the Universe, formed as
the final act of nucleosynthesis, by
silicon fusing in massive stars.
While it makes up about 5% of the
Earth's crust, the Earth's core is
believed to consist largely of an
iron-nickel alloy constituting 35%
of the mass of the Earth as a
whole. Iron is consequently the
most abundant element on Earth,
but only the fourth most abundant
element in the Earth's crust.[6]
Most of the iron in the crust is
The red appearance of this water is due to ferric ion, Iron(III) or
found combined with oxygen as Fe3+, in the rocks.
iron oxide minerals such as
hematite and magnetite.
About 1 in 20 meteorites consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals taenite (35–80% iron)
and kamacite (90–95% iron). Although rare, iron meteorites are the major form of natural
metallic iron on the Earth's surface.
The red colour of the surface of Mars is thought to derive from an iron oxide-rich regolith.
Iron 5
Isotopes
Naturally occurring iron consists of four isotopes: 5.845% of radioactive 54Fe (half-life:
>3.1×1022 years), 91.754% of stable 56Fe, 2.119% of stable 57Fe and 0.282% of stable
58
Fe. 60Fe is an extinct radionuclide of long half-life (1.5 million years).
Much of the past work on measuring the isotopic composition of Fe has centred on
determining 60Fe variations due to processes accompanying nucleosynthesis (i.e., meteorite
studies) and ore formation. In the last decade however, advances in mass spectrometry
technology have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring
variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work has been driven by
the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and
industrial systems are beginning to emerge.[7]
The most abundant iron isotope 56Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists. A
common misconception is that this isotope represents the most stable nucleus possible, and
that it thus would be impossible to perform fission or fusion on 56Fe and still liberate
energy. This is not true, as both 62Ni and 58Fe are more stable, being the most stable
nuclei. However, since 56Ni is much more easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha
process in nuclear reactions in supernovae (see silicon burning process), nickel-56 (14
alpha particles) is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars, since
addition of another alpha would result in zinc-60, which requires a great deal more energy.
This nickel-56, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is therefore made in quantity in these
stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay
products in the supernova remnant gas cloud, to first radioactive cobalt-56, and then stable
iron-56. This last nuclide is therefore common in the universe, relative to other stable
metals of approximately the same atomic weight.
In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut a correlation between the
concentration of 60Ni, the daughter product of 60Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron
isotopes could be found which is evidence for the existence of 60Fe at the time of formation
of the solar system. Possibly the energy released by the decay of 60Fe contributed, together
with the energy released by decay of the radionuclide 26Al, to the remelting and
differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of
60
Ni present in extraterrestrial material may also provide further insight into the origin of
the solar system and its early history. Of the stable isotopes, only 57Fe has a nuclear spin
(−1/2).

Iron forms compounds mainly in the +2 and +3 oxidation states. Traditionally, iron(II)
compounds have been called ferrous, and iron(III) compounds ferric. There are many
compounds in each of the oxidation states (see Category:Iron compounds for a list);
representative examples would include iron(II) sulfate (FeSO4) and iron(III) chloride
(FeCl3). There are also numerous examples of compounds that contain iron atoms in both of
these oxidation states, such as magnetite and prussian blue. The ferrate anion [FeO4]2-
contains an iron(VI) centre, its highest known oxidation state, and is present, for example in
potassium ferrate (K2FeO4). There are numerous organometallic compounds (such as iron
pentacarbonyl) that contain formally zerovalent (or lower) iron.
Iron 6
History
The first wrought iron used by mankind during
prehistory came from meteors. The smelting of iron
in bloomeries began in the second millennium BC.
Artefacts from smelted iron occur in India from
1800-1200 BC.[8] in the Levant from about 1500 BC
(suggesting smelting in Anatolia or the Caucasus).[9]
[10]
The symbol for
Mars has been
used since ancient Cast iron was first produced in China about 550
times to represent BC,[11] but not in Europe until the medieval period.
iron. During the medieval period, means were found in
Europe of producing wrought iron from cast iron (in
this context known as pig iron) using finery forges.
For all these processes, charcoal was required as
fuel.
Steel (with smaller carbon content than pig iron but

more than wrought iron) was first produced in
antiquity. New methods of producing it by
carburizing bars of iron in the cementation process
were devised in the 17th century AD. In the
Industrial Revolution, new methods of producing
bar iron without charcoal were devised and these
were later applied to produce steel. In the late
1850s, Henry Bessemer invented a new steelmaking
process, involving blowing air through molten pig
iron, to produce mild steel. This and other 19th
century and later processes have led to wrought
iron no longer being produced.
The Delhi iron pillar is an example of the

iron extraction and processing
methodologies of India. The iron pillar at
Delhi has withstood corrosion for the last
1600 years.
Iron 7
The production of iron or steel is a process unless the
desired final product is cast iron. The first stage is to
produce pig iron in a blast furnace. The second is to
make wrought iron or steel from pig iron by a further
process.
Blast furnace
Ninety percent of all mining of metallic ores is for the
Iron ore pellets from Kiruna, Sweden. extraction of iron. Industrially, iron is produced starting
from iron ores, principally hematite (nominally Fe2O3)
and magnetite (Fe3O4) by a carbothermic reaction (reduction with carbon) in a blast
furnace at temperatures of about 2000 °C. In a blast furnace, iron ore, carbon in the form of
coke, and a flux such as limestone (which is used to remove impurities in the ore which
would otherwise clog the furnace with solid material) are fed into the top of the furnace,
while a blast of heated air is forced into the furnace at the bottom.
In the furnace, the coke reacts with oxygen in the air

blast to produce carbon monoxide:
2 C + O → 2 CO
2
The carbon monoxide reduces the iron ore (in the
chemical equation below, hematite) to molten iron,
Iron output in 2005 becoming carbon dioxide in the process:
3 CO + Fe2O3 → 2 Fe + 3 CO2
The flux is present to melt impurities in the ore, principally silicon dioxide sand and other
silicates. Common fluxes include limestone (principally calcium carbonate) and dolomite
(calcium-magnesium carbonate). Other fluxes may be used depending on the impurities that
need to be removed from the ore. In the heat of the furnace the limestone flux decomposes
to calcium oxide (quicklime):
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Then calcium oxide combines with silicon dioxide to form a slag.
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
The slag melts in the heat of the furnace. In the bottom of the furnace, the molten slag
floats on top of the denser molten iron, and apertures in the side of the furnace are opened
to run off the iron and the slag separately. The iron once cooled, is called pig iron, while the
slag can be used as a material in road construction or to improve mineral-poor soils for
agriculture.
Iron 8
In 2005, approximately 1,544 Mt (million metric tons)

of iron ore were produced worldwide. China was the
top producer of iron ore with at least one-fourth world
share followed by Brazil, Australia and India, reports
the British Geological Survey.
Further processes
Pig iron is not pure iron, but has 4-5% carbon dissolved
in it with small amounts of other impurities like sulfur, How Iron was extracted in the 19th
magnesium, phosphorus and manganese. As the carbon century
is the major impurity, the iron (pig iron) becomes brittle

and hard. This form of iron is used to cast articles in
foundries such as stoves, pipes, radiators, lamp-posts
and rails.
Alternatively pig iron may be made into steel (with up

to about 2% carbon) or wrought iron (commercially
pure iron). Various processes have been used for this,
including finery forges, puddling furnaces, Bessemer
converters, open hearth furnaces, basic oxygen
furnaces, and electric arc furnaces. In all cases, the This heap of iron ore pellets will be
objective is to oxidize some or all of the carbon, used in steel production.
together with other impurities. On the other hand,

other metals may be added to make alloy steels.
The hardness of the steel depends upon its carbon content, the higher the proportion of
carbon, the greater the hardness and the lesser the ductility. The properties of the steel can
also be changed by tempering it. To harden the steel, it is heated to red hot and then cooled
by quenching it in the water. It becomes harder and more brittle. This steel is then heated
to a required temperature and allowed to cool. The steel thus formed is less brittle.
Applications
Elemental iron
Iron is the most widely used of all the metals, accounting for 95% of worldwide metal
production. Its low cost and high strength make it indispensable in engineering applications
such as the construction of machinery and machine tools, automobiles, the hulls of large
ships, and structural components for buildings. Since pure iron is quite soft, it is most
commonly used in the form of steel. Some of the forms in which iron is produced
commercially include:
• Pig iron has 3.5–4.5% carbon[12] and contains varying amounts of contaminants such as
sulfur, silicon and phosphorus. Its only significance is that of an intermediate step on the
way from iron ore to cast iron and steel.
• Cast iron contains 2–4% carbon, 1–6% silicon, and small amounts of manganese.
Contaminants present in pig iron that negatively affect material properties, such as
sulfur and phosphorus, have been reduced to an acceptable level. It has a melting point
in the range of 1420–1470 K, which is lower than either of its two main components, and
Iron 9
makes it the first product to be melted when carbon and iron are heated together. Its
mechanical properties vary greatly, dependent upon the form carbon takes in the alloy.
"White" cast irons contain their carbon in the form of cementite, or iron carbide. This
hard, brittle compound dominates the mechanical properties of white cast irons,
rendering them hard, but unresistant to shock. The broken surface of a white cast iron is
full of fine facets of the broken carbide, a very pale, silvery, shiny material, hence the
appellation. In grey iron the carbon exists free as fine flakes of graphite, and also renders
the material brittle due to the stress-raising nature of the sharp edged flakes of graphite.
A newer variant of grey iron, referred to as ductile iron is specially treated with trace
amounts of magnesium to alter the shape of graphite to spheroids, or nodules, vastly
increasing the toughness and strength of the material.
• Wrought iron contains less than 0.25% carbon.[12]
It is a tough, malleable product, but not as fusible
as pig iron. If honed to an edge, it loses it quickly.
Wrought iron is characterized by the presence of
fine fibres of slag entrapped in the metal.
Wrought iron is more corrosion resistant than
steel. It has been almost completely replaced by
mild steel for traditional "wrought iron" products
and blacksmithing. Mild steel corrodes more
readily that wrought iron, but is cheaper and
more widely available. The fining process of smelting iron ore to
make wrought iron from pig iron, with the
• Carbon steel contains 2.0% carbon or less,[13] right illustration displaying men working a
with small amounts of manganese, sulfur, blast furnace, from the Tiangong Kaiwu
phosphorus, and silicon. encyclopedia, published in 1637 by Song
Yingxing.
• Alloy steels contain varying amounts of carbon as
well as other metals, such as chromium,
vanadium, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, etc. Their alloy content raises their cost, and so
they can usually only be justified for specialist uses. Recent developments in ferrous
metallurgy have produced a growing range of microalloyed steels, also termed 'HSLA' or
high-strength, low alloy steels, containing tiny additions to produce high strengths and
often spectacular toughness at minimal cost.
The main disadvantage of iron and steel is that pure iron, and most of its alloys, suffer badly
from rust if not protected in some way. Painting, galvanization, passivation, plastic coating
and bluing are some techniques used to protect iron from rust by excluding water and
oxygen or by sacrificial protection.
Iron 10
Iron compounds
• Iron oxides (FeO, Fe3O4, and Fe2O3) are ores used
for iron production (see bloomery and blast furnace).
They are also used as a catalyst in the Space Shuttle
Solid Rocket Boosters,[14] and in the production of
magnetic storage media in computers. They are often
mixed with other compounds, and retain their
magnetic properties in solution.
• Iron(II) acetate (Fe(CH3CO2)2 (ferrous acetate) is
used as a mordant in the dyeing of cloth and leather,
and as a wood preservative.
• Iron(III) ammonium citrate (C6H5+4yFexNyO7) is used Iron chloride hexahydrate
in blueprints.
• Iron(III) arsenate (FeAsO4) is used in insecticides.
• Iron(III) chloride (FeCl3) is used in water purification and sewage treatment, in the
dyeing of cloth, as a colouring agent in paints, as an additive in animal feed, and as an
etchant for copper in the manufacture of printed circuit boards.
• Iron(III) chromate (Fe2(CrO4)3) is a yellow pigment for paints and ceramics.
• Iron(III) hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) is used as a brown pigment for rubber and in water
purification systems.
• Iron(III) phosphate (FePO4) is used in fertilizers and as an additive in human and animal
food.
• Iron(II) gluconate (Fe(C6H11O7)2) is used as a dietary supplement in iron pills.
• Iron(II) oxalate (FeC2O4) is used as yellow pigment for paints, plastics, glass and
ceramics, and in photography.
• Iron(II) sulfate (FeSO4) is used in water purification and sewage treatment systems, as a
catalyst in the production of ammonia, as an ingredient in fertilizer, herbicide, and moss
killer, as an additive in animal feed, in wood preservative, and as an additive to flour to
increase nutritional iron levels. Experimental iron fertilization of areas of the ocean using
iron(II) sulfate has proven successful in increasing plankton growth.[15] [16] [17]
The use of iron compounds in organic synthesis is mainly for the reduction of nitro
compounds.[18] Additionally, iron has been used for desulfurizations,[19] reduction of
aldehydes,[20] and the deoxygenation of amine oxides.[21]
Iron 11
Biological role
Iron is essential to nearly all known organisms. In cells,
iron is generally stored in the centre of metalloproteins,
because "free" iron (which binds non-specifically to
many cellular components) can catalyse production of
toxic free radicals. Iron deficiency can lead to iron
deficiency anemia.
In animals, plants, and fungi, iron is often the metal ion

incorporated into the heme complex. Heme is an
essential component of cytochrome proteins, which
mediate redox reactions, and of oxygen carrier proteins
such as hemoglobin, myoglobin, and leghemoglobin.
Inorganic iron also contributes to redox reactions in the
iron-sulfur clusters of many enzymes, such as Structure of Heme b
nitrogenase (involved in the synthesis of ammonia from
nitrogen and hydrogen) and hydrogenase. Non-heme iron proteins include the enzymes
methane monooxygenase (oxidizes methane to methanol), ribonucleotide reductase
(reduces ribose to deoxyribose; DNA biosynthesis), hemerythrins (oxygen transport and
fixation in marine invertebrates) and purple acid phosphatase (hydrolysis of phosphate
esters).
Iron distribution is heavily regulated in mammals, partly because iron has a high potential
for biological toxicity[22] . Iron distribution is also regulated because many bacteria require
iron, so restricting its availability to bacteria (generally by sequestering it inside cells) can
help to prevent or limit infections. This is probably the reason for the relatively low
amounts of iron in mammalian milk. A major component of this regulation is the protein
transferrin, which binds iron absorbed from the duodenum and carries it in the blood to
cells.[23]
Dietary sources
Good sources of dietary iron include red meat, fish, poultry, lentils, beans, leaf vegetables,
tofu, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, fortified bread, and fortified breakfast cereals. Iron in low
amounts is found in molasses, teff and farina. Iron in meat (haem iron) is more easily
absorbed than iron in vegetables,[24] but heme/hemoglobin from red meat has effects which
may increase the likelihood of colorectal cancer.[25] [26]
Iron provided by dietary supplements is often found as iron (II) fumarate, although iron
sulfate is cheaper and is absorbed equally well. Elemental iron, despite being absorbed to a
much smaller extent (stomach acid is sufficient to convert some of it to ferrous iron), is
often added to foods such as breakfast cereals or "enriched" wheat flour (where it is listed
as "reduced iron" in the list of ingredients). Iron is most available to the body when
chelated to amino acids - iron in this form is ten to fifteen times more bioavailable[27] than
any other, and is also available for use as a common iron supplement. Often the amino acid
chosen for this purpose is the cheapest and most common amino acid, glycine, leading to
"iron glycinate" supplements.[28] The RDA for iron varies considerably based on age,
gender, and source of dietary iron (heme-based iron has higher bioavailability).[29] Infants
may require iron supplements if they are breast-fed.[30] Blood donors and pregnant women
Iron 12
are at special risk of low iron levels and are often advised to supplement their iron intake.
Regulation of uptake
Excessive iron can be toxic, because free ferrous iron reacts with peroxides to produce free
radicals, which are highly reactive and can damage DNA, proteins, lipids, and other cellular
components. Thus, iron toxicity occurs when there is free iron in the cell, which generally
occurs when iron levels exceed the capacity of transferrin to bind the iron.
Iron uptake is tightly regulated by the human body, which has no regulated physiological
means of excreting iron. Only small amounts of iron are lost daily due to mucosal and skin
epithelial cell sloughing, so control of iron levels is mostly by regulating uptake.[31]
However, large amounts of ingested iron can cause excessive levels of iron in the blood
because high iron levels can damage the cells of the gastrointestinal tract, preventing them
from regulating iron absorption. The resulting high blood concentrations of iron damage
cells in the heart, liver and elsewhere, which can cause serious problems, including
long-term organ damage and even death.
Humans experience iron toxicity above 20 milligrams of iron for every kilogram of mass,
and 60 milligrams per kilogram is a lethal dose.[32] Over-consumption of iron, often the
result of children eating large quantities of ferrous sulfate tablets intended for adult
consumption, is one of the most common toxicological causes of death in children under
six.[32] The DRI lists the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults as 45 mg/day. For
children under fourteen years old the UL is 40 mg/day.
Regulation of iron uptake is impaired in some people as a result of a genetic defect that
maps to the HLA-H gene region on chromosome 6. In these people, excessive iron intake
can result in iron overload disorders, such as hemochromatosis. Many people have a
genetic susceptibility to iron overload without realizing it or being aware of a family history
of the problem. For this reason, it is advised that people do not take iron supplements
unless they suffer from iron deficiency and have consulted a doctor. Hemochromatosis is
estimated to cause disease in between 0.3 and 0.8% of Caucasians.[33]
The medical management of iron toxicity is complex, and can include use of a specific
chelating agent called deferoxamine to bind and expel excess iron from the body.[34] .
See also
• El Mutún in Bolivia, where 20% of the world's accessible iron and magnesium is located.
• Iron Age
• Iron fertilization - Proposed fertilization of oceans to stimulate phytoplankton growth.
• Iron (metaphor)
• Iron in mythology
• List of countries by iron production
• Pelletising - Process of creation of iron ore pellets.
• Rustproof iron
• Specht Building - A historic landmark in Omaha, Nebraska utilizing an iron facade.
Iron 13
Books
• Doulias PT, Christoforidis S, Brunk UT, Galaris D. Endosomal and lysosomal effects of
desferrioxamine: protection of HeLa cells from hydrogen peroxide-induced DNA damage
and induction of cell-cycle arrest. Free Radic Biol Med. 2003;35:719-28.
• H. R. Schubert, History of the British Iron and Steel Industry ... to 1775 AD (Routledge,
London, 1957)
• R. F. Tylecote, History of Metallurgy (Institute of Materials, London 1992).
• R. F. Tylecote, 'Iron in the Industrial Revolution' in J. Day and R. F. Tylecote, The
Industrial Revolution in Metals (Institute of Materials 1991), 200-60.
External links
• WebElements.com – Iron [35]
• It's Elemental – Iron [36]
[37]
• The Most Tightly Bound Nuclei
• Crystal structure of iron [38]
References
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[2] " Hardness Conversion Chart (http:/ / mdmetric. com/ tech/ hardnessconversion. html)". . Retrieved
2009-07-07.
[3] V. Raghavan (2004). Materials Science and Engineering (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=LgB5dkmPML0C& pg=PA218). PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. p. 218. ISBN 8120324552. .
[4] " Properties of Various Pure Irons : Study on pure iron I (http:/ / ci. nii. ac. jp/ naid/ 110001459778/ en)".
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[5] John Wilson Martin (2007). Concise encyclopedia of the structure of materials (http:/ / books. google. com/
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[6] " Iron: geological information (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ iron/ geology. html)". . Retrieved 2008-05-21..
[7] Dauphas, N. & Rouxel, O. 2006. Mass spectrometry and natural variations of iron isotopes. Mass Spectrometry
Reviews, 25, 515-550
[8] The origins of Iron Working in India: New evidence from the Central Ganga plain and the Eastern Vindhyas by
Rakesh Tewari (Director, U.P. State Archaeological Department) (http:/ / antiquity. ac. uk/ projgall/ tewari/
tewari. pdf)
[9] E. Photos, 'The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and
Experimental Results' World Archaeology Vol. 20, No. 3, Archaeometallurgy (Feb., 1989), pp. 403-421.
[10] Muhly, James D. 'Metalworking/Mining in the Levant' pp. 174-83 in Near Eastern Archaeology ed. S. Richard
Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns (2003): 180.
[11] Donald B. Wagner, 'Chinese blast furnaces from the 10th to the 14th century' Historical Metallurgy 37(1)
(2003), 25-37; originally published in West Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine 18 (2001), 41-74.
[12] Camp, James McIntyre; Francis, Charles Blaine (1920). The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=P9MxAAAAMAAJ). Pittsburgh: Carnegie Steel Company. pp. 173–174. .
[13] " Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels (http:/ / www. key-to-steel. com/ Articles/ Art62. htm)". .
[14] http:/ / science. ksc. nasa. gov/ shuttle/ technology/ sts-newsref/ srb. html
[15] Vivian Marx (2002). " The Little Plankton That Could…Maybe (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article.
cfm?articleID=000A5750-8AC2-1D9C-815A809EC5880000)". Scientific American. .
[16] Melinda Ferguson, David Labiak, Andrew Madden, Joseph Peltier. " The Effect of Iron on Plankton Use of
CO2 (http:/ / www. cem. msu. edu/ ~cem181h/ projects/ 96/ iron/ cem. html)". CEM 181H. . Retrieved
2007-05-05.
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[19] Blomquist, A. T.; Dinguid, L. I. (1947). J. Org. Chem. 12&page=718.

[20] Clarke, H. T.; Dreger, E. E. (1941). Organic Synthesis 1: 304.; Vol. 6, p.52 (1926). ( Article (http:/ / www.
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[22] http:/ / cat. inist. fr/ ?aModele=afficheN& cpsidt=17328512
[23] Tracey A. Rouault. " How Mammals Acquire and Distribute Iron Needed for Oxygen-Based Metabolism (http:/
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(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0899-9007(01)00519-6). PMID 11377130.
[28] Ashmead, H. DeWayne (1989). Conversations on Chelation and Mineral Nutrition. Keats Publishing. ISBN
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[29] " Dietary Reference Intakes: Elements (http:/ / www. iom. edu/ Object. File/ Master/ 7/ 294/ 0. pdf)" (PDF).
The National Academies. 2001. . Retrieved 2008-05-21.
[30] " Iron Deficiency Anemia (http:/ / bodyandhealth. canada. com/ condition_info_details. asp?disease_id=274)"
(web page). MediResource. . Retrieved 2008-12-17.
[31] Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K; Fausto, Nelson (2005). " Anemia (http:/ / www. mdconsult. com/ das/ book/
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[33] Durupt S, Durieu I, Nove-Josserand R, et al.: [Hereditary hemochromatosis]. Rev Med Interne 2000 Nov;
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[34] Miller, Marvin J. (1989-11-01). "Syntheses and therapeutic potential of hydroxamic acid based siderophores
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cr00097a011).
[35] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Fe/ index. html
[37] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ nucene/ nucbin2. html
[38] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Fe/ xtal. html

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License
Cobalt 1
Cobalt
iron ← cobalt → nickel -
↑
Co
↓
Rh

27Co
Periodic table
Appearance hard lustrous gray metal

shell Physical properties ColorDensity (near r.t.) Liquid density at m.p.Melting pointBoiling
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1790 1960 2165 2423 2755 3198

Cobalt 2

isotopes Main article: Isotopes of cobalt
56 syn 77.27 d ε 4.566 56

Co Fe
57 syn 271.79 d ε 0.836 57

Co Fe
58 syn 70.86 d ε 2.307 58

Co Fe
59 100% 59
Co Co is stable with 32 neutron
60 syn 5.2714 years 2.824

β−,γ,γ 60
Co Ni
cobalt, Co, 27 transition metal9, 4, d58.933195(5) g·mol−1 [Ar] 4s2 3d7 2, 8, 15, 2 (Image)
metallic gray 8.90 g·cm−3 7.75 g·cm−3 1768 K,1495 °C,2723 °F 3200 K,2927 °C,5301 °F
16.06 kJ·mol−1 377 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 24.81 J·mol−1·K−1 5, 4 , 3, 2, 1 [1] , -1
(amphoteric oxide) 1.88 (Pauling scale) 1st: 760.4 kJ·mol−1125 pm126±3 (low spin), 150±7
(high spin) pm hexagonal ferromagnetic (20 °C) 62.4 nΩ·m (300 K) 100 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C)
13.0 µm·m−1·K−1 (20 °C) 4720 m/s 209 GPa 75 GPa 180 GPa 0.31 5.0 1043 MPa 700 MPa
7440-48-4
Cobalt (pronounced /'kəʊbɒlt/)[2] is a hard, lustrous, grey metal, a chemical element with
symbol Co and atomic number 27. Although cobalt-based colors and pigments have been
used since ancient times for making jewelry and paints, and miners have long used the
name kobold ore for some minerals, the free metallic cobalt was not prepared and
discovered until 1735 by Georg Brandt.
Cobalt is found in various metallic-lustered ores for example cobaltite (CoAsS), but it is
produced as a by-product of copper and nickel mining. The copper belt in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo and Zambia yields most of the worldwide mined cobalt.
Cobalt is used in the preparation of magnetic, wear-resistant, and high-strength alloys.
Cobalt blue (cobalt(II) aluminate, CoAl2O4) gives a distinctive deep blue color to glass,
ceramics, inks, paints, and varnishes. Cobalt-60 is a commercially important radioisotope,
used as a tracer and in the production of gamma rays for industrial use.
Cobalt is an essential trace-element for all multicellular organisms as the active center of
coenzymes called cobalamins. These include vitamin B-12 which is essential for mammals.
Cobalt is also an active nutrient for bacteria, algae, and fungi, and may be a necessary
nutrient for all life.
Characteristics
Cobalt is a ferromagnetic metal. Pure cobalt is not found in nature, but compounds of
cobalt are common. Small amounts of it are found in most rocks, soil, plants, and animals. It
is the element of atomic number 27. The Curie temperature is 1115 °C, and the magnetic
moment is 1.6–1.7 Bohr magnetons per atom. In nature, it is frequently associated with
nickel, and both are characteristic minor components of meteoric iron. Mammals require
small amounts of cobalt which is the basis of vitamin B12. Cobalt-60, an artificially produced
radioactive isotope of cobalt, is an important radioactive tracer and cancer-treatment
Cobalt 3
agent. Cobalt has a relative permeability two thirds that of iron. Metallic cobalt occurs as
two crystallographic structures: hcp and fcc. The ideal transition temperature between hcp
and fcc structures is 450 °C, but in practice, the energy difference is so small that random
intergrowth of the two is common.[3]
History
Cobalt compounds have been used for centuries to impart a rich blue color to glass, glazes,
and ceramics. Cobalt has been detected in Egyptian sculpture and Persian jewelry from the
third millennium BC, in the ruins of Pompeii (destroyed AD 79), and in China dating from
the Tang dynasty (AD 618–907) and the Ming dynasty (AD 1368–1644)[4] . Cobalt glass
ingots have been recovered from the Uluburun shipwreck, dating to the late 14th century
BC.[5]
Swedish chemist Georg Brandt (1694–1768) is credited with isolating cobalt circa 1735.[6]
He was able to show that cobalt was the source of the blue color in glass, which previously
had been attributed to the bismuth found with cobalt. The word cobalt is derived from the
German kobalt, from kobold meaning "goblin", a term used for the ore of cobalt by miners.
The first attempts at smelting the cobalt ores to produce cobalt metal failed, yielding
cobalt(II) oxide instead. Also, because the primary ores of cobalt always contain arsenic,
smelting the ore oxidized into the highly toxic and volatile oxide As4O6, which was inhaled
by workers.
During the 19th century, cobalt blue was produced at the Norwegian Blaafarveværket
(70–80% of world production), led by the Prussian industrialist Benjamin Wegner.
In 1938, John Livingood and Glenn Seaborg discovered cobalt-60. This isotope was
famously used at Columbia University in the 1950s to establish parity violation in beta
decay.
Occurrence
Cobalt occurs in copper and nickel minerals and in combination with sulfur and arsenic in
the sulfidic cobaltite (CoAsS), safflorite (CoAs2) and skutterudite (CoAs3) minerals.[7] The
mineral cattierite is similar to pyrite and occurs together vaesite in the copper deposits in
the Katanga Province.[8] If the sulfides come in contact with the atmosphere weathering
starts transforming the minerals by oxidation. The products of the oxidation are for example
pink erythrite ('cobalt glance': Co3(AsO4)2·8H2O) and sphaerocobaltite (CoCO3).
Production
Cobalt is not found as a native metal but generally found in
the form of ores. Cobalt is usually not mined alone, and tends
to be produced as a by-product of nickel and copper mining
activities. The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite,
glaucodot, and skutterudite.[9] [10]
In 2005, the copper deposits in the Katanga Province (former
Shaba province) of the Democratic Republic of
Cobalt ore
Cobalt 4
the Congo was the top producer of cobalt with almost

40% world share, reports the British Geological
Survey.[11] The problematic political situation in the
Congo influences the price of cobalt significantly, best
example was the Shaba crisis in 1978.[12]
There are several methods which can be used to Cobalt output in 2005
separate cobalt from copper and nickel. They depend
on the concentration of cobalt and the exact
composition of the used ore. The first possible
separation step is the froth flotation of the ore, in which
special surfactants yield in an enrichment of cobalt. The
following roasting of the ores can be conducted in a
way that the cobalt sulfide is oxidized to the cobalt
sulfate, while the copper and the iron are oxidized to
the oxide. The leaching with water extracts the
sulphate together with the arsenates. The residues are World production trend
further leached with sulfuric acid yielding a solution of
copper sulfate. They also present iron nickel and cobalt salts can be precipitated by
chlorine or hypochloride. If the copper is not produced by leaching and electrowinning but
by the pyrometallurgic process, the cobalt can be leached from the slag of the copper
smelter.[13]
All the above mentioned processes yield copper compounds which are transformed into the
cobalt oxide Co3O4. The reduction to the metal is done either by the aluminothermic
reaction or reduction with carbon in a blast furnace.[7]
In 2008, The London Metal Exchange announced that Cobalt would be be traded as a
commodity on the London Metal Exchange.[14]
Isotopes
59
Cobalt is the only stable cobalt isotope. 22 radioisotopes have been characterized with
the most stable being 60Co with a half-life of 5.2714 years, 57Co with a half-life of
271.79 days, 56Co with a half-life of 77.27 days, and 58Co with a half-life of 70.86 days. All
of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 18 hours, and the
majority of these are less than 1 second. This element also has 4 meta states, all of which
have half-lives less than 15 minutes.
The isotopes of cobalt range in atomic weight from 50 u (50Co) to 73 u (73Co). The primary
decay mode for isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the most abundant
stable isotope, 59Co, is electron capture and the primary mode of decay for those of greater
than 59 atomic mass units is beta decay. The primary decay products before 59Co are
element 26 (iron) isotopes and the primary products after are element 28 (nickel) isotopes.
Cobalt 5
Cobalt radioisotopes in medicine

Cobalt-60 (Co-60 or 60Co) is a radioactive metal that is used in radiotherapy. It produces
two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. The 60Co source is about 2 cm in
diameter and as a result produces a geometric penumbra, making the edge of the radiation
field fuzzy. The metal has the unfortunate habit of producing a fine dust, causing problems
with radiation protection. Cobalt-60 has a radioactive half-life of 5.27 years. This decrease
in activity requires periodic replacement of the sources used in radiotherapy and is one
reason why cobalt machines have been largely replaced by linear accelerators in modern
radiation therapy. Cobalt from radiotherapy machines has been a serious hazard when not
disposed of properly, and one of the worst radiation contamination accidents in North
America occurred in 1984, after a discarded cobalt-60 containing radiotherapy unit was
mistakenly disassembled in a junkyard in Juarez, Mexico.[15]
Cobalt-57 (Co-57 or 57Co) is a cobalt radioisotope most often used in medical tests, as a
radiolabel for vitamin B12 uptake, and for the Schilling test.[16]
Industrial uses for radioactive isotopes

Cobalt-60 (Co-60 or 60Co) is useful as a gamma ray source because it can be produced in
predictable quantity and high activity by simply exposing natural cobalt to neutrons in a
reactor for a period. Its uses include sterilization of medical supplies and medical waste,
radiation treatment of foods for sterilization (cold pasteurization), industrial radiography
(e.g., weld integrity radiographs), density measurements (e.g., concrete density
measurements), and tank fill height switches. Cobalt-57 is used as a source in Mössbauer
spectroscopy and is one of several possible sources in XRF devices (Lead Paint Spectrum
Analyzers).
Cobalt-60 as weapon
Nuclear weapon designs could intentionally incorporate 59Co, some of which would be
activated in a nuclear explosion to produce 60Co. The 60Co, dispersed as nuclear fallout,
creates what is sometimes called a dirty bomb or cobalt bomb.[17]
Applications
Alloys
The cobalt based superalloys consume most of the produced cobalt. The temperature
stability of these alloys makes them suitable for turbine blades within gas turbines and jet
aircraft engines. The nickel-based single crystal alloys surpass the cobalt based in
temperature stability, but the cobalt based are still in use. These alloys are also corrosion
and wear-resistant.[18] Special cobalt chromium molybdenum alloys are used for prosthetic
parts such as hip and knee replacements.[19] Cobalt alloys are also used for dental
prosthetics, where they are useful to avoid allergies to nickel.[20] Some high speed steels
also use cobalt to increase heat and wear-resistance. The special alloys of aluminium,
nickel, cobalt and iron, known as Alnico, and of samarium and cobalt (samarium-cobalt
magnet) are used in permanent magnets.[21]
Cobalt 6
Batteries
Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) is widely used in Lithium ion battery electrodes.[22]
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) and nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries also contain significant
amounts of cobalt.
Catalyst
Several cobalt compounds are used in chemical reactions as catalysts. Cobalt acetate is
used for the production of terephthalic acid as well as dimethyl terephthalic acid, which are
key compounds in the production of Polyethylene terephthalate. The steam reforming and
hydrodesulfuration for the production of petroleum, which uses mixed cobalt molybdenum
aluminium oxides as a catalyst, is another important application.[22] Cobalt and its
compounds, especially cobalt carboxylates (known as cobalt soaps), are good oxidation
catalysts. They are used in paints, varnishes, and inks as drying agents through the
oxidation of certain compounds.[22] The same carboxylates are used to improve the
adhesion of the steel to rubber in steel-belted radial tires.[22]
Pigments and coloring

Before the 19th century, the predominant use of cobalt was
the pigmentation of glass. The colors cobalt blue and cobalt
green originated from this use.[23]
Cobalt has been used to color glass since the Bronze Age. The
excavation of the Uluburun shipwreck yielded an ingot of blue
glass which was cast during the 14th century BC.[24] Blue
glass items from Egypt are colored with copper, iron, or
Cobalt blue glass
cobalt. The oldest cobalt-colored glass was from the time of
the Eighteenth dynasty (1550–1292 BC). The location where
the cobalt compounds were obtained is unknown.[25] [26]
Other uses
• Electroplating due to its appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation
• Ground coats for porcelain enamels
• Purification of histidine-tagged fusion proteins in biotechnology applications
Compounds
Common oxidation states of cobalt include +2 and +3, although compounds with oxidation
state +1 are also known. The most stable oxidation state for simple compounds is +2.
Cobalt(II) salts form the red-pink [Co(H2O)6]2+ complex in aqueous solution. Adding excess
chloride will change the color from pink to blue, due to the formation of [CoCl4]2-.
Cobalt 7
Chalcogen compounds
Several oxides of cobalt are known. Green cobalt(II) oxide (CoO) has NaCl structure and is
readily oxidized with water and oxygen to brown cobalt(III) hydroxide (Co(OH)3). At
temperatures of 400–500 °C the CoO is oxidized to the blue cobalt(II,III) oxide (Co3O4),
which has spinel structure. The brown cobalt(III) oxide (Co2O3) is the least stable of the
oxides. Cobalt oxides are antiferromagnetic at low temperature: CoO (Neel temperature
291 K) and Co3O4 (Neel temperature: 40 K), which is analogous to magnetite (Fe3O4), with
a mixture of +2 and +3 oxidation states. The oxide Co2O3 is probably unstable; it has never
been synthesized.
The sulfur compounds are the two black cobalt(II) sulfide (CoS2) and cobalt(III) sulfide
(Co2S3).
Halogen compounds
The halogen compounds of cobalt are cobalt(II) fluoride (CoF2), cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl2),
cobalt(II) bromide (CoBr2), cobalt(II) iodide (CoI2), and cobalt(III) fluoride (CoF3). Cobalt(II)
chloride is commonly found as an indicator of dryness in silica gel beads used as a
desiccant. Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride is blue, while the hexahydrate is red. The reduction
potential for Co3+ + e− → Co2+ (+1.92 V) is far beyond the one for chlorine. As a
consequence, only the fluoride is able to exist in the cobalti-status.
Coordination compounds
Other than Co3O4 and the brown fluoride CoF3 (which is instantly hydrolyzed in water), all
compounds containing cobalt in the +3 oxidation state are stabilized by complex ion
formation. Examples for the more exotic oxidation states +1, +4 and +5 are the compounds
tris(triphenylphosphine)cobalt(I) chloride ((P(C6H5)3)3CoCl), caesium hexafluorocobaltate
(Cs2CoF6)) and potassium percobaltate (K3CoO4).[7]
The class of vitamin B12 compounds are coordination complexes of elaborated corrin rings
with a central cobalt atom.
Alfred Werner, a pioneer in coordination chemistry, worked with compounds of empirical
formula CoCl3(NH3)6; one of the isomers determined was cobalt(III) hexammine chloride.
This coordination complex, a "typical" Werner-type complex, consists of a central cobalt
atom coordinated by six ammine ligands orthogonal to each other, and three chloride
counteranions.
Using chelating ethylenediamine ligands in place of ammonia gives
tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) chloride ([Co(en)3]Cl), which was one of the first
coordination complex showing stereochemistry. The complex can take either right- or
left-handed forms of a three-bladed propeller. This complex was first isolated by Werner as
yellow-gold needle-like crystals.[27]
Cobaltocene is a fairly stable cobalt analog to ferrocene.
Cobalt 8
Biological role
Cobalt in small amounts is essential to many living

organisms, including humans. Having 0.13 to
0.30 mg/kg of cobalt in soils markedly improves the
health of grazing animals. Cobalt is a central
component of the vitamin cobalamin, or vitamin B12.
Although cobalt proteins are less common than proteins
containing metals like manganese, iron, or zinc, several
are known. Most cobalt proteins use a cofactor based
on the corrin cobalt, derived from vitamin B12, but there
are also a few proteins known in which cobalt is directly
coordinated by the protein structure; Methionine
aminopeptidase 2 and Nitrile hydratase are two
examples.[28]
Precautions
Although cobalt is an essential element for life in
Cobalamin
minute amounts, at higher levels of exposure it shows
mutagenic and carcinogenic effects similar to nickel
(see Cobalt Poisoning).[29] In 1966, the addition of cobalt compounds to stabilize beer foam
in Canada led to cardiomyopathy, which came to be known as beer drinker's
cardiomyopathy.[30] Powdered cobalt in metal form is a fire hazard. After nickel and
chromium, cobalt is a major cause of contact dermatitis.[31]
External links
[32]
• National Pollutant Inventory - Cobalt fact sheet
• WebElements.com – Cobalt [33]
[34]
• London celebrates 50 years of Cobalt-60 Radiotherapy
References
[1] Choi, Hyungsoo (2003). "Liquid Cobalt (I) Hydride Complexes as Precursors for Chemical Vapor Deposition".
Chemistry of Materials 15: 3121. doi: 10.1021/cm030100e (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ cm030100e).
[2] Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Edition 1989.
[3] " Properties and Facts for Cobalt (http:/ / www. americanelements. com/ co. html)". . Retrieved 2008-09-19.
[4] Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
[5] Pulak, Cemal (1998). "The Uluburun shipwreck: an overview". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology
27 (3): 188–224. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-9270.1998.tb00803.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1111/ j. 1095-9270. 1998.
tb00803. x).
[6] Wang, Shijie (2006). "Cobalt—Its recovery, recycling, and application". Journal of the Minerals, Metals and
Materials Society 58 (10): 47–50. doi: 10.1007/s11837-006-0201-y (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/
s11837-006-0201-y).
[7] Holleman, A. F., Wiberg, E., Wiberg, N. (2007). "Cobalt" (in German). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie,
102nd ed.. de Gruyter. pp. 1146–1152. ISBN 9783110177701.
[8] Kerr, Paul F. (1945). Cattierite and Vaesite: New Co-Ni Minerals from the Belgian Kongo (http:/ / www.
minsocam. org/ ammin/ AM30/ AM30_483. pdf). 30. pp. 483–492. .
[9] Shedd, Kim B.. " Mineral Yearbook 2006: Cobalt (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
cobalt/ myb1-2006-cobal. pdf)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-10-26.
Cobalt 9
[10] Shedd, Kim B.. " Commodity Report 2008: Cobalt (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
cobalt/ mcs-2008-cobal. pdf)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-10-26.
[11] " African Mineral Production (http:/ / www. bgs. ac. uk/ mineralsuk/ downloads/ african_mp_01_05. pdf)".
British Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[12] Wellmer, Friedrich-Wilhelm. " Global Nonfuel Mineral Resources and Sustainability (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/
circ/ 2007/ 1294/ paper1. html)". . Retrieved 2009-05-16.
[13] Joseph R. Davis (2000). ASM specialty handbook: nickel, cobalt, and their alloys (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=IePhmnbmRWkC& dq=cobalt+ copper+ nickel+ ore+ separate& lr=& num=100& as_brr=3&
source=gbs_navlinks_s). ASM International. p. 347. ISBN 0871706857. .
[14] " LME to launch minor metals contracts in H2 2009 (http:/ / lme. com/ 6241. asp)". London Metal Exchange. 4
September 2009. . Retrieved 28 July 2009.
[15] " The Juarez accident (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?sec=health&
res=9501E7D71338F932A35756C0A962948260)". New York Times. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[16] " An overview of cobalt radioisotopes in medicine (http:/ / www. helium. com/ items/
876792-an-overview-of-cobalt-radioisotopes-in-medicine)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[17] Payne, L.R. (1977). " The Hazards of Cobalt (http:/ / occmed. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 27/ 1/
20)". Occupational Medicine 27: 20–25. doi: 10.1093/occmed/27.1.20 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ occmed/
27. 1. 20). .
[18] Donachie, Matthew J. (2002). Superalloys: A Technical Guide (http:/ / books. google. de/
books?id=vjCJ5pI1QpkC). ASM International. ISBN 9780871707499. .
[19] Michel, R.; Nolte, M.; Reich M.; Löer, F. (1991). "Systemic effects of implanted prostheses made of
cobalt-chromium alloys". Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery 110 (2): 61–74. doi:
10.1007/BF00393876 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF00393876).
[20] Disegi, John A. (1999). Cobalt-base Aloys for Biomedical Applications (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=z4rXM1EnPugC). ASTM International. ISBN 0803126085. ., p 34
[21] Luborsky, F. E.; Mendelsohn, L. I.; Paine, T. O. (1957). "Reproducing the Properties of Alnico Permanent
Magnet Alloys with Elongated Single-Domain Cobalt-Iron Particles". Journal Applied Physics 28 (344): 344. doi:
10.1063/1.1722744 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 1722744).
[22] Hawkins, M. (2001). "Why we need cobalt". Applied Earth Science: Transactions of the Institution of Mining
& Metallurgy, Section B 110 (2): 66–71.
[23] Venetskii, S. (1970). "The charge of the guns of peace". Metallurgist 14 (5): 334–336. doi:
[24] Henderson, Julian (2000). " Glass (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=p9xJ-VpUuNkC)". The Science and
Archaeology of Materials: An Investigation of Inorganic Materials. Routledge. p. 60. ISBN 9780415199339. .
[25] Rehren, Th. (2003). "Aspects of the Production of Cobalt-blue Glass in Egypt". Archaeometry 43 (4): 483–489.
doi: 10.1111/1475-4754.00031 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1111/ 1475-4754. 00031).
[26] Lucas, A. (2003). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=GugkliLHDMoC). Kessinger Publishing. p. 217. ISBN 9780766151413. .
[27] A. Werner (1912). "Zur Kenntnis des asymmetrischen Kobaltatoms. V". Chemische Berichte 45: 121–130. doi:
[28] Kobayashi, Michihiko; Shimizu, Sakayu (1999). "Cobalt proteins". European Journal of Biochemistry 261 (1):
1–9. doi: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.1999.00186.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1046/ j. 1432-1327. 1999. 00186. x).
[29] " Report on Carcinogens, Eleventh Edition: Cobalt Sulfate (http:/ / ntp. niehs. nih. gov/ ntp/ roc/ eleventh/
profiles/ s048zcob. pdf)". National Toxicology Program. . Retrieved 2008-11-13.
[30] Donald G. Barceloux; Donald Barceloux (1999). "Cobalt". Clinical Toxicology 37 (2): 201–216. doi:
[31] Basketter, David A.; Angelini, Gianni; Ingber, Arieh; Kern, Petra S.; Menné, Torkil (2003). "Nickel, chromium
and cobalt in consumer products: revisiting safe levels in the new millennium". Contact Dermatitis 49 (1): 1–7.
doi: 10.1111/j.0105-1873.2003.00149.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1111/ j. 0105-1873. 2003. 00149. x).
[33] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Co/ key. html
[34] http:/ / www. caro-acro. ca/ caro/ educ/ publ/ vig/ vignettes/ cobalt/ Interactions. pdf

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License
Nickel 1
Nickel
cobalt ← nickel → copper -
↑
Ni
↓
Pd

28Ni
Periodic table
Appearance lustrous, metallic and

silvery with a gold tinge

Nickel 2

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1783 1950 2154 2410 2741 3184

(more) 2nd: 1753.0 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 3395 kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radiusVan der Waals
registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of nickel
56 syn 6.075 d ε - 56
Ni Co
γ 0.158, 0.811 -
58 68.077% 58
Ni Ni is stable with 30 neutron
59 syn 76000 y ε - 59
Ni Co
60 26.233% 60
61 1.14% 61
62 3.634% 62
63 syn 100.1 y 0.0669

β− 63
Ni Cu
64 0.926% 64
nickel, Ni, 28 transition metal10, 4, d58.6934(2) g·mol−1 [Ar] 4s1 3d9 2, 8, 17, 1 (Image)
kJ·mol−1 377.5 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 26.07 J·mol−1·K−1 4[1] , 3, 2, 1 [2] , -1
(mildly basic oxide) 1.91 (Pauling scale) 1st: 737.1 kJ·mol−1124 pm124±4 pm 163 pm
face-centered cubic ferromagnetic (20 °C) 69.3 nΩ·m (300 K) 90.9 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 13.4
µm·m−1·K−1 (r.t.) 4900 m·s−1 200 GPa 76 GPa 180 GPa 0.31 4.0 638 MPa 700 MPa
7440-02-0
Nickel (pronounced /ˈnɪkəl/) is a chemical element, with the chemical symbol Ni and
atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. It is one of
the four ferromagnetic elements at about room temperature. Its use has been traced as far
back as 3500 BC, but it was first isolated and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by
Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who initially mistook its ore for a copper mineral. Its most
important ore minerals are laterites, including limonite and garnierite, and pentlandite.
Major production sites include Sudbury region in Canada, New Caledonia and Russia. The
metal is corrosion-resistant, finding many uses in alloys, as a plating, in the manufacture of
coins, magnets and common household utensils, as a catalyst for hydrogenation, and in a
variety of other applications. Enzymes of certain life-forms contain nickel as an active
center making the metal essential for them.
Nickel 3
Characteristics
Nickel is a silvery-white metal with a slight golden tinge that takes a high polish. It is one of
only four elements that are magnetic at or near room temperature. It belongs to the
transition metals and is hard and ductile. It occurs most often in combination with sulfur
and iron in pentlandite, with sulfur in millerite, with arsenic in the mineral nickeline, and
with arsenic and sulfur in nickel galena.[3] Nickel is commonly found in iron meteorites as
the alloys kamacite and taenite. Similar to the elements chromium, aluminium and titanium,
nickel is a very reactive element, but is slow to react in air at normal temperatures and
pressures due to the formation of a protective oxide surface. Due to its permanence in air
and its slow rate of oxidation, it is used in coins, for plating metals such as iron and brass,
for chemical apparatus, and in certain alloys such as German silver.
Nickel is chiefly valuable for the alloys it forms, especially many superalloys, and
particularly stainless steel. Nickel is also a naturally magnetostrictive material, meaning
that in the presence of a magnetic field, the material undergoes a small change in length.[4]
In the case of nickel, this change in length is negative (contraction of the material), which is
known as negative magnetostriction and is on the order of 50 ppm.
The most common oxidation state of nickel is +2 with several Ni complexes known. It is
also thought that a +6 oxidation state may exist, however, this has not been demonstrated
conclusively. The unit cell of nickel is a face centered cube with a lattice parameter of
0.352 nm giving a radius of the atom of 0.125 nm.[5]
Because the ores of nickel are easily mistaken for ores of silver, understanding of this metal
and its use dates to relatively recent times. However, the unintentional use of nickel is
ancient, and can be traced back as far as 3500 BC. Bronzes from what is now Syria had
contained up to 2% nickel.[6] Further, there are Chinese manuscripts suggesting that "white
copper" (cupronickel, known as baitung) was used there between 1700 and 1400 BC. This
Paktong white copper was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century, but the nickel
content of this alloy was not discovered until 1822.[7]
In medieval Germany, a red mineral was found in the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains) which
resembled copper ore. However, when miners were unable to extract any copper from it
they blamed a mischievous sprite of German mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick) for
besetting the copper. They called this ore Kupfernickel from the German Kupfer for
copper.[8] [9] [10] [11] This ore is now known to be nickeline or niccolite, a nickel arsenide. In
1751, Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt was attempting to extract copper from kupfernickel
and obtained instead a white metal that he named after the spirit which had given its name
to the mineral, nickel.[12] In modern German, Kupfernickel or Kupfer-Nickel designates the
alloy cupronickel.
In the United States, the term "nickel" or "nick" was originally applied to the copper-nickel
Indian cent coin introduced in 1859. Later, the name designated the three-cent coin
introduced in 1865, and the following year the five-cent shield nickel appropriated the
designation, which has remained ever since. Coins of pure nickel were first used in 1881 in
Switzerland.[9] [13]
After its discovery the only source for nickel was the rare Kupfernickel, but from 1824 on
the nickel was obtained as byproduct of cobalt blue production. The first large scale
producer of nickel was Norway, which exploited nickel rich pyrrhotite from 1848 on. The
introduction of nickel in steel production in 1889 increased the demand for nickel and the
nickel deposits of New Caledonia, which were discovered in 1865, provided most of the
Nickel 4
world's supply between 1875 and 1915. The discovery of the large deposits in the Sudbury
Basin, Canada in 1883, in Norilsk-Talnakh, Russia in 1920 and in the Merensky Reef, South
Africa in 1924 made large-scale production of nickel possible.[7]
Occurrence
See also: Ore genesis, Category:Nickel minerals
The bulk of the nickel mined comes from two types of
ore deposits. The first are laterites where the principal
ore minerals are nickeliferous limonite: (Fe, Ni)O(OH)
and garnierite (a hydrous nickel silicate): (Ni,
Mg)3Si2O5(OH). The second are magmatic sulfide
deposits where the principal ore mineral is pentlandite:
(Ni, Fe)9S8.
In terms of supply, the Sudbury region of Ontario,

Canada, produces about 30 percent of the world's
supply of nickel. The Sudbury Basin deposit is theorized
to have been created by a meteorite impact event early
Widmanstätten pattern showing the
in the geologic history of Earth. Russia contains about
two forms of Nickel-Iron, Kamacite and
Taenite, in an octahedrite meteorite
40% of the world's known resources at the Norilsk
deposit in Siberia. The Russian mining company MMC
Norilsk Nickel obtains the nickel and the associated palladium for world distribution. Other
major deposits of nickel are found in New Caledonia, France, Australia, Cuba, and
Indonesia. Deposits found in tropical areas typically consist of laterites which are produced
by the intense weathering of ultramafic igneous rocks and the resulting secondary
concentration of nickel bearing oxide and silicate minerals. Recently, a nickel deposit in
western Turkey had been exploited, with this location being especially convenient for
European smelters, steelmakers and factories. The one locality in the United States where
nickel was commercially mined is Riddle, Oregon, where several square miles of
nickel-bearing garnierite surface deposits are located. The mine closed in 1987.[14] [15] In
2005, Russia was the largest producer of nickel with about one-fifth world share closely
followed by Canada, Australia and Indonesia, as reported by the British Geological Survey.
Based on geophysical evidence, most of the nickel on Earth is postulated to be concentrated

in the Earth's core. Kamacite and taenite are naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel.
For kamacite the alloy is usually in the proportion of 90:10 to 95:5 although impurities such
as cobalt or carbon may be present, while for taenite the nickel content is between 20% and
65%. Kamacite and taenite occur in nickel-iron meteorites.
Nickel 5
Applications
Nickel is used in many industrial and consumer
products, including stainless steel, magnets,
coinage, rechargeable batteries, electric guitar
strings and special alloys. It is also used for plating
and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is pre-eminently
an alloy metal, and its chief use is in the nickel
steels and nickel cast irons, of which there are many
varieties. It is also widely used in many other alloys,
such as nickel brasses and bronzes, and alloys with Nickel superalloy jet engine (RB199)
copper, chromium, aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, turbine blade
and gold [16]
The amounts of nickel used for various applications are 60% used for making nickel steels,
14% used in nickel-copper alloys and nickel silver, 9% used to make malleable nickel, nickel
clad, Inconel and other superalloys, 6% used in plating, 3% use for nickel cast irons, 3% in
heat and electric resistance alloys, such as Nichrome, 2% used for nickel brasses and
bronzes with the remaining 3% of the nickel consumption in all other applications
combined.[17] [18] In the laboratory, nickel is frequently used as a catalyst for
hydrogenation, most often using Raney nickel, a finely divided form of the metal alloyed
with aluminium which adsorbs hydrogen gas. Nickel is often used in coins, or occasionally
as a substitute for decorative silver. The American 'nickel' five-cent coin is 75% copper and
25% nickel. The Canadian nickel minted at various periods between 1922-81 was 99.9%
nickel, and was magnetic.[19] Various other nations have historically used and still use
nickel in their coinage.
Nickel is also used in fire assay as a collector of platinum group elements, as it is capable of
full collection of all 6 elements, in addition to partial collection of gold. This is seen through
the nature of nickel as a metal, as high throughput nickel mines may run PGE recovery
(primarily platinum and palladium), such as Norilsk in Russia and the Sudbury Basin in
Canada.
Extraction and purification

Nickel is recovered through extractive metallurgy. Most
sulfide ores have traditionally been processed using
pyrometallurgical techniques to produce a matte for
further refining. Recent advances in hydrometallurgy
have resulted in recent nickel processing operations
Nickel output in 2005
being developed using these processes. Most sulfide
deposits have traditionally been processed by
concentration through a froth flotation process followed by pyrometallurgical extraction.
Nickel is extracted from its ores by conventional roasting and reduction processes which
yield a metal of greater than 75% purity. Final purification of nickel oxides is performed via
the Mond process, which increases the nickel concentrate to greater than 99.99% purity[20]
. This process was patented by L. Mond and was used in South Wales in the 20th century.
Nickel is reacted with carbon monoxide at around 50 °C to form volatile nickel carbonyl.
Nickel 6
Any impurities remain solid while the nickel carbonyl gas passes into a large chamber at
high temperatures in which tens of thousands of nickel spheres, called pellets, are
constantly stirred. The nickel carbonyl decomposes, depositing pure nickel onto the nickel
spheres. Alternatively, the nickel carbonyl may be decomposed in a smaller chamber at
230 °C to create fine nickel powder. The resultant carbon monoxide is re-circulated through
the process. The highly pure nickel produced by this process is known as carbonyl nickel. A
second common form of refining involves the leaching of the metal matte followed by the
electro-winning of the nickel from solution by plating it onto a cathode. In many stainless
steel applications, 75% pure nickel can be used without further purification depending on
the composition of the impurities.
Nickel sulfide ores undergo flotation (differential flotation if Ni/Fe ratio is too low) and then
are smelted. After producing the nickel matte, further processing is done via the
Sherritt-Gordon process. First copper is removed by adding hydrogen sulfide, leaving a
concentrate of only cobalt and nickel. Solvent extraction then efficiently separates the
cobalt and nickel, with the final nickel concentration greater than 99%.
Compounds
Nickel(II) sulfate is produced in large quantities by
dissolving nickel metal or oxides in sulfuric acid. This
compound is useful for electroplating nickel.
Four halides are known to form nickel compounds,
these are nickel(II) fluoride, chloride, bromide, and
iodide. Nickel(II) chloride is produced analogously by
dissolving nickel residues in hydrochloric acid.
Tetracarbonylnickel (Ni(CO)4), discovered by Ludwig
Mond,[21] is a homoleptic complex of nickel with carbon
Nickel sulfate crystals
monoxide. Having no net dipole moment,
intermolecular forces are relatively weak, allowing this
compound to be liquid at room temperature. Carbon
monoxide reacts with nickel metal readily to give this
compound; on heating, the complex decomposes back
to nickel and carbon monoxide. This behavior is
exploited in the Mond process for generating
high-purity nickel.
Tetracoordinate nickel(II) takes both tetrahedral and

square planar geometries. This is in contrast with the
other group 10 elements, which tend to exist as square
planar complexes. Bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0) is a
useful intermediate in organometallic chemistry due to
Tetracarbonyl nickel the easily displaced cod ligands. Nickel(III) oxide is
used as the cathode in many rechargeable batteries,
including nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron, nickel hydrogen, and nickel-metal hydride, and used
by certain manufacturers in Li-ion batteries.[22]
Nickel 7
Isotopes
Naturally occurring nickel is composed of 5 stable isotopes; 58Ni, 60Ni, 61Ni, 62Ni and 64Ni
with 58Ni being the most abundant (68.077% natural abundance). 62Ni is the most stable
known nuclide of all the existing elements, even exceeding the stability of 56Fe. 18
radioisotopes have been characterised with the most stable being 59Ni with a half-life of
76,000 years, 63Ni with a half-life of 100.1 years, and 56Ni with a half-life of 6.077 days. All
of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 60 hours and the
majority of these have half-lives that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has 1 meta
state.
Nickel-56 is produced in large quantities in type Ia supernovae and the shape of the light
curve of these supernovae corresponds to the decay via beta radiation of nickel-56 to
cobalt-56 and then to iron-56. Nickel-59 is a long-lived cosmogenic radionuclide with a
half-life of 76,000 years. 59Ni has found many applications in isotope geology. 59Ni has been
used to date the terrestrial age of meteorites and to determine abundances of
extraterrestrial dust in ice and sediment. Nickel-60 is the daughter product of the extinct
radionuclide 60Fe (half-life = 1.5 Myr). Because the extinct radionuclide 60Fe had such a
long half-life, its persistence in materials in the solar system at high enough concentrations
may have generated observable variations in the isotopic composition of 60Ni. Therefore,
the abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may provide insight into the
origin of the solar system and its early history. Nickel-62 has the highest binding energy
per nucleon of any isotope for any element (8.7946 Mev/nucleon). [23] Isotopes heavier than
62
Ni cannot be formed by nuclear fusion without losing energy. Nickel-48, discovered in
1999, is the most proton-rich heavy element isotope known. With 28 protons and 20
neutrons 48Ni is "double magic" (like 208Pb) and therefore unusually stable [24] .
The isotopes of nickel range in atomic weight from 48 u (48Ni) to 78 u (78Ni). Nickel-78's
half-life was recently measured to be 110 milliseconds and is believed to be an important
isotope involved in supernova nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron.[25]
Biological role
Nickel plays numerous roles in the biology of microorganisms and plants, though they were
not recognized until the 1970s.[26] [27] In fact urease (an enzyme which assists in the
hydrolysis of urea) contains nickel. The NiFe-hydrogenases contain nickel in addition to
iron-sulfur clusters. Such [NiFe]-hydrogenases characteristically oxidise H2. A
nickel-tetrapyrrole coenzyme, F430, is present in the methyl coenzyme M reductase which
powers methanogenic archaea. One of the carbon monoxide dehydrogenase enzymes
consists of an Fe-Ni-S cluster.[28] Other nickel-containing enzymes include a class of
superoxide dismutase[29] and a glyoxalase.[30]
Toxicity
Exposure to nickel metal and soluble compounds should not exceed 0.05 mg/cm³ in nickel
equivalents per 40-hour work week. Nickel sulfide fume and dust is believed to be
carcinogenic, and various other nickel compounds may be as well.[31] [32] Nickel carbonyl,
[Ni(CO)4], is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal carbonyls is a function of both the
toxicity of a metal as well as the carbonyl's ability to give off highly toxic carbon monoxide
gas, and this one is no exception. It is explosive in air.[33]
Nickel 8
Sensitized individuals may show an allergy to nickel affecting their skin, also known as
dermatitis. Sensitivity to nickel may also be present in patients with pompholyx. Nickel is
an important cause of contact allergy, partly due to its use in jewellery intended for pierced
ears.[34] Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many
earrings are now made nickel-free due to this problem. The amount of nickel which is
allowed in products which come into contact with human skin is regulated by the European
Union. In 2002 researchers found amounts of nickel being emitted by 1 and 2 Euro coins far
in excess of those standards. This is believed to be due to a galvanic reaction.[35]
It was voted Allergen of the Year in 2008 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.[36]
Metal value
The market price of nickel surged throughout 2006 and the early months of 2007; as of
April 5, 2007, the metal was trading at 52,300 USD/tonne or 1.47 USD/oz.[37] The price
subsequently fell dramatically from these peaks, and as of 19 January 2009 the metal was
trading at 10,880 USD/tonne.[37]
The US nickel coin contains 0.04 oz (1.25 g) of nickel, which at the April 2007 price was
worth 6.5 cents, along with 3.75 grams of copper worth about 3 cents, making the metal
value over 9 cents. Since the face value of a nickel is 5 cents, this made it an attractive
target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals at a profit. However, the United
States Mint, in anticipation of this practice, implemented new interim rules on December
14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalize the melting and export
of cents and nickels.[38] Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 and/or
imprisoned for a maximum of five years.
As of June 24, 2009 the melt value of a U.S. nickel is $0.0363145 which is less than the face
value.[39]
See also
• Category:Nickel alloys
External links
[40]
• WebElements.com – Nickel (also used as a reference)
References
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Nickel 9
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skyandtelescope. com/ news/ article_1502_1. asp)". . Retrieved 2008-11-19.
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[27] Hausinger, R. P. (1987). " Nickel utilization by microorganisms (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/
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[28] Jaouen, G. (2006). Bioorganometallics: Biomolecules, Labeling, Medicine. Wiley-VCH: Weinheim.
[29] Szilagyi, R. K.; Bryngelson, P. A.; Maroney, M. J.; Hedman, B.; Hodgson, K. O.; Solomon, E. I. (2004). "S
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glycation (http:/ / www. biochemsoctrans. org/ bst/ 031/ bst0311343. htm)". Biochemical Society Transactions
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the Lung. Cancer Research. 1995 November 15;55(22):5251-6. PubMed (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ sites/
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1600-0536. 2007. 01220. x)". Contact Dermatitis 57 (5): 287–99. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01220.x (http:/
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Nickel 10
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Copper 1
Copper
nickel ← copper → zinc -
↑
Cu
↓
Ag

29Cu
Periodic table
Appearance reddish/orange metallic lustre
metallic copper General Name, symbol,

numberElement categoryGroup, period, blockStandard atomic weightElectron
configurationElectrons per shell Physical properties PhaseDensity (near r.t.) Liquid density
at m.p.Melting pointBoiling pointHeat of fusionHeat of vaporizationSpecific heat
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1509 1661 1850 2089 2404 2834

Copper 2

registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of copper
63 69.15% 63
Cu Cu is stable with 34 neutron
65 30.85% 65
Cu Cu is stable with 36 neutron
copper, Cu, 29 transition metal11, 4, d63.546(3) g·mol−1 [Ar] 3d10 4s1 2, 8, 18, 1 (Image)
13.26 kJ·mol−1 300.4 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 24.440 J·mol−1·K−1 +1, +2, +3, +4
(mildly basic oxide) 1.90 (Pauling scale) 1st: 745.5 kJ·mol−1128 pm132±4 pm 140 pm
face-centered cubic diamagnetic (20 °C) 16.78 nΩ·m (300 K) 401 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 16.5
µm·m−1·K−1 (r.t.) (annealed)
3810 m·s−1 110–128 GPa 48 GPa 140 GPa 0.34 3.0 369 MPa 874 MPa 7440-50-8
Copper (pronounced /ˈkɒpər/) is a chemical element
with the symbol Cu (Latin: cuprum) and atomic number
29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and
electrical conductivity. Pure copper is rather soft and
malleable and a freshly-exposed surface has a pinkish
or peachy color. It is used as a thermal conductor, an
electrical conductor, a building material, and a
constituent of various metal alloys.
Copper metal and alloys have been used for thousands

of years. In the Roman era, copper was principally
mined on Cyprus, hence the origin of the name of the
copper disc made by continuous metal as Cyprium, "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to
casting, etched
Cuprum. There may be insufficient reserves to sustain
current high rates of copper consumption.[1] Some
countries, such as Chile and the United States, still have sizable reserves of the metal
which are extracted through large open pit mines.
Copper compounds are known in several oxidation states, usually 2+, where they often
impart blue or green colors to natural minerals such as turquoise and have been used
historically widely as pigments. Copper as both metal and pigmented salt, has a significant
presence in decorative art. Copper 2+ ions are soluble in water, where they function at low
concentration as bacteriostatic substances and fungicides. For this reason, copper metal
can be used as an anti-germ surface that can add to the anti-bacterial and antimicrobial
features of buildings such as hospitals.[2] In sufficient amounts, copper salts can be
poisonous to higher organisms as well. However, despite universal toxicity at high
concentrations, the 2+ copper ion at lower concentrations is an essential trace nutrient to
all higher plant and animal life. In animals, including humans, it is found widely in tissues,
with concentration in liver, muscle, and bone. It functions as a co-factor in various enzymes
and in copper-based pigments.
Copper 3
History
Copper Age
Copper, as native copper, is one of the few metals to occur naturally as an un-compounded
mineral. Copper was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record, and has a history
of use that is at least 10,000 years old. Some estimates of copper's discovery place this
event around 9000 BC in the Middle East.[3] A copper pendant was found in what is now
northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC.[4] It is probable that gold and meteoritic iron were the
only metals used by humans before copper.[5] By 5000 BC, there are signs of copper
smelting: the refining of copper from simple copper compounds such as malachite or
azurite. Among archaeological sites in Anatolia, Çatal Höyük (~6000 BC) features native
copper artifacts and smelted lead beads, but no smelted copper. Can Hasan (~5000 BC)
had access to smelted copper but the oldest smelted copper artifact found (a copper chisel
from the chalcolithic site of Prokuplje in Serbia) has pre-dated Can Hasan by 500 years. The
smelting facilities in the Balkans appear to be more advanced than the Turkish forges found
at a later date, so it is quite probable that copper smelting originated in the Balkans.
Investment casting was realized in 4500-4000 BCE in Southeast Asia.[3]
Copper smelting appears to have been developed
independently in several parts of the world. In
addition to its development in the Balkans by 5500
BC, it was developed in China before 2800 BC, in
the Andes around 2000 BC, in Central America
around 600 AD, and in West Africa around 900
AD.[6] Copper is found extensively in the Indus
Valley Civilization by the 3rd millennium BC. In
Europe, Ötzi the Iceman, a well-preserved male
Ancient Copper ingot from Zakros, Crete is
dated to 3300-3200 BC, was found with an axe with
shaped in the form of an animal skin typical
for that era.
a copper head 99.7% pure. High levels of arsenic in
his hair suggest he was involved in copper smelting.
Over the course of centuries, experience with copper has assisted the development of other
metals; for example, knowledge of copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting.
In the Americas production in the Old Copper Complex, located in present day Michigan
and Wisconsin, was dated back to between 6000 to 3000 BC.[7]
Bronze Age
Alloying of copper with zinc or tin to make brass or bronze was practiced soon after the
discovery of copper itself. There exist copper and bronze artifacts from Sumerian cities that
date to 3000 BC,[8] and Egyptian artifacts of copper and copper-tin alloys nearly as old. In
one pyramid, a copper plumbing system was found that is 5000 years old.[9] The Egyptians
found that adding a small amount of tin made the metal easier to cast, so copper-tin
(bronze) alloys were found in Egypt almost as soon as copper was found. Very important
sources of copper in the Levant were located in Timna valley (Negev, now in southern
Israel) and Faynan (biblical Punon, Jordan).[10]
By 2000 BC, Europe was using bronze.[8] The use of bronze became so widespread in
Europe approximately from 2500 BC to 600 BC that it has been named the Bronze Age. The
transitional period in certain regions between the preceding Neolithic period and the
Copper 4
Bronze Age is termed the Chalcolithic ("copper-stone"), with some high-purity copper tools
being used alongside stone tools. Brass (copper-zinc alloy) was known to the Greeks, but
only became a significant supplement to bronze during the Roman empire.
During the Bronze Age, one copper mine at Great Orme in North Wales, extended for a
depth of 70 meters.[11] At Alderley Edge in Cheshire, carbon dates have established mining
at around 2280 to 1890 BC (at 95% probability).[12]
Antiquity and Middle Ages

In Greek the metal was known by the name chalkos
(χαλκός). Copper was a very important resource for the
Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples. In Roman
times, it became known as aes Cyprium (aes being the
generic Latin term for copper alloys such as bronze and
other metals, and Cyprium because so much of it was
In alchemy the
symbol for mined in Cyprus). From this, the phrase was simplified
copper, perhaps to cuprum, hence the English copper. Copper was
a stylized mirror, associated with the goddess Aphrodite/Venus in
was also the
mythology and alchemy, owing to its lustrous beauty,
symbol for the
goddess and its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its association
planet Venus. with Cyprus, which was sacred to the goddess. In
astrology, alchemy the seven heavenly bodies known to
the ancients were associated with seven metals also
known in antiquity, and Venus was assigned to
copper.[13]
Britain's first use of brass occurred around the 3rd -

2nd century B.C. In North America, copper mining
began with marginal workings by Native Americans.
Native copper is known to have been extracted from
sites on Isle Royale with primitive stone tools between
800 and 1600.[14]
Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna
Valley, Negev Desert, Israel. Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America,
particularly in Peru around the beginning of the first
millennium AD. Copper technology proceeded at a much slower rate on other continents.
Africa's major location for copper reserves is Zambia. Copper burial ornamentals dated
from the 15th century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not
start until the early 1900s. Australian copper artifacts exist, but they appear only after the
arrival of the Europeans; the aboriginal culture apparently did not develop their own
metallurgical abilities.
Crucial in the metallurgical and technological worlds, copper has also played an important
cultural role, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries B.C. used
copper lumps as money. At first, just the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape
and look of the copper became more important. Julius Caesar had his own coins, made from
a copper-zinc alloy, while Octavianus Augustus Caesar's) coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn
alloys.
Copper 5
The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze made by depletion gilding.
Corinthian bronze was most prevalent in Alexandria, where alchemy is thought to have
begun.[15] In ancient India (before 1000 B.C.), copper was used in the holistic medical
science Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians
(~2400 B.C.) used copper for sterilizing wounds and drinking water, and as time passed,
(~1500 B.C.) for headaches, burns, and itching. Hippocrates (~400 B.C.) used copper to
treat leg ulcers associated with varicose veins. Ancient Aztecs fought sore throats by
gargling with copper mixtures.
Copper is also the part of many rich stories and legends, such as that of Iraq's Baghdad
Battery. Copper cylinders soldered to lead, which date back to 248 B.C. to 226 A.D,
resemble a galvanic cell, leading people to believe this may have been the first battery. This
claim has so far not been substantiated.
The Bible also refers to the importance of copper: "Men know how to mine silver and refine
gold, to dig iron from the earth and melt copper from stone" (Job. 28:1-2).
Modern period
Throughout history, copper's use in art has extended
far beyond currency. Vannoccio Biringuccio, Giorgio
Vasari and Benvenuto Cellini are three Renaissance
sculptors from the mid 1500s, notable for their work
with bronze. From about 1560 to about 1775, thin
sheets of copper were commonly used as a canvas for
paintings. Silver plated copper was used in the
pre-photograph known as the daguerreotype. The
Statue of Liberty, dedicated on October 28, 1886, was
constructed of copper thought to have come from Miners at the Tamarack Mine in
French-owned mines in Norway. Copper Country, Michigan, USA in
1905
Plating was a technology that began started in the mid
1600s in some areas. One common use for copper plating, widespread in the 1700s, was the
sheathing of ships' hulls. Copper sheathing could be used to protect wooden hulled ships
from algae, and from the shipworm "toredo", a saltwater clam. The ships of Christopher
Columbus were among the earliest to have this protection.[16]
In 1801 Paul Revere established America's first copper rolling mill in Canton,
Massachusetts. In the early 1800s, it was discovered that copper wire could be used as a
conductor, but it wasn't until 1990 that copper, in oxide form, was discovered for use as a
superconducting material. The German scientist Gottfried Osann invented powder
metallurgy of copper in 1830 while determining the metal's atomic weight. Around then it
was also discovered that the amount and type of alloying element (e.g. tin) would affect the
tones of bells, allowing for a variety of rich sounds, leading to bell casting, another common
use for copper and its alloys.
The Norddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modern electroplating plant starting
its production in 1876.[17]
Flash smelting, was developed by Outokumpu in Finland and first applied at the Harjavalta
plant in 1949. The process makes smelting more energy efficient and is today used for 50%
of the world’s primary copper production.[18]
Copper 6
Copper has been pivotal in the economic and sociological worlds, notably disputes involving
copper mines. The 1906 Cananea Strike in Mexico dealt with issues of work organization.
The Teniente copper mine (1904-1951) raised political issues about capitalism and class
structure. Japan's largest copper mine, the Ashio mine, was the site of a riot in 1907. The
Arizona miners' strike of 1938 dealt with American labor issues including the "right to
strike".
Characteristics
Color
Copper has a reddish, orangish, or brownish color because a
thin layer of tarnish (including oxides) gradually forms on its
surface when gases (especially oxygen) in the air react with
it. But pure copper, when fresh, is actually a pinkish or
peachy metal. Copper, caesium and gold are the only three
elemental metals with a natural color other than gray or
silver.[19] The usual gray color of metals depends on their
"electron sea" that is capable of absorbing and re-emitting Copper just above its melting
photons over a wide range of frequencies. Copper has its point keeps its pink luster color
when enough light outshines the
characteristic color because of its unique band structure. By
orange incandescence color.
Madelung's rule the 4s subshell should be filled before
electrons are placed in the 3d subshell but copper is an
exception to the rule with only one electron in the 4s subshell instead of two. The energy of
a photon of blue or violet light is sufficient for a d band electron to absorb it and transition
to the half-full s band. Thus the light reflected by copper is missing some blue/violet
components and appears red. This phenomenon is shared with gold which has a
corresponding 5s/4d structure.[20] In its liquefied state, a pure copper surface without
ambient light appears somewhat greenish, a characteristic shared with gold. When liquid
copper is in bright ambient light, it retains some of its pinkish luster. When copper is burnt
in oxygen it gives off a black oxide.
Group 11 of the periodic table

Copper occupies the same family of the periodic table as silver and gold, since they each
have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled electron shell which forms metallic bonds. This
similarity in electron structure makes them similar in many characteristics. All have very
high thermal and electrical conductivity, and all are malleable metals. Among pure metals
at room temperature, copper has the second highest electrical and thermal conductivity,
after silver.[21]
Copper 7
Occurrence
Copper can be found as native copper in mineral form
(for example, in Michigan's Keewenaw Peninsula). It is
a polycrystal, with the largest single crystals measuring
4.4x3.2x3.2 cm3.[22] Minerals such as the sulfides:
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), bornite (Cu5FeS4), covellite
(CuS), chalcocite (Cu2S) are sources of copper, as are
the carbonates: azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2) and
malachite (Cu2CO3(OH)2) and the oxide: cuprite
(Cu2O).[21]
Mechanical properties Native copper (~ 4 cm in size)
Copper is easily worked, being both ductile and

malleable. The ease with which it can be drawn into wire makes it useful for electrical work
in addition to its excellent electrical properties. Copper can be machined, although it is
usually necessary to use an alloy for intricate parts, such as threaded components, to get
really good machinability characteristics. Good thermal conduction makes it useful for
heatsinks and in heat exchangers. Copper has good corrosion resistance, but not as good as
gold. It has excellent brazing and soldering properties and can also be welded, although
best results are obtained with gas metal arc welding.[23]
Copper is normally supplied, as with nearly all metals for industrial and commercial use, in
a fine grained polycrystalline form. Polycrystalline metals have greater strength than
monocrystalline forms, and the difference is greater for smaller grain (crystal) sizes. The
reason is due to the inability of stress dislocations in the crystal structure to cross the grain
boundaries.[24]
Electrical properties
At 59.6 × 106 S/m copper has the second highest
electrical conductivity of any element, just after silver.
This high value is due to virtually all the valence
electrons (one per atom) taking part in conduction. The
resulting free electrons in the copper amount to a huge
charge density of 13.6x109 C/m3. This high charge
density is responsible for the rather slow drift velocity
of currents in copper cable (drift velocity may be
calculated as the ratio of current density to charge
density). For instance, at a current density of
5x106 A/m2 (typically, the maximum current density
present in household wiring and grid distribution) the
drift velocity is just a little over ⅓ mm/s.[25]
Copper electrical busbars distributing

Corrosion
power to a large building.
Copper 8
Pure water and air/oxygen
Copper is a metal that does not react with water (H2O),

but the oxygen of the air will react slowly at room
temperature to form a layer of brown-black copper
oxide on copper metal.
It is important to note that in contrast to the oxidation
of iron by wet air that the layer formed by the reaction
of air with copper has a protective effect against
further corrosion. On old copper roofs a green layer of
copper carbonate, called verdigris, can often be seen. A
The Pourbaix diagram for copper in
pure water, or acidic or alkali notable example of this is on the Statue of Liberty.
conditions. It can be seen that copper
in neutral water is more noble than In contact with other metals
hydrogen.
Copper should not be in direct mechanical contact with
metals of different electropotential (for example, a copper pipe joined to an iron pipe),
especially in the presence of moisture, as the completion of an electrical circuit (for
instance through the common ground) will cause the juncture to act as an electrochemical
cell (like a single cell of a battery). The weak electrical currents themselves are harmless
but the electrochemical reaction will cause the conversion of the iron to other compounds,
eventually destroying the functionality of the union. This problem is usually solved in
plumbing by separating copper pipe from iron pipe with some non-conducting segment
(usually plastic or rubber).
Sulfide media
Copper metal reacts with hydrogen sulfide- and

sulfide-containing solutions, forming a series of
different copper sulfides on its surface.
The Pourbaix diagram is very complex due to the
existence of many different sulfides. In
sulfide-containing solutions copper is less noble than
hydrogen and will corrode. This can be observed in
everyday life when copper metal surfaces tarnish after
exposure to air containing sulfur compounds.
The Pourbaix diagram for copper in
water containing sulfide
Copper 9
Ammonia media
Copper is slowly dissolved in oxygen-containing ammonia

solutions because the ammonia forms water-soluble copper
complexes. The formation of these complexes causes the
corrosion to become more thermodynamically favored than
the corrosion of copper in an identical solution that does not
contain the ammonia.
The Pourbaix diagram for

copper in 10 M ammonia
solution
Chloride media
Copper reacts with a combination of oxygen and

hydrochloric acid to form a series of copper chlorides.
Copper(II) chloride (green/blue) when boiled with
copper metal undergoes a symproportionation reaction
to form white copper(I) chloride.
Germicidal effect
Copper is germicidal, via the oligodynamic effect. For
example, brass doorknobs disinfect themselves of many The Pourbaix diagram for copper in a
bacteria within a period of eight hours.[26] chloride solution
Antimicrobial properties of copper are effective against

MRSA,[27] Escherichia coli[28] and other pathogens.[29] [30] [31]
In colder temperature,
longer time is required to kill bacteria.
Copper has the intrinsic ability to kill a variety of potentially harmful pathogens. On
February 29, 2008, the United States EPA registered 275 alloys, containing greater than
65% nominal copper content, as antimicrobial materials[32] . Registered alloys include pure
copper, an assortment of brasses and bronzes, and additional alloys. EPA-sanctioned tests
using Good Laboratory Practices were conducted in order to obtain several antimicrobial
claims valid against: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Enterobacter
aerogenes, Escherichia coli O157: H7 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The EPA registration
allows the manufacturers of these copper alloys to legally make public health claims as to
the health effects of these materials. Several of the aforementioned bacteria are
responsible for a large portion of the nearly two million hospital-acquired infections
contracted each year in the United States[33] . Frequently touched surfaces in hospitals and
public facilities harbor bacteria and increase the risk for contracting infections. Covering
touch surfaces with copper alloys can help reduce microbial contamination associated with
hospital-acquired-infections on these surfaces.
Copper 10
Isotopes
Copper has 29 distinct isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 52 to 80. Two of these, 63Cu
and 65Cu, are stable and occur naturally, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of
naturally occurring copper.[34]
The other 27 isotopes are radioactive and do not occur naturally. The most stable of these is
67
Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours. The least stable is 54Cu with a half-life of approximately
75 ns. Unstable copper isotopes with atomic masses below 63 tend to undergo β+ decay,
while isotopes with atomic masses above 65 tend to undergo β− decay. 64Cu decays by both
β+ and β−.[34]
68
Cu, 69Cu, 71Cu, 72Cu, and 76Cu each have one metastable isomer. 70Cu has two isomers,
making a total of 7 distinct isomers. The most stable of these is 68mCu with a half-life of
3.75 minutes. The least stable is 69mCu with a half-life of 360 ns.[34]
Production
Output
Most copper ore is mined or extracted as copper
sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper
deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0 percent copper.
Examples include: Chuquicamata in Chile and El Chino
Mine in New Mexico. The average abundance of copper
found within crustal rocks is approximately 68 ppm by
Chuquicamata (Chile). The largest mass, and 22 ppm by atoms. In 2005, Chile was the top
open pit copper mines in the world. mine producer of copper with at least one-third world
share followed by the USA, Indonesia and Peru, reports
the British Geological Survey.[21]
Copper output in 2005
Reserves
Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more
than 95 percent of all copper ever mined and smelted
has been extracted since 1900. Like fossil fuels, copper
is a finite resource. The Earth has an estimated 61
years of copper reserves remaining. Environmental
analyst, Lester Brown, however, has suggested copper
might run out within 25 years based on a reasonable
extrapolation of 2% growth per year.[35]
World production trend
Copper 11
As consumption in India and China increases, copper

supplies are becoming scarcer.[36] The copper price has
quintupled from the 60-year low in 1999, rising from
US$0.60 per pound (US$1.32/kg) in June 1999 to
US$3.75 per pound (US$8.27/kg) in May 2006, where it
dropped to US$2.40 per pound (US$5.29/kg) in
February 2007 then rebounded to US$3.50 per pound
Copper Prices 2003 - 2008 in USD (US$7.71/kg = £3.89 = €5.00) in April 2007.[37] By
early February 2009, however, weakening global
demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previous year's highs had left copper
prices at US$1.51 per pound.[38] Production is expected to reach a peak at some point in
the future and decline thereafter, according to the Hubbert peak theory.
The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries (CIPEC), defunct since 1992,
once tried to play a similar role for copper as OPEC does for oil, but never achieved the
same influence, not least because the second-largest producer, the United States, was
never a member. Formed in 1967, its principal members were Chile, Peru, Zaire, and
Zambia.
Applications
Copper is malleable and ductile and is a good conductor of both heat and electricity.
The purity of copper is expressed as 4N for 99.99% pure or 7N for 99.99999% pure. The
numeral gives the number of nines after the decimal point when expressed as a decimal
(e.g. 4N means 0.9999, or 99.99%). Copper is often too soft for its applications, so it is
incorporated in numerous alloys. For example, brass is a copper-zinc alloy, and bronze is a
copper-tin alloy.[39]
It is used extensively, in products such as:
Piping
• including water supply.
• used extensively in refrigeration and air
conditioning equipment because of its ease of
fabrication and soldering, as well as high
conductivity to heat.
Electrical applications
• Copper wire.
• Oxygen-free copper.
• Electromagnets. Assorted copper fittings.
• Printed circuit boards.
• Lead free solder, alloyed with tin.

• Electrical machines, especially electromagnetic motors, generators and transformers.
• Electrical relays, electrical busbars and electrical switches.
• Vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes, and the magnetrons in microwave ovens.
• Wave guides for microwave radiation.
Copper 12
• Integrated circuits, increasingly replacing aluminium because of its superior electrical

conductivity.
• As a material in the manufacture of computer heat sinks, as a result of its superior heat
dissipation capacity to aluminium.
Architecture / Industry
• Copper has been used as water-proof roofing
material since ancient times, giving many old
buildings their greenish roofs and domes. Initially
copper oxide forms, replaced by cuprous and
cupric sulfide, and finally by copper carbonate.
The final carbonate patina (termed verdigris) is
highly resistant to corrosion.[40]
• Statuary: The Statue of Liberty, for example,
contains 179,220 pounds (81.3 tonnes) of copper. Copper roof on the Minneapolis City Hall,
coated with Patina
• Alloyed with nickel, e.g. cupronickel and Monel,
used as corrosive resistant materials in
shipbuilding.
• Watt's steam engine firebox due to superior heat dissipation.
• Copper compounds in liquid form are used as a wood preservative, particularly in
treating original portion of structures during restoration of damage due to dry rot.
• Copper wires may be placed over non-conductive roofing materials to discourage the
growth of moss. (Zinc may also be used for this purpose.)
• Copper is used to prevent a building being
directly struck by lightning. High above the roof,
copper spikes (lightning rods) are connected to a
very thick copper cable which leads to a large
metal plate underneath the ground. The voltage is
dispersed throughout the ground harmlessly,
instead of destroying the main structure.[41]
Household products
• Copper plumbing fittings and compression tubes.
• Doorknobs and other fixtures in houses.
• Roofing, guttering, and rainspouts on buildings.
• In cookware, such as frying pans.
• Some older flatware: (knives, forks, spoons)
contains some copper if made from Electroplated
Nickel silver (EPNS).
• Sterling silver, if it is to be used in dinnerware,
must contain a few percent copper.
• Copper water heating cylinders Old copper utensils in a Jerusalem
• Copper Range Hoods restaurant
• Copper Bath Tubs

• Copper Counters
Copper 13
• Copper Sinks
• Copper slug tape
Coinage
• As a component of coins, often as cupronickel alloy, or some form of brass or bronze.
• Coins in the following countries all contain copper: European Union (Euro),[42] United
States,[43] United Kingdom (sterling),[44] Australia[45] and New Zealand.[46]
• U.S. Nickels are 75.0% copper by weight and only 25.0% nickel.[43]
Biomedical applications
• As a biostatic surface in hospitals, and to line parts of ships to protect against barnacles
and mussels, originally used pure, but superseded by Muntz metal. Bacteria will not grow
on a copper surface because it is biostatic. Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to
reduce the transfer of disease, and Legionnaires' disease is suppressed by copper tubing
in air-conditioning systems.
• Copper(II) sulfate is used as a fungicide and as algae control in domestic lakes and
ponds. It is used in gardening powders and sprays to kill mildew.
• Copper-62-PTSM, a complex containing radioactive copper-62, is used as a positron
emission tomography radiotracer for heart blood flow measurements.
• Copper-64 can be used as a positron emission tomography radiotracer for medical
imaging. When complexed with a chelate it can be used to treat cancer through radiation
therapy.
Chemical applications
• Compounds, such as Fehling's solution, have applications in chemistry.
• As a component in ceramic glazes, and to color glass.
Other
• Musical instruments, especially brass instruments and timpani.
• Class D Fire Extinguisher, used in powder form to extinguish lithium fires by covering
the burning metal and performing similar to a heat sink.
• Textile fibers to create antimicrobial protective fabrics.[47]
• Weaponry:
• Small arms ammunition commonly uses copper as a jacketing material around the
bullet core.
• Copper is also commonly used as a case material, in the form of brass.
• Copper is used as a liner in shaped-charge armor-piercing warheads.
• Copper is frequently used in electroplating, usually as a base for other metals such as
Nickel.
Copper 14
Alloys
Numerous copper alloys exist, many with important historical and contemporary uses.
Speculum metal and bronze are alloys of copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and
zinc. Monel metal, also called cupronickel, is an alloy of copper and nickel. While the metal
"bronze" usually refers to copper-tin alloys, it also is a generic term for any alloy of copper,
such as aluminium bronze, silicon bronze, and manganese bronze. Copper is one of the
most important constituents of carat silver and gold alloys and carat solders used in the
jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys.[48]
Compounds
Common oxidation states of copper include the less
stable copper(I) state, Cu+; and the more stable
copper(II) state, Cu2+, which forms blue or blue-green
salts and solutions. Under unusual conditions, a 3+
state and even an extremely rare 4+ state can be
obtained. Using old nomenclature for the naming of
salts, copper(I) is called cuprous, and copper(II) is
cupric. In oxidation copper is mildly basic.
Copper(II) carbonate is green from which arises the

unique appearance of copper-clad roofs or domes on
some buildings. Copper(II) sulfate forms a blue
crystalline pentahydrate which is perhaps the most
familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used
as a fungicide, known as Bordeaux mixture.
Copper (I) Oxide powder
There are two stable copper oxides, copper(II) oxide
(CuO) and copper(I) oxide (Cu2O). Copper oxides are used to make yttrium barium copper
oxide (YBa2Cu3O7-δ) or YBCO which forms the basis of many unconventional
superconductors.
• Copper(I) compounds: copper(I) chloride, copper(I) bromide, copper(I) iodide,
copper(I) oxide.
• Copper(II) compounds: copper(II) acetate, copper(II) carbonate, copper(II) chloride,
copper(II) hydroxide, copper(II) nitrate, copper(II) oxide, copper(II) sulfate, copper(II)
sulfide, copper(II) tetrafluoroborate, copper(II) triflate.
• Copper(III) compounds, rare: potassium hexafluorocuprate (K3CuF6)
• Copper(IV) compounds, extremely rare: caesium hexafluorocuprate (Cs2CuF6)
Copper 15
Tests for copper(II) ion

Adding an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide will form a blue precipitate of copper(II)
hydroxide. The ionic equation is:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2 OH− (aq) → Cu(OH)2 (s)
The full equation shows that the reaction is due to hydroxide ions deprotonating the
hexaaquacopper(II) complex:
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 2 OH−(aq) → Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 (s) + 2 H2O (l)
Adding ammonium hydroxide (aqueous ammonia) causes the same precipitate to form.
Upon adding excess ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming a deep blue ammonia
complex, tetraamminecopper(II):
Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 (s) + 4 NH3 (aq) → [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]2+ (aq) + 2 H2O (l) + 2 OH− (aq)
A more delicate test than ammonia is potassium ferrocyanide, which gives a brown
precipitate with copper salts.
Biological role
Copper is essential in all plants and animals. The
human body normally contains copper at a level of
about 1.4 to 2.1 mg for each kg of body weight.[49]
Copper is distributed widely in the body and occurs
in liver, muscle and bone. Copper is transported in
the bloodstream on a plasma protein called
ceruloplasmin. When copper is first absorbed in the
gut it is transported to the liver bound to albumin.
Copper metabolism and excretion is controlled
Rich sources of Copper include oysters,
delivery of copper to the liver by ceruloplasmin, beef or lamb liver, Brazil nuts, blackstrap
where it is excreted in bile. molasses, cocoa, and black pepper. Good
sources include lobster, nuts and sunflower
Copper is found in a variety of enzymes, including seeds, green olives, avocados and wheat
the copper centers of cytochrome c oxidase and the bran.
enzyme superoxide dismutase (containing copper
and zinc). In addition to its enzymatic roles, copper is used for biological electron transport.
The blue copper proteins that participate in electron transport include azurin and
plastocyanin. The name "blue copper" comes from their intense blue color arising from a
ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) absorption band around 600 nm.
Most molluscs and some arthropods such as the horseshoe crab use the copper-containing
pigment hemocyanin rather than iron-containing hemoglobin for oxygen transport, so their
blood is blue when oxygenated rather than red.[50]
It is believed that zinc and copper compete for absorption in the digestive tract so that a
diet that is excessive in one of these minerals may result in a deficiency in the other. The
RDA for copper in normal healthy adults is 0.9 mg/day. On the other hand, professional
research on the subject recommends 3.0 mg/day.[51] Because of its role in facilitating iron
uptake, copper deficiency can often produce anemia-like symptoms. In humans, the
symptoms of Wilson's disease are caused by an accumulation of copper in body tissues.
Copper 16
Chronic copper depletion

leads to abnormalities in
metabolism of fats, high Reference ranges for blood tests, comparing blood content of copper
(shown in light blue in middle) with other constituents.
triglycerides, non-alcoholic
steatohepatitis (NASH), fatty
liver disease and poor melanin and dopamine synthesis causing depression and sunburn.
Food rich in copper should be eaten away from any milk or egg proteins as they block
absorption.
Toxicity
Toxicity can occur from eating acidic food that has been cooked with copper cookware.
Cirrhosis of the liver in children (Indian Childhood Cirrhosis) has been linked to boiling milk
in copper cookware. The Merck Manual states that recent studies suggest that a genetic
defect is associated with this cirrhosis.[52] Since copper is actively excreted by the normal
body, chronic copper toxicosis in humans without a genetic defect in copper handling has
not been demonstrated.[49] However, large amounts (gram quantities) of copper salts taken
in suicide attempts have produced acute copper toxicity in normal humans. Equivalent
amounts of copper salts (30 mg/kg) are toxic in animals[53]
Miscellaneous hazards
The metal, when powdered, is a fire hazard. At concentrations higher than 1 mg/L, copper
can stain clothes and items washed in water.
Recycling
Copper is 100% recyclable without any loss of quality whether in a raw state or contained
in a manufactured product. Copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and
aluminum. It is estimated that 80% of the copper ever mined is still in use today.[54]
Common grades of copper for recycling are:
• Bare bright - very clean and pure copper wire usually 12 AWG or larger that has
insulation and any tarnish removed
• #1 copper - pipe with a new appearance and free of any foreign material
• #2 copper - pipe with corrosion or foreign material and small gauge wire with no
insulation
Insulated wire is also commonly recycled.
See also
• Copper mining and extraction:
• Native copper
• Companies: Anaconda Copper, Antofagasta PLC, Codelco, also Category:Copper
mining companies
• Copper extraction techniques, also Smelter
• Peak copper
• Electroplating
• Pipe corrosion and damage: Cold water pitting of copper tube, Erosion corrosion of
copper water tubes
Copper 17
• Copper theft :Metal theft, also Operation Tremor
Further reading
• "Copper: Technology & Competitiveness (Summary) Chapter 6: Copper Production
Technology [55]". Office of Technology Assessment. 2005. http:/ / www. wws. princeton.
edu/ ota/ ns20/ alpha_f. html.
• Current Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 12, Number 10, May 2005, pp. 1161–1208(48)
Metals, Toxicity and Oxidative Stress
• William D. Callister (2003). Materials Science and Engineering: an Introduction, 6th Ed..
Table 6.1, p. 137: Wiley, New York. ISBN 0471736961.
• Material: Copper (Cu), bulk [56], MEMS and Nanotechnology Clearinghouse.
• Kim BE, Nevitt T, Thiele DJ (2008). "Mechanisms for copper acquisition, distribution and
[57] [58]
regulation ". Nat. Chem. Biol. 4: 176. doi:10.1038/nchembio.72 . PMID 18277979.
http:/ / www. nature. com/ nchembio/ journal/ v4/ n3/ abs/ nchembio. 72. html.
• Copper transport disorders [59]: an Instant insight from the Royal Society of Chemistry
External links
[60]
• National Pollutant Inventory - Copper and compounds fact sheet
[61]
• Copper Resource Page. Includes 12 PDF files detailing the material properties of
various kinds of copper, as well as various guides and tools for the copper industry.
• The Copper Development Association [62] has an extensive site of properties and uses of
copper; it also maintains a web site dedicated to brass, a copper alloy [63].
• The Third Millennium Online page on Copper [64]
• The WebElements page on Copper [65]
• Comprehensive Data on Copper [66]
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License
Zinc 1
Zinc
copper ← zinc → gallium -
↑
Zn
↓
Cd

30Zn
Periodic table
Appearance bluish pale gray

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 610 670 750 852 990 1179

Zinc 2

modulusBulk modulusPoisson ratioMohs hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS registry number
Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of zinc
64 48.6% 64
Zn Zn is stable with 34 neutron
65 syn 243.8 d ε 1.3519 65

Zn Cu
γ 1.1155 -
66 27.9% 66
67 4.1% 67
68 18.8% 68
70 0.6% 70
72 syn 46.5 h 0.458

β− 72
Zn Ga
zinc, Zn, 30 transition metal12, 4, d65.38(4) g·mol−1 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 2, 8, 18, 2 (Image) solid
7.14 g·cm−3 6.57 g·cm−3 692.68 K,419.53 °C,787.15 °F 1180 K,907 °C,1665 °F 7.32
kJ·mol−1 123.6 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 25.470 J·mol−1·K−1+2, +1, 0
(amphoteric oxide) 1.65 (Pauling scale) 1st: 906.4 kJ·mol−1134 pm122±4 pm 139 pm
hexagonal diamagnetic (20 °C) 59.0 nΩ·m (300 K) 116 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 30.2 µm·m−1·K−1
(r.t.) (rolled) 3850 m·s−1 108 GPa 43 GPa 70 GPa 0.25 2.5 412 MPa 7440-66-6
Zinc (pronounced /ˈzɪŋk/, from German: Zink and also known as spelter) is a metallic
chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is a first-row transition
metal in group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is chemically similar to magnesium because its
ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th most
abundant element in the Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes. The most exploited zinc
ore is sphalerite, or zinc sulfide; the largest exploitable deposits are found in Australia,
Canada and the United States. Zinc production includes froth flotation of the ore, roasting
and final extraction using electricity.
Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, has been used since at least the
10th century BC. Impure zinc metal was not produced in large scale until the 13th century
in India, while the metal was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century.
Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called "philosopher's wool" or "white
snow." The element was probably named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German
word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is normally given credit for
discovering pure metallic zinc in a 1746 experiment. Work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro
Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc
plating of steel is the major application for zinc. Other applications are in batteries and
alloys, such as brass. A variety of zinc compounds are commonly used, such as zinc
carbonate and zinc gluconate (as dietary supplements), zinc chloride (in deodorants), zinc
pyrithione (anti-dandruff shampoos), zinc sulfide (in luminescent paints), and zinc methyl or
Zinc 3
zinc diethyl in the organic laboratory.

Zinc is an essential mineral of "exceptional biologic and public health importance".[1] Zinc
deficiency affects about 2 billion people in the developing world and is associated with
many diseases.[2] In children it causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation,
infection susceptibility, and diarrhea, contributing to the death of about 800,000 children
worldwide per year.[1] Enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in
biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of excess zinc can
cause ataxia, lethargy and copper deficiency.
Characteristics
Physical
[3]
Zinc, also referred to in nonscientific contexts as spelter, is a bluish-white, lustrous,
[4]
diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull
finish. It is somewhat less dense than iron and has a hexagonal crystal structure.[6]
[5]
The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and
150 °C.[4] [5] Above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by
beating.[7] Zinc is a fair conductor of electricity.[4] For a metal, zinc has relatively low
melting (420 °C) and boiling points (900 °C).[8] Its melting point is the lowest of all the
transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium.[8]
Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, an alloy of zinc and copper. Other metals long
known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead,
mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium and sodium.[9] While neither zinc
nor zirconium are ferromagnetic, their alloy ZrZn2 exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K.[4]
Occurrence
Zinc makes up about 75 ppm (0.007%) of the Earth's crust, making it the 24th most
abundant element there.[10] Soil contains 5–770 ppm of zinc with an average of 64 ppm.[10]
Seawater has only 30 ppb zinc and the atmosphere contains 0.1–4 µg/m3.[10]
The element is normally found in association with other
base metals such as copper and lead in ores.[11] Zinc is
a chalcophile ("sulfur loving"), meaning the element has
a low affinity for oxygen and prefers to bond with sulfur
in highly insoluble sulfides. Chalcophiles formed as the
crust solidified under the reducing conditions of the
early Earth's atmosphere.[12] Sphalerite, which is a
form of zinc sulfide, is the most heavily mined
zinc-containing ore because its concentrate contains
60–62% zinc.[11]
Sphalerite (ZnS) Other minerals from which zinc is extracted include

smithsonite (zinc carbonate), hemimorphite (zinc
silicate), wurtzite (another zinc sulfide), and sometimes hydrozincite (basic zinc
carbonate).[13] With the exception of wurtzite, all these other minerals were formed as a
result of weathering processes on the primordial zinc sulfides.[12]
Zinc 4
World zinc resources total about 1.8 billion metric tons.[14] Nearly 200 million metric tons
were economically viable in 2008; adding marginally economic and subeconomic reserves
to that number, a total reserve base of 500 million metric tons has been identified.[14] Large
deposits are in Australia, Canada and the United States.[12] At the current rate of
consumption, these reserves are estimated to be depleted sometime between 2027 and
2055.[15] [16] About 346 teragrams (each teragram is equivalent to a megatonne) have been
extracted throughout history to 2002, and one estimate found that about 109 teragrams of
that remains in-use.[17]
Isotopes
Five isotopes of zinc occur in nature. 64Zn is the most abundant isotope (48.63% natural
abundance).[18] This isotope has such a long half-life, at ,[19] that its radioactivity can be
ignored.[20] Similarly, 70Zn (0.6%), with a half life of is not usually considered to be
radioactive. The other isotopes found in nature are 66Zn (28%), 67Zn (4%) and 68Zn (19%).
Twenty-five radioisotopes have been characterized. 65Zn, which has a half-life of
243.66 days, is the most long-lived isotope, followed by 72Zn with a half-life of
46.5 hours.[18] Zinc has 10 nuclear isomers. 69mZn has the longest half-life, 13.76 h.[18] The
superscript m indicates a metastable isotope. The nucleus of a metastable isotope is in an
excited state and will return to the ground state by emitting a photon in the form of a
gamma ray. 61Zn has three excitated states and 73Zn has two.[21] The isotopes 65Zn, 71Zn,
77
Zn and 78Zn each have only one excited state.[18]
The most common decay mode of an isotope of zinc with a mass number lower than 64 is
electron capture. The decay product resulting from electron capture is an isotope of
copper.[18]
n30Zn + e− → n29Cu
The most common decay mode of an isotope of zinc with mass number higher than 64 is
beta decay (β–), which produces an isotope of gallium.[18]
n30Zn → n31Ga + e− + νe
Compounds and chemistry
Reactivity
Zinc has an electron configuration of [Ar]3d104s2 and is a member of the group 12 of the
periodic table. It is a moderately reactive metal and strong reducing agent.[22] The surface
of the pure metal tarnishes quickly, eventually forming a protective passivating layer of the
basic zinc carbonate, Zn5(OH)6CO3, by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.[23] This
layer helps prevent further reaction with air and water.
Zinc burns in air with a bright bluish-green flame, giving off fumes of zinc oxide.[24] Zinc
reacts readily with acids, alkalis and other non-metals.[25] Extremely pure zinc reacts only
slowly at room temperature with acids.[24] Strong acids, such as hydrochloric or sulphuric
acid, can remove the passivating layer and subsequent reaction with water releases
hydrogen gas.[24]
The chemistry of zinc is dominated by the +2 oxidation state. When compounds in this
oxidation state are formed the outer shell s electrons are lost, which yields a bare zinc ion
with the electronic configuration [Ar]3d10.[26] This allows for the formation of four covalent
Zinc 5
bonds by accepting four electron pairs and thus obeying the octet rule. The stereochemistry
is therefore tetrahedral and the bonds may be described as being formed from sp3 hybrid
orbitals on the zinc ion.[27] In aqueous solution an octahedral complex, [Zn(H2O)6]2+ is the
predominant species.[28] The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc chloride at
temperatures above 285 °C indicates the formation of Zn2Cl2, a zinc compound with a +1
oxidation state.[24] No compounds of zinc in oxidation states other than +1 or +2 are
known.[29] Calculations indicate that a zinc compound with the oxidation state of +4 is
unlikely to exist.[30]
Zinc chemistry is similar to the chemistry of the late first-row transition metals, nickel and
copper though it has a filled d-shell, so its compounds are diamagnetic and mostly
colorless.[31] The ionic radii of zinc and magnesium happen to be nearly identical. Because
of this some of their salts have the same crystal structure[32] and in circumstances where
ionic radius is a determining factor zinc and magnesium chemistries have much in
common.[24] Otherwise there is little similarity. Zinc tends to form bonds with a greater
degree of covalency and it forms much more stable complexes with N- and S- donors.[31]
Complexes of zinc are mostly 4- or 6- coordinate although 5-coordinate complexes are
known.[24]
Compounds
Binary compounds of zinc are known for most of the
metalloids and all the nonmetals except the noble
gases. The oxide ZnO is a white powder that is nearly
insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions, but is
amphoteric, dissolving in both strong basic and acidic
solutions.[24] The other chalcogenides (ZnS, ZnSe, and
ZnTe) have varied applications in electronics and
optics.[33] Pnictogenides (Zn3N2, Zn3P2, Zn3As2 and
Zn3Sb2),[34] [35] the peroxide (ZnO2), the hydride
(ZnH2), and the carbide (ZnC2) are also known.[36] Of
the four halides, ZnF2 has the most ionic character, Zinc chloride
whereas the others (ZnCl2, ZnBr2, and ZnI2) have
relatively low melting points and are considered to have more covalent character.[37]
In weak basic solutions containing Zn2+ ions, the hydroxide

Zn(OH)2 forms as a white precipitate. In stronger alkaline
solutions, this hydroxide is dissolved to form zincates
([Zn(OH)4]2-).[24] The nitrate Zn(NO3)2, chlorate Zn(ClO3)2, sulfate
ZnSO4, phosphate Zn3(PO4)2, molybdate ZnMoO4, cyanide
Zn(CN)2, arsenite Zn(AsO2)2, arsenate Zn(AsO4)2•8H2O and the
chromate ZnCrO4 (one of the few colored zinc compounds) are a
Basic zinc acetate
few examples of other common inorganic compounds of zinc.[38]
[39]
One of the simplest examples of an organic compound of zinc
is the acetate (Zn(O2CCH3)2).
Organozinc compounds are those that contain zinc-carbon covalent bonds. Diethylzinc
((C2H5)2Zn) is a reagent in synthetic chemistry. It was first reported in 1848 from the
reaction of zinc and ethyl iodide, and is the first compound known to contain a metal-carbon
sigma bond.[40] Decamethyldizincocene contains a strong zinc-zinc bond at room
Zinc 6
temperature.[41]
History
Ancient use
Various isolated examples of the use of impure zinc in ancient
times have been discovered. A possibly prehistoric statuette
containing 87.5% zinc was found in a Dacian archaeological site
in Transylvania (modern Romania).[42] Ornaments made of
alloys that contain 80–90% zinc with lead, iron, antimony, and
other metals making up the remainder, have been found that
are 2500 years old.[11] The Berne zinc tablet is a votive plaque
dating to Roman Gaul made of an alloy that is mostly zinc.[43]
Zinc ores were used to make the zinc-copper alloy brass many
centuries prior to the discovery of zinc as a separate element.
Palestinian brass from the 14th to 10th centuries BC contains
23% zinc.[44] The Book of Genesis, written between the 10th Late Roman brass bucket -
and 5th centuries BC,[45] mentions Tubalcain as an "instructor the Hemmoorer Eimer from
Warstade, Germany second
in every artificer in brass and iron" (Genesis 4:22). Knowledge to third century AD
of how to produce brass spread to Ancient Greece by the
7th century BC but few varieties were made.[46]
The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC.[47] They made brass
by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal and copper together in
a crucible.[47] The resulting calamine brass was then either cast or hammered into shape
and was used in weaponry.[48] Some coins struck by Romans in the Christian era are made
of what is probably calamine brass.[49] In the West, impure zinc was known from antiquity
to exist in the remnants in melting ovens, but it was usually discarded, as it was thought to
be worthless.[50]
References to medicinal uses of zinc are in the Charaka Samhita, which is believed to have
been written as early as 300 BC in India.[51] The zinc mines and smelter of Zawar, near
Udaipur in India, were active about 100 years before that[51] and produced an estimated
million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide from the 12th to 16th centuries.[13] The
Rasaratna Samuccaya, written in approximately the year 800, mentions two types of
zinc-containing ores; one used for metal extraction and another used for medicinal
purposes.[51]
Early studies and naming

Zinc was distinctly recognized as a metal under the designation of Fasada in the medical
Lexicon ascribed to the Hindu king Madanapala and written about the year 1374.[52]
Smelting and extraction of impure zinc by reducing calamine with wool and other organic
substances was accomplished in the 13th century in India.[4] [53] The Chinese did not learn
of the technique until the 17th century.[53]
Zinc 7
Alchemists burned zinc metal in air and collected the

resulting zinc oxide on a condenser. Some alchemists
called this zinc oxide lana philosophica, Latin for
"philosopher's wool", because it collected in wooly tufts
Various alchemical symbols attributed while others thought it looked like white snow and
to the element zinc named it ninx album.[54]
The name of the metal was probably first used by Paracelsus, a Swiss-born German
alchemist, who referred to the metal as "zincum" or "zinken" in his book Liber Mineralium
II, in the 16th century.[53] [55] The word is probably derived from the German Zinke, and
supposedly meant "tooth-like, pointed or jagged" (metallic zinc crystals have a needle-like
appearance).[56] A second possibility is that the word is derived from the Persian word ‫گنس‬
seng meaning stone.[57] The metal was also called Indian tin, tutanego, calamine, and
spinter.[11]
German metallurgist Andreas Libavius received a quantity of what he called "calay" of
Malabar from a cargo ship captured from the Portuguese in 1596.[58] Libavius described
the properties of the sample, which may have been zinc. Zinc was regularly imported to
Europe from the Orient in the 17th and early 18th centuries,[53] but was at times very
expensive.[59]
Isolation of the pure element

The isolation of metallic zinc in the West may have been
achieved independently by several people. Postlewayt's
Universal Dictionary, a contemporary source giving
technological information in Europe, did not mention zinc
before 1751 but the element was studied before then.[51] [60]
Flemish metallurgist P.M. de Respour reported that he
extracted metallic zinc from zinc oxide in 1668.[13] By the turn
of the century, Étienne François Geoffroy described how zinc
oxide condenses as yellow crystals on bars of iron placed above
zinc ore being smelted.[13] In Britain, John Lane is said to have
carried out experiments to smelt zinc, probably at Landore,
prior to his bankruptcy in 1726.[61] Credit for first isolating pure
zinc is usually given to
In 1738, William Champion patented in Great Britain a process Andreas Sigismund
to extract zinc from calamine in a vertical retort style Marggraf.
smelter.[62] His technology was somewhat similar to that used
at Zawar zinc mines in Rajasthan but there is no evidence that he visited the Orient.[63]
Champion's process was used through 1851.[53]
German chemist Andreas Marggraf normally gets credit for discovering pure metallic zinc
even though Swedish chemist Anton von Swab distilled zinc from calamine four years
before.[53] In his 1746 experiment, Marggraf heated a mixture of calamine and charcoal in
a closed vessel without copper to obtain a metal.[50] This procedure became commercially
practical by 1752.[64]
Zinc 8
Later work
William Champion's brother, John, patented a process in 1758 for calcining zinc sulfide into
an oxide usable in the retort process.[11] Prior to this only calamine could be used to
produce zinc. In 1798, Johann Christian Ruberg improved on the smelting process by
building the first horizontal retort smelter.[65] Jean-Jacques Daniel Dony built a different
kind of horizontal zinc smelter in Belgium, which processed even more zinc.[53]
Italian doctor Luigi Galvani discovered in 1780 that connecting the spinal
cord of a freshly dissected frog to an iron rail attached by a brass hook
caused the frog's leg to twitch.[66] He incorrectly thought he had
discovered an ability of nerves and muscles to create electricity and called
the effect "animal electricity."[67] The galvanic cell and the process of
galvanization were both named for Luigi Galvani and these discoveries
paved the way for electrical batteries, galvanization and cathodic
Galvanization protection.[67]
was named for
Luigi Galvani.Galvani's friend, Alessandro Volta, continued researching this effect and
invented the Voltaic pile in 1800.[66] The basic unit of Volta's pile was a
simplified galvanic cell, which is made of a plate of copper and a plate of zinc connected to
each other externally and separated by an electrolyte. These were stacked in series to make
the Voltaic cell, which in turn produced electricity by directing electrons from the zinc to
the copper and allowing the zinc to corrode.[66]
The non-magnetic character of zinc and its lack of color in solution delayed discovery of its
importance to biochemistry and nutrition.[68] This changed in 1940 when carbonic
anhydrase, an enzyme that scrubs carbon dioxide from blood, was shown to have zinc in its
active site.[68] The digestive enzyme carboxypeptidase became the second known
zinc-containing enzyme in 1955.[68]
Production
Mining and processing

Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron, aluminium, and copper with
an annual production of about 10 million tonnes.[] The world's largest zinc producer is
Nyrstar, a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore.[69] About 70% of
the world's zinc originates from mining, while the remaining 30% comes from recycling
secondary zinc.[70] Commercially pure zinc is known as Special High Grade, often
abbreviated SHG, and is 99.995% pure.[71]
Zinc 9
Worldwide, 95% of the zinc is

mined from sulfidic ore
deposits, in which sphalerite
ZnS is nearly always mixed
with the sulfides of copper,
lead and iron.[73] There are
zinc mines throughout the
world, with the main mining
areas being China, Australia
and Peru.[] China produced Percentage of zinc output in 2006 by countries
[72]
over one-fourth of the global

zinc output in 2006.[]
Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy.[74] After grinding the ore, froth
flotation, which selectively separates minerals from gangue by taking advantage of
differences in their hydrophobicity, is used to get an ore concentrate.[74] A final
concentration of zinc of about 50% is reached by this process with the remainder of the
concentrate being sulphur (32%), iron (13%), and SiO2 (5%).[74]
Roasting converts the zinc sulfide concentrate produced during processing to zinc oxide:[73]
2 ZnS + 3 O2 → 2 ZnO + 2 SO2
Top 10 zinc producing countries in 2006 (full list)

Rank Country tonnes
1 China (PRC) 2,600,000
2 Australia 1,338,000
3 Peru 1,201,794
4 United States 727,000
5 Canada 710,000
6 Mexico 480,000
7 Ireland 425,700
8 India 420,800
9 Kazakhstan 400,000
10 Sweden 192,400
The sulfur dioxide is used for the production of sulfuric acid, which is necessary for the
leaching process. If deposits of zinc carbonate, zinc silicate or zinc spinel, like the Skorpion
Deposit in Namibia are used for zinc production the roasting can be omitted.[75]
For further processing two basic methods are used: pyrometallurgy or electrowinning.
Pyrometallurgy processing reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 °C
(1740 °F) into the metal, which is distilled as zinc vapor.[76] The zinc vapor is collected in a
condenser.[73] The below set of equations demonstrate this process:[73]
2 ZnO + C → 2 Zn + CO2
2 ZnO + 2 CO → 2 Zn + 2 CO2
Electrowinning processing leaches zinc from the ore concentrate by sulfuric acid:[77]
Zinc 10
ZnO + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2O

After this step electrolysis is used to produce zinc metal.[73]
Environmental impact
The production for sulfidic zinc ores produces large amounts of sulfur dioxide and cadmium
vapor. Smelter slag and other residues of process also contain significant amounts of heavy
metals. About 1,100,000 tonnes of metallic zinc and 130,000 tonnes of lead were mined and
smelted in the Belgian towns of La Calamine and Plombières between 1806 and 1882.[78]
The dumps of the past mining operations leach significant amounts of zinc and cadmium,
and, as a result, the sediments of the Geul River contain significant amounts of heavy
metals.[78] About two thousand years ago emissions of zinc from mining and smelting
totaled 10,000 tonnes a year. After increasing 10-fold from 1850, zinc emissions peaked at
3.4 megatonnes per year in the 1980s and declined to 2.7 megatonnes in the 1990s,
although a 2005 study of the Arctic troposphere found that the concentrations there did not
reflect the decline. Anthropogenic and natural emissions occur at a ratio of 20 to 1.[79]
Levels of zinc in rivers flowing through industrial or mining areas can be as high as
20 ppm.[80] Effective sewage treatment greatly reduces this; treatment along the Rhine, for
example, has decreased zinc levels to 50 ppb.[80] Concentrations of zinc as low as 2 ppm
adversely affects the amount of oxygen that fish can carry in their blood.[81]
The zinc works at Lutana, is the largest exporter in Tasmania, generating 2.5% of the state's GDP. It produces over
[82]
250000 tons of zinc per year. The Zinc works were historically responsible for high heavy metal levels in the
[83]
Derwent River
Soils contaminated with zinc through the mining of zinc-containing ores, refining, or where
zinc-containing sludge is used as fertilizer, can contain several grams of zinc per kilogram
(several ‰) of dry soil.[80] Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere with the
ability of plants to absorb other essential metals, such as iron and manganese.[80] Zinc
levels of 2000 ppm to 180,000 ppm (18%) have been recorded in some soil samples.[80]
Zinc 11
Applications
Anti-corrosion and batteries

The metal is most commonly used as an anti-corrosion
agent.[84] Galvanization, which is the coating of iron or
steel to protect the metals against corrosion, is the
most familiar form of using zinc in this way. In 2006 in
the United States, 56% or 773,000 tonnes of the zinc
metal was used for galvanization,[85] while worldwide
47% was used for this purpose.[86]
Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel and thus will

attract almost all local oxidation until it completely Crystalline surface of a hot-dip
corrodes away.[87] A protective surface layer of oxide galvanized handrail
and carbonate (Zn5(OH)6(CO3)2) forms as the zinc
corrodes.[88] This protection lasts even after the zinc layer is scratched but degrades
through time as the zinc corrodes away.[88] The zinc is applied electrochemically or as
molten zinc by hot-dip galvanizing or spraying.[10] Galvanization is used on chain-link
fencing, guard rails, suspension bridges, lightposts, metal roofs, heat exchangers, and car
bodies.[10]
The relative reactivity of zinc and its ability to attract oxidation to itself also makes it a
good sacrificial anode in cathodic protection. Cathodically protecting (CP) buried pipelines
requires a solid piece of zinc to be connected by a conductor to a steel pipe.[88] Zinc acts as
the anode (negative terminus) by slowly corroding away as it passes electric current to the
steel pipeline.[88] [89] Zinc is also used to cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea
water from corrosion.[90] A zinc disc attached to a ship's iron rudder will slowly corrode
while the rudder stays unattacked.[87] Other similar uses include a plug of zinc attached to
a propeller or the metal protective guard for the keel of the ship.
With an electrochemical potential of −0.7618 volts, zinc makes a good material for the
negative terminus or anode in batteries.[91] Powdered zinc is used in this way in alkaline
batteries and sheets of zinc metal form the cases for and act as anodes in zinc-carbon
batteries.[92] [93]
Zinc 12
Alloys
A widely used alloy of zinc is brass, in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3% to
45% zinc, depending upon the type of brass.[88] Brass is generally more ductile and
stronger than copper and has superior corrosion resistance.[88] These properties make it
useful in communication equipment, hardware, musical instruments, and water valves.[88]
Other widely used alloys that contain zinc include
nickel silver, typewriter metal, soft and aluminum
solder, and commercial bronze.[4] Zinc is also used in
contemporary pipe organs as a substitute for the
traditional lead/tin alloy in pipes.[94] Alloys of 85–88%
zinc, 4–10% copper, and 2–8% aluminium find limited
use in certain types of machine bearings. Zinc is the
primary metal used in making American one cent coins
since 1982.[95] The zinc core is coated with a thin layer
Microstructure of cast brass at
of copper to give the impression of a copper coin. In
magnification 400X
1994, 33200 tonnes (36600 short tons) of zinc were
used to produce 13.6 billion pennies in the United
States.[96]
Alloys of primarily zinc with small amounts of copper, aluminium, and magnesium are
useful in die casting as well as spin casting, especially in the automotive, electrical, and
hardware industries.[4] These alloys are marketed under the name Zamak.[97] An example of
this is zinc aluminium. The low melting point together with the low viscosity of the alloy
makes the production of small and intricate shapes possible. The low working temperature
leads to rapid cooling of the cast products and therefore fast assembly is possible.[4] [86] [98]
Another alloy, marketed under the name Prestal, contains 78% zinc and 22% aluminium
and is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as plastic.[4] This
superplasticity of the alloy allows it to be molded using die casts made of ceramics and
cement.[4]
Similar alloys with the addition of a small amount of lead can be cold-rolled into sheets. An
alloy of 96% zinc and 4% aluminium is used to make stamping dies for low production run
applications for which ferrous metal dies would be too expensive.[99] In building facades,
roofs or other applications in which zinc is used as sheet metal and for methods such as
deep drawing, roll forming or bending, zinc alloys with titanium and copper are used.[100]
Unalloyed zinc is too brittle for these kinds of manufacturing processes.[100]
Cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) is a semiconductive alloy that can be divided into an array of
small sensing devices.[101] These devices are similar to an integrated circuit and can detect
the energy of incoming gamma ray photons.[101] When placed behind an absorbing mask,
the CZT sensor array can also be used to determine the direction of the rays.[101] Zinc is
used as the anode or fuel of the zinc-air battery/fuel cell providing the basis of the theorized
zinc economy.[102] [103] [104]
Zinc 13
Other industrial uses

Roughly one quarter of all zinc output, in the United
States (2006), is consumed in the form of zinc
compounds;[85] a variety of which are used industrially.
Zinc oxide is widely used as a white pigment in paints,
and as a catalyst in the manufacture of rubber.[10] It is
also used as a heat disperser for the rubber and acts to
protect its polymers from ultraviolet radiation (the
same UV protection is conferred to plastics containing
zinc oxide).[10] The semiconductor properties of zinc
oxide make it useful in varistors and photocopying
Zinc oxide is used as a white pigment
products.[105] The zinc zinc-oxide cycle is a two step
in paints.
thermochemical process based on zinc and zinc oxide
for hydrogen production.[106]
Zinc chloride is often added to lumber as a fire retardant[107] and can be used as a wood
preservative.[108] It is also used to make other chemicals.[107] Zinc methyl (Zn(CH3)2) is
used in a number of organic syntheses.[109] Zinc sulfide (ZnS) is used in luminescent
pigments such as on the hands of clocks, X-ray and television screens, and luminous
paints.[110] Crystals of ZnS are used in lasers that operate in the mid-infrared part of the
spectrum.[111] Zinc sulphate is a chemical in dyes and pigments.[107] Zinc pyrithione is used
in antifouling paints.[112]
Zinc powder is sometimes used as a propellant in model rockets.[113] When a compressed
mixture of 70% zinc and 30% sulfur powder is ignited there is a violent chemical
reaction.[113] This produces zinc sulfide, together with large amounts of hot gas, heat, and
light.[113] Zinc sheet metal is used to make zinc bars.[114]
Zinc has been proposed as a salting material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is another,
better-known salting material).[115] A jacket of isotopically enriched Zn-64, irradiated by the
intense high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, would
transmute into the radioactive isotope Zn-65 with a half-life of 244 days and produce
massive gamma radiation, significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's fallout
for several days.[115] Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or
used.[115] Zn-65 is also used as a tracer to study how alloys that contain zinc wear out, or
the path and the role of zinc in organisms.[116]
Zinc dithiocarbamate complexes are used as agricultural fungicides, these include Zineb,
Metiram, Propineb and Ziram.[117] Zinc naphthenate is used as wood preservative.[118]
Medicinal
Zinc is included in most single tablet over-the-counter daily vitamin and mineral
supplements.[119] It is believed to possess antioxidant properties, which protect against
premature aging of the skin and muscles of the body, although studies differ as to its
effectiveness.[120] Zinc also helps speed up the healing process after an injury.[120] Zinc
gluconate glycine and zinc acetate are used in throat lozenges or tablets to reduce the
duration and the severity of cold symptoms.[121] Preparations include zinc oxide, zinc
acetate and zinc gluconate.[119]
Zinc 14
Zinc preparations can protect against sunburn in the

summer and windburn in the winter.[47] Applied thinly
to a baby's diaper area (perineum) with each diaper
change, it can protect against diaper rash.[47]
Zinc gluconate is one compound used
The Age-Related Eye Disease Study determined that
for the delivery of zinc as a dietary
zinc can be part of an effective treatment for
supplement
age-related macular degeneration.[122] Zinc
supplementation is an effective treatment for
acrodermatitis enteropathica, a genetic disorder affecting zinc absorption that was
previously fatal to babies born with it.[47]
Zinc lactate is used in toothpaste to prevent halitosis.[123] Zinc pyrithione is widely applied
in shampoos because of its anti-dandruff function.[124] Zinc ions are effective antimicrobial
agents even at low concentrations.[125] Gastroenteritis is strongly attenuated by ingestion
of zinc, and this effect could be due to direct antimicrobial action of the zinc ions in the
gastrointestinal tract, or to the absorption of the zinc and re-release from immune cells (all
granulocytes secrete zinc), or both.[126] [127] [128]
[129]
[130]
[131]
[132]
Biological role
Zinc is an essential trace element, necessary for plants,[79] , animals,[133] and
microorganisms.[134] Zinc is found in nearly 100 specific enzymes[135] (other sources say
300), serves as structural ions in transcription factors and is stored and transferred in
metallothioneins.[136] It is "typically the second most abundant transition metal in
organisms" after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes.[79]
The human body has 2-4 grams of zinc[137] distributed throughout the body. Most zinc is in
the brain, muscle, bones, kidney, and liver, with the highest concentrations in the prostate
and parts of the eye.[138] Semen is particularly rich in zinc, which is a key factor in prostate
gland function and reproductive organ growth.[139]
In humans zinc plays "ubiquitous biological roles".[1] It interacts with "a wide range of
organic ligands"[1] and has a role in the metabolism of RNA and DNA, signal transduction,
and gene expression. It also regulates apoptosis. A 2006 study estimated that about 10% of
human proteins (2800) potentially bind zinc in addition to hundreds which transport and
traffic zinc; a similar in silico study in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana found 2367
zinc-related proteins.[79]
In the brain, zinc is stored in specific synaptic vesicles by glutamatergic neurons[140] and
can "modulate brain excitability".[1] It plays a key role in synaptic plasticity and so in
learning.[141] However it has been called "the brain's dark horse"[140] since it also can be a
neurotoxin suggesting zinc homeostasis plays a critical role in normal functioning of the
brain and central nervous system.[140]
Zinc 15
Enzymes
Zinc is a good Lewis acid, making it a useful catalytic
agent in hydroxylation and other enzymatic
reactions.[135] The metal also has a flexible
coordination geometry, which allows proteins using it
to rapidly shift conformations to perform biological
reactions.[142] Two examples of zinc-containing
enzymes are carbonic anhydrase and carboxypeptidase,
which are vital to the processes of carbon dioxide (CO2)
regulation and digestion of proteins, respectively.[143]
In vertebrate blood, carbonic anhydrase converts CO2

into bicarbonate and the same enzyme transforms the Ribbon diagram of human carbonic
bicarbonate back into CO2 for exhalation through the anhydrase II, with zinc atom visible in
[144] the center
lungs. Without this enzyme, this conversion would
occur about one million times slower[145] at the normal
blood pH of 7 or would require a pH of 10 or more.[146] The non-related β-carbonic
anhydrase is required in plants for leaf formation, the synthesis of indole acetic acid (auxin)
and anaerobic respiration (alcoholic fermentation).[147]
Carboxypeptidase cleaves peptide linkages during digestion of proteins. A coordinate

covalent bond is formed between the terminal peptide and a C=O group attached to zinc,
which gives the carbon a positive charge. This helps to create a hydrophobic pocket on the
enzyme near the zinc, which attracts the non-polar part of the protein being digested.[143]
Other proteins
Zinc serves a purely structural role in zinc fingers, twists and clusters.[148] Zinc fingers
form parts of some transcription factors, which are proteins that recognize DNA base
sequences during the replication and transcription of DNA. Each of the nine or ten Zn2+
ions in a zinc finger helps maintain the finger's structure by coordinately binding to four
amino acids in the transcription factor.[145] The transcription factor wraps around the DNA
helix and uses its fingers to accurately bind to the DNA sequence.
In blood plasma, zinc is bound to and transported by albumin (60 %,
low-affinity) and transferrin (10%).[137] Since transferrin also
transports iron, excessive iron reduces zinc absorption, and
vice-versa. A similar reaction occurs with copper.[149] The
concentration of zinc in blood plasma stays relatively constant
Zinc fingers help regardless of zinc intake.[150] Cells in the salivary gland, prostate,
read DNA sequences immune system and intestine use zinc signaling as one way to
communicate with other cells.[151]
Zinc may be held in metallothionein reserves within microorganisms or in the intestines or

liver of animals.[152] Metallothionein in intestinal cells is capable of adjusting absorption of
zinc by 15-40%.[153] However, inadequate or excessive zinc intake can be harmful; excess
zinc particularly impairs copper absorption because metallothionein absorbs both
metals.[154]
Zinc 16
Dietary intake
In the U.S., the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is
8 mg/day for women and 11 mg/day for men.[155] Median intake
in the U.S. around 2000 was 9 mg/day for women and
14 mg/day in men.[155] Red meats, especially beef, lamb and
liver have some of the highest concentrations of zinc in
food.[139]
The concentration of zinc in plants varies based on levels of the

element in soil. When there is adequate zinc in the soil, the food
plants that contain the most zinc are wheat (germ and bran)
and various seeds (sesame, poppy, alfalfa, celery, mustard).[156]
Zinc is also found in beans, nuts, almonds, whole grains,
pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds and blackcurrant.[157] Soil
conservation is needed to make sure that crop rotation will not
Foods and spices that
deplete the zinc in soil. contain zinc
Other sources include fortified food and dietary supplements,

which come in various forms. A 1998 review concluded that zinc oxide, one of the most
common supplements in the United States, and zinc carbonate are nearly insoluble and
poorly absorbed in the body.[158] This review cited studies which found low plasma zinc
concentrations after zinc oxide and zinc carbonate were consumed compared with those
seen after consumption of zinc acetate and sulfate salts.[158] However, harmful excessive
supplementation is a problem among the relatively affluent, and should probably not exceed
20 mg/day in healthy people,[159] although the U.S. National Research Council set a
Tolerable Upper Intake of 40 mg/day.[155]
For fortification, however, a 2003 review recommended zinc oxide in cereals as cheap,
stable, and as easily absorbed as more expensive forms.[160] A 2005 study found that
various compounds of zinc, including oxide and sulfate, did not show statistically significant
differences in absorption when added as fortificants to maize tortillas.[161]
Deficiency
Zinc deficiency is usually due to insufficient dietary intake, but can be associated with
malabsorption, acrodermatitis enteropathica, chronic liver disease, chronic renal disease,
sickle cell disease, diabetes, malignancy, and other chronic illnesses.[2] Symptoms of mild
zinc deficiency are diverse.[155] Clinical outcomes include depressed growth, diarrhea,
impotence and delayed sexual maturation, alopecia, eye and skin lesions, impaired appetite,
altered cognition, host defense properties, defects in carbohydrate utilization, and
reproductive teratogenesis.[150] Mild zinc deficiency depresses immunity,[162] although so
does excessive zinc.[137] Animals with a diet deficient in zinc require twice as much food to
attain the same weight gain as animals given sufficient zinc.[110]
Groups at risk for zinc deficiency include the elderly, vegetarians, and those with renal
insufficiency. There is a paucity of adequate zinc biomarkers, and the most widely used
indicator, plasma zinc, has poor sensitivity and specificity.[163] Diagnosing zinc deficiency is
a persistent challenge.[1]
Nearly 2 billion people in the developing world are deficient in zinc.[2] In children it causes
an increase in infection and diarrhea, contributing to the death of about 800,000 children
Zinc 17
worldwide per year.[1] The World Health Organization advocates zinc supplementation for
severe malnutrition and diarrhea.[164] Zinc supplements help prevent disease and reduce
mortality, especially among children with low birth weight or stunted growth.[164] However,
zinc supplements should not be administered alone, since many in the developing world
[165]
have several deficiencies, and zinc interacts with other micronutrients.
Zinc deficiency is plants' most common crop micronutrient deficiency; it is particularly
common in high-pH soils. Zinc-deficient soil is cultivated in the cropland of about half of
Turkey and India, a third of China, and most of Western Australia, and substantial
responses to zinc fertilization have been reported in these areas.[79] Plants that grow in
soils that are zinc-deficient are more susceptible to disease. Zinc is primarily added to the
soil through the weathering of rocks, but humans have added zinc through fossil fuel
combustion, mine waste, phosphate fertilizers, limestone, manure, sewage sludge, and
particles from galvanized surfaces. Excess zinc is toxic to plants, although zinc toxicity is
far less widespread.[79]
Precautions
Toxicity
Even though zinc is an essential requirement for good health, excess zinc can be harmful.
Excessive absorption of zinc suppresses copper and iron absorption.[154] The free zinc ion in
solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish.[166] The Free Ion
Activity Model is well-established in the literature, and shows that just micromolar amounts
of the free ion kills some organisms. A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93% of
all Daphnia in water.[167]
The free zinc ion is a powerful Lewis acid up to the point of being corrosive. Stomach acid
contains hydrochloric acid, in which metallic zinc dissolves readily to give corrosive zinc
chloride. Swallowing a post-1982 American one cent piece (97.5% zinc) can cause damage
to the stomach lining due to the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach.[168]
There is evidence of induced copper deficiency at low intakes of 100–300 mg Zn/d; a recent
trial had higher hospitalizations among elderly men taking 80 mg/day.[169] The USDA RDA
is 15 mg Zn/d. Even lower levels, closer to the RDA, may interfere with the utilization of
copper and iron or to adversely affect cholesterol.[154] Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm
in soil interferes with the ability of plants to absorb other essential metals, such as iron and
manganese.[80] There is also a condition called the zinc shakes or "zinc chills" that can be
induced by the inhalation of freshly formed zinc oxide formed during the welding of
galvanized materials.[110]
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has stated that zinc damages nerve receptors
in the nose, which can cause anosmia. Reports of anosmia were also observed in the 1930s
when zinc preparations were used in a failed attempt to prevent polio infections. On June
16, 2009 the FDA said that consumers should stop using zinc-based intranasal cold
products and ordered their removal from store shelves. The FDA said the loss of smell can
be life-threatening because people with impaired smell cannot detect leaking gas or smoke
and cannot tell if food has spoiled before they eat it.[170]
Zinc 18
Poisoning
In 1982, the United States Mint began minting pennies coated in copper but made primarily
of zinc. With the new zinc pennies, there is the potential for zinc toxicosis, which can be
fatal. One reported case of chronic ingestion of 425 pennies (over 1 kg of zinc) resulted in
death due to gastrointestinal bacterial and fungal sepsis, while another patient, who
ingested 12 grams of zinc, only showed lethargy and ataxia (gross lack of coordination of
muscle movements).[171] Several other cases have been reported of humans suffering zinc
intoxication by the ingestion of zinc coins.[172] [173]
Pennies and other small coins are sometimes ingested by dogs, resulting in the need for
medical treatment to remove the foreign body. The zinc content of some coins can cause
zinc toxicity, which is commonly fatal in dogs, where it causes a severe hemolytic anemia,
and also liver or kidney damage; vomiting and diarrhea are possible symptoms.[174] Zinc is
highly toxic in parrots and poisoning can often be fatal.[175] The consumption of fruit juices
stored in galvanized cans has resulted in mass parrot poisonings with zinc.[47]
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Zinc 19
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gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ zinc/ )
• Reducing Agents > Zinc (http:/ / www. organic-chemistry. org/ chemicals/ reductions/
zinc-zn. shtm)
• American Zinc Association (http:/ / www. zinc. org) Information about the uses and
properties of zinc.
• Outline safety data for zinc (http:/ / ptcl. chem. ox. ac. uk/ MSDS/ ZI/ zinc. html)

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License
Gallium 1
Gallium
zinc ← gallium → germaniumAl
↑
Ga
↓
In

31Ga
Periodic table

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

Gallium 2
at T/K 1310 1448 1620 1838 2125 2518

conductivityThermal expansionSpeed of sound (thin rod) Young's modulusPoisson
ratioMohs hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article:
Isotopes of gallium
69 60.11% 69
Ga Ga is stable with 38 neutron
71 39.89% 71
Ga Ga is stable with 40 neutron
gallium, Ga, 31 poor metal13, 4, d69.723(1) g·mol−1 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1 2, 8, 18, 3 (Image)
5.59 kJ·mol−1 254 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 25.86 J·mol−1·K−13, 2, 1
(amphoteric oxide) 1.81 (Pauling scale) 1st: 578.8 kJ·mol−1 135 pm 122±3 pm 187 pm
orthorhombic diamagnetic (20 °C) 270Ω·m (300 K) 40.6 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 1.2 µm·m−1·K−1
(20 °C) 2740 m/s 9.8 GPa 0.47 1.5 60 MPa 7440-55-3
Gallium (pronounced /ˈɡæliəm/) is a chemical element that has the symbol Ga and atomic
number 31. Elemental gallium does not occur in nature, but as the Ga (III) salt, in trace
amounts in bauxite and zinc ores. A soft silvery metallic poor metal, elemental gallium is a
brittle solid at low temperatures. As it liquefies slightly above room temperature, it will
melt in the hand. Its melting point is used as a temperature reference point, and from its
discovery in 1875 to the semiconductor era, its primary uses were in high-temperature
thermometric applications and in preparation of metal alloys with unusual properties of
stability, or ease of melting; some being liquid at room temperature or below. The alloy
Galinstan (68.5% Ga, 21.5% In, 10% Sn) has a melting point of about -19 °C (-2.2 °F).
In semiconductors, an important application is in the compounds gallium arsenide and
gallium nitride, used most notably in light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Semiconductor use is
now almost the entire (> 95%) world market for gallium, but new uses in alloys and fuel
cells continue to be discovered.
Gallium is not known to be essential in biology, but because of the biological handling of
gallium’s primary ionic salt Ga(III) as though it were iron(III), gallium ion localizes to and
interacts with many processes in the body in which iron(III) is manipulated. As these
processes include inflammation, which is present as a marker for many disease states,
several gallium salts are used, or are in development, as both pharmaceuticals and
radiopharmaceuticals in medicine.
Elemental gallium is not found in nature, but it is easily obtained by smelting. Very pure
gallium metal has a brilliant silvery color and its solid metal fractures conchoidally like
glass. Gallium metal expands by 3.1 percent when it solidifies, and therefore storage in
either glass or metal containers is avoided, due to the possibility of container rupture with
freezing. Gallium shares the higher-density liquid state with only a few materials like
silicon, germanium, bismuth, antimony and water.
Gallium 3
Gallium also attacks most other metals by diffusing into their metal lattice. Gallium for
example diffuses into the grain boundaries of Al/Zn alloys[1] or steel[2] , making them very
brittle. Also, gallium metal easily alloys with many metals, and was used in small quantities
in the core of the first atomic bomb to help stabilize the plutonium crystal structure.[3]
The melting point of 302.9146 K (29.7646°C, 85.5763°F) is near room temperature.
Gallium's melting point (mp) is one of the formal temperature reference points in the
International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) established by BIPM.[4] [5] [6] The triple
point of gallium of 302.9166 K (29.7666°C, 85.5799°F), is being used by NIST in preference
to gallium's melting point.[7]
Gallium is a metal that will melt in one's hand. This metal has a strong tendency to
supercool below its melting point/freezing point. Seeding with a crystal helps to initiate
freezing. Gallium is one of the metals (with caesium, rubidium, francium and mercury)
which are liquid at or near normal room temperature, and can therefore be used in
metal-in-glass high-temperature thermometers. It is also notable for having one of the
largest liquid ranges for a metal, and (unlike mercury) for having a low vapor pressure at
high temperatures. Unlike mercury, liquid gallium metal wets glass and skin, making it
mechanically more difficult to handle (even though it is substantially less toxic and requires
far fewer precautions). For this reason as well as the metal contamination problem and
freezing-expansion problems noted above, samples of gallium metal are usually supplied in
polyethylene packets within other containers.
Gallium does not crystallize in any of the simple crystal
structures. The stable phase under normal conditions is
orthorhombic with 8 atoms in the conventional unit cell.
Each atom has only one nearest neighbor (at a distance
of 244 pm) and six other neighbors within additional 39
pm. Many stable and metastable phases are found as
function of temperature and pressure.
The bonding between the nearest neighbors is found to

be of covalent character, hence Ga2 dimers are seen as
the fundamental building blocks of the crystal. This
Crystallization of gallium from the melt
explains the drop of the melting point compared to its
neighbour elements aluminium and indium. The compound with arsenic, gallium arsenide is
a semiconductor commonly used in light-emitting diodes.
High-purity gallium is dissolved slowly by mineral acids.

Gallium has no known biological role, although it has been observed to stimulate
metabolism.[8]
History
Gallium (the Latin Gallia means "Gaul," essentially modern France) was discovered
spectroscopically by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875 by its characteristic spectrum (two
violet lines) in an examination of a zinc blende from the Pyrenees.[9] Before its discovery,
most of its properties had been predicted and described by Dmitri Mendeleev (who had
called the hypothetical element "eka-aluminium" on the basis of its position in his periodic
table). Later, in 1875, Boisbaudran obtained the free metal by electrolysis of its hydroxide
in potassium hydroxide solution. He named the element "gallia" after his native land of
Gallium 4
France. It was later claimed that, in one of those multilingual puns so beloved of men of
science in the early 19th century, he had also named gallium after himself, as his name, "Le
coq," is the French for "the rooster," and the Latin for "rooster" is "gallus"; however, in an
1877 article Le coq denied this supposition. (The supposition was also noted in Building
Blocks of the Universe, a book on the elements by Isaac Asimov.)
Occurrence
Gallium does not exist in free form in nature, and the few high-gallium minerals such as
gallite (CuGaS2) are too rare to serve as a primary source of the element or its compounds.
Its abundance in the Earth's crust is approximately 16.9 ppm.[10] Gallium is found and
extracted as a trace component in bauxite and to a small extent from sphalerite. The
amount extracted from coal, diaspore and germanite in which gallium is also present is
negligible. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates gallium reserves to
exceed 1 million tonnes, based on 50 ppm by weight concentration in known reserves of
bauxite and zinc ores.[11] [12] Some flue dusts from burning coal have been shown to contain
small quantities of gallium, typically less than 1% by weight.[13] [14] [15] [16]
Production
The only two economic sources for gallium are as byproduct of aluminium and zinc
production, while the sphalerite for zinc production is the minor source. Most gallium is
extracted from the crude aluminium hydroxide solution of the Bayer process for producing
alumina and aluminium. A mercury cell electrolysis and hydrolysis of the amalgam with
sodium hydroxide leads to sodium gallate. Electrolysis then gives gallium metal. For
semiconductor use, further purification is carried out using zone melting, or else single
crystal extraction from a melt (Czochralski process). Purities of 99.9999% are routinely
achieved and commercially widely available.[17] An exact number for the world wide
production is not available, but it is estimated that in 2007 the production of gallium was
184 tonnes with less than 100 tonnes from mining and the rest from scrap recycling. [11]
Applications
Semiconductors
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium nitride (GaN) used
in electronic components represented about 98% of the
gallium consumption in the United States.[11] World
wide gallium arsenide makes up 95% of the annual
global gallium consumption.[17] The semiconductor
applications are the main reason for the low-cost
commercial availability of the extremely high-purity
(99.9999+%) metal: As a component of the
semiconductor gallium arsenide, the most common
Gallium based blue LEDs
application for gallium is optoelectronic devices (mostly
laser diodes and light-emitting diodes.) Smaller
amounts of gallium arsenide are use for the manufacture of ultra-high speed logic chips and
MESFETs for low-noise microwave preamplifiers.
Gallium 5
Gallium is used as a dopant for the production of solid-state devices such as transistors.
However, worldwide the actual quantity used for this purpose is minute, since dopant levels
are usually of the order of a few parts per million.
Multijunction photovoltaic cell is used for special application, first developed and deployed
for satellite power applications, are made by molecular beam epitaxy or Metalorganic
vapour phase epitaxy of thin films of gallium arsenide, indium gallium phosphide or indium
gallium arsenide.The Mars Exploration Rovers and several satellites use triple junction
gallium arsenide on germanium cells.[18] Gallium is the rarest component of new
photovoltaic compounds (such as copper indium gallium selenium sulfide or
Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S)2) for use in solar panels as a more efficient alternative to crystalline
silicon.[19]
Wetting and alloy improvement

• Because gallium wets glass or porcelain, gallium can be used to create brilliant mirrors.
• Gallium readily alloys with most metals, and has been used as a component in
low-melting alloys. The plutonium used in nuclear weapon pits is machined by alloying
with gallium to stabilize the allotropes of plutonium.[20]
• Gallium added in quantities up to 2% in common solders can aid wetting and flow
characteristics.
Galinstan and other liquid alloys

A nearly eutectic alloy of gallium, indium, and tin is a room temperature liquid which is
widely available in medical thermometers, replacing problematic mercury. This alloy, with
the trade-name Galinstan (with the "-stan" referring to the tin), has a low freezing point of
-19 °C (-2.2°F).[21] It has been suggested that this family of alloys could also be used to cool
computer chips in place of water.[22] Much research is being devoted to gallium alloys as
substitutes for mercury dental amalgams, but these compounds have yet to see wide
acceptance.
Energy storage
Aluminium is reactive enough to reduce water to hydrogen, being oxidized to aluminium
oxide. However, the aluminium oxide forms a protective coat which prevents further
reaction. Galinstan has been applied to activate aluminum (removing the oxide coat), so
that aluminum can react with water, generating hydrogen and steam in a reaction being
considered as a helpful step in a hydrogen economy[23] . A number of other
gallium-alluminum alloys are also usable for the purpose of essentially acting as chemical
energy store to generate hydrogen from water, on-site.
After reaction with water, resmelting the resultant aluminium oxide and gallium mixture to
metallic aluminium and gallium might be reforming back into electrodes, with energy input.
[23] [24]
The thermodynamic efficiency of the aluminium smelting process is estimated as
[25]
50%. Therefore, at most no more than half the energy that goes into smelting the
aluminium could be recovered by a hydrogen fuel cell.
Gallium 6
Biomedical applications
As gallium (III) salts

• Gallium nitrate (see Ganite) has been used as an intravenous pharmaceutical to treat
hypercalcemia associated with tumor metastatis to bones. Gallium is thought to interfere
with osteoclast function. It may be effective when other treatments for
maligancy-associated hypercalcemia are not. [26]
• Gallium maltolate is in clinical and preclinical trials as a potential treatment for cancer,
infectious disease, and inflammatory disease.[27]
• Research is being conducted to determine whether gallium can be used to fight bacterial
infections in people with cystic fibrosis. Gallium is similar in size to iron, an essential
nutrient for respiration. When gallium is mistakenly picked up by bacteria such as
Pseudomonas, the bacteria's ability to respire is interfered with and the bacteria die. The
mechanism behind this is that iron is redox active, which allows for the transfer of
electrons during respiration, but gallium is redox inactive.[28] [29]
As radiogallium salts
Gallium-67 salts such as gallium citrate and gallium nitrate are used as
radiopharmaceutical agents in a nuclear medicine imaging procedure commonly referred to
as a gallium scan. The form or salt of gallium is not important, since it is the free dissolved
gallium ion Ga3+ which is the active radiotracer. For these applications, the radioactive
isotope 67Ga is used. The body handles Ga3+ in many ways as though it were iron, and thus
it is bound (and concentrates) in areas of inflammation, such as infection, and also areas of
rapid cell division. This allows such sites to be imaged by nuclear scan techniques. This use
has largely been replaced by fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) for positron emission tomography,
"PET" scan and indium-111 labelled leukocyte scans. However, the localization of gallium in
the body has some properties which make it unique in some circumstances from competing
modalities using other radioisotopes.
Gallium-68, a positron emitter with a half life of 68 min., is now used as a diagnostic
radionuclide in CT-PET when linked to pharmaceutical preparations such as DOTATOC, a
somatostatin analogue used for neuroendocrine tumors investigation, and DOTATATE, a
newer one, used for neuroendocrine metastasis and lung neuroendocrine cancer, such as
certain types of microcytoma.
Galium-68's preparation as a pharmaceutical is chemical and the radionuclide is extracted
by elution from germanium-68, a synthetic radioisotope of germanium, in gallium-68
generators. These generators function similarly to technetium-99m generators, in both
cases using a process similar to thin layer chromatography. The stationary phase is
alumina, TiO2 or SnO2, onto which germanium-68 is adsorbed. The mobile phase is a
solvent able to elute (wash out) decayed germanium-68, after it has decayed to gallium-68
(III). Currently Ga-68 is easily eluted with a few mL of 1 M or 0.1M hydrochloric acid from
tin-oxide or titanium-oxide based generators respectively, within 1 to 2 minutes. However,
there remains more than an hour of pharmaceutical preparation to attach the gallium-68
(III) to the tracer DOTATOC or DOTATATE, so that the total preparation time is typically
longer than the Ga-68 isotope half life. This fact requires that these radiopharmaceuticals
be made on-site in most cases. The on-site generator is required to minimize the time
losses. The generator is easily storable for almost a year.
Gallium 7
Other uses
• Magnesium gallate containing impurities (such as Mn2+), is beginning to be used in
ultraviolet-activated phosphor powder.
• Neutrino detection. Possibly the largest amount of pure gallium ever collected in a single
spot is the Gallium-Germanium Neutrino Telescope used by the SAGE experiment at the
Baksan Neutrino Observatory in Russia. This detector contains 55-57 tonnes of liquid
gallium.[30] Another experiment was the GALLEX neutrino detector operated in the early
1990s in an Italian mountain tunnel. The detector contained 12.2 tons of watered
gallium-71. Solar neutrinos caused a few atoms of Ga-71 to become radioactive Ge-71,
which were detected. The solar neutrino flux deduced was found to have a deficit of 40%
from theory. This was not explained until better solar neutrino detectors and theories
were constructed (see SNO).[31]
• As a liquid metal ion source for a focused ion beam.
Precautions
While not considered toxic, the data about gallium are inconclusive. Some sources suggest
that it may cause dermatitis from prolonged exposure; other tests have not caused a
positive reaction. Like most metals, finely divided gallium loses its luster and powdered
gallium appears gray. Thus, when gallium is handled with bare hands, the extremely fine
dispersion of liquid gallium droplets, which results from wetting skin with the metal, may
appear as a gray skin stain.
See also
• Gallium compounds
External links
• Webelements: detailed information on gallium [32]
• WebElements.com – textbook information on gallium [33]
• Material safety data sheet at acialloys.com [34]
• www.lenntech.com – textbook information regarding gallium [35]
• environmental effects of gallium [36]
• Price development of gallium 1959-1998 [37]
[38]
• Technology produces hydrogen by adding water to an alloy of aluminum and gallium
• pure Gallium crystals ~99,9999% picture in the element collection from Heinrich Pniok
[39]
Gallium 8
References
[1] W. L. Tsai, Y. Hwu, C. H. Chen, L. W. Chang, J. H. Je, H. M. Lin, G. Margaritondo (2003). "Grain boundary
imaging, gallium diffusion and the fracture behavior of Al–Zn Alloy – An in situ study". Nuclear Instruments and
Methods in Physics Research Section B 199: 457. doi: 10.1016/S0168-583X(02)01533-1 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1016/ S0168-583X(02)01533-1).
[2] Vigilante, G. N., Trolano, E., Mossey, C. (June 1999). " Liquid Metal Embrittlement of ASTM A723 Gun Steel by
Indium and Gallium (http:/ / stinet. dtic. mil/ oai/ oai?& verb=getRecord& metadataPrefix=html&
identifier=ADA365497)". Defense Technical Information Center. . Retrieved 2009-07-07.
[3] Sublette,Cary (2001-09-09). " Section 6.2.2.1 (http:/ / nuclearweaponarchive. org/ Nwfaq/ Nfaq6. html#nfaq6.
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[4] Preston=Thomas, H. (1990). " The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) (http:/ / www. bipm. org/
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(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1088/ 0026-1394/ 27/ 1/ 002). .
[5] " ITS-90 documents at Bureau International de Poids et Mesures (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ publications/
its-90. html)". .
[6] Magnum, B.W.; Furukawa, G.T. (August 1990). " Guidelines for Realizing the International Temperature Scale
of 1990 (ITS-90) (http:/ / www. cstl. nist. gov/ div836/ 836. 05/ papers/ magnum90ITS90guide. pdf)". National
Institute of Standards and Technology. NIST TN 1265. .
[7] Strouse, Gregory F. (1999). " NIST realization of the gallium triple point (http:/ / www. cstl. nist. gov/ div836/
836. 05/ papers/ Strouse99GaTP. pdf)". National Institute of Standards and Technology. . Retrieved 2009-07-07.
[8] Mark Winter. " Scholar Edition: gallium: Biological information (http:/ / www. webelements. com/
webelements/ scholar/ elements/ gallium/ biological. html)". The University of Sheffield and WebElements Ltd,
UK. .
[9] de Boisbaudran, Lecoq. " Caractères chimiques et spectroscopiques d'un nouveau métal, le gallium, découvert
dans une blende de la mine de Pierrefitte, vallée d'Argelès (Pyrénées) (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/
bpt6k3038w/ f490. table)". Comptes rendus 81: 493. . Retrieved 2008-09-23.
[10] Burton, J. D.; Culkin, F.; Riley, J. P. (2007). "The abundances of gallium and germanium in terrestrial
materials". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 16: 151. doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(59)90052-3 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1016/ 0016-7037(59)90052-3).
[11] Kramer, Deborah A.. " Mineral Commodity Summary 2006: Gallium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/
pubs/ commodity/ gallium/ mcs-2008-galli. pdf)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-11-20.
[12] Kramer, Deborah A.. " Mineral Yearbook 2006: Gallium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/
commodity/ gallium/ myb1-2006-galli. pdf)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-11-20.
[13] Shan Xiao-quan, Wang Wen and Wen Bei (1992). "Determination of gallium in coal and coal fly ash by
electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry using slurry sampling and nickel chemical modification".
Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 7: 761. doi: 10.1039/JA9920700761 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/
JA9920700761).
[14] " Gallium in West Virginia Coals (http:/ / www. wvgs. wvnet. edu/ www/ datastat/ te/ GaHome. htm)". West
Virginia Geological and Economic Survey. 2002-03-02. .
[15] O. Font, X. Querol, R. Juan, R. Casado, C. R. Ruiz, A. Lopez-Soler, P. Coca and F. G. Pena (2007). "Recovery of
gallium and vanadium from gasification fly ash". Journal of Hazardous Materials 139: 413. doi:
10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.02.041 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. jhazmat. 2006. 02. 041).
[16] A. J. W. Headlee and Richard G. Hunter (1953). "Elements in Coal Ash and Their Industrial Significance".
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 45: 548. doi: 10.1021/ie50519a028 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/
ie50519a028).
[17] Moskalyk, R. R. (2003). "Gallium: the backbone of the electronics industry". Minerals Engineering 16: 921.
doi: 10.1016/j.mineng.2003.08.003 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. mineng. 2003. 08. 003).
[18] Crisp, D.; Pathare, A.; Ewell, R. C. (2004). "The performance of gallium arsenide/germanium solar cells at the
Martian surface". Progress in Photovoltaics Research and Applications 54: 83. doi:
10.1016/S0094-5765(02)00287-4 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0094-5765(02)00287-4).
[19] Alberts, V.; Titus J.; Birkmire R. W. (2003). "Material and device properties of single-phase Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S)2
alloys prepared by selenization/sulfurization of metallic alloys". Thin Solid Films 451-452: 207. doi:
10.1016/j.tsf.2003.10.092 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. tsf. 2003. 10. 092).
[20] Besmann, Theodore M. (2005). "Thermochemical Behavior of Gallium in Weapons-Material-Derived
Mixed-Oxide Light Water Reactor (LWR) Fuel". Journal of the American Ceramic Society 81: 3071. doi:
[21] Surmann, P; Zeyat, H (Nov 2005). "Voltammetric analysis using a self-renewable non-mercury electrode.".
Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry 383 (6): 1009–13. doi: 10.1007/s00216-005-0069-7 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
Gallium 9
10. 1007/ s00216-005-0069-7). ISSN 1618-2642 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 1618-2642). PMID 16228199.
[22] Knight, Will (2005-05-05). " Hot chips chilled with liquid metal (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article.
ns?id=dn7348)". . Retrieved 2008-11-20.
[23] Purdue University (2007-04-10). " Purdue Energy Center symposium to pave the road to a hydrogen economy
(http:/ / www. purdue. edu/ uns/ x/ 2007a/ 070410Gorehydrogen. html)". Press release. .
[24] " New process generates hydrogen from aluminum alloy to run engines, fuel cells (http:/ / www. physorg.
com/ news98556080. html)". PhysOrg.com. 2007-05-16. .
[25] Das, Subodh K. (2004). "Energy implications of the changing world of aluminum metal supply". JOM 56: 14.
doi: 10.1007/s11837-004-0175-6 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s11837-004-0175-6).
[26] " gallium nitrate (http:/ / www. cancer. org/ docroot/ CDG/ content/ CDG_gallium_nitrate. asp)". . Retrieved
2009-07-07.
[27] L. R. Bernstein, T. Tanner, C. Godfrey, B. Noll (2000). "Chemistry and pharmacokinetics of gallium maltolate,
a compound with high oral gallium bioavailability". Metal Based Drugs 7: 33. doi: 10.1155/MBD.2000.33 (http:/
/ dx. doi. org/ 10. 1155/ MBD. 2000. 33).
[28] " A Trojan-horse strategy selected to fight bacteria (http:/ / www. infoniac. com/ health-fitness/ trojan-gallium.
html)". 2007-03-16. . Retrieved 2008-11-20.
[29] Smith, Michael (2007-03-16). " Gallium May Have Antibiotic-Like Properties (http:/ / www. medpagetoday.
com/ InfectiousDisease/ GeneralInfectiousDisease/ tb/ 5266)". MedPage Today. . Retrieved 2008-11-20.
[30] " Russian American Gallium Experiment (http:/ / ewi. npl. washington. edu/ sage/ )". 2001-19-10. . Retrieved
2009-6-24.
[31] " Neutrino Detectors Experiments: GALLEX (http:/ / wwwlapp. in2p3. fr/ neutrinos/ anexp. html#gallex)".
1999-06-26. . Retrieved 2008-11-20.
[32] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Ga/ key. html
[33] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Ga/ index. html
[34] http:/ / www. acialloys. com/ msds/ ga. html
[35] http:/ / www. lenntech. com/ Periodic-chart-elements/ Ga-en. htm
[36] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ gallium/ index. html
[37] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ gallium/ 460798. pdf
[38] http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news107446364. html
[39] http:/ / www. pse-mendelejew. de/ bilder/ ga. jpg

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Germanium 1
Germanium
32 gallium ← germanium → arsenic

Si
↑
Ge
↓
Sn
Periodic Table - Extended

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number germanium, Ge, 32
Element category metalloids
Group, Period, Block 14, 4, p
Appearance grayish white
Standard atomic weight 72.64(1) g·mol

−1
Electron configuration [Ar] 3d

10 2
4s 4p
2
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 4
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 5.323 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p. 5.60 g·cm−3
Melting point 1211.40 K

(938.25 °C, 1720.85 °F)
Boiling point 3106 K

(2833 °C, 5131 °F)
Heat of fusion 36.94 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 334 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capacity (25 °C) 23.222 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1644 1814 2023 2287 2633 3104
Atomic properties
Germanium 2
Crystal structure Diamond cubic
Oxidation states 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4

(amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity 2.01 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 762 kJ·mol−1

(more)
2nd: 1537.5 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 3302.1 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius 122 pm
Covalent radius 122 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering [1]

Diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 1 Ω·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 60.2 W·m

−1
·K
−1
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 6.0 µm·m

−1
·K
−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (20 °C) 5400 m/s
Young's modulus [2]

103 GPa
Shear modulus [2]

41 GPa
Bulk modulus [2]

75 GPa
Poisson ratio [2]

0.26
Mohs hardness 6.0
Vickers hardness MPa
Brinell hardness MPa
CAS registry number 7440-56-4
Main article: Isotopes of germanium
68
Ge syn 270.8 d ε - 68
Ga
70
Ge 21.23% 70
Ge is stable with 38 neutron
71
Ge syn 11.26 d ε - 71
Ga
72
Ge 27.66% 72
73
Ge 7.73% 73
74
Ge 35.94% 74
76
Ge 7.44% 1.78×1021 y β−β− - 76
Se
References
Germanium 3
Germanium (pronounced /dʒərˈmeɪniəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Ge and

atomic number 32. It is a lustrous, hard, grayish-white metalloid in the carbon group,
chemically similar to its group neighbors tin and silicon. Germanium has five naturally
occurring isotopes ranging in atomic mass number from 70 to 76. It forms a large number
of organometallic compounds, including tetraethylgermane and isobutylgermane.
Because few minerals contain it in large concentration, germanium was discovered
comparatively late despite the fact that it is relatively abundant in the Earth's crust. In
1869, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted its existence and some of its properties based on its
position on his periodic table and called the element ekasilicon. Nearly two decades later,
in 1886, Clemens Winkler found it in the mineral argyrodite. Winkler found that
experimental observations agreed with Mendeleev's predictions and named the element
after his country, Germany.
Germanium is an important semiconductor material used in transistors and various other
electronic devices. Its major end uses are fiber-optic systems and infrared optics, but it is
also used for polymerization catalysts, in electronics and in solar electric applications.
Germanium is mined primarily from sphalerite, though it is also recovered from silver, lead,
and copper ores. Some germanium compounds, such as germanium chloride and germane,
can irritate the eyes, skin, lungs, and throat.
History
In his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical
Elements, in 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the
existence of several unknown elements, including one
filling a gap in the carbon family, between silicon and
tin.[3] Because of its position in the table, he called it
ekasilicon (Es) and assigned it an atomic weight of 72.
In mid-1885, in a mine near Freiberg, Saxony, a new

mineral was found. It was named argyrodite, because of
its high silver content.[a] Clemens Winkler examined
this new mineral and was able to isolate an element
similar to antimony in 1886.[4] Before he published his
results on the new element Winkler intended to name
the element neptunium, as the actual discovery of
planet Neptune in 1846 had been preceded by Dmitri Mendeleev
mathematical prediction of its existence.[b] However,
the name neptunium had already been given to an element (though not the element that
today bears the name neptunium, discovered in 1940),[c] and instead, Winkler named the
new metal germanium (from the Latin Germania for Germany) in honor of his fatherland.[4]
Because the element showed similarities with the elements arsenic and antimony, its place
in the periodic table was under discussion, but the similarities between Mendeleev's
ekasilicon and germanium
Germanium 4
confirmed its place.[4] [5] With further material from

500 kg of ore from the mines in Saxony, Winkler
confirmed the chemical properties of the new element
in 1887.[6] [7] [8] He also determined an atomic weight of
72.32 by analyzing pure germanium tetrachloride
(GeCl4), while Lecoq de Boisbaudran deduced 72.3 by a
comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of the
element.[9]
Winkler was able to prepare several new compounds of

germanium, including the fluorides, chlorides, sulfides,
germanium dioxide, and tetraethylgermane
(Ge(C2H5)4), the first organogermane.[7] The physical
data from these compounds—which corresponded with
Mendeleev's predictions—made the discovery an
important confirmation of Mendeleev's idea of element
periodicity. Here is a comparison between the Clemens Winkler
prediction and Winkler's data:[7]
Property Ekasilicon Germanium
atomic mass 72 72.59
5.5 5.35
density (g/cm3)
melting point (°C) high 947
color gray gray
oxide type refractory dioxide refractory dioxide
4.7 4.7
oxide density (g/cm3)
oxide activity feebly basic feebly basic
chloride boiling point (°C) under 100 86 (GeCl4)
1.9 1.9
chloride density (g/cm3)
Until the late 1930s, germanium was believed to be a poorly conducting metal.[10] It did not
become economically significant until after 1945, when its properties as a semiconductor
were recognized as being valuable in electronics. It was only during World War II, in 1941,
that germanium diodes began to supplant vacuum tubes in electronic devices.[11] [12] Its
first major use was the point contact Schottky diodes for radar reception during WWII.[10]
The first silicon-germanium alloys were obtained in 1955.[13] Before 1945, only a few
hundred kilograms of the element were produced each year, but by the end of the 1950s,
annual worldwide production had reached 40 metric tons.[14]
The development of the germanium transistor in 1948[15] opened the door to countless
applications of solid state electronics.[16] From 1950 through the early 1970s, this area
provided an increasing market for germanium, but then high purity silicon began replacing
germanium in transistors, diodes, and rectifiers.[17] Silicon has superior electrical
properties, but requires much higher purity—a purity which could not be commercially
achieved in the early days.[18]
Germanium 5
Meanwhile, demand for germanium in fiber optics communication networks, infrared night
vision systems, and polymerization catalysts increased dramatically.[14] These end uses
represented 85% of worldwide germanium consumption in 2000.[17] The U.S. government
even designated germanium as a strategic and critical material, calling for a 146 ton (132 t)
supply in the national defense stockpile in 1987.[14] Germanium differs from silicon in that
the supply of silicon is only limited by production capacity, while that for germanium is
limited by the availability of exploitable sources. As a result, while silicon could be bought
in 1998 for less than $10 per kg,[14] the price of 1 kg of germanium was then almost
$800.[14]
Characteristics
Under standard conditions germanium is a brittle, silvery-white, semi-metallic element.[19]
This form constitutes an allotrope technically known as α-germanium, which has a metallic
luster and a diamond cubic crystal structure, the same as diamond.[17] At pressures above
120 kbar, a different allotrope known as β-germanium forms, which has the same structure
as β-tin.[20] Along with silicon, gallium, bismuth, antimony, and water, it is one of the few
substances that expands as it solidifies (i.e. freezes) from its molten state.[20]
Germanium is a semiconductor. Zone refining techniques have led to the production of
crystalline germanium for semiconductors that has an impurity of only one part in 1010,[21]
making it one of the purest materials ever obtained.[22] The first metallic material
discovered (in 2005) to become a superconductor in the presence of an extremely strong
electromagnetic field was an alloy of germanium with uranium and rhodium.[23]
Pure germanium is known to spontaneously extrude very long screw dislocations, referred
to as germanium whiskers. The growth of these whiskers is one of the primary reasons for
the failure of older diodes and transistors made from germanium; depending on what they
eventually touch, they may lead to an electrical short.[24]
Chemistry
Elemental germanium oxidizes slowly to GeO2 at 250 °C.[25] Germanium is insoluble in
dilute acids and alkalis but dissolves slowly in concentrated sulfuric acid and reacts
violently with molten alkalis to produce germanates ([GeO3]2−). Germanium occurs mostly
in the oxidation state +4 although many compounds are known with the oxidation state of
+2.[26] Other oxidation states are rare, such as +3 found in compounds such as Ge2Cl6, and
+3 and +1 observed on the surface of oxides,[27] or negative oxidation states in germanes,
such as -4 in GeH4. Germanium cluster anions (Zintl ions) such as Ge42−, Ge94−, Ge92−,
[(Ge9)2]6− have been prepared by the extraction from alloys containing alkali metals and
germanium in liquid ammonia in the presence of ethylenediamine or a cryptand.[26] [28] The
oxidation states of the element in these ions are not integers—similar to the ozonides O3−.
Two oxides of germanium are known: germanium dioxide (GeO2, germania) and germanium
monoxide, (GeO).[20] The dioxide, GeO2 can be obtained by roasting germanium sulfide
(GeS2), and is a white powder that is only slightly soluble in water but reacts with alkalis to
form germanates.[20] The monoxide, germanous oxide, can be obtained by the high
temperature reaction of GeO2 with Ge metal.[20] The dioxide (and the related oxides and
germanates) exhibits the unusual property of having a high refractive index for visible light,
but transparency to infrared light.[29] [30] Bismuth germanate, Bi4Ge3O12, (BGO) is used as
a scintillator.[31]
Germanium 6
Binary compounds with other chalcogens are also known, such as the disulfide (GeS2),
diselenide (GeSe2), and the monosulfide (GeS), selenide (GeSe), and telluride (GeTe).[26]
GeS2 forms as a white precipitate when hydrogen sulfide is passed through strongly acid
solutions containing Ge(IV).[26] The disulfide is appreciably soluble in water and in solutions
of caustic alkalis or alkaline sulfides. Nevertheless, it is not soluble in acidic water, which
allowed Winkler to discover the element.[32] By heating the disulfide in a current of
hydrogen, the monosulfide (GeS) is formed, which sublimes in thin plates of a dark color
and metallic luster, and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis.[20] Upon melting with
alkaline carbonates and sulfur, germanium compounds form salts known as
thiogermanates.[33]
Four tetrahalides are known. Under normal conditions GeI4 is a
solid, GeF4 a gas and the others volatile liquids. For example,
germanium tetrachloride, GeCl4, is obtained as a colourless
fuming liquid boiling at 83.1 °C by heating the metal with
chlorine.[20] All the tetrahalides are readily hydrolysed to
hydrated germanium dioxide.[20] GeCl4 is used in the production
of organogermanium compounds.[26] All four dihalides are known
Germane is similar to
methane. and in contrast to the tetrahalides are polymeric solids.[26]
Additionally Ge2Cl6 and some higher compounds of formula
[20]
GenCl2n+2 are known. The unusual compound Ge6Cl16 has been prepared that contains
the Ge5Cl12 unit with a neopentane structure.[34]
Germane (GeH4) is a compound similar in structure to methane. Polygermanes—compounds

that are similar to alkanes—with formula GenH2n+2 containing up to five germanium atoms
are known.[26] The germanes are less volatile and less reactive than their corresponding
silicon analogues.[26] GeH4 reacts with alkali metals in liquid ammonia to form white
crystalline MGeH3 which contain the GeH3− anion.[26] The germanium hydrohalides with
one, two and three halogen atoms are colorless reactive liquids.[26]
The first organogermanium compound
was synthesised by Winkler in 1887;
the reaction of germanium
tetrachloride with diethylzinc yielded
tetraethylgermane (Ge(C2H5)4).[7]
Organogermanes of the type R4Ge Nucleophilic addition with an organogermanium compound
(where R is an alkyl) such as
tetramethylgermane (Ge(CH3)4) and tetraethylgermane are accessed through the cheapest
available germanium precursor germanium tetrachloride and alkyl nucleophiles. Organic
germanium hydrides such as isobutylgermane ((CH3)2CHCH2GeH3) were found to be less
hazardous and may be used as a liquid substitute for toxic germane gas in semiconductor
applications. Many germanium reactive intermediates are known: germyl free radicals,
germylenes (similar to carbenes), and germynes (similar to carbynes).[35] [36] The
organogermanium compound 2-carboxyethylgermasesquioxane was first reported in the
1970s, and for a while was used as a dietary supplement and thought to possibly have
anti-tumor qualities.[37]
Germanium 7
Isotopes
Germanium has five naturally occurring isotopes, 70Ge, 72Ge, 73Ge, 74Ge, and 76Ge. Of
these, 76Ge is very slightly radioactive, decaying by double beta decay with a half-life of
1.58 × 1021 years. 74Ge is the most common isotope, having a natural abundance of
approximately 36%. 76Ge is the least common with a natural abundance of approximately
7%.[38] When bombarded with alpha particles, the isotope 72Ge will generate stable 77Se,
releasing high energy electrons in the process.[39] Because of this, it is used in combination
with radon for nuclear batteries.[39]
At least 27 radioisotopes have also been synthesized ranging in atomic mass from 58 to 89.
The most stable of these is 68Ge, decaying by electron capture with a half-life of 270.95 d.
The least stable is 60Ge with a half-life of 30 ms. While most of germanium's radioisotopes
decay by beta decay, 61Ge and 64Ge decay by β+ delayed proton emission.[38] 84Ge through
87
Ge also have minorβ− delayed neutron emission decay paths.[38]
Natural abundance
Germanium is created through stellar nucleosynthesis, mostly by the s-process in
asymptotic giant branch stars. The s-process is a slow neutron capture of lighter elements
inside pulsating red giant stars.[40] Germanium has been detected in the atmosphere of
Jupiter[41] and in some of the most distant stars.[42] Its abundance in the Earth's crust is
approximately 1.6 ppm.[43] There are only a few minerals like argyrodite, briartite,
germanite, and renierite that contain appreciable amounts of germanium, but no minable
deposits exist for any of them. Nonetheless, none is mined for its germanium content.[17]
[44]
Some zinc-copper-lead ore bodies contain enough germanium that it can be extracted
from the final ore concentrate.[43] An unusual enrichment process causes a high content of
germanium in some coal seams, which was discovered by Victor Mordechai Goldschmidt
during a broad survey for germanium deposits.[45] [46] The highest concentration ever found
was in the Hartley coal ash with up to 1.6% of germanium.[45] [46] The coal deposits near
Xilinhaote, Inner Mongolia, contain an estimated 1600 tonnes of germanium.[43]
Production
Worldwide production in 2006 was roughly 100 tonnes
of germanium.[17] Currently, it is recovered as a
by-product from sphalerite zinc ores where it is
concentrated in amounts of up to 0.3%,[47] especially
from sediment-hosted, massive Zn–Pb–Cu(–Ba) deposits
and carbonate-hosted Zn–Pb deposits.[43] Figures for
worldwide Ge reserves are not available, but in the US
it is estimated to be around 500 tonnes.[43] In 2007 35%
of the demand was met by recycled germanium.[43]
While it is produced mainly from sphalerite, it is also

Renierite found in silver, lead, and copper ores. Another source of
germanium is fly ash of coal power plants which use
coal from certain coal deposits with a large concentration of germanium. Russia and China
used this as a source for germanium.[48] Russia's deposits are located in the far east of the
country on Sakhalin Island. The coal mines northeast of Vladivostok have also been used as
Germanium 8
a germanium source.[43] The deposits in China are mainly located in the lignite mines near
Lincang, Yunnan; coal mines near Xilinhaote, Inner Mongolia are also used.[43]
Year Cost
[49]
($/kg)
1999 1,400
2000 1,250
2001 890
2002 620
2003 380
2004 600
2005 660
2006 880
2007 1240
The ore concentrates are mostly sulfidic; they are converted to the oxides by heating under
air, in a process known as roasting:
GeS2 + 3 O2 → GeO2 + 2 SO2
Part of the germanium ends up in the dust produced during this process, while the rest is
converted to germanates which are leached together with the zinc from the cinder by
sulfuric acid. After neutralisation only the zinc stays in solution and the precipitate contains
the germanium and other metals. After reducing the amount of zinc in the precipitate by
the Waelz process, the residing Waelz oxide is leached a second time. The dioxide is
obtained as precipitate and converted with chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid to germanium
tetrachloride, which has a low boiling point and can be distilled off:[48]
GeO2 + 4 HCl → GeCl4 + 2 H2O
GeO2 + 2 Cl2 → GeCl4 + O2
Germanium tetrachloride is either hydrolysed to the oxide (GeO2) or purified by fractional
distillation and then hydrolysed.[48] The highly pure GeO2 is now suitable for the production
of germanium glass. The pure germanium oxide is reduced by the reaction with hydrogen to
obtain germanium suitable for the infrared optics or semiconductor industry:
GeO2 + 4 H2 → Ge + 2 H2O
The germanium for steel production and other industrial processes is normally reduced
using carbon:[50]
GeO2 + C → Ge + CO2
Germanium 9
Applications
The major end uses for germanium in 2007,
worldwide, were estimated to be: 35% for
fiber-optic systems, 30% infrared optics,
15% for polymerization catalysts, and 15%
for electronics and solar electric
[17]
applications. The remaining 5% went
into other uses such as phosphors,
metallurgy, and chemotherapy.[17]
Optics
The most notable physical characteristics
of germania (GeO2) are its high index of
refraction and its low optical dispersion.
These make it especially useful for
A typical single-mode optical fiber. Germanium oxide
wide-angle camera lenses, microscopy, and is a dopant of the core silica (Item 1).
for the core part of optical fibers.[51] [52] It 1.- Core 8 µm
also replaced titania as the silica dopant for 2.- Cladding 125 µm
3.- Buffer 250 µm
silica fiber, eliminating the need for
4.- Jacket 400 µm
subsequent heat treatment, which made
the fibers brittle.[53] At the end of 2002 the
fiber optics industry accounted for 60% of the annual germanium use in the United States,
but this use accounts for less than 10% of world wide consumption.[52] GeSbTe is a phase
change alloy used for its optic properties, such as in rewritable DVDs.[54]
Because germanium is transparent in the infrared it is a very important infrared optical

material, that can be readily cut and polished into lenses and windows. It is especially used
as the front optic in thermal imaging cameras working in the 8 to 14 micron wavelength
range for passive thermal imaging and for hot-spot detection in military, night vision system
in cars, and fire fighting applications.[50] It is therefore used in infrared spectroscopes and
other optical equipment which require extremely sensitive infrared detectors.[52]
Electronics
The alloy silicon germanide (commonly referred to as "silicon-germanium", or SiGe) is
rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material, for use in high speed integrated
circuits. Circuits utilizing the properties of Si-SiGe junctions can be much faster than those
using silicon alone.[55] Silicon-germanium is beginning to replace gallium arsenide (GaAs)
in wireless communications devices.[17] The SiGe chips, with high-speed properties, can be
made with low-cost, well-established production techniques of the silicon chip industry.[17]
The recent rise in energy cost has improved the economics of solar panels, a potential
major new use of germanium.[17] Germanium is the substrate of the wafers for
high-efficiency multijunction photovoltaic cells for space applications.
Germanium 10
Gallium arsenide germanium solar cell

Because germanium and gallium arsenide have very similar lattice constants, germanium
substrates can be used to make gallium arsenide solar cells.[56] The Mars Exploration
Rovers and several satellites use triple junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells.[57]
Germanium-on-insulator substrates are seen as a potential replacement for silicon on
miniaturized chips.[17] Other uses in electronics include phosphors in fluorescent lamps,[21]
and germanium-base solid-state light-emitting diodes (LEDs).[17] Germanium transistors are
still used in some effects pedals by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal
character of the "fuzz"-tone from the early rock and roll era, most notably the Dallas Arbiter
Fuzz Face.[58]
Other uses
Germanium dioxide is also used in catalysts for
polymerisation in the production of polyethylene
[59]
terephthalate (PET). The high brilliance of the produced
polyester is especially used for PET bottles marketed in
Japan.[59] However, in the United States, no germanium is
used for polymerization catalysts.[17] Due to the similarity
between silica (SiO2) and germanium dioxide (GeO2), the
silica stationary phase in some gas chromatography columns
can be replaced by GeO2.[60]
In recent years germanium has seen increasing use in

precious metal alloys. In sterling silver alloys, for instance, it
has been found to reduce firescale, increase tarnish
resistance, and increase the alloy's response to precipitation
hardening. A tarnish-proof sterling silver alloy, trademarked
A PET bottle
Argentium, requires 1.2% germanium.[17] The material has a
very high refractive index (4.0) and so needs to be
anti-reflection coated. Particularly, a very hard special antireflection coating of
diamond-like carbon (DLC), refractive index 2.0, is a good match and produces a
diamond-hard surface that can withstand much environmental rough treatment.[61] [62]
High purity germanium single crystal detectors can precisely identify radiation sources—for
example in airport security.[63] Germanium is useful for monochromators for beamlines
used in single crystal neutron scattering and synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The reflectivity
has advantages over silicon in neutron and high energy X-ray applications.[64] Crystals of
high purity germanium are used in detectors for gamma spectroscopy and the search for
dark matter.[65]
Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to mammals, but have toxic effects
against certain bacteria.[19] This property makes these compounds useful as
chemotherapeutic agents.[66]
Germanium 11
Precautions
As early as 1922, doctors in the United States used the inorganic form of germanium to
treat patients with anemia.[67] It was used in other forms of treatments, but its efficiency
has been dubious. Its role in cancer treatments has been debated.[68] U.S. Food and Drug
Administration research has concluded that germanium, when used as a nutritional
supplement, "presents potential human health hazard".[37]
Germanium is not thought to be essential to the health of plants or animals. Some of its
compounds present a hazard to human health, however. For example, germanium chloride
and germane (GeH4) are a liquid and gas, respectively, that can be very irritating to the
eyes, skin, lungs, and throat.[69] Germanium has little or no impact on the environment
because it usually occurs only as a trace element in ores and carbonaceous materials, and
is used in very small quantities in commercial applications.[17]
Footnotes
^
1. From Greek, argyrodite means silver-containing.[70]
^
2. Just as the existence of the new element was predicted, the existence of the planet
Neptune was predicted around 1843 by the mathematicians John Couch Adams and
Urbain Leverrier for the fact that Uranus was being pulled slightly out of position in its
orbit.[71] James Challis started searching for it in July 1846 and sighted the planet 23
September 1846.[72]
3. ^ R. Hermann published in 1877 claims of the discovery of a new element beneath
tantalum, which he named neptunium.[73] [74] But this was later regarded as some
mixture of niobium and tantalum.[75] The name neptunium was eventually given to the
synthetic element past uranium discovered in 1940.[76]
External links
[77]
• WebElements.com – Germanium
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Germanium 12
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License
Arsenic 1
Arsenic
germanium ← arsenic → seleniumP
↑
As
↓
Sb

33As
Periodic table
Appearance metallic grey

shell Physical properties PhaseDensity (near r.t.) Liquid density at m.p.Sublimation
pointTriple pointCritical pointHeat of fusionHeat of vaporizationSpecific heat capacityVapor
pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 553 596 646 706 781 874

(more) 2nd: 1798 kJ·mol−1 3rd: 2735 kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radiusVan der Waals
Arsenic 2

conductivityYoung's modulusBulk modulusMohs hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS registry
number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of arsenic
73 syn 80.3 d ε - 73
As Ge
γ 0.05D, 0.01D, e -
74 syn 17.78 d ε - 74
As Ge
0.941
β+ 74
Ge
γ 0.595, 0.634 -
1.35, 0.717
β− 74
Se
75 100% 75
As As is stable with 42 neutron
arsenic, As, 33 metalloid15, 4, p74.92160(2) g·mol−1 [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p3 2, 8, 18, 5 (Image)
solid 5.727 g·cm−3 5.22 g·cm−3 887 K,615 °C,1139 °F 1090 K (817°C), 3628 [1] kPa 1673 K,
? MPa (grey) 24.44 kJ·mol−1 ? 34.76 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 24.64 J·mol−1·K−15, 3, 2, 1,[2] -3
(mildly acidic oxide) 2.18 (Pauling scale) 1st: 947.0 kJ·mol−1119 pm119±4 pm 185 pm
rhombohedral diamagnetic[3] (20 °C) 333 nΩ·m (300 K) 50.2 W·m−1·K−1 8 GPa 22 GPa 3.5
1440 MPa 7440-38-2
Arsenic (pronounced /ˈɑrsnɪk/; also English pronunciation: /ɑrˈsɛnɪk/ when attributive) is the
chemical element that has the symbol As and atomic number 33. Arsenic was first
documented by Albertus Magnus in 1250.[4] Its atomic mass is 74.92. Arsenic is a
notoriously poisonous metalloid with many allotropic forms, including a yellow (molecular
non-metallic) and several black and grey forms (metalloids). Three metalloidal forms of
arsenic, each with a different crystal structure, are found free in nature (the minerals
arsenic sensu stricto and the much rarer arsenolamprite and pararsenolamprite). However,
it is more commonly found as arsenide and in arsenate compounds, several hundred of
which are known. Arsenic and its compounds are used as pesticides, herbicides,
insecticides and in various alloys.
History
The word arsenic was borrowed from the Persian word ‫ خينرز‬Zarnikh, meaning "yellow
orpiment", into Greek as arsenikon. It is also related to the similar Greek word "arsenikos",
meaning "masculine" or "potent". Arsenic compounds (orpiment, realgar) have been known
and used since ancient times.[5] As the symptoms of arsenic poisoning were somewhat
ill-defined, it was frequently used for murder until the advent of the Marsh test, a sensitive
chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the Reinsch
test.) Due to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its potency and
discreetness, arsenic has been called the Poison of Kings and the King of Poisons.[6]
During the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in bronze, which made the alloy harder
(so-called "arsenical bronze"). Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great, 1193–1280) is believed to
have been the first European to isolate the element in 1250 by heating soap together with
arsenic trisulfide.[4] In 1649, Johann Schröder published two ways of preparing arsenic.
Arsenic 3
Cadet's fuming liquid (impure cacodyl), the first organometallic

compound, was synthesized in 1760 by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt
by the reaction of potassium acetate with arsenic trioxide.[7]
In the Victorian era, "arsenic" (colourless, crystalline, soluble "white
Alchemical arsenic" trioxide) was mixed with vinegar and chalk and eaten by women
symbol for to improve the complexion of their faces, making their skin paler to show
arsenic they did not work in the fields. Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and
arms of women to "improve their complexion". The accidental use of
arsenic in the adulteration of foodstuffs led to the Bradford sweet poisoning in 1858, which
resulted in approximately 20 deaths and 200 people taken ill with arsenic poisoning.[8]
Characteristics
Isotopes
Naturally occurring arsenic is composed of one stable isotope, 75As.[9] As of 2003, at least
33 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 60 to 92. The
most stable of these is 73As with a half-life of 80.3 days. Isotopes that are lighter than the
stable 75As tend to decay by β+ decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β- decay,
with some exceptions.
At least 10 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 66 to 84. The
most stable of arsenic's isomers is 68mAs with a half-life of 111 seconds.[9]
Allotropes
Like phosphorus, arsenic is an excellent example of an element that
exhibits allotropy, as its various allotropes have strikingly different
properties. The three most common allotropes are metallic grey,
yellow and black arsenic.[10]
The most common allotrope of arsenic is grey arsenic. It has a similar
structure to black phosphorus (β-metallic phosphorus) and has a
Structure of yellow layered crystal structure somewhat resembling that of graphite. It
arsenic As4 and white
consists of many six-membered rings which are interlinked. Each
phosphorus P4
atom is bound to three other atoms in the layer and is coordinated by
each 3 arsenic atoms in the upper and lower layer. This relatively
close packing leads to a high density of 5.73 g/cm3.[11]
Yellow arsenic (As4) is soft and waxy, not unlike P4. Both have four atoms arranged in a
tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to the other three atoms by a single
bond, resulting in very high ring strain and instability. This form of the elements are the
least stable, most reactive, more volatile, less dense, and more toxic than the other
allotropes. Yellow arsenic is produced by rapid cooling of arsenic vapour with liquid
nitrogen. It is rapidly transformed into the grey arsenic by light. The yellow form has a
density of 1.97 g/cm³.[11]
Black arsenic is similar in structure to red phosphorus.[11]
Arsenic 4
Chemical
The most common oxidation states for arsenic are −3 (arsenides: usually alloy-like
intermetallic compounds), +3 (arsenates(III) or arsenites, and most organoarsenic
compounds), and +5 (arsenates: the most stable inorganic arsenic oxycompounds). Arsenic
also bonds readily to itself, forming square As3−4 ions in the arsenide skutterudite. In the
+3 oxidation state, the stereochemistry of arsenic is affected by possession of a lone pair of
electrons.
Arsenic is very similar chemically to its predecessor in the Periodic Table, phosphorus. Like
phosphorus, it forms colourless, odourless, crystalline oxides As2O3 and As2O5 which are
hygroscopic and readily soluble in water to form acidic solutions. Arsenic(V) acid is a weak
acid. Like phosphorus, arsenic forms an unstable, gaseous hydride: arsine (AsH3). The
similarity is so great that arsenic will partly substitute for phosphorus in biochemical
reactions and is thus poisonous. However, in subtoxic doses, soluble arsenic compounds act
as stimulants, and were once popular in small doses as medicinals by people in the mid
18th century.[12]
When heated in air, arsenic oxidizes to arsenic trioxide; the fumes from this reaction have
an odour resembling garlic. This odour can be detected on striking arsenide minerals such
as arsenopyrite with a hammer. Arsenic (and some arsenic compounds) sublimes upon
heating at atmospheric pressure, converting directly to a gaseous form without an
intervening liquid state. The liquid state appears at 20 atmospheres and above, which
explains why the melting point is higher than the boiling point.[11]
Compounds
Arsenic compounds resemble in many respects those of phosphorus as both arsenic and
phosphorus occur in the same group (column) of the periodic table.
The most important compounds of arsenic are arsenic(III) oxide, As2O3, ("white arsenic"),
the yellow sulfide orpiment (As2S3) and red realgar (As4S4), Paris Green, calcium arsenate,
and lead hydrogen arsenate. The latter three have been used as agricultural insecticides
and poisons.
Whilst arsenic trioxide forms during oxidation of arsenic, arsenic pentoxide is formed by the
dehydration of arsenic acid. Both oxides dissolve in strong alkaline solution, with the
formation of arsenite AsO3−3 and arsenate AsO3−4 respectively. The protonation steps
between the arsenate and arsenic acid are similar to those between phosphate and
phosphoric acid. However, arsenite and arsenous acid contain arsenic bonded to three
oxygens and not hydrogen, in contrast to phosphite and phosphorous acid (more accurately
termed 'phosphonic acid'), which contain non-acidic P-H bonds. Arsenous acid is genuinely
tribasic, whereas phosphonic acid is not.
A broad variety of sulfur compounds of arsenic are known, As4S3, As4S4, As2S3 and As4S10.
All arsenic(III) halogen compounds (except with astatine) are known and stable. For the
arsenic(V) compounds the situation is different: only the arsenic pentafluoride is stable at
room temperature. Arsenic pentachloride is only stable at temperatures below -50 °C and
the pentabromide and pentaiodide are unknown.[12]
Arsenic is used as group 5 element as part of the III-V semiconducting compounds. Gallium
arsenide, indium arsenide and aluminium arsenide are used as semiconductor material
when the properties of silicon are not suitable for the application and the higher price of
Arsenic 5
the compounds is acceptable.

• Arsenic acid (H3AsO4)
• Arsenous acid (H3AsO3)
• Arsenic trioxide (As2O3)
• Arsine (Arsenic Trihydride AsH3)
• Cadmium arsenide (Cd3As2)
• Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
• Lead hydrogen arsenate (PbHAsO4)
Arsenic also has a formal oxidation state of +2 in As4S4, realgar. This is achieved by pairing
As atoms to produce dimeric cations [As-As]2+, so the total covalency of As is still in fact
three. [13]
Occurrence
Arsenopyrite, also unofficially called mispickel,[14]
(FeAsS) is the most common arsenic-bearing
mineral. In the litosphere the minerals of the
formula M(II)AsS, with M(II) being mostly Fe, Ni
and Co, are the dominat arsenic minerals.
A large sample of native arsenic.
Orpiment and realgar were formerly used as painting

pigments, though they have fallen out of use due to
their toxicity and reactivity. Although arsenic is
sometimes found native in nature, its main economic
source is the mineral arsenopyrite mentioned above; it
is also found in arsenides of metals such as silver,
cobalt (cobaltite: CoAsS and skutterudite: CoAs3) and
nickel, as sulfides, and when oxidised as arsenate Realgar
minerals such as mimetite, Pb5(AsO4)3Cl and erythrite,

Co3(AsO4)2. 8H2O, and more rarely arsenites ('arsenite' = arsenate(III), AsO33- as opposed
to arsenate (V), AsO43-).
In addition to the inorganic forms mentioned above, arsenic also occurs in various organic
forms in the environment. [15]
Arsenic 6
Production
In 2005, China was the top producer of
white arsenic with almost 50% world share,
followed by Chile, Peru and Morocco,
reports the British Geological Survey and
the United States Geological Survey.[16]
The arsenic was recovered mostly during
mining operations, for example the
production from Peru comes mostly from [16]
Arsenic output in 2006
copper mining and the production in China
is due to gold mining. Arsenic is part of the smelter dust from copper, gold, and lead
smelters.[17]
On roasting in air of arsenopyrite, arsenic sublimes as arsenic (III) oxide leaving iron
oxides[15] , while roasting without air results in the production of metallic arsenic. For
further purification of the arsenic from sulfur and other chacogenes is sublimed in vacuum
or in a hydrogen atmosphere or by distilling it from molten lead-arsenic mixture.[18]
Applications
Wood preservation
The toxicity of arsenic to insects, bacteria and fungi makes it an ideal component for the
preservation of wood. The worldwide treatment with chromated copper arsenate, also
known as CCA or Tanalith was the largest consumer of arsenic since the introduction of the
process in the 1950s. Due to the environmental problems caused by the arsenic most
countries banned the use of chromated copper arsenate on consumer products. The ban
began in the European Union and in the United States in 2004.[19] [20]
In 2002 in the United States 90% of the 19,600 metric tons of arsenic compounds were
used to preserve wood, in 2007 still 50% of the 5,280 metric tons of consumption was used
for this purpose.[17] [21] In the European Union the use of arsenic in consumer products
According to the USEPA's website, CCA lumber was discontinued for residential and
general consumer construction on December 31, 2003 and alternative methods are now
used like ACQ, Borates, Copper Azole, Cyproconazole, and Propiconazole.
Although discontinued, this application is also one of the most concern to the general
public. The vast majority of older pressure-treated wood was treated with CCA. CCA lumber
is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of
the 20th century as a structural and outdoor building material. Although the use of CCA
lumber was banned in many areas after studies showed that arsenic could leach out of the
wood into the surrounding soil (from playground equipment, for instance), a risk is also
presented by the burning of older CCA timber. The direct or indirect ingestion of wood ash
from burnt CCA lumber has caused fatalities in animals and serious poisonings in humans;
the lethal human dose is approximately 20 grams of ash. Scrap CCA lumber from
construction and demolition sites may be inadvertently used in commercial and domestic
fires. Protocols for safe disposal of CCA lumber do not exist evenly throughout the world;
there is also concern in some quarters about the widespread landfill disposal of such
timber.[22]
Arsenic 7
Medical
During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, a number of
arsenic compounds have been used as medicines,
including arsphenamine (by Paul Ehrlich) and arsenic
trioxide (by Thomas Fowler). Arsphenamine as well as
Neosalvarsan was indicated for syphilis and
trypanosomiasis, but has been superseded by modern Arsphenamine (Salvarsan)
antibiotics. Arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety
of ways over the past 500 years, but most commonly in the treatment of cancer. The US
Food and Drug Administration in 2000 approved this compound for the treatment of
patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that is resistant to ATRA.[23] It was also used as
Fowler's solution in psoriasis.[24] Recently new research has been done in locating tumours
using arsenic-74 (a positron emitter). The advantages of using this isotope instead of the
previously used iodine-124 is that the signal in the PET scan is clearer as the iodine tends
to transport iodine to the thyroid gland producing a lot of noise.[25]
Pigments
Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green pigment known under many different names,
including 'Paris Green' and 'Emerald Green'. It caused numerous arsenic poisonings.
Scheele's Green, a copper arsenate, was used in the 19th century as a coloring agent in
sweets.[26]
Military
After World War I the United States built up a stockpile of 20,000 tons of Lewisite; a
chemical weapon, acting as a vesicant (blister agent) and lung irritant. The stockpile was
neutralized with bleach and dumped into the Gulf of Mexico after the 1950s.[27] During the
Vietnam War the United States used Agent Blue (a mixture of sodium cacodylate) and
dimethyl arsinic acid (cacodylic acid) as one of the rainbow herbicides to deprive the
Vietnamese of valuable crops.
Other uses
• Various agricultural insecticides, termination and poisons. For example Lead hydrogen
arsenate was used well into the 20th century as an insecticide on fruit trees.[28] Its use
sometimes resulted in brain damage to those working the sprayers. In the last half
century, monosodium methyl arsenate (MSMA) and disodium methyl arsenate (DSMA), a
less toxic organic form of arsenic, has replaced lead arsenate's role in agriculture.
• Used in animal feed, particularly in the US as a method of disease prevention[29] (section
5.3, pg. 310) [30] and growth stimulation. One example is roxarsone which was used by
69.8 and 73.9% of the broiler starter and growers between 1995 to 2000.[31]
• Gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material, used in integrated circuits.
Circuits made using the compound are much faster (but also much more expensive) than
those made in silicon. Unlike silicon it is direct bandgap, and so can be used in laser
diodes and LEDs to directly convert electricity into light.
• Also used in bronzing and pyrotechnics.
• Up to 2% of arsenic is used in lead alloys for lead shots and bullets.[32]
Arsenic 8
• Arsenic is added in small quantities to brass to make it Dezincification resistant. This

grade of brass is used to make plumbing fittings.
• Arsenic is also used for taxonomic sample preservation.
Biological role
Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the
food chain, are progressively metabolised to less toxic
forms of arsenic through a process of methylation. For
example, the mold Scopulariopsis brevicaulis produce
significant amounts of trimethylarsine if inorganic
arsenic is present.[33] The organic compound
Trimethylarsine arsenobetaine is found in some marine foods such as
fish and algae, and also in mushrooms in larger
concentrations. The average person's intake is about
10–50 µg/day. Values about 1000 µg are not unusual
following consumption of fish or mushrooms. But there
is little danger in eating fish because this arsenic
compound is nearly non-toxic.[34]
Some species of bacteria obtain their energy by

oxidizing various fuels while reducing arsenate to
arsenite. The enzymes involved are known as arsenate
Arsenobetaine
reductases (Arr).
In 2008, bacteria were discovered that employ a version of photosynthesis in the absence of
oxygen with arsenites as electron donors, producing arsenates (just like ordinary
photosynthesis uses water as electron donor, producing molecular oxygen). Researchers
conjecture that historically these photosynthesizing organisms produced the arsenates that
allowed the arsenate-reducing bacteria to thrive. One strain PHS-1 has been isolated and is
related to the γ-Proteobacterium Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii. The mechanism is
unknown, but an encoded Arr enzyme may function in reverse to its known homologues.[35]
Safety
Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons.
Arsenic disrupts ATP production through several mechanisms. At the
level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase and
by competing with phosphate it uncouples oxidative phosphorylation,
thus inhibiting energy-linked reduction of NAD+, mitochondrial
respiration, and ATP synthesis. Hydrogen peroxide production is also
increased, which might form reactive oxygen species and oxidative
stress. These metabolic interferences lead to death from multi-system organ failure,
probably from necrotic cell death, not apoptosis. A post mortem reveals brick red colored
mucosa, due to severe hemorrhage. Although arsenic causes toxicity, it can also play a
protective role.[36]
Elemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as "toxic" and "dangerous for the
environment" in the European Union under directive 67/548/EEC. The International Agency
Arsenic 9
for Research on Cancer (IARC) recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as group 1
carcinogens, and the EU lists arsenic trioxide, arsenic pentoxide and arsenate salts as
category 1 carcinogens.
Arsenic is known to cause arsenicosis due to its manifestation in drinking water, “the most
common species being arsenate [HAsO42- ; As(V)] and arsenite [H3AsO3 ; As(III)]”. The
ability of arsenic to undergo redox conversion between As(III) and As(V) makes its
availability in the environment more abundant. According to Croal, Gralnick, Malasarn, and
Newman, “[the] understanding [of] what stimulates As(III) oxidation and/or limits As(V)
reduction is relevant for bioremediation of contaminated sites (Croal). The study of
chemolithoautotrophic As(III) oxidizers and the heterotrophic As(V) reducers can help the
understanding of the oxidation and/or reduction of arsenic.[37]
Treatment of chronic arsenic poisoning is easily accomplished. British anti-Lewisite
(dimercaprol) is prescribed in dosages of 5 mg/kg up to 300 mg each 4 hours for the first
day. Then administer the same dosage each 6 hours for the second day. Then prescribe this
dosage each 8 hours for eight additional days.[38]
Arsenic in drinking water

Arsenic contamination of groundwater has led to a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in
Bangladesh[39] and neighbouring countries. Presently 42 major incidents around the world
have been reported on groundwater arsenic contamination. It is estimated that
approximately 57 million people are drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations
elevated above the World Health Organization's standard of 10 parts per billion. However, a
study of cancer rates in Taiwan[40] suggested that significant increases in cancer mortality
appear only at levels above 150 parts per billion. The arsenic in the groundwater is of
natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater due to the anoxic
conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after local and western
NGOs and the Bangladeshi government undertook a massive shallow tube well
drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was designed to
prevent drinking of bacterially contaminated surface waters, but failed to test for arsenic in
the groundwater. Many other countries and districts in South East Asia, such as Vietnam,
Cambodia, and China have geological environments conducive to generation of high-arsenic
groundwaters. Arsenicosis was reported in Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand in 1987, and
the dissolved arsenic in the Chao Phraya River is suspected of containing high levels of
naturally occurring arsenic, but has not been a public health problem due to the use of
bottled water.[41]
The northern United States, including parts of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the
Dakotas are known to have significant concentrations of arsenic in ground water. Increased
levels of skin cancer have been associated with arsenic exposure in Wisconsin, even at
levels below the 10 part per billion drinking water standard.[42]
Epidemiological evidence from Chile shows a dose dependent connection between chronic
arsenic exposure and various forms of cancer, particularly when other risk factors, such as
cigarette smoking, are present. These effects have been demonstrated to persist below 50
parts per billion.[43]
Analyzing multiple epidemiological studies on inorganic arsenic exposure suggests a small
but measurable risk increase for bladder cancer at 10 parts per billion.[44] According to
Peter Ravenscroft of the Department of Geography at the University of Cambridge,[45]
Arsenic 10
roughly 80 million people worldwide consume between 10 and 50 parts per billion arsenic
in their drinking water. If they all consumed exactly 10 parts per billion arsenic in their
drinking water, the previously cited multiple epidemiological study analysis would predict
an additional 2,000 cases of bladder cancer alone. This represents a clear underestimate of
the overall impact, since it does not include lung or skin cancer, and explicitly
underestimates the exposure. Those exposed to levels of arsenic above the current WHO
standard should weigh the costs and benefits of arsenic remediation.
Arsenic can be removed from drinking water through coprecipitation of iron minerals by
oxidation and filtering. When this treatment fails to produce acceptable results, adsorptive
arsenic removal media may be utilized. Several adsorptive media systems have been
approved for point-of-service use in a study funded by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (U.S.EPA) and the National Science Foundation (NSF). A team of
European and Indian Engineers led by Dr. Bhaskar Sen Gupta of Queen's University Belfast
have set up six arsenic treatment plants in West Bengal based on in-situ remediation
method. This technology does not use any chemicals and arsenic is turned into an insoluble
form in the subterranean zone by recharging aerated water into the aquifer. This process
does not produce any waste stream or sludge and it costs about 1 US$ to produce 10 cubic
meters of water [46]
Magnetic separations of arsenic at very low magnetic field gradients have been
demonstrated in point-of-use water purification with high-surface-area and monodisperse
magnetite (Fe3O4) nanocrystals. Using the high specific surface area of Fe3O4 nanocrystals
the mass of waste associated with arsenic removal from water has been dramatically
reduced.[47]
Epidemiological studies have suggested a correlation between chronic consumption of
drinking water contaminated with arsenic and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. However,
the literature provides insufficient scientific evidence to show cause and effect between
arsenic and the onset of diabetes mellitus type 2.
Occupational Exposures
Industries that use inorganic arsenic and its compounds include wood preservation, glass
production, nonferrous metal alloys, and electronic semiconductor manufacturing.
Inorganic arsenic is also found in coke oven emissions associated with the smelter
industry.[48] Occupational exposure and poisoning may occur in persons working in these
industries.
See also
• Aqua Tofana
• Arsenic poisoning
• Fowler's solution
• Grainger challenge
• White arsenic
• Arsenic trioxide
Arsenic 11
External links
[49]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory – Arsenic
• CTD's Arsenic page [50] and CTD's Arsenicals page [51] from the Comparative
Toxicogenomics Database
• A Small Dose of Toxicology [52]
• ATSDR - Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Arsenic Toxicity [53]
• Contaminant Focus: Arsenic [54] by the EPA.
• Environmental Health Criteria for Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, 2001 [55] by the
WHO.
• Evaluation of the carcinogenicity of arsenic and arsenic compounds [56] by the IARC.
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Arsenic Page [57]
• National Pollutant Inventory - Arsenic [58]
• origen.net – CCA wood and arsenic: toxicological effects of arsenic [59]
• WebElements.com – Arsenic [60]
pnb:‫کنیسرآ‬
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[36] Klaassen, Curtis; Watkins, John (2003). Casarett and Doull's Essentials of Toxicology. McGraw-Hill. pp. 512.
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[44] Chu HA, Crawford-Brown DJ (2006). "Inorganic arsenic in drinking water and bladder cancer: a meta-analysis
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[45] " Arsenic in drinking water seen as threat - USATODAY.com (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ world/
2007-08-30-553404631_x. htm)". . Retrieved 2008-01-01.
[46] www.insituarsenic.org
[47] Yavuz, Cafer T.; et al. (2005). " Low-Field Magnetic Separation of Monodisperse Fe3O4 Nanocrystals (http:/ /
www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 314/ 5801/ 964)". Science 314 (5801): 964–967. doi:
10.1126/science.1131475 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1126/ science. 1131475). PMID 17095696. .
[48] " OSHA Arsenic (http:/ / www. osha. gov/ SLTC/ arsenic/ index. html)". United States Occupational Safety and
Health Administration. . Retrieved 2007-10-08.
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[60] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ As/ index. html

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Selenium 1
Selenium
34 arsenic ← selenium → bromine

S
↑
Se
↓
Te

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number selenium, Se, 34
Element category nonmetals
Appearance gray-black, metallic luster

−1
Electron configuration 2
[Ar] 4s 3d
10
4p
4
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) (gray) 4.81 g·cm

−3
Density (near r.t.) (alpha) 4.39 g·cm−3
Density (near r.t.) (vitreous) 4.28 g·cm−3
Melting point 494 K

(221 °C, 430 °F)
Boiling point 958 K

(685 °C, 1265 °F)
Critical point 1766 K, 27.2 MPa
Heat of fusion (gray) 6.69 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 95.48 kJ·mol−1

Selenium 2
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 500 552 617 704 813 958
Atomic properties
Crystal structure hexagonal
Oxidation states [1]

6, 4, 2, 1, -2
(strongly acidic oxide)
Ionization energies 1st: 941.0 kJ·mol−1

(more)
−1
2nd: 2045 kJ·mol
−1
3rd: 2973.7 kJ·mol
Covalent radius 120±4 pm
Van der Waals radius 190 pm
Miscellaneous

diamagnetic
Thermal conductivity (300 K) (amorphous)

−1 −1
0.519 W·m ·K
Thermal expansion (25 °C) (amorphous)

−1 −1
37 µm·m ·K
Young's modulus 10 GPa
Shear modulus 3.7 GPa
Bulk modulus 8.3 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.33
Mohs hardness 2.0
Brinell hardness 736 MPa
Selenium 3
Main article: Isotopes of selenium

72
Se syn 8.4 d ε - 72
As
γ 0.046 -
74
Se 0.87% 74
Se is stable with 40 neutron
75
Se syn 119.779 d ε - 75
As
γ 0.264, 0.136, -
0.279
76
Se 9.36% 76
77
Se 7.63% 77
78
Se 23.78% 78
79
Se syn 2.95×10 y
5
β
− 0.151 79
Br
80
Se 49.61% 80
82
Se 8.73% 1.08×10
20
y β β
− − 2.995 82
Kr
References
Selenium (pronounced /səˈliːniəm/) is a chemical element with the atomic number 34,
represented by the chemical symbol Se, an atomic mass of 78.96. It is a nonmetal,
chemically related to sulfur and tellurium, and rarely occurs in its elemental state in nature.
Isolated selenium occurs in several different forms, the most stable of which is a dense
purplish-gray semi-metal (semiconductor) form that is structurally a trigonal polymer chain.
It conducts electricity better in the light than in the dark, and is used in photocells (see
allotropes section below). Selenium also exists in many non-conductive forms: a black
glass-like allotrope, as well as several red crystalline forms built of eight-membered ring
molecules, like its lighter chemical cousin sulfur.
Selenium is found in economic quantities in sulfide ores such as pyrite, partially replacing
the sulfur in the ore matrix. Minerals that are selenide or selenate compounds are also
known, but all are rare. The chief commercial present uses for selenium are in glassmaking
and in chemicals and pigments. Electronic uses for selenium, once important, have been
supplanted by silicon semiconductor devices.
Selenium salts are toxic in large amounts, but trace amounts of the element are necessary
for cellular function in most, if not all, animals, forming the active center of the enzymes
glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase (which indirectly reduce certain oxidized
molecules in animals and some plants) and three known deiodinase enzymes (which convert
one thyroid hormone to another). Selenium requirements in plants differ by species, with
some plants apparently requiring none.[3]
Selenium 4
History and global demand

Selenium (Greek σελήνη selene meaning "Moon") was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jakob
Berzelius[4] who found the element associated with tellurium (named for the Earth). It was
discovered as a byproduct of sulfuric acid production.
It came to medical notice later because of its toxicity to humans working in industry. It was
also recognized as an important veterinary toxin. In 1954 first hints towards specific
biological functions of selenium were discovered in microorganisms. Its essentiality for
mammalian life was discovered in 1957. In the 1970s it was shown to be present in two
independent sets of enzymes. This was followed by the discovery of selenocysteine in
proteins. During the 1980s it was shown that selenocystine was encoded by the codon TGA.
The recoding mechanism was worked out first in bacteria and then in mammals.
Growth in selenium consumption was historically driven by steady development of new
uses, including applications in rubber compounding, steel alloying, and selenium rectifiers.
Selenium is also an essential material in the drums of laser printers and copiers. By 1970,
selenium in rectifiers had largely been replaced by silicon, but its use as a photoconductor
in plain-paper copiers had become its leading application. During the 1980s, the
photoconductor application declined (although it was still a large end-use) as more and
more copiers using organic photoconductors were produced. Currently, the largest use of
selenium worldwide is in glass manufacturing, followed by uses in chemicals and pigments.
Electronics use, despite a number of continued applications, continues to decline.[5]
In 1996, continuing research showed a positive correlation between selenium
supplementation and cancer prevention in humans, but widespread direct application of
this important finding would not add significantly to demand owing to the small doses
required. In the late 1990s, the use of selenium (usually with bismuth) as an additive to
plumbing brasses to meet no-lead environmental standards became important. At present,
total world selenium production continues to increase modestly.
Occurrence
Selenium occurs naturally in a number of inorganic
forms, including selenide, selenate and selenite. In
soils, selenium most often occurs in soluble forms such
as selenate (analogous to sulfate), which are leached
into rivers very easily by runoff.
Selenium has a biological role, and it is found in organic
compounds such as dimethyl selenide,
selenomethionine, selenocysteine and
Native selenium
methylselenocysteine. In these compounds selenium
plays a role analogous to that of sulfur.
Selenium is most commonly produced from selenide in many sulfide ores, such as those of
copper, silver, or lead. It is obtained as a byproduct of the processing of these ores, from
the anode mud of copper refineries and the mud from the lead chambers of sulfuric acid
plants. These muds can be processed by a number of means to obtain free selenium.
Natural sources of selenium include certain selenium-rich soils, and selenium that has been
bioconcentrated by certain plants. Anthropogenic sources of selenium include coal burning
and the mining and smelting of sulfide ores.[6]
Selenium 5
See also Selenide minerals.
Production and allotropic forms

Native selenium is a rare mineral, which does not
usually form good crystals, but when it does they are
steep rhombohedrons or tiny acicular (hair-like)
crystals. [7] Most elemental selenium comes as a
byproduct of copper refining, or the production of
sulfuric acid.[8] [9] Isolation of selenium is often
From left to right: Black, gray and red
complicated by the presence of other compounds and
selenium
elements. Commonly, production begins by oxidation
with sodium carbonate to produce selenium dioxide.
The selenium dioxide is then mixed with water
producing selenous acid. The selenous acid is finally
bubbled with sulfur dioxide producing elemental red
amorphous selenium.
Selenium produced in chemical reactions invariably

appears as the amorphous red form—an insoluble,
brick-red powder. When this form is rapidly melted, it
forms the black, vitreous form which is usually sold
Structure of trigonal selenium
industrially as beads. The most thermodynamically
stable and dense form of selenium is the electrically
conductive gray (trigonal) form, which is composed of long helical chains of selenium atoms
(see figure).[10] The conductivity of this form is notably light sensitive. Selenium also exists
in three different deep-red crystalline monoclinic forms, which are composed of Se8
molecules, similar to many allotropes of sulfur.[11]
Isotopes
Selenium has six naturally occurring isotopes, five of which are stable: 74Se, 76Se, 77Se,
78
Se, and 80Se. The last three also occur as fission products, along with 79Se which has a
half-life of 295,000 years. The final naturally occurring isotope, 82Se, has a very long
half-life (~1020 yr, decaying via double beta decay to 82Kr) and which for practical purposes
can be considered to be stable. 23 other unstable isotopes have been characterized.
See also Selenium-79 for more information on recent changes in the half-life of this fission
product, important for the dose calculations performed in the frame of the geological
disposal of long-lived radioactive waste.
Health effects and nutrition

Although it is toxic in large doses, selenium is an essential micronutrient for animals. In
plants, it occurs as a bystander mineral, sometimes in toxic proportions in forage (some
plants may accumulate selenium as a defense against being eaten by animals, but other
plants such as locoweed require selenium, and their growth indicates the presence of
selenium in soil).[3] It is a component of the unusual amino acids selenocysteine and
selenomethionine. In humans, selenium is a trace element nutrient which functions as
Selenium 6
cofactor for reduction of antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione peroxidases and certain
forms of thioredoxin reductase found in animals and some plants (this enzyme occurs in all
living organisms, but not all forms of it in plants require selenium).
Glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) catalyzes certain reactions which remove reactive oxygen
species such as peroxide:
2 GSH+ H2O2---------GSH-Px → GSSG + 2 H2O
Selenium also plays a role in the functioning of the thyroid gland by participating as a
cofactor for the three known thyroid hormone deiodinases.[12]
Dietary selenium comes from nuts, cereals, meat, fish, and eggs. Brazil nuts are the richest
ordinary dietary source (though this is soil-dependent, since the Brazil nut does not require
high levels of the element for its own needs). High levels are found in kidney, tuna, crab
and lobster, in that order.[13] [14]
Selenium indicator plants

Certain species of plants are considered indicators of high selenium content of the soil,
since they require high levels of selenium in order to thrive. The main selenium indicator
plants are Astragalus species (including some locoweeds), prince's plume (Stanleya sp.),
woody asters (Xylorhiza sp.), and false goldenweed (Oonopsis sp.)[15]
Toxicity
Although selenium is an essential trace element, it is toxic if taken in excess. Exceeding the
Tolerable Upper Intake Level of 400 micrograms per day can lead to selenosis.[16] This 400
microgram Tolerable Upper Intake Level is primarily based on a 1986 study of five Chinese
patients who exhibited overt signs of selenosis and a follow up study on the same five
people in 1992.[17] The 1992 study actually found the maximum safe dietary Se intake to be
approximately 800 micrograms per day (15 micrograms per kilogram body weight), but
suggested 400 micrograms per day to not only avoid toxicity, but also to avoid creating an
imbalance of nutrients in the diet and to account for data from other countries.[18] The
Chinese people who suffered from selenium toxicity ingested selenium by eating corn
grown in extremely selenium-rich stony coal (carbonaceous shale). This coal was shown to
have selenium content as high as 9.1%, the highest concentration in coal ever recorded in
literature.[19]
Symptoms of selenosis include a garlic odor on the breath, gastrointestinal disorders, hair
loss, sloughing of nails, fatigue, irritability, and neurological damage. Extreme cases of
selenosis can result in cirrhosis of the liver, pulmonary edema and death.[20] Elemental
selenium and most metallic selenides have relatively low toxicities because of their low
bioavailability. By contrast, selenates and selenites are very toxic, having an oxidant mode
of action similar to that of arsenic trioxide. The chronic toxic dose of selenite for human
beings is about 2400 to 3000 micrograms of selenium per day for a long time.[21] Hydrogen
selenide is an extremely toxic, corrosive gas.[22] Selenium also occurs in organic
compounds such as dimethyl selenide, selenomethionine, selenocysteine and
methylselenocysteine, all of which have high bioavailability and are toxic in large doses.
Nano-size selenium has equal efficacy, but much lower toxicity.[23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29]
On April 19, 2009, twenty-one polo ponies began to die shortly before a match in the United
States Polo Open. Three days later, a private pharmacy released a statement that the
horses had received an incorrect dose of one of the ingredients used in a vitamin compound
Selenium 7
with which the horses had been injected. Such vitamin injections are common to promote
recovery after a match. The pharmacy did not initially release the name of the specific
ingredient due to ongoing law-enforcement and other investigations. Dr David Barber, an
associate professor in the Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology at the
University of Florida began conducting analysis of inorganic compounds of the vitamin
supplement and discovered that selenium concentrations were ten to fifteen times higher
than normal in the horses' blood samples and 15 to 20 times higher than normal in their
liver samples. A pharmacy spokesperson later confirmed that selenium was the ingredient
in question.[30]
Selenium poisoning of water systems may result whenever new agricultural runoff courses
through normally dry undeveloped lands. This process leaches natural soluble selenium
compounds (such as selenates) into the water, which may then be concentrated in new
"wetlands" as the water evaporates. High selenium levels produced in this fashion have
been found to have caused certain congenital disorders in wetland birds.[31]
Deficiency
Selenium deficiency is relatively rare in healthy, well-nourished individuals. It can occur in
patients with severely compromised intestinal function, those undergoing total parenteral
nutrition, and also[32] on advanced-aged people (over 90). Alternatively, people dependent
on food grown from selenium-deficient soil are also at risk. Interestingly, although New
Zealand has low levels of selenium in its soil, adverse health effects have not been
detected.[33]
Controversial health effects

Cancer
Several studies have suggested a possible link between cancer and selenium
deficiency,[34] [35] [36] [37] One study, known as the NPC, was conducted to test the
effect of selenium supplementation on the recurrence of skin cancers on
selenium-deficient men. It did not demonstrate a reduced rate of recurrence of skin
cancers, but did show a reduced occurrence of total cancers, although without a
statistically significant change in overall mortality.[38] The preventative effect observed
in the NPC was greatest in those with the lowest baseline selenium levels.[39] In 2009
the 5.5 year SELECT study reported that selenium and vitamin E supplementation,
both alone and together, did not significantly reduce the incidence of prostate cancer
in 35,000 men who "generally were replete in selenium at baseline".[39] The SELECT
trial found that vitamin E did not reduce prostate cancer as it had in the
Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene (ATBC) study, but the ATBC had a large percentage
of smokers while the SELECT trial did not.[39]
Dietary selenium prevents chemically induced carcinogenesis in many rodent
studies.[40] It has been proposed that selenium may help prevent cancer by acting as
an antioxidant or by enhancing immune activity.
Not all studies agree on the cancer-fighting effects of selenium. One study of naturally
occurring levels of selenium in over 60,000 participants did not show a significant
correlation between those levels and cancer.[41] The SU.VI.MAX study[42] concluded
that low-dose supplementation (with 120 mg of ascorbic acid, 30 mg of vitamin E, 6 mg
of beta carotene, 100 µg of selenium, and 20 mg of zinc) resulted in a 30% reduction in
Selenium 8
the incidence of cancer and a 37% reduction in all-cause mortality in males, but did
not get a significant result for females.[43] However, there is evidence that selenium
can help chemotherapy treatment by enhancing the efficacy of the treatment, reducing
the toxicity of chemotherapeutic drugs, and preventing the body's resistance to the
[44]
drugs. Studies of cancer cells in vitro showed that chemotherapeutic drugs, such as
Taxol and Adriamycin, were more toxic to strains of cancer cells grown in culture
when selenium was added.[45] [46]
In March 2009, a study from the Department of Cancer Biology at the University of
Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center reports that Vitamin E (400 IU) and selenium
(200 micrograms) supplements affect gene expression and can act as a tumor
suppressor.[47] Eric Klein, MD from the Glickman Urological and Kidney Institute in
Ohio said the new study “lend credence to the previous evidence that selenium and
vitamin E might be active as cancer preventatives”.[48] In an attempt to rationalise the
differences between epidemiological and in vitro studies and randomised trials like
SELECT, Klein said that randomized controlled trials “do not always validate what we
believe biology indicates and that our model systems are imperfect measures of
clinical outcomes in the real world”.[48]
HIV/AIDS
Some research has indicated a geographical link between regions of selenium-deficient
soils and peak incidences of HIV/AIDS infection. For example, much of sub-Saharan
Africa is low in selenium. However, Senegal is not, and also has a significantly lower
level of AIDS infection than the rest of the continent. AIDS appears to involve a slow
and progressive decline in levels of selenium in the body. Whether this decline in
selenium levels is a direct result of the replication of HIV[49] or related more generally
to the overall malabsorption of nutrients by AIDS patients remains debated.
Low selenium levels in AIDS patients have been directly correlated with decreased
immune cell count and increased disease progression and risk of death.[50] Selenium
normally acts as an antioxidant, so low levels of it may increase oxidative stress on the
immune system leading to more rapid decline of the immune system. Others have
argued that T-cell associated genes encode selenoproteins similar to human
glutathione peroxidase. Depleted selenium levels in turn lead to a decline in CD4
helper T-cells, further weakening the immune system.[51]
Regardless of the cause of depleted selenium levels in AIDS patients, studies have
shown that selenium deficiency does strongly correlate with the progression of the
disease and the risk of death.[52] [53] [54]
Tuberculosis
Some research has suggested that selenium supplementation, along with other
nutrients, can help prevent the recurrence of tuberculosis.[55]
Diabetes
A well-controlled study showed that selenium intake is positively correlated with the
risk of developing type II diabetes. Because high serum selenium levels are positively
associated with the prevalence of diabetes, and because selenium deficiency is rare,
supplementation is not recommended in well-nourished populations such as the
U.S.[56]
Mercury
Selenium 9
Experimental findings have demonstrated a protective effect of selenium on

methylmercury toxicity, but epidemiological studies have been inconclusive in linking
selenium to protection against the adverse effects of methylmercury.[57]
Non-biologic applications
Chemistry
Selenium is a catalyst in many chemical reactions and is widely used in various
industrial and laboratory syntheses, especially Organoselenium chemistry. It is also
widely used in structure determination of proteins and nucleic acids by X-ray
crystallography (incorporation of one or more Se atoms helps with MAD and SAD
phasing.)
Manufacturing and materials use
The largest use of selenium worldwide is in glass and ceramic manufacturing, where it
is used to give a red color to glasses, enamels and glazes as well as to remove color
from glass by counteracting the green tint imparted by ferrous impurities.
Selenium is used with bismuth in brasses to replace more toxic lead. It is also used to
improve abrasion resistance in vulcanized rubbers.
Electronics
Because of its photovoltaic and photoconductive properties, selenium is used in
photocopying, photocells, light meters and solar cells. It was once widely used in
rectifiers. These uses have mostly been replaced by silicon-based devices, or are in the
process of being replaced. The most notable exception is in power DC surge
protection, where the superior energy capabilities of selenium suppressors make them
more desirable than metal oxide varistors.
Sheets of amorphous selenium convert x-ray images to patterns of charge in
xeroradiography and in solid-state, flat-panel x-ray cameras.
Photography
Selenium is used in the toning of photographic prints, and it is sold as a toner by
numerous photographic manufacturers including Kodak and Fotospeed. Its use
intensifies and extends the tonal range of black and white photographic images as well
as improving the permanence of prints.
Biologic applications
Medical use
The substance loosely called selenium sulfide, SeS2, actually selenium disulfide or
selenium (IV) sulfide, is the active ingredient in some dandruff shampoos.[58] The
effect of the active ingredient is to kill the scalp fungus Malassezia which causes
shedding of dry skin fragments. The ingredient is also used in body lotions to treat
Tinea versicolor due to infection by a different species of Malassezia fungus.[59]
Nutrition
Selenium is used widely in vitamin preparations and other dietary supplements, in
small doses (typically 50 to 200 micrograms per day for adult humans). Some livestock
feeds are fortified with selenium as well.
Selenium 10
Evolution in biology
Over three billion years ago, blue-green algae were the most primitive oxygenic
photosynthetic organisms and are ancestors of multicellular eukaryotic algae.[60] Algae that
contain the highest amount of antioxidant selenium, iodide, and peroxidase enzymes were
the first living cells to produce poisonous oxygen in the atmosphere. Venturi et al.[60] [61]
suggested that algal cells required a protective antioxidant action, in which selenium and
iodides, through peroxidase enzymes, have had this specific role. Selenium, which acts
synergistically with iodine,[62] is a primitive mineral antioxidant, greatly present in the sea
and prokaryotic cells, where it is an essential component of the family of glutathione
peroxidase antioxidant enzymes (GSH-Px). In fact, seaweeds accumulate high quantity of
selenium and iodine.[60] In 2008, Küpper et al.,[63] showed that iodide also scavenges
reactive oxygen species (ROS) in algae, and that its biological role is that of an inorganic
antioxidant, the first to be described in a living system, active also in an in vitro assay with
the blood cells of today’s humans."
From about three billion years ago, prokaryotic selenoprotein families drive selenocysteine
evolution. Selenium is incorporated into several prokaryotic selenoprotein families in
bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes as selenocysteine,[64] where selenoprotein peroxiredoxins
protect bacterial and eukaryotic cells against oxidative damage. Selenoprotein families of
GSH-Px and deiodinase of eukaryotic cells seem to have a bacterial phylogenetic origin. The
selenocysteine-containing form occurred in green algae, diatoms, sea urchin, fish and
chicken, too. One family of selenium-containing molecules as glutathione peroxidases
repairs damaged cell membranes, while another (glutathione S-transferases) repairs
damaged DNA and prevents mutations.[65]
When about 500 Mya, plants and animals began to transfer from the sea to rivers and land,
the environmental deficiency of marine mineral antioxidants (as selenium, iodine, etc.) was
a challenge to the evolution of terrestrial life.[60] Trace elements involved in GSH-Px and
superoxide dismutase enzymes activities, i.e. selenium, vanadium, magnesium, copper and
zinc, may have been lacking in some terrestrial mineral-deficient areas.[64] Marine
organisms apparently retained and sometimes expanded their seleno-proteomes, whereas
the seleno-proteomes of some terrestrial organisms were reduced or completely lost. These
findings suggest that, with the exception of vertebrates, aquatic life supports selenium
utilization, whereas terrestrial habitats lead to reduced use of this trace element.[66] Marine
fishes and vertebrate thyroid glands have the highest concentration of selenium and iodine.
From about 500 Mya, freshwater and terrestrial plants slowly optimized the production of
“new” endogenous antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), polyphenols, flavonoids,
tocopherols, etc. A few of these appeared more recently, in the last 50-200 million years, in
fruits and flowers of angiosperm plants. In fact, the angiosperms (the dominant type of
plant today) and most of their antioxidant pigments evolved during the late Jurassic period.
The deiodinase isoenzymes constituted the second family of eukaryotic selenoproteins with
identified enzyme function. Deiodinases are able to extract electrons from iodides, and
iodides from iodothyronines; so, they are involved in thyroid-hormone regulation,
participating in the protection of thyrocytes from damage by H2O2 produced for
thyroid-hormone biosynthesis.[60] [61] About 200 Mya, new selenoproteins were developed
as mammalian GSH-Px enzymes.[67] [68] [69] [70]
Selenium 11
Compounds
• Copper indium gallium selenide Cu(Ga,In)Se2
• Mercury selenide (HgSe)
• Hydrogen selenide (H2Se)
• Lead selenide (PbSe)
• Selenium dioxide (SeO2)
• Selenic acid (H2SeO4)
• Selenous acid (H2SeO3)
• Selenium sulfides: Se4S4, SeS2, Se2S6
• Sodium selenite (Na2SeO3)
• Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
Selenium occurs in the 0,+2,+4,+6 and -2 valence states. See also Selenium compounds
and organoselenium chemistry.
External links
[71]
• WebElements.com - Selenium
[72]
• National Institutes of Health page on Selenium
• ATSDR - Toxicological Profile: Selenium [73]
• Peter van der Krogt elements site [74]
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[66] Lobanov AV, Fomenko DE, Zhang Y, Sengupta A, Hatfield DL, Gladyshev VN (2007). " Evolutionary dynamics
of eukaryotic selenoproteomes: large selenoproteomes may associate with aquatic life and small with terrestrial
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Biology 8 (9): R198. doi: 10.1186/gb-2007-8-9-r198 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1186/ gb-2007-8-9-r198). PMID
17880704.
[67] Castellano S, Novoselov SV, Kryukov GV, et al. (January 2004). " Reconsidering the evolution of eukaryotic
selenoproteins: a novel nonmammalian family with scattered phylogenetic distribution (http:/ / www.
pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=1298953)". EMBO Reports 5 (1): 71–7.
doi: 10.1038/sj.embor.7400036 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ sj. embor. 7400036). PMID 14710190.
[68] Kryukov GV, Gladyshev VN (May 2004). " The prokaryotic selenoproteome (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih.
gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=1299047)". EMBO Reports 5 (5): 538–43. doi:
10.1038/sj.embor.7400126 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ sj. embor. 7400126). PMID 15105824.
[69] Wilting R, Schorling S, Persson BC, Böck A (March 1997). "Selenoprotein synthesis in archaea: identification
of an mRNA element of Methanococcus jannaschii probably directing selenocysteine insertion". Journal of
Molecular Biology 266 (4): 637–41. doi: 10.1006/jmbi.1996.0812 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1006/ jmbi. 1996.
0812). PMID 9102456.
[70] Zhang Y, Fomenko DE, Gladyshev VN (2005). " The microbial selenoproteome of the Sargasso Sea (http:/ /
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[71] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Se/ index. html
[72] http:/ / ods. od. nih. gov/ factsheets/ selenium. asp
[73] http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ toxprofiles/ tp92. html
[74] http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ elem/ se. html

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License
Bromine 1
Bromine
35 selenium ← bromine → krypton

Cl
↑
Br
↓
I

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number bromine, Br, 35
Element category halogens
Appearance gas/liquid: red-brown

solid: metallic luster

−1
[Ar] 4s 3d
10
4p
5
Physical properties
Phase liquid
Density (near r.t.) (Br , liquid) 3.1028 g·cm−3

2
(-7.2 °C, 19 °F)
Boiling point 332.0 K

(58.8 °C, 137.8 °F)
Heat of fusion (Br ) 10.571 kJ·mol−1

2
Heat of vaporization (Br ) 29.96 kJ·mol−1
2
Specific heat capacity (25 °C) (Br )
2
75.69 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 185 201 220 244 276 332
Atomic properties
Bromine 2
Crystal structure orthorhombic
Oxidation states 7, 5, 4, 3, 1, -1

(more)
2nd: 2103 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 3470 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 7.8×10

10
Ω·m

−1
·K
−1
Speed of sound (20 °C) ? 206 m/s
Main article: Isotopes of bromine

79
Br 50.69% 79
Br is stable with 44 neutron
81
Br 49.31% 81
Br is stable with 46 neutron
References
Bromine (pronounced /ˈbroʊmiːn/ or English pronunciation: /ˈbroʊmɨn/), Greek: βρῶμος,

brómos, meaning "stench (of he-goats)" [2] ), is a chemical element with the symbol Br and
atomic number 35. A halogen element, bromine is a reddish-brown volatile liquid at
standard room temperature that is intermediate in reactivity between chlorine and iodine.
Bromine vapours are corrosive and toxic. Approximately 556,000 metric tons were
produced in 2007. [3] The main applications for bromine are in fire retardants and fine
chemicals.
Bromine 3
History
Bromine was discovered independently by two chemists
Antoine Balard[4] and Carl Jacob Löwig[5] in 1825 and
1826.[6]
Balard found bromide salts in the ash of sea weed from
the salt marshes of Montpellier in 1826. The sea weed
was used to produce iodine, but also contained
bromine. Balard distilled the bromine from a solution of
seaweed ash saturated with chlorine. The properties of
the resulting substance resembled that of an
intermediate of chlorine and iodine, with those results
he tried to prove that the substance was iodine
Illustrative and secure bromine sample monochloride (ICl), but after failing to do so he was
for teaching sure that he found a new element and named it muride,
derived from the Latin word muria for brine.[4]
Carl Jacob Löwig isolated bromine from mineral water spring from his home town Bad
Kreuznach in 1825. Löwig used a solution of the mineral salt saturated with chlorine and
extracted the bromine with diethylether. After evaporation of the ether a brown liquid
remained. With this liquid as a sample for his work he applied for a position in the
laboratory of Leopold Gmelin in Heidelberg. The publication of the results was delayed and
Balard published his results first.[5]
After the French chemists Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, Louis Jacques Thénard, and
Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac approved the experiments of the young pharmacist Balard, the
results where presented at a lecture of the Académie des Sciences and published in Annales
de Chimie et Physique[7] . In his publication Balard states that he changed the name from
muride to brôme on the proposal of M. Anglada. Other sources claim that the French
chemist and physicist Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac suggested the name brôme due to the
characteristic smell of the vapors.[8] Bromine was not produced in large quantities until
1860.
The first commercial use, besides some minor medical applications, was the use of bromine
for the daguerreotype. In 1840 it was discovered that bromine had some advantages over
the previous used iodine vapour to create the light sensitive silver halide layer used for
daguerreotypy.[9]
Potassium bromide and sodium bromide were used as anticonvulsants and sedatives in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries, until they were gradually superseded by chloral hydrate
and then the barbiturates.[10]
Characteristics
Bromine is the only liquid nonmetallic element at room temperature, and one of only two
elements on the periodic table that are liquid at room temperature. The melting point of
bromine is −7.2 °C and has the boiling point 58.8 °C. The pure chemical element has the
physical form of a diatomic molecule, Br2. It is a dense, mobile, reddish-brown liquid, that
evaporates easily at standard temperature and pressures to give a red vapor (its color
resembles nitrogen dioxide) that has a strong disagreeable odor resembling that of
chlorine. Bromine is a halogen, and is less reactive than chlorine and more reactive than
Bromine 4
iodine. Bromine is slightly soluble in water, and highly soluble in carbon disulfide, aliphatic
alcohols (such as methanol), and acetic acid. It bonds easily with many elements and has a
strong bleaching action. Bromine, like chlorine, is also used in maintenance of swimming
pools.
Certain bromine-related compounds have been evaluated to have an ozone depletion
potential or bioaccumulate in living organisms. As a result many industrial bromine
compounds are no longer manufactured, are being restricted, or scheduled for phasing out.
The Montreal Protocol mentions several organobromine compounds for this phase out.
Bromine is a powerful oxidizing agent. It reacts vigorously with metals, especially in the
presence of water, as well as most organic compounds, especially upon illumination.
Isotopes
Bromine has 2 stable isotopes: 79Br (50.69 %) and
81
Br (49.31%). At least another 23 radioisotopes are
known to exist.[11] Many of the bromine isotopes are
fission products. Several of the heavier bromine
isotopes from fission are delayed neutron emitters.
All of the radioactive bromine isotopes are relatively
short lived. The longest half life is the neutron
deficient 77Br at 2.376 days. The longest half life on the neutron rich side is 82Br at 1.471
days. A number of the bromine isotopes exhibit metastable isomers. Stable 79Br exhibits a
radioactive isomer, with a half life of 4.86 seconds. It decays by isomeric transition to the
stable ground state.[12]

See also Halide minerals.
The diatomic element Br does not occur naturally.
2
Instead, bromine exists exclusively as bromide salts in
diffuse amounts in crustal rock. Due to leaching,
bromide salts have accumulated in sea water (65
ppm),[13] but at a lower concentration than chloride.
Bromine may be economically recovered from
bromide-rich brine wells and from the Dead Sea waters
(up to 50000 ppm).[14] [15]
World bromine production trend
Bromine 5
Approximately 556,000 metric tons (worth

around US$2.5 billion) of bromine are
produced per year (2007) worldwide with
the United States, Israel, and China being
the primary producers.[16] [17] [18] Bromine
production has increased sixfold since the
1960s. The largest bromine reserve in the
United States is located in Columbia and
Union County, Arkansas, U.S.[19] China's
bromine reserves are located in the
Shandong Province and Israel's bromine
reserves are contained in the waters of the
Dead Sea. The bromide-rich brines are
treated with chlorine gas, flushing through
with air. In this treatment, bromide anions
are oxidized to bromine by the chlorine gas.
View of salt evaporation pans on the Dead Sea, where
2 Br− + Cl2 → 2 Cl− + Br2 Jordan (right) and Israel (left) produce salt and
bromine
Because of its commercial availability and
long shelf-life, bromine is not typically
prepared. Small amounts of bromine can however be generated through the reaction of
solid sodium bromide with concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The first stage is formation
of hydrogen bromide (HBr), which is a gas, but under the reaction conditions some of the
HBr is oxidized further by the sulfuric acid to form bromine (Br2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
NaBr (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → HBr (aq) + NaHSO4 (aq)

2 HBr (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Br2 (g) + SO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
Similar alternatives, such as the use of dilute hydrochloric acid with sodium hypochlorite,
are also available. The most important thing is that the anion of the acid (in the above
examples, sulfate and chloride, respectively) be more electronegative than bromine,
allowing the substitution reaction to occur.
Reaction between a strong oxidizing agent such as potassium permanganate on bromide
ions in the presence of an acid also gives bromine. An acidic solution of bromate ions and
bromide ions will also disproportionate slowly to give bromine.
Bromine is only slightly soluble in water. But the solubility can be increased by the
presence of bromide ions. However, concentrated solutions of bromine are rarely prepared
in the lab as they will continually give off toxic red-brown bromine gas due to its very high
vapour pressure. Sodium thiosulphate is an excellent reagent for getting rid of bromine
completely including the stains and odour.
Bromine 6
Compounds
Organic chemistry
Organic compounds are brominated by either addition or substitution

reactions. Bromine undergoes electrophilic addition to the
double-bonds of alkenes, via a cyclic bromonium intermediate. In
non-aqueous solvents such as carbon disulfide, this affords the
di-bromo product. For example, reaction with ethylene will produce
1,2-dibromoethane. Bromine also undergoes electrophilic addition to N-Bromosuccinimide
phenols and anilines. When used as bromine water, a small amount of
the corresponding bromohydrin is formed as well as the dibromo compound. So reliable is
the reactivity of bromine that bromine water is employed as a reagent to test for the
presence of alkenes, phenols, and anilines. Like the other halogens, bromine participates in
free radical reactions. For example hydrocarbons are brominated upon treatment with
bromine in the presence of light.
Bromine, sometimes with a catalytic amount of phosphorus, easily brominates carboxylic

acids at the α-position. This method, the Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction, is the basis of the
commercial route to bromoacetic acid. N-Bromosuccinimide is commonly used as a
substitute for elemental bromine, being easier to handle, and reacting more mildly and thus
more selectively. Organic bromides are often preferable relative to the less reactive
chlorides and more expensive iodide-containing reagents. Thus, Grignard and
organolithium compound are most often generated from the corresponding bromides.
Inorganic chemistry
Oxidation states
of bromine
-1 HBr
+1 BrCl
+3 BrF3
+5 BrF5
+5 BrO−3
+7 BrO−4
Bromine is an oxidizer, and it will oxidize iodide ions to iodine, being itself reduced to
bromide:
Br2 + 2 I− → 2 Br− + I2
Bromine will also oxidize metals and metalloids to the corresponding bromides. Anhydrous
bromine is less reactive toward many metals than hydrated bromine, however. Dry bromine
reacts vigorously with aluminium, titanium, mercury as well as alkaline earths and alkali
metals.
If bromine is dissolved in hydroxide containing water not only bromide (Br−) is formed, but
also the hypobromite (OBr−). This hypobromite is responsible for the bleaching abilities of
bromide solutions. In warm solutions the disproportion reaction of the hypobromite is
quantitative. The resulting bromate is a strong oxidation reagent and very similar to the
chlorate.
Bromine 7
3 OBr− → BrO−3 + 2 Br−

The perbromates are not accessible through electrolysis like the perchlorates, but only by
reacting bromate solutions with fluorine.
OBr− + H2O + F2 → BrO4 + 2 HF
Applications
A wide variety of organobromine compounds are used in industry. Some are prepared from
bromine and others are prepared from hydrogen bromide, which is obtained by burning
hydrogen in bromine.[3]
Illustrative of the addition reaction[20] is the preparation of 1,2-Dibromoethane, the
organobromine compound produced in the largest amounts:
C2H4 + Br2 → CH2BrCH2Br
Flame retardant
Brominated flame retardants represent a commodity of
growing importance. If the material burns the flame
retardants produce hydrobromic acid which interferes
in the radical chain reaction of the oxidation reaction of
the fire. The highly reactive hydrogen oxygen and
hydroxy radicals react with hydrobromic acid and form
less reactive bromine radicals.[21] [22] The bromine
Tetrabromobisphenol A
containing compounds can be placed in the polymers
either during polymerisation if a small amount of
brominated monomer is added or the bromine containing compound is added after
polymerisation. Tetrabromobisphenol A can be added to produce polyesters or epoxy resins.
An epoxy resigns used for printed circuit boards (PCB) are normally made from flame
retardant resigns, indicated by the FR in the abbreviation of the products (FR-4 and FR-2.
Vinyl bromide can be used in the production of polyethylene, polyvinylchloride or
polypropylene. Decabromodiphenyl ether can be added to the final polymers.[23]
Gasoline additive
Ethylene bromide was an additive in gasolines containing lead anti-engine knocking agents.
It scavenges lead by forming volatile lead bromide, which is exhausted from the engine.
This application accounted for 77% of the bromine uses in 1966 in the US. This application
has declined since the 1970s due to environmental regulations.[24] Ethylene bromide is also
used as a fumigant, but again this application is declining.[18]
Bromine 8
Pesticide
Methyl bromide was widely used as pesticide to fumigate soil. The
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone scheduled the
phase out for the ozone depleting chemical until 2005. In 1991, an
estimated 35,000 metric tonnes of the chemical were used to control
nematodes, fungi, weeds and other soil-borne diseases.[25] [26]
Methyl bromide
(Bromomethane)
Other Use
• The bromides of calcium, sodium, and zinc account for a sizable
part of the bromine market. These salts form dense solutions in
water that are used as drilling fluids sometimes called clear brine
fluids.[18] [27]
• Bromine is also used in for the production of brominated vegetable
oil, which is used as an emulsifier in many citrus-flavored soft
Orange fluoresces of
drinks (e.g. Mountain Dew). After the introduction in the 1940s the
DNA Ethidium
bromide intercalate
compound was extensively used until the UK and the US limited its
use in the mid 1970s and alternative emulsifers were developed.[28]
By 1997 in the US still soft drinks are available containing brominated vegetable oil.[29]
• Several dyes, agrichemicals, and pharmaceuticals are organobromine

compounds. 1-Bromo-3-chloropropane, 1-bromoethylbenzene, and
1-bromoalkanes are prepared by the antimarkovnikov addition of HBr
to alkenes. Ethidium bromide, EtBr, is used as a DNA stain in gel
electrophoresis.
• High refractive index compounds Tralomethrin
• Water purification compounds, Disinfectants[18]
• Potassium bromide is used in some photographic developers to inhibit the formation of

fog (undesired reduction of silver).
• Vapor is used as the second step in sensitizing daguerreotype plates to be developed
under Mercury (Hg) vapor. Bromine acts as an accelerator to the light sensitivity of the
previously iodized plate.
Bromine 9
Biological role
Bromine has no known role in human health, but organobromine
compounds do occur naturally. Marine organisms are the main source
of organobromine compounds. In 1999 over 1600 compounds were
identified. The most abundant one is methyl bromide with estimated
56000 metric tons produced by marine algae.[30] The essential oil of
the Hawaiian alga Asparagopsis taxiformis consists of 80% methyl
bromide.[31] A famous example of a bromine-containing organic
compound that has been used by humans for a long time is Tyrian
purple.[30] [32] The brominated indigo is produced by a medium-sized Tyrian purple
predatory sea snail, the marine gastropod Murex brandaris. It took
until 1909 before the organobromine nature of the compound was discovered by Paul
[33]
Friedländer. Most organobromine compounds in nature arise via the action of vanadium
bromoperoxidase.[34]
Safety
Elemental bromine is toxic and causes burns. As an oxidizing agent, it is incompatible with
most organic and inorganic compounds. Care needs to be taken when transporting
bromine; it is commonly carried in steel tanks lined with lead, supported by strong metal
frames.
When certain ionic compounds containing bromine are mixed with potassium
permanganate (KMnO4) and an acidic substance, they will form a pale brown cloud of
bromine gas. This gas smells like bleach and is very irritating to the mucus membranes.
Upon exposure, one should move to fresh air immediately. If symptoms arise, medical
attention is needed.
External links
[35]
• WebElements.com – Bromine
• Theodoregray.com – Bromine [36]
• USGS Minerals Information: Bromine [37]
[38]
• Bromine Science and Environmental Forum (BSEF)
• Thermal Conductivity of BROMINE [39]
• Viscosity of Bromine [40]
Bromine 10
References
[2] Gemoll W, Vretska K (1997). Griechisch-Deutsches Schul- und Handwörterbuch ("Greek-German dictionary"),
9th ed.. öbvhpt. ISBN 3-209-00108-1.
[3] Jack F. Mills (2002). Bromine: in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH
Verlag. doi: 10.1002/14356007.a04_391 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ 14356007. a04_391).
[4] Balard, Antoine (1826). " Memoire of a peculire Substance contained in Sea Water (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=A-M4AAAAMAAJ)". Annals of Philosophy: 387– and 411–. .
[5] Landolt, Hans Heinrich (1890). " Nekrolog: Carl Löwig (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k907222/ f920.
chemindefer)". Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 23: 905. doi: 10.1002/cber.18900230395
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ cber. 18900230395). .
[6] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements: XVII. The halogen family.". Journal of Chemical
Education 9: 1915.
[7] Balard, A.J. (1826). Annales de Chimie et Physique 32: 337.
[8] Wisniak, Jaime (2004). " Antoine-Jerôme Balard. The discoverer of bromine (http:/ / revistas. mes. edu.
cu:9900/ EDUNIV/ 03-Revistas-Cientificas/ Rev. CENIC-Ciencias-Quimicas/ 2004/ 1/ 09204109. pdf)". Revista
CENIC Ciencias Químicas 35. .
[9] Barger, M. Susan; White, William Blaine (2000). "Technological Practice of Daguerreotypy". The
Daguerreotype: Nineteenth-century Technology and Modern Science. JHU Press. pp. 31–35. ISBN
9780801864582.
[10] Shorter, Edward (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. John Wiley
and Sons. p. 200. ISBN 9780471245315.
[11] GE (1989). Chart of the Nuclides, 14th Edition. Nuclear Energy.
Mass Data Center) 729: 3. doi: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa.
2003. 11. 001).
[13] Tallmadge, John A.; Butt, John B.; Solomon Herman J. (1964). "Minerals From Sea Salt". Ind. Eng. Chem. 56:
44. doi: 10.1021/ie50655a008 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ie50655a008).
[14] Oumeish, Oumeish Youssef (1996). "Climatotherapy at the Dead Sea in Jordan". Clinics in Dermatology 14:
659. doi: 10.1016/S0738-081X(96)00101-0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0738-081X(96)00101-0).
[15] Al-Weshah, Radwan A. (2008). "The water balance of the Dead Sea: an integrated approach". Hydrological
Processes 14: 145. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(200001)14:1<145::AID-HYP916>3.0.CO;2-N (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1002/ (SICI)1099-1085(200001)14:1<145::AID-HYP916>3. 0. CO;2-N).
[16] Emsley, John (2001). "Bromine". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England,
UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 69-73. ISBN 0198503407.
[17] Lyday, Phyllis A.. " Comodity Report 2007: Bromine (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
bromine/ bromimcs07. pdf)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-09-03.
[18] Lyday, Phyllis A.. " Mineral Yearbook 2007: Bromine (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
bromine/ myb1-2006-bromi. pdf)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-09-03.
[19] " Bromine:An Important Arkansas Industry (http:/ / www. cals. lib. ar. us/ butlercenter/ lesson_plans/ lesson
plans/ Lesson plans-retained/ Bromine. pdf)". .
[20] N. A. Khan, F. E. Deatherage, and J. B. Brown (1963). " Stearolic Acid (http:/ / www. orgsyn. org/ orgsyn/
orgsyn/ prepContent. asp?prep=CV4P0851)". Org. Synth.; Coll. Vol. 4: 851.
[21] Green, Joseph (1996). "Mechanisms for Flame Retardancy and Smoke suppression -A Review". Journal of Fire
Sciences 14: 426. doi: 10.1177/073490419601400602 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 073490419601400602).
[22] Kaspersma, Jelle; Doumena, Cindy; Munrob Sheilaand; Prinsa, Anne-Marie (2002). "Fire retardant
mechanism of aliphatic bromine compounds in polystyrene and polypropylene". Polymer Degradation and
Stability 77: 325. doi: 10.1016/S0141-3910(02)00067-8 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0141-3910(02)00067-8).
[23] Weil, Edward D.; Levchik, Sergei (2004). "A Review of Current Flame Retardant Systems for Epoxy Resins".
Journal of Fire Sciences 22: 25. doi: 10.1177/0734904104038107 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1177/
0734904104038107).
[24] Alaeea, Mehran; Ariasb, Pedro; Sjödinc, Andreas; Bergman, Åke (2003). "An overview of commercially used
brominated flame retardants, their applications, their use patterns in different countries/regions and possible
modes of release". Environment International 29: 683. doi: 10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00121-1 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1016/ S0160-4120(03)00121-1).
[25] Messenger, Belinda; Braun, Adolf (2000). " Alternatives to Methyl Bromide for the Control of Soil-Borne
Diseases and Pests in California (http:/ / www. cdpr. ca. gov/ docs/ emon/ methbrom/ alt-anal/ sept2000. pdf)".
Bromine 11
Pest Management Analysis and Planning Program. . Retrieved 2008-11-17.

[26] Decanio, Stephen J.; Norman, Catherine S. (2008). "Economics of the "Critical Use" of Methyl bromide under
the Montreal Protocol". Contemporary Economic Policy 23: 376. doi: 10.1093/cep/byi028 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1093/ cep/ byi028).
[27] Darley, H. C. H.; Gray, George Robert (1988). Composition and Properties of Drilling and Completion Fluids.
Gulf Professional Publishing. pp. 61-62. ISBN 9780872011472.
[28] Kaufman, Vered R.; Garti, Nissim (1984). "Effect of cloudy agents on the stability and opacity of cloudy
emulsions for soft drinks". International Journal of Food Science & Technology 19: 255. doi:
[29] Horowitz, B. Zane (1997). "Bromism from Excessive Cola Consumption',Clinical Toxicology". Clinical
Toxicology 35: 315. doi: 10.3109/15563659709001219 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 3109/ 15563659709001219).
[30] Gordon W. Gribble (1999). "The diversity of naturally occurring organobromine compounds". Chemical
Society Reviews 28: 335. doi: 10.1039/a900201d (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ a900201d).
[31] Burreson, B. Jay; Moore, Richard E.; Roller, Peter P. (1976). "Volatile halogen compounds in the alga
Asparagopsis taxiformis (Rhodophyta)". Journal of Agricultural snd Food Chemistry 24: 856. doi:
10.1021/jf60206a040 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ jf60206a040).
[32] Gordon W. Gribble (1998). "Naturally Occurring Organohalogen Compounds". Acc. Chem. Res. 31: 141. doi:
10.1021/ar9701777 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ar9701777).
[33] Friedländer, P. (1909). "Über den Farbstoff des antiken Purpurs aus murex brandaris". Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 42: 765. doi: 10.1002/cber.190904201122 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/
cber. 190904201122).
[34] Butler, Alison; Carter-Franklin, Jayme N. (2004). "The role of vanadium bromoperoxidase in the biosynthesis
of halogenated marine natural products". Natural Product Reports 21: 180. doi: 10.1039/b302337k (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1039/ b302337k).
[35] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Br/ index. html
[36] http:/ / www. theodoregray. com/ PeriodicTable/ Elements/ 035/ index. s7. html
[37] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ bromine
[38] http:/ / www. bsef. com/
[39] http:/ / twt. mpei. ac. ru/ MAS/ Worksheets/ HEDH/ 5-5-14-43-54/ Tab-5-5-14-54-BROMINE-Thermal. mcd
[40] http:/ / twt. mpei. ac. ru/ MAS/ Worksheets/ HEDH/ 5-5-14-43-54/ Tab-5-5-14-54-BROMINE-Viscosity. mcd

Bromine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=305255565 Contributors: 2D, A Softer Answer, A. Carty, Ace of Spades IV, Aeusoes1,
Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajaxkroon, Akldawgs, Alansohn, Alchemist-hp, Alex43223, Ambuj.Saxena, Amitch, AndonicO, Andres, Antandrus, Archimerged,
Asparagusfactory, Aude, B07, Bassbonerocks, Beetstra, Benbest, Bengisuk, Bentu, Blanchardb, BlueEarth, Boat5210, Bobak, Bobo192, Bodnotbod,
Bomac, Bonchickawannabowdowlol43434555423, Bonorox, Boud, Brain40, Brandonrush, Brockert, Bryan Derksen, Bunny Angel13, C'est moi, CALR,
CWii, CYD, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canthusus, CapitalR, Celarnor, ChemNerd, Chrislk02, Christopherk, Chriswaterguy, Chuljin, Colbuckshot,
Conversion script, Cryptic C62, DStoykov, DanielCD, Danielsavoiu, DarkHorizon, Darklilac, Darrien, David Latapie, DeadEyeArrow, Dilbatt,
DocWatson42, DoubleBlue, Dumelow, Dwmyers, Eastlaw, Eatcacti, Edgar181, Edsanville, El C, Emperorbma, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Erik Zachte, Escape
Orbit, Explicit, Femto, Firq, Fl, Flakeloaf, Fortran, Frank Warmerdam, Frankenpuppy, FreeKresge, FreplySpang, Fuzzform, Gary King, Giftlite, Gilliam,
Glenn, Greenhorn1, Grendelkhan, Gurch, Gwernol, H Padleckas, Hadal, Hairchrm, HalfShadow, Heartonsleeve, Hellbus, HenryLi, Hermione1980,
Holocron, Horkenbubble, Hplommer, Hydrogen Iodide, I'm with gerrit, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Icairns, Ikiroid, Insanity Incarnate, J.delanoy, J3bus,
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License
Krypton 1
Krypton
36 bromine ← krypton → rubidium

Ar
↑
Kr
↓
Xe

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number krypton, Kr, 36
Element category noble gases
Appearance colorless gas

−1
Electron configuration [Ar] 3d

10 2
4s 4p
6
Physical properties
Phase gas
Density (0 °C, 101.325 kPa)

3.749 g/L

(-157.36 °C, -251.25 °F)

(-153.22 °C, -244.12 °F)
Triple point [1]

115.775 K, 73.2 kPa
Critical point 209.41 K, 5.50 MPa
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 59 65 74 84 99 120
Atomic properties
Crystal structure cubic face centered

4, 2
Krypton 2

(more)
2nd: 2350.4 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 3565 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

diamagnetic
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 9.43x10-3 W·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (gas, 23 °C) 220 m/s
Speed of sound (liquid) 1120 m/s
Main article: Isotopes of krypton

78
Kr 0.35% 2.3×10
20
y εε - 78
Se
79
Kr syn 35.04 h ε - 79
Br
β
+ 0.604 79
Br
γ 0.26, 0.39, 0.60 -

80
Kr 2.25% 80
Kr is stable with 44 neutron
81
Kr syn 2.29×10 y
5 ε - 81
Br
γ 0.281 -
82
Kr 11.6% 82
83
Kr 11.5% 83
84
Kr 57% 84
85
Kr syn 10.756 y β− 0.687 85
Rb
86
Kr 17.3% 86
References
Krypton (pronounced /ˈkrɪptɒn/; from Greek: kryptos "hidden") is a chemical element with
the symbol Kr and atomic number 36. It is a member of Group 18 and Period 4 elements. A
colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas, krypton occurs in trace amounts in the atmosphere,
is isolated by fractionally distilling liquified air, and is often used with other rare gases in
fluorescent lamps. Krypton is inert for most practical purposes. Krypton can also form
clathrates with water when atoms of it are trapped in a lattice of the water molecules.
Krypton 3
Krypton, like the other noble gases, can be used in lighting and photography. Krypton light
has a large number of spectral lines, and krypton's high light output in plasmas allows it to
play an important role in many high-powered gas lasers, which pick out one of the many
spectral lines to amplify. There is also a specific krypton fluoride laser. The high power and
relative ease of operation of krypton discharge tubes caused (from 1960 to 1983) the
official meter to be defined in terms of one orange-red spectral line of krypton-86.
Physical properties
Krypton is characterized by a brilliant green and orange
spectral signature. It is one of the products of uranium
fission.[4] Solidified krypton is white and crystalline
with a face-centered cubic crystal structure, which is a
common property of all noble gases.
History
Krypton was discovered in Britain in 1898 by Sir
A krypton-filled discharge tube in the
William Ramsay a Scottish chemist and Morris Travers
shape of the element's atomic symbol.
an English chemist in residue left from evaporating
nearly all components of liquid air. Neon was
discovered by a similar procedure by the same workers just a few weeks later.[5] William
Ramsay was awarded the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of a series of noble
gases, including krypton.
Metric role
In 1960, an international agreement defined the meter in terms of wavelength of light
emitted by the krypton-86 isotope. This agreement replaced the longstanding standard
meter located in Paris, which was a metal bar made of a platinum-iridium alloy (the bar was
originally estimated to be one ten-millionth of a quadrant of the earth's polar
circumference), and was itself replaced by a definition based on the speed of light — a
fundamental physical constant. In October 1983, the Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures) defined the meter as the distance
that light travels in a vacuum during 1/299,792,458 s.[6]
Occurrence
The Earth has retained all of the noble gases that were present at its formation except for
helium. Helium atoms are very light, and move fast enough to escape the Earth's gravity
readily.[7] Krypton's concentration in the atmosphere is about 1 ppm. It can be extracted
from liquid air by fractional distillation.[8] The amount of krypton in space is uncertain, as is
the amount is derived from the meteoric activity and that from solar winds. The first
measurements suggest an overabundance of krypton in space.[9]
Krypton 4
Compounds
Like the other noble gases, krypton is chemically unreactive. However, following the first
successful synthesis of xenon compounds in 1962, synthesis of krypton difluoride (KrF2)
was reported in 1963.[10] There are unverified reports of other fluorides and a salt of a
krypton oxoacid. ArKr+ and KrH+ molecule-ions have been investigated and there is
evidence for KrXe or KrXe+.[11]
Compounds with krypton bonded to atoms other than fluorine have also been discovered.
The reaction of KrF2 with B(OTeF5)3 produces an unstable compound, Kr(OTeF5)2, that
contains a krypton-oxygen bond. A krypton-nitrogen bond is found in the cation
[HC≡N–Kr–F]+, produced by the reaction of KrF2 with [HC≡NH]+[AsF−6] below −50 °C.[12]
At the University of Helsinki in Finland, HKrCN and HKrCCH (krypton hydride-cyanide and
hydrokryptoacetylene) were synthesized and determined to be stable up to 40 K.[10]
Isotopes
There are 20 known isotopes of krypton.[13] Naturally occurring krypton is made of five
stable and one slightly radioactive isotope. Its spectral signature can be produced with
some very sharp lines. 81Kr, the product of atmospheric reactions is produced with the
other naturally occurring isotopes of krypton. Being radioactive it has a half-life of 230,000
years. Krypton is highly volatile when it is near surface waters but 81Kr has been used for
dating old (50,000 - 800,000 year) groundwater.[14]
85
Kr is an inert radioactive noble gas with a half-life of 10.76 years. It is produced by the
fission of uranium and plutonium, such as in nuclear bomb testing and nuclear reactors.
85
Kr is released during the reprocessing of fuel rods from nuclear reactors. Concentrations
at the North Pole are 30% higher than at the South Pole as most nuclear reactors are in the
northern hemisphere.[15]
Applications
Krypton's multiple emission lines make ionized krypton gas discharges appear whitish,
which in turn makes krypton-based bulbs useful in photography as a brilliant white light
source. Krypton is thus used in some types of photographic flashes used in high speed
photography. Krypton gas is also combined with other gases to make luminous signs that
glow with a bright greenish-yellow light.[16]
Krypton mixes with argon as the fill gas of energy saving fluorescent lamps. This reduces
their power consumption. Unfortunately this also reduces their light output and raises their
cost.[17] Krypton costs 100 times as much as argon. Krypton (along with xenon) is also used
to fill incandescent lamps to reduce filament evaporation and allow higher operating
temperatures to be used for the filament.[18] A brighter light results which contains more
blue than conventional lamps.
Krypton's white discharge is often used to good effect in colored gas discharge tubes, which
are then simply painted or stained in other ways to allow the desired colour (for example,
"neon" type advertising signs where the letters appear in differing colours, are often
entirely krypton-based). Krypton is also capable of much higher light power density than
neon in the red spectral line region, and for this reason, red lasers for high-power laser
light-shows are often krypton lasers with mirrors which select out the red spectral line for
laser amplification and emission, rather than the more familiar helium-neon variety, which
Krypton 5
could never practically achieve the multi-watt red laser light outputs needed for this
application.[19]
Krypton has an important role in production and usage of the krypton fluoride laser. The
laser has been important in the nuclear fusion energy research community in confinement
experiments. The laser has high beam uniformity, short wavelength, and the ability to
modify the spot size to track an imploding pellet.[20]
In experimental particle physics, liquid krypton is used to construct quasi-homogeneous
electromagnetic calorimeters. A notable example is the calorimeter of the NA48 experiment
at CERN containing about 27 tons of liquid krypton. This usage is rare, since the cheaper
liquid argon is typically used. The advantage of krypton over argon is a small Molière radius
of 4.7cm, which allows for excellent spatial resolution and low degree of overlapping. The
other parameters relevant for calorimetry application are: radiation length of cm,
density of 2.4g/cm³.
The sealed spark gap assemblies contained in ignition exciters used in some older jet
engines contain a very small amount of Krypton-85 to obtain consistent ionization levels
and uniform operation.
Krypton-83 has application in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for imaging airways. In
particular, it may be used to distinguish between hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces
containing an airway.[21]
Although xenon has potential for use in computed tomography (CT) to assess regional
ventilation, its anesthetic properties limit its fraction in the breathing gas to 35%. The use
of a breathing mixture containing 30% xenon and 30% krypton is comparable in
effectiveness for CT to a 40% xenon fraction, while avoiding the unwanted effects of a high
fraction xenon gas.[22]
Precautions
Very little is known about whether krypton is dangerous. It is considered to be a non-toxic
asphyxiant.[23] Krypton has a narcotic potency seven times greater than air, so breathing a
gas containing 50% krypton and 50% air would cause narcosis similar to breathing air at
four times atmospheric pressure. This would be comparable to scuba diving at a depth of
30 m (100 ft) (see nitrogen narcosis) and potentially could affect anyone breathing it.
Nevertheless, that mixture would contain only 10% oxygen and hypoxia would be a greater
concern.
Further reading
• Los Alamos National Laboratory - Krypton [24]
• "Chemical Elements: From Carbon to Krypton" By: David Newton & Lawrence W. Baker
• "Krypton 85: a Review of the Literature and an Analysis of Radiation Hazards" By:
William P. Kirk.
External links
[25]
• WebElements.com – Krypton
• Krypton Fluoride Lasers [26]
[27]
• Computational Chemistry Wiki
Krypton 6
References
[1] "Section 4, Properties of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds; Melting, boiling, triple, and critical
temperatures of the elements". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th edition ed.). Boca Raton,
Florida: CRC Press. 2005.
[2] " Krypton: krypton(IV) fluoride compound data (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZCkKH4bUcPUC&
pg=RA1-PA341& lpg=RA1-PA341& dq="krypton+ iv"& source=web& ots=XA_ev9xdZZ&
sig=vla8Z9t5gPpCRw2rm-cXK1Tsgt8)". Books.Google.com. . Retrieved 2007-12-10.
[4] " Krypton (http:/ / www. ead. anl. gov/ pub/ doc/ krypton. pdf)" (in English). Argonne National Laboratory, EVS.
08 2005. pp. 1. . Retrieved 2007-03-17.
[5] William Ramsay, Morris W. Travers (1898). " On a New Constituent of Atmospheric Air (http:/ / links. jstor.
org/ sici?sici=0370-1662(1898)63<405:OANCOA>2. 0. CO;2-M)". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
63: 405–408. doi: 10.1098/rspl.1898.0051 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rspl. 1898. 0051). .
[6] Gibbs, Philip (1997). " How is the speed of light measured? (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ physics/
Relativity/ SpeedOfLight/ measure_c. html)" (in English). Department of Mathematics, University of California. .
[7] Escape of Gases from the Atmosphere
[8] " How Products are Made: Krypton (http:/ / www. madehow. com/ Volume-4/ Krypton. html)". . Retrieved
2006-07-02.
[9] Cardelli, Jason A.; Meyer, David M. (18). " The Abundance of Interstellar Krypton (http:/ / www. journals.
uchicago. edu/ doi/ full/ 10. 1086/ 310513)" (in English). The Astrophysical Journal Letters. The American
Astronomical Society. pp. L57–L60. . Retrieved 2007-04-05.
[10] Bartlett, Neil (2003). " The Noble Gases (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ noblegases. html)" (in English).
Chemical & Engineering News. . Retrieved 2006-07-02.
[11] " Periodic Table of the Elements (http:/ / www. bu. edu/ ehs/ ih/ pdf/ periodic_table. pdf)" (in English). Los
Alamos National Laboratory's Chemistry Division. pp. 100-101. . Retrieved 2007-04-05.
[12] John H. Holloway; Eric G. Hope (1998). A. G. Sykes. ed. Advances in Inorganic Chemistry. Academic Press.
pp. 57. ISBN 012023646X.
[13] " Isotopes of Krypton (http:/ / ie. lbl. gov/ education/ parent/ Kr_iso. htm)". Nuclear Science Division. .
[14] Thonnard, Norbert; Larry D. MeKay, Theodore C. Labotka (31). " Development of Laser-Based Resonance
Ionization Techniques for 81-Kr and 85-Kr Measurements in the Geosciences (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ bridge/
servlets/ purl/ 809813-0zMCV1/ native/ 809813. pdf)" (in English). University of Tennessee, Institute for Rare
Isotope Measurements. pp. 4-7. . Retrieved 2007-03-20.
[15] " Resources on Isotopes (http:/ / wwwrcamnl. wr. usgs. gov/ isoig/ period/ kr_iig. html)". U.S. Geological
[16] " Mercury in Lighting (http:/ / www. capecodextension. org/ pdfs/ Mercury Lighting. pdf)". Cape Cod
Cooperative Extension. . Retrieved 2007-03-20.
[17] "Energy-saving" lamps (http:/ / www. anaheim. net/ utilities/ ea/ PA_11. html)
[18] Properties, Applications and Uses of the "Rare Gases" Neon, Krypton and Xenon (http:/ / www. uigi. com/
rare_gases. html)
[19] " Laser Devices, Laser Shows and Effect (http:/ / www. gameops. com/ content/ pdf/ laser_terms. pdf)" (PDF).
. Retrieved 2007-04-05.
[20] Sethian, J.; M. Friedman, M.Myers. " Krypton Fluoride Laser Development for Inertial Fusion Energy (http:/ /
aries. ucsd. edu/ LIB/ MEETINGS/ IAEAIFECRP/ PDF/ Sethian. pdf)" (in English). Plasma Physics Division,
Naval Research Laboratory. pp. 1-8. . Retrieved 2007-03-20.
[21] Pavlovskaya, GE; Cleveland, ZI; Stupic, KF; Basaraba, RJ; Meersmann, T (December 2005). " Hyperpolarized
krypton-83 as a contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 102/ 51/
18275. abstract)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 102 (51): 18275–9. doi:
10.1073/pnas.0509419102 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1073/ pnas. 0509419102). PMID 16344474. PMC: 1317982
(http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=1317982). .
[22] Chon, D; Beck, KC; Simon, BA; Shikata, H; Saba, OI; Hoffman, EA (April 2007). " Effect of low-xenon and
krypton supplementation on signal/noise of regional CT-based ventilation measurements (http:/ / jap.
physiology. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 102/ 4/ 1535)". Journal of Applied Physiology 102 (4): 1535–44. doi:
10.1152/japplphysiol.01235.2005 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1152/ japplphysiol. 01235. 2005). PMID 17122371. .
[23] http:/ / pt. chemicalstore. com/ Kr%20-%20Krypton. html
Krypton 7
[25] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Kr/ index. html
[26] http:/ / other. nrl. navy. mil/ LaserFusionEnergy/ lasercreation. htm
[27] http:/ / www. compchemwiki. org/ index. php?title=Krypton

Krypton Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=307571150 Contributors: 2D, 8v, 99of9, A new name 2008, ABF, Aarchiba, Abrech,
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License
Rubidium 1
Rubidium
37 krypton ← rubidium → strontium

K
↑
Rb
↓
Cs

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number rubidium, Rb, 37
Element category alkali metals
Group, Period, Block 1, 5, s
Appearance grey white

−1
Electron configuration [Kr] 5s

1
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 8, 1
Physical properties
Phase solid

(39.31 °C, 102.76 °F)
Boiling point 961 K

(688 °C, 1270 °F)
Critical point (extrapolated)

2093 K, 16 MPa
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 434 486 552 641 769 958

Rubidium 2
Atomic properties
Crystal structure body centered cubic
Oxidation states 1
(strongly basic oxide)

(more)
2nd: 2633 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 3860 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 128 n Ω·m

−1
·K
−1
Young's modulus 2.4 GPa
Mohs hardness 0.3
Brinell hardness 0.216 MPa
Main article: Isotopes of rubidium
83
Rb syn 86.2 d ε - 83
Kr
γ 0.52, 0.53, -
0.55
84
Rb syn 32.9 d ε - 84
Kr
β+ 1.66, 0.78 84
Kr
γ 0.881 -
β− 0.892 84
Sr
85
Rb 72.168% 85
Rb is stable with 48 neutron
86
Rb syn 18.65 d β− 1.775 86
Sr
γ 1.0767 -
87
Rb 27.835% 4.88 × 1010 y β− 0.283 87
Sr
References
Rubidium 3
Rubidium (pronounced /rʊˈbɪdiəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Rb and atomic
number 37. Rb is a soft, silvery-white metallic element of the alkali metal group.
Rubidium is very soft and highly reactive, with properties similar to other elements in group
1, such as very rapid oxidation in air. Its compounds have chemical and electronic
applications. Rubidium metal is easily vaporized and has a convenient spectral absorption
range, making it a frequent target for laser manipulation of atoms.
Rubidium is not known to be necessary for any living organisms. However, like caesium,
rubidium ions are handled by living organisms in a manner similar to potassium: it is
actively taken up by plants and by living animals' cells.
Rubidium has one stable isotope,85Rb. The isotope 87Rb which composes almost 28% of
naturally occurring rubidium is slightly radioactive, with a half-life of 49 billion years—more
than three times longer than the estimated age of the universe.
Characteristics
Rubidium is the second most electropositive of the stable alkali elements and liquefies at a
high ambient temperature, 39.3 °C (102.7 °F). Like other group 1 elements this metal
reacts violently in water. In common with potassium and caesium this reaction is usually
vigorous enough to ignite the liberated hydrogen. Rubidium has also been reported to
ignite spontaneously in air. Also like other alkali metals, it forms amalgams with mercury
and it can form alloys with gold, caesium, sodium, and potassium. The element gives a
reddish-violet color to a flame, hence its name.
History
Rubidium (L rubidus, deepest red) was discovered in 1861 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav
Kirchhoff in the mineral lepidolite through the use of a spectroscope.[2] The extraction of
150 kg of lepidolite yielded only a few grams for analysis. The first rubidium metal was
produced by the reaction of rubidium chloride with potassium by Bunsen.
Occurrence
Rubidium is about the twenty-third[3] most abundant element in the Earth's crust, roughly
as abundant as zinc and rather more common than copper. It occurs naturally in the
minerals leucite, pollucite, carnallite and zinnwaldite, which contains traces of up to 1% of
its oxide. Lepidolite contains 1.5% rubidium and this is the commercial source of the
element. Some potassium minerals and potassium chlorides also contain the element in
commercially significant amounts. One notable source is also in the extensive deposits of
pollucite at Bernic Lake, Manitoba (also a source of the related element caesium).
Rubidium metal can be produced by reducing rubidium chloride with calcium among other
methods. In 1997 the cost of this metal in small quantities was about US$25/gram.
Rubidium 4
Isotopes
There are 26 isotopes of rubidium known with naturally occurring rubidium being
composed of just two isotopes; Rb-85 (72.2%) and the radioactive Rb-87 (27.8%). Natural
rubidium is radioactive with specific activity of about 670 Bq/g, enough to fog photographic
film in approximately 30 to 60 days.
Rb-87 has a half-life of 4.88 × 1010 years. It readily substitutes for potassium in minerals,
and is therefore fairly widespread. Rb has been used extensively in dating rocks; Rb-87
decays to stable strontium-87 by emission of a negative beta particle. During fractional
crystallization, Sr tends to become concentrated in plagioclase, leaving Rb in the liquid
phase. Hence, the Rb/Sr ratio in residual magma may increase over time, resulting in rocks
with increasing Rb/Sr ratios with increasing differentiation. Highest ratios (10 or higher)
occur in pegmatites. If the initial amount of Sr is known or can be extrapolated, the age can
be determined by measurement of the Rb and Sr concentrations and the Sr-87/Sr-86 ratio.
The dates indicate the true age of the minerals only if the rocks have not been subsequently
altered. See Rubidium-Strontium dating for a more detailed discussion.
Uses and applications

Rubidium had minimal industrial use until the 1930s. Historically, the most important use
for rubidium has been in research and development, primarily in chemical and electronic
applications.
In 1999 rubidium-87 was used to make a Bose-Einstein condensate[4] , for which the
discoverers won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics[5] .
Rubidium is easily ionized, so it has been considered for use in ion engines for space
vehicles (but caesium and xenon are more efficient for this purpose).
Rubidium compounds are sometimes used in fireworks to give them a purple color.
RbAg4I5 has the highest room temperature conductivity of any known ionic crystal. This
property could be useful in thin film batteries and in other applications.[6]
Rubidium has also been considered for use in a thermoelectric generator using the
magnetohydrodynamic principle, where rubidium ions are formed by heat at high
temperature and passed through a magnetic field. These conduct electricity and act like an
armature of a generator thereby generating an electric current.
Rubidium, particularly 87Rb, in the form of vapor, is one of the most commonly used atomic
species employed for laser cooling and Bose-Einstein condensation. Its desirable features
for this application include the ready availability of inexpensive diode laser light at the
relevant wavelength, and the moderate temperatures required to obtain substantial vapor
pressures.
Rubidium has been used for polarizing 3He (that is, producing volumes of magnetized 3He
gas, with the nuclear spins aligned toward a particular direction in space, rather than
randomly). Rubidium vapor is optically pumped by a laser and the polarized Rb polarizes
3
He by the hyperfine interaction.[7] Spin-polarized 3He cells are becoming popular for
neutron polarization measurements and for producing polarized neutron beams for other
purposes.[8]
Rubidium is the primary compound used in secondary frequency references (Rubidium
Oscillators) to maintain frequency accuracy in cell site transmitters and other electronic
Rubidium 5
transmitting, networking and test equipment. Rubidium references are often used with GPS
to produce a "Primary Frequency Standard" that has greater accuracy but is less expensive
than Cesium standards. Rubidium references such as the LPRO series from Datum were
mass-produced for the Telecom industry and are now selling for under one hundred dollars
on the secondary market. The general life expectancy is 10 years or better for most
designs.
Other potential or current uses of rubidium include:
• A working fluid in vapor turbines.
• A getter in vacuum tubes.
• A photocell component.
• The resonant element in atomic clocks. This is due to the hyperfine structure of
rubidium's energy levels.
• An ingredient in special types of glass.
• The production of superoxide by burning in oxygen.
• The study of potassium ion channels in biology.
• Rubidium is used to locate brain tumours, due to its slight radioactivity. [9]
• Rubidium vapor has been used to make atomic magnetometers. 87Rb is currently being
used, with other alkali metals, in the development of spin-exchange relaxation-free
(SERF) magnetometers.[10]
Compounds
Rubidium chloride is probably the most-used rubidium compound; it is used in biochemistry
to induce cells to take up DNA, and as a biomarker since it is readily taken up to replace
potassium, and does not normally occur in living organisms. Rubidium hydroxide is the
starting material for most rubidium-based chemical processes; rubidium carbonate is used
in some optical glasses.
Rubidium has a number of oxides, including Rb6O and Rb9O2 which appear if rubidium
metal is left exposed to air; the final product of reacting with oxygen is the superoxide
RbO2. Rubidium forms salts with most anions. Some common rubidium compounds are
rubidium chloride (RbCl), rubidium monoxide (Rb2O) and rubidium copper sulfate
Rb2SO4·CuSO4·6H2O). A compound of rubidium, silver and iodine, RbAg4I5, has interesting
electrical characteristics and might be useful in thin film batteries.[11]
Precautions
Rubidium reacts violently with water and can cause fires. To ensure both health and safety
and purity, this element must be kept under a dry mineral oil, and in practice is usually
sealed in glass ampules in an inert atmosphere. Rubidium forms peroxides on exposure to
even air diffusing into oil, and is thus subject to some of the same peroxide precautions as
storage of metallic potassium.
Rubidium 6
Biological effects
Rubidium, like sodium and potassium, is almost always in its +1 oxidation state when
dissolved in water, and this includes all biological systems. The human body tends to treat
Rb+ ions as if they were potassium ions, and therefore concentrates rubidium in the body's
intracellular fluid (i.e., inside cells). The ions are not particularly toxic, and are relatively
quickly removed in the sweat and urine. As a result of changes in the blood brain barrier in
brain tumors, rubidium collects more in brain tumors than normal brain tissue, allowing
short-lived radioisotopes of rubidium to be used in nuclear medicine to locate and image
brain tumors.
Sources
[12]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory – Rubidium
• Louis Meites, Handbook of Analytical Chemistry (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1963)
• Daniel A. Steck. "Rubidium-87 D Line Data [13]". Los Alamos National Laboratory
(technical report LA-UR-03-8638). http:/ / george. ph. utexas. edu/ ~dsteck/ alkalidata/
rubidium87numbers. pdf.
External links
[14]
• WebElements.com – Rubidium
References
[2] G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen (1861). "Chemische Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen". Annalen der Physik und
Chemie 189 (7): 337–381. doi: 10.1002/andp.18611890702 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ andp. 18611890702).
[3] http:/ / www. rsc. org/ chemsoc/ visualelements/ pages/ data/ rubidium_data. html
[4] " Bose-Einstein Condensation (http:/ / www. bookrags. com/ BoseâEinstein_condensate)". World of Physics
on Bose-Einstein Condensation. BookRags. . Retrieved 2008-01-26.
[5] Levi, Barbara Goss (2001). " Cornell, Ketterle, and Wieman Share Nobel Prize for Bose-Einstein Condensates
(http:/ / www. physicstoday. org/ pt/ vol-54/ iss-12/ p14. html)". Search & Discovery. Physics Today online. .
[6] Bradley, J. N.; Greene, P. D. (1967). "Relationship of structure and ionic mobility in solid MAg4I5". Trans.
Faraday Soc. 63: 2516. doi: 10.1039/TF9676302516 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ TF9676302516).
[7] Gentile, T.R. et al.. " Polarized 3He spin filters for slow neutron physics (http:/ / nvl. nist. gov/ pub/ nistpubs/
jres/ 110/ 3/ j110-3gen. pdf)". Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 100:
299. .
[8] " Neutron spin filters based on polarized helium-3 (http:/ / www. ncnr. nist. gov/ AnnualReport/ FY2002_html/
pages/ neutron_spin. htm)". NIST Center for Neutron Research 2002 Annual Report. .
[9] http:/ / www. rsc. org/ chemsoc/ visualelements/ pages/ data/ rubidium_data. html
[10] Li, Zhimin et al. (2006). " Parametric modulation of an atomic magnetometer (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/
getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=APPLAB000089000013134105000001& idtype=cvips&
gifs=yes)". Applied Physics Letters 89: 134105. doi: 10.1063/1.2357553 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1.
2357553). .
[11] Smart, Lesley; Moore, Elaine (1995). " RbAg4I5 (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=pVw98i6gtwMC&
pg=PA176)". Solid state chemistry: an introduction. CRC Press. pp. 176–177. ISBN 9780748740680. .
[13] http:/ / george. ph. utexas. edu/ ~dsteck/ alkalidata/ rubidium87numbers. pdf
[14] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Rb/ index. html

Rubidium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=306311243 Contributors: 65.68.87.xxx, A2Kafir, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Andre
Engels, AndreasJS, Andres, Anwar saadat, Archimerged, Ariel Pontes, Arkania, Arkuat, Beatnikbob, Benbest, Bender235, BlueEarth, Bobo192,
Bogdangiusca, Bonzostar, Bryan Derksen, CRGreathouse, CYD, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, Carnildo, Celtic-Boy-007, ChicXulub,
Colbuckshot, Conversion script, Cosmium, Dajagr, Darrien, David Latapie, Dead3y3, Deglr6328, Delta G, Derek Ross, Discospinster, Dnn87, Doktor,
Donarreiskoffer, DrBob, E rulez, Edgar181, El C, Elendil's Heir, Ellmist, Emperorbma, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Erik Zachte, Exmophead, Femto, Fivemack,
Fizzy, Flewis, Fonzy, Foonly, Gail, Gbr3, Gcsuchemistry, Giftlite, GorillaWarfare, Grendelkhan, Hadal, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Heron, IRKAIN, Icairns, Ideyal, It Is
Me Here, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JForget, Jamesbateman, Jaraalbe, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Jeronimo, John, John254, Jose77, Karl-Henner, Karlhahn, Katalaveno,
Khargas, Kindt, Kingpin13, Kwamikagami, LAX, LeaveSleaves, Lectonar, Levil, Lindmere, Llamadog903, Loict, LuigiManiac, Luk, Mako098765, Malbi,
Malcolm Farmer, Martarius, Mav, Mervyn, Mgimpel, Minesweeper, Mr0t1633, Munboy, NFreak007, Natalie Erin, Nergaal, Nihiltres, Nikai, Omegatron,
Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Plexust, Polonium, Poolkris, Poopy45, Pras, Quadell, Quercus basaseachicensis, RJF19, RJaguar3, RTC, Rambam rashi,
Rd232, Red King, Remember, Riana, Romanm, Rsocol, Saperaud, Sbharris, Schneelocke, Sengkang, Shirulashem, SimonP, Sinneed, Sirex98, Skatebiker,
Sl, Smalljim, Squids and Chips, Srtxg, Srushe, Stan J Klimas, StaticGull, Stifynsemons, Stone, Sunborn, Svante, Synchronism, Tagishsimon, Tantalate,
Tapir Terrific, Tarquin, Tempodivalse, Thingg, Thricecube, Tim Starling, Timeineurope, Toddst1, Tresiden, UkPaolo, Utcursch, UtherSRG, Van helsing,
Velvetron, Versus22, Vsmith, Vuo, Vuong Ngan Ha, Whosasking, Whydoyoucarewhatmynameis, Wilbern Cobb, Wimt, Yekrats, YukoValis, Zara1709, 308
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License
Strontium 1
Strontium
38 rubidium ← strontium → yttrium

Ca
↑
Sr
↓
Ba

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number strontium, Sr, 38
Element category alkaline earth metals

−1
Electron configuration [Kr] 5s

2
Physical properties
Phase solid
Melting point 1050 K

(777 °C, 1431 °F)

(1382 °C, 2520 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 796 882 990 1139 1345 1646
Atomic properties
Strontium 2

2, 1

(more)
2nd: 1064.2 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 4138 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Poisson ratio 0.28
Mohs hardness 1.5
Main article: Isotopes of strontium

82
Sr syn 25.36 d ε - 82
Rb
83
Sr syn 1.35 d ε - 83
Rb
β+ 1.23 83
Rb
γ 0.76, 0.36 -
84
Sr 0.56% 84
Sr is stable with 46 neutron
85
Sr syn 64.84 d ε - 85
Rb
γ 0.514D -
86
Sr 9.86% 86
87
Sr 7.0% 87
88
Sr 82.58% 88
89
Sr syn 50.52 d ε 1.49 89
Rb
β− 0.909D 89
Y
90
Sr syn 28.90 y β− 0.546 90
Y
Strontium 3
References
Strontium (pronounced /ˈstrɒnʃiəm/, /ˈstrɒntiəm/, or /ˈstrɒnʃəm/) is a chemical element

with the symbol Sr and the atomic number 38. An alkaline earth metal, strontium is a soft
silver-white or yellowish metallic element that is highly reactive chemically. The metal
turns yellow when exposed to air. It occurs naturally in the minerals celestine and
strontianite. The 90Sr isotope is present in radioactive fallout and has a half-life of 28.90
years. Both strontium and strontianite are named after Strontian, a village in Scotland near
which the mineral was first discovered.
Characteristics
Due to its extreme reactivity with oxygen and water,
this element occurs naturally only in compounds with
other elements, as in the minerals strontianite and
celestite.
Strontium is a grey/silvery metal that is softer than
calcium and even more reactive in water, with which
strontium reacts on contact to produce strontium
hydroxide and hydrogen gas. It burns in air to produce
both strontium oxide and strontium nitride, but since it
does not react with nitrogen below 380°C it will only
form the oxide spontaneously at room temperature. It
should be kept under kerosene to prevent oxidation;
freshly exposed strontium metal rapidly turns a
yellowish color with the formation of the oxide. Finely
powdered strontium metal will ignite spontaneously in
Dendritic oxidized strontium
air at room temperature. Volatile strontium salts impart
a crimson color to flames, and these salts are used in
pyrotechnics and in the production of flares. Natural strontium is a mixture of four
radiostable isotopes.
Compounds
• Ferrite magnets and refining zinc.
• Strontium titanate has an extremely high refractive index and an optical dispersion
greater than that of diamond, making it useful in a variety of optics applications. This
quality has also led to it being cut into gemstones, in particular as a diamond simulant.
However, it is very soft and easily scratches so it is rarely used.
• Strontium carbonate, strontium nitrate, and strontium sulfate are commonly used in
fireworks for red color.
• Strontium aluminate is used as a bright phosphor with long persistence of
phosphorescence.
• Strontium chloride is sometimes used in toothpastes for sensitive teeth. One popular
brand includes 10% total strontium chloride hexahydrate by weight.
• Strontium oxide is sometimes used to improve the quality of some pottery glazes.
Strontium 4
• Strontium ranelate is used in the treatment of osteoporosis. It is a prescription drug in

the EU, but not in the USA.
• Strontium barium niobate is used in large scale outdoors Holgraphic displays as a
"screen". When projected with blue laser light images are 3-D and very realistic.
Isotopes
Strontium has four stable, naturally occurring isotopes: 84Sr (0.56%), 86Sr (9.86%), 87Sr
(7.0%) and 88Sr (82.58%). Only 87Sr is radiogenic; it is produced by decay from the
radioactive alkali metal 87Rb, which has a half-life of 4.88 × 1010 years. Thus, there are two
sources of 87Sr in any material: that formed in stars along with 84Sr, 86Sr and 88Sr, as well
as that formed by radioactive decay of 87Rb. The ratio 87Sr/86Sr is the parameter typically
reported in geologic investigations; ratios in minerals and rocks have values ranging from
about 0.7 to greater than 4.0. Because strontium has an atomic radius similar to that of
calcium, it readily substitutes for Ca in minerals.
90
Sixteen unstable isotopes are known to exist. Of greatest importance are Sr with a
half-life of 28.78 years and 89Sr with a half-life of 50.5 days.
90
• Sr is a by-product of nuclear fission which is found in nuclear fallout and presents a
health problem since it substitutes for calcium in bone, preventing expulsion from the
body. This isotope is one of the best long-lived high-energy beta emitters known, and is
used in SNAP (Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power) devices. These devices hold promise
for use in spacecraft, remote weather stations, navigational buoys, etc, where a
lightweight, long-lived, nuclear-electric power source is required. The 1986 Chernobyl
nuclear accident contaminated a vast area with 90Sr. 90Sr confined inside a concave
silver plaque is also used for the medical treatment of a resected pterygium.
• 89Sr is a short-lived artificial radioisotope which is used in the treatment of bone cancer.
In circumstances where cancer patients have widespread and painful bony metastases
(secondaries), the administration of 89Sr results in the delivery of radioactive emissions
(beta particles in this case) directly to the area of bony problem (where calcium turnover
is greatest). The 89Sr is manufactured as the chloride salt (which is soluble), and when
dissolved in normal saline can be injected intravenously. Typically, cancer patients will
be treated with a dose of 150 MBq. The patient needs to take precautions following this
because their urine becomes contaminated with radioactivity, so they need to sit to
urinate and double flush the toilet. The beta particles travel about 3.5mm in bone (energy
0.583 MeV) and 6.5mm in tissue, so there is no requirement to isolate patients who have
been treated except to say they should not have any one (especially young children)
sitting in their laps for 10-40 days. The variation in time results from the variable
clearing time for 89Sr which depends on renal function and the number of bony
metastases. With a lot of bony metastases, the entire 89Sr dose can be taken up into bone
and so the entire radioactivity is retained to decay over a 50.5 day half-life. However,
where there are few bony metastases, the large proportion of 89Sr not taken up by the
bone will be filtered by the kidney, so that the effective half-life (a combination of the
physical and biological half-life) will be much shorter.
Strontium 5
History
The mineral strontianite is named after the Scottish village of Strontian, having been
discovered in the lead mines there in 1787.[2] Adair Crawford recognized it as differing
from other barium minerals in 1790. Strontium itself was discovered in 1798 by Thomas
Charles Hope, and metallic strontium was first isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808 using
electrolysis of a mixture containing strontium chloride and mercuric oxide and announced
by him in a lecture to the Royal Society on 30 June 1808[3] .
Occurrence
According to the British Geological Survey, China was
the top producer of strontium in 2007, with over
two-thirds world share, followed by Spain and
Mexico.[4]
Strontium commonly occurs in nature, the 15th most
Strontium output in 2005 abundant element on earth, averaging 0.034% of all
igneous rock and is found chiefly as the form of the
sulfate mineral celestite (SrSO4) and the carbonate strontianite (SrCO3). Of the two,
celestite occurs much more frequently in sedimentary deposits of sufficient size to make
development of mining facilities attractive. Strontianite would be the more useful of the two
common minerals because strontium is used most often in the carbonate form, but few
deposits have been discovered that are suitable for development.[5] The metal can be
prepared by electrolysis of melted strontium chloride mixed with potassium chloride:
Sr2+ + 2 e− → Sr
2 Cl− → Cl2 (g) + 2 e−
Alternatively it is made by reducing strontium oxide with aluminium in a vacuum at a
temperature at which strontium distills off. Three allotropes of the metal exist, with
transition points at 235 and 540 °C. The largest commercially exploited deposits are found
in England.
Applications
As a pure metal strontium is used in strontium 90%-aluminium 10% alloys of an eutectic
composition for the modification of aluminium-silicon casting alloys.[6] The primary use for
strontium compounds is in glass for colour television cathode ray tubes to prevent X-ray
emission.[7] [8]
Other uses:
89
• Sr is the active ingredient in Metastron, a radiopharmaceutical used for bone pain
secondary to metastatic bone cancer. The strontium acts like calcium and is
preferentially incorporated into bone at sites of increased osteogenesis. This localization
focuses the radiation exposure on the cancerous lesion.
90
• Sr has been used as a power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs).
90
Sr produces about 0.93 watts of heat per gram (it is lower for the grade of 90Sr used in
RTGs, which is strontium fluoride).[9] However, 90Sr has a lifetime approximately 3 times
shorter and has a lower density than 238Pu, another RTG fuel. The main advantage of
90
Sr is that it is cheaper than 238Pu and is found in nuclear waste.
Strontium 6
90
• Sr is also used in cancer therapy. Its beta emission and long half-life is ideal for
superficial radiotherapy.
• Strontium is one of the constituents of AJ62 alloy, a durable magnesium alloy used in car
and motorcycle engines by BMW.
• Since Strontium is so similar to calcium, it is incorporated in the bone. All four isotopes
are incorporated, in roughly similar proportions as they are found in nature (please see
below). However the actual distribution of the isotopes tends to vary greatly from one
geographical location to another. Thus analyzing the bone of an individual can help
determine the region it came from. This approach helps to identify the ancient migration
patterns as well as the origin of commingled human remains in battlefield burial sites.
Strontium thus helps forensic scientists too.
• Strontium is used in studies of neurotransmitter release in neurons. Like calcium,
strontium facilitates synaptic vesicle fusion with the synaptic membrane. But unlike
calcium, strontium causes asynchronous vesicle fusion. Therefore, replacing calcium in
the culture medium with strontium allows scientists to measure the effects of a single
vesicle fusion event, e.g., the size of the postsynaptic response elicited by the
neurotransmitter content of a single vesicle.[10] [11]
87
Sr/86Sr ratios are commonly used to determine the likely provenance areas of sediment in
natural systems, especially in marine and fluvial environments. Dasch (1969) showed that
surface sediments of Atlantic displayed 87Sr/86Sr ratios that could be regarded as bulk
averages of the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of geological terranes from adjacent landmasses.[12] A good
example of a fluvial-marine system to which Sr isotope provenance studies have been
successfully employed is the River Nile-Mediterranean system [13] [14] [15] . Due to the
differing ages of the rocks that constitute the majority of the Blue and White Nile
catchment areas of the changing provenance of sediment reaching the River Nile delta and
East Mediterranean Sea can be discerned through Sr isotopic studies. Such changes are
climatically controlled in the Late Quaternary.
More recently, 87Sr/86Sr ratios have also been used to determine the source of ancient
archaeological materials such as timbers and corn in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico[16] [17] .
87
Sr/86Sr ratios in teeth may also be used to track animal migrations [18] [19] or in criminal
forensics.
Strontium atoms are used in an experimental atomic clock with record-setting accuracy.[20]
Effect on the human body

The human body absorbs strontium as if it were calcium. Due to the elements being
sufficiently similar chemically, the stable forms of strontium might not pose a significant
health threat -- in fact, the levels found naturally may actually be beneficial (see below) --
but the radioactive 90Sr can lead to various bone disorders and diseases, including bone
cancer. The strontium unit is used in measuring radioactivity from absorbed 90Sr.
A recent in-vitro study conducted the NY College of Dental Sciences using strontium on
osteoblasts showed marked improvement on bone-building osteoblasts.[21]
An innovative drug made by combining strontium with ranelic acid has aided in bone
growth, boosted bone density and lessened vertebral, peripheral and hip fractures.[22] [23]
Women receiving the drug showed a 12.7% increase in bone density. Women receiving a
placebo had a 1.6% decrease. Half the increase in bone density (measured by x-ray
Strontium 7
densitometry) is attributed to the higher atomic weight of Sr compared with calcium,

whereas the other half a true increase in bone mass.
Strontium ranelate is registered as a prescription drug in Europe and many countries
worldwide. It needs to be prescribed by a doctor, delivered by a pharmacist, and requires
strict medical supervision. Currently (early 2007), it is not available in Canada or the
United States.
Several other salts of strontium such as strontium citrate or strontium carbonate are often
presented as natural therapies and sold at a dose that is several hundred times higher than
the usual strontium intake. Despite the lack of strontium deficit referenced in the medical
literature and the lack of information about possible toxicity of strontium supplementation,
such compounds can still be sold in the United States under the Dietary Supplements
Health and Education Act of 1994. Their long-term safety and efficacy have never been
evaluated on humans using large-scale medical trials.
References
[1] P. Colarusso et al. (1996). " High-Resolution Infrared Emission Spectrum of Strontium Monofluoride (http:/ /
bernath. uwaterloo. ca/ media/ 149. pdf)". J. Molecular Spectroscopy 175: 158. .
[2] Murray, W.H. (1977). The Companion Guide to the West Highlands of Scotland. London: Collins.
[3] " Strontian gets set for anniversary (http:/ / www. lochaber-news. co. uk/ news/ fullstory. php/ aid/ 2644/
Strontian_gets_set_for_anniversary. html)". Lochaber News. 19th June 2008. .
[4] British Geological Survey (2009). World mineral production 2003–07 (http:/ / www. bgs. ac. uk/ mineralsuk/
downloads/ wmp_2003_2007. pdf). Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey. ISBN 978-0-85272-639-6.
. Retrieved April 6, 2009.
[5] Ober, Joyce A.. " Mineral Comodity Summaries 2008: Strontium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/
commodity/ strontium/ mcs-2008-stron. pdf)" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-10-14.
[6] " Aluminium – Silicon Alloys : Strontium Master Alloys for Fast Al-Si Alloy Modification from Metallurg
Aluminium (http:/ / www. azom. com/ Details. asp?ArticleID=3353)". AZo Journal of Materials Online. .
[7] " Cathode Ray Tube Glass-To-Glass Recycling (http:/ / yosemite. epa. gov/ ee/ epa/ riafile. nsf/ vwAN/ S99-23.
pdf)" (PDF). ICF Incorporated, USEP Agency. . Retrieved 2008-10-14.
[8] Ober, Joyce A.; Polyak, Désirée E.. " Mineral Yearbook 2007: Strontium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/
pubs/ commodity/ strontium/ myb1-2007-stron. pdf)" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved
2008-10-14.
[9] " What are the fuels for radioisotope thermoelectric generators? (http:/ / www. qrg. northwestern. edu/
projects/ vss/ docs/ Power/ 3-what-are-the-fuels-for-rtgs. html)". .
[10] Miledi, R. (1966). "Strontium as a Substitute for Calcium in the Process of Transmitter Release at the
Neuromuscular Junction". Nature 212: 1233. doi: 10.1038/2121233a0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/
2121233a0).
[11] Hagler D.J., Jr, Goda Y. (2001). "Properties of synchronous and asynchronous release during pulse train
depression in cultured hippocampal neurons". J. Neurophysiol. 85: 2324.
[12] Dasch, J. (1969). "Strontium isotopes in weathering profiles, deep-sea sediments, and sedimentary rocks".
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 33 (12): 1521-1552. doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(69)90153-7 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1016/ 0016-7037(69)90153-7).
[13] Krom, M. et al. (1999). "The characterisation of Saharan dusts and Nile particulate matter in surface
sediments from the Levantine basin using Sr isotopes". Marine Geology 155 (3-4): 319-330. doi:
10.1016/S0025-3227(98)00130-3 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0025-3227(98)00130-3).
[14] Krom, M. D. et al. (2002). "Nile River sediment fluctuations over the past 7000 yr and their key role in
sapropel development". Geology 30 (1): 71-74. doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0071:NRSFOT>2.0.CO;2
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1130/ 0091-7613(2002)030<0071:NRSFOT>2. 0. CO;2).
[15] Talbot, M. R. et al. (2000). "Strontium isotope evidence for late Pleistocene reestablishment of an integrated
Nile drainage network". Geology 28 (4): 343-346. doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<343:SIEFLP>2.0.CO;2
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1130/ 0091-7613(2000)28<343:SIEFLP>2. 0. CO;2).
[16] Benson, L., Cordell, L., Vincent, K., Taylor, H., Stein, J., Farmer, G., and Kiyoto, F. (2003). "Ancient maize
from Chacoan great houses: where was it grown?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 (22):
Strontium 8
13111-13115. doi: 10.1073pnas.2135068100 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1073pnas. 2135068100).
[17] English NB, Betancourt JL, Dean JS, Quade J. (2001). " Strontium isotopes reveal distant sources of
architectural timber in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long&
pmid=11572943)". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98 (21): 11891-6. doi: 10.1073/pnas.211305498 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1073/ pnas. 211305498). PMID 11572943. .
[18] Barnett-Johnson, Rachel (2007). "Identifying the contribution of wild and hatchery Chinook salmon
(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) to the ocean fishery using otolith microstructure as natural tags". Canadian
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 64 (12): 1683-1692. doi: 10.1139/F07-129 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1139/ F07-129).
[19] Porder, S., Paytan, A., and E.A. Hadly (2003). "Mapping the origin of faunal assemblages using strontium
isotopes". Paleobiology 29 (2): 197-204. doi: 10.1666/0094-8373(2003)029<0197:MTOOFA>2.0.CO;2 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1666/ 0094-8373(2003)029<0197:MTOOFA>2. 0. CO;2).
[20] . doi: 10.1126/science.1153341 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1126/ science. 1153341).
[21] " The Effects of Strontium Citrate on Osteoblast Proliferation and Differentiation (http:/ / iadr. confex. com/
iadr/ 2007orleans/ techprogram/ abstract_89231. htm)". . Retrieved 2009-07-07.
[22] Meunier PJ, Roux C, Seeman E et al. (2004). "effects of strontium ranelate on the risk of vertebral fracture in
women with postmenopausal osteoporosis.". New England Journal of Medicine 350: 459–468. doi:
10.1056/NEJMoa022436 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1056/ NEJMoa022436). PMID 14749454.
[23] Reginster JY, Seeman E, De Vernejoul MC et al. (2005). "Strontium ranelate reduces the risk of nonvertebral
fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: treatment of peripheral osteoporosis (TROPOS) study". J
Clin Metab. 90: 2816–2822. doi: 10.1210/jc.2004-1774 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1210/ jc. 2004-1774). PMID
15728210.

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License
Yttrium 1
Yttrium
39 strontium ← yttrium → zirconium

Sc
↑
Y
↓
Lu

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number yttrium, Y, 39
Element category transition metals
Group, Period, Block 3, 5, d

−1
Electron configuration [Kr] 4d 5s

1 2
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 4.472 g·cm

−3

(1526 °C, 2779 °F)

(3336 °C, 6037 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1883 2075 (2320) (2627) (3036) (3607)
Atomic properties

Yttrium 2
Oxidation states 3, 2, 1

(more)
2nd: 1180 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 1980 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (r.t.) (α, poly) 596 nΩ·m

−1
·K
−1
Thermal expansion (r.t.) (α, poly)

10.6 µm/(m·K)
Poisson ratio 0.243
Main article: Isotopes of yttrium

87
Y syn 3.35 d ε - 87
Sr
γ 0.48, 0.38D -
88
Y syn 106.6 d ε - 88
Sr
γ 1.83, 0.89 -
89
Y 100% 89
Y is stable with 50 neutron
90
Y syn 2.67 d β− 2.28 90
Zr
γ 2.18 -
91
Y syn 58.5 d β− 1.54 91
Zr
γ 1.20 -
References
Yttrium (pronounced /ˈɪtriəm/) is a chemical element with symbol Y and atomic number 39.
It is a silvery-metallic transition metal chemically similar to the lanthanoids and has
historically been classified as a rare earth element.[2] Yttrium is almost always found
Yttrium 3
combined with the lanthanoids in rare earth minerals and is never found in nature as a free
element. Its only stable isotope, 89Y, is also its only naturally occurring isotope.
In 1787, Carl Axel Arrhenius found a new mineral near Ytterby in Sweden and named it
ytterbite, after the village. Johan Gadolin discovered yttrium's oxide in Arrhenius' sample in
1789,[3] and Anders Gustaf Ekeberg named the new oxide yttria. Elemental yttrium was
first isolated in 1828 by Friedrich Wöhler.[4]
The most important use of yttrium is in making phosphors, such as the red ones used in
television cathode ray tube displays and in LEDs.[5] Other uses include the production of
electrodes, electrolytes, electronic filters, lasers and superconductors; various medical
applications; and as traces in various materials to enhance their properties. Yttrium has no
known biological role, but exposure to yttrium compounds can cause lung disease in
humans.[6]
Characteristics
Properties
Yttrium is a soft, silver-metallic, lustrous and highly crystalline transition metal in group 3.
As expected by periodic trends, it is less electronegative than its predecessor in the group,
scandium, more electronegative than its successor in the group, lanthanum, and less
electronegative than the next member of period 5, zirconium.[7] [8] Yttrium is the first
d-block element in the fifth period.
The pure element is relatively stable in air in bulk form, due to passivation resulting from
the formation of a protective oxide (Y2O3) film on its surface. This film can reach a
thickness of 10 µm when yttrium is heated to 750 °C in water vapor.[9] When finely divided,
however, yttrium is very unstable in air; shavings or turnings of the metal can ignite in air
at temperatures exceeding 400 °C. [4] Yttrium nitride (YN) is formed when the metal is
heated to 1000 °C in nitrogen.[9]
Similarity to the lanthanoids

The similarities of yttrium to the lanthanoids are so strong that the element has historically
been grouped with them as a rare earth element,[2] and is always found in nature together
with them in rare earth minerals.[10]
Chemically, yttrium resembles these elements more closely than its neighbor in the periodic
table, scandium,[11] and if its physical properties were plotted against atomic number then
it would have an apparent number of 64.5 to 67.5, placing it between the lanthanoids
gadolinium and erbium.[12]
It often also falls in the same range for reaction order,[9] resembling terbium and
dysprosium at its chemical reactivity.[5] Yttrium is so close in size to the so-called 'Yttrium
group' of heavy lanthanoid ions that in solution, it behaves as if it were one of them.[9] [13]
Even though the lanthanoids are one row farther down the periodic table than yttrium, the
similarity in atomic radius may be attributed to the lanthanoid contraction.[14]
One of the few notable differences between the chemistry of yttrium and that of the
lanthanoids is that yttrium is almost exclusively trivalent, whereas about half of the
lanthanoids can have valences other than three.[9]
Yttrium 4
Compounds and reactions

As a trivalent transition metal, yttrium forms various inorganic compounds, generally in the
oxidation state of +3, by giving up all three of its valence electrons.[15] A good example is
yttrium(III) oxide (Y2O3), also known as yttria, a six-coordinate white solid.[16]
Yttrium forms a water-insoluble fluoride, hydroxide, and oxalate, but its bromide, chloride,
iodide, nitrate and sulfate are all soluble in water.[9] The Y3+ ion is colorless in solution
because of the absence of d and f electron shells.[9]
Water readily reacts with yttrium and its compounds to form hydrogen gas and Y2O3.[10]
Concentrated nitric and hydrofluoric acids do not rapidly attack yttrium, but other strong
acids do.[9]
With halogens, yttrium forms trihalides such as yttrium(III) fluoride (YF3), yttrium(III)
chloride (YCl3), and yttrium(III) bromide (YBr3) at temperatures above roughly 200 °C.[6]
Similarly, carbon, phosphorus, selenium, silicon and sulfur all form binary compounds with
yttrium at elevated temperatures.[9]
Organoyttrium chemistry is the study of compounds containing carbon–yttrium bonds. A
few of these are known to have yttrium in the oxidation state 0.[17] [18] (The +2 state has
been observed in chloride melts,[19] and +1 in oxide clusters in the gas phase.[20] ) Some
trimerization reactions were observed by using organoyttrium compounds as catalysts.[18]
These compounds use YCl3 as a starting material, which in turn is obtained from Y2O3 and
concentrated hydrochloric acid and ammonium chloride.[21] [22]
Hapticity is how a group of contiguous atoms of a ligand are coordinated to a central atom;
it is indicated by the Greek character eta, η. Yttrium complexes were the first examples of
complexes where carboranyl ligands were bound to a d0-metal center through a
η7-hapticity.[18] Vaporization of the graphite intercalation compounds graphite–Y or
graphite–Y2O3 leads to the formation of endohedral fullerenes such as Y@C82.[5] Electron
spin resonance studies indicated the formation of Y3+ and (C82)3− ion pairs.[5] The carbides
Y3C, Y2C, and YC2 can each hydrolyze to form hydrocarbons.[9]
Yttrium 5
Nucleosynthesis and isotopes

Yttrium in the Solar System was created through stellar nucleosynthesis, mostly by the
s-process (≈72%), but also by the r-process (≈28%).[23] The r-process consists of rapid
neutron capture of lighter elements during supernova explosions. The s-process is a slow
neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating red giant stars.[24]
Yttrium isotopes are among the most common products
of the nuclear fission of uranium occurring in nuclear
explosions and nuclear reactors. In terms of waste
management, the most important yttrium isotopes are
91
Y and 90Y, with half-lives of 58.51 days and 64 hours,
respectively.[25] The first is formed directly from fission,
while the latter, despite its short half-life, is in secular
equilibrium with its long-lived parent isotope,
strontium-90 (90Sr) with a half-life of 29 years.[4]
All group 3 elements have an odd number of protons

and therefore have few stable isotopes.[7] Yttrium itself
has only one stable isotope, 89Y, which is also its only Mira is an example of the type of red
89 giant star where most of the yttrium in
naturally occurring one. Y is thought to be more
the solar system was created.
abundant than it otherwise would be, due in part to the
s-process which allows enough time for isotopes
created by other processes to decay by electron emission (neutron → proton).[24] [26] Such a
slow process tends to favor isotopes with mass numbers (A = protons + neutrons) around
90, 138 and 208, which have unusually stable atomic nuclei with 50, 82 and 126 neutrons,
respectively.[24] [27] [4] 89Y has a mass number close to 90 and has 50 neutrons in its
nucleus.
At least 32 synthetic isotopes of yttrium have been observed, ranging in mass number from
76 to 108.[25] The least stable of these is 106Y with a half-life of >150 ns (76Y has a half-life
of >200 ns) and the most stable is 88Y with a half-life of 106.626 days.[25] Besides the
isotopes 91Y, 87Y, and 90Y, with half lives of 58.51 days, 79.8 hours, and 64 hours,
respectively, all the other isotopes have half lives of less than a day and most of those have
half-lives of less than an hour.[25]
Yttrium isotopes with mass numbers at or below 88 decay primarily by positron emission
(proton → neutron) to form strontium (Z = 38) isotopes.[25] Yttrium isotopes with mass
numbers at or above 90 decay primarily by electron emission (neutron → proton) to form
zirconium (Z = 40) isotopes.[25] Isotopes with mass numbers at or above 97 are also known
to have minor decay paths of β− delayed neutron emission.[28]
Yttrium has at least 20 metastable or excited isomers ranging in mass number from 78 to
102.[25] [29] Multiple excitation states have been observed for 80Y and 97Y.[25] While most of
yttrium's isomers are expected to be less stable than their ground state, 78mY, 84mY, 85mY,
96m
Y, 98m1Y, 100mY, and 102mY have longer half-lives than their ground states, as these
isomers decay by beta decay rather than isomeric transition.[28]
Yttrium 6
History
In 1787, army lieutenant and part-time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black
rock in an old quarry near the Swedish village of Ytterby (now part of the Stockholm
Archipelago).[3] Thinking that it was an unknown mineral containing the newly discovered
element tungsten,[30] he named it ytterbite[31] and sent samples to various chemists for
further analysis.[3]
Johan Gadolin at the University of Åbo identified a new oxide
or "earth" in Arrhenius' sample in 1789, and published his
completed analysis in 1794.[32] [33] Anders Gustaf Ekeberg
confirmed this in 1797 and named the new oxide yttria.[34] In
the decades after Antoine Lavoisier developed the first
modern definition of chemical elements, it was believed that
earths could be reduced to their elements, meaning that the
discovery of a new earth was equivalent to the discovery of
the element within, which in this case would have been
yttrium.[35]
In 1843, Carl Gustav Mosander found that samples of yttria

Johan Gadolin discovered actually contained three oxides: white yttrium oxide (yttria),
yttrium oxide. yellow terbium oxide (confusingly, this was called 'erbia' at
the time) and rose-colored erbium oxide (called 'terbia' at the
time).[36] A fourth oxide, ytterbium oxide, was isolated in 1878 by Jean Charles Galissard de
Marignac.[37] New elements would later be isolated from each of those oxides, and each
element was named, in some fashion, after Ytterby, the village near the quarry in which
they were found (see ytterbium, terbium, and erbium).[38] In the following decades, seven
other new metals were discovered in "Gadolin's yttria".[3] Since yttria was a mineral after
all and not an oxide, Martin Heinrich Klaproth renamed it gadolinite in honor of Gadolin.[3]
Yttrium metal was first isolated in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler heated anhydrous
yttrium(III) chloride with potassium:[39] [40]
YCl3 + 3 K → 3 KCl + Y
Until the early 1920s, the chemical symbol Yt was used for the element, after which Y came
into common use.[41]
In 1987, yttrium barium copper oxide was found to achieve high-temperature
superconductivity.[42] It was only the second material known to exhibit this property,[42]
and it was the first known material to achieve superconductivity above the (economically
important) boiling point of nitrogen.[43]
Yttrium 7
Occurrence
Abundance
Yttrium is found in most rare earth minerals,[8] as
well as some uranium ores, but is never found in
nature as a free element.[44] About 31 ppm of the
Earth's crust is yttrium,[5] making it the 28th most
abundant element there, and 400 times more
common than silver.[45] Yttrium is found in soil in
concentrations between 10 and 150 ppm (dry
weight average of 23 ppm) and in sea water at
9 ppt.[45] Lunar rock samples collected during the
Apollo program have a relatively high yttrium
content.[38]
Xenotime crystals contain yttrium.
Yttrium has no known biological role, though it is
found in most, if not all, organisms and tends to
concentrate in the liver, kidney, spleen, lungs, and bones of humans.[46] There is normally
as little as 0.5 milligrams found within the entire human body; human breast milk contains
4 ppm.[47] Yttrium can be found in edible plants in concentrations between 20 ppm and
100 ppm (fresh weight), with cabbage having the largest amount.[47] With up to 700 ppm,
the seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations.[47]
Production
The chemical similarity of yttrium with the lanthanoids leads it to being enriched by the
same processes and ends up in ores containing lanthanoids, forming rare earth minerals. A
slight separation is recognized between the light (LREE) and the heavy rare earth elements
(HREE) but this separation is never complete. Yttrium is concentrated in the HREE group
even though it has a lower atomic mass.[48] [49]
Yttrium 8
There are four main sources for REEs:[50]

• Carbonate and fluoride containing ores such as
the LREE bastnäsite ([(Ce, La, etc.)(CO3)F])
contain an average of 0.1%[4] [48] of yttrium
compared to the 99.9% for the 16 other REEs.[48]
The main source for bastnäsite from the 1960s to
the 1990s was the Mountain Pass mine in
California, making the United States the largest
producer of REEs.[48] [50]
• Monazite ([(Ce, La, etc.)PO4]), which is mostly
phosphate, is a placer deposit of sand that is
created by the transportation and gravitational
separation of eroded granite. Monazite as a LREE
ore contains 2%[48] (or 3%)[51] of yttrium. The
largest deposits were found in India and Brazil in
the early 19th century, making these two
A piece of yttrium. Yttrium is difficult to
countries the largest producers of yttrium in the
separate from other rare earth elements.
first half of that century.[48] [50]
• Xenotime, a REE phosphate, is the main HREE ore containing up to 60% of yttrium as
yttrium phosphate (YPO4).[48] The largest mine for this mineral is the Bayan Obo deposit
in China, making China the largest exporter for HREE since the closure of the Mountain
Pass mine in the 1990s.[48] [50]
• Ion absorption clays or Lognan clays are the weathering products of granite and contain
only 1% of REEs.[48] The final ore concentrate can contain up to 8% of yttrium. Ion
absorption clays are mostly mined in southern China.[48] [50] [52]
Yttrium is also found in samarskite and fergusonite.[45]
It is difficult to separate yttrium from other rare earths. One method to obtain pure yttrium
from the mixed oxide ores is to dissolve the oxide in sulfuric acid and fractionate it by ion
exchange chromatography. With the addition of oxalic acid, the yttrium oxalate
precipitates. The oxalate is converted into the oxide by heating under oxygen. By reacting
the resulting yttrium oxide with hydrogen fluoride, yttrium fluoride is obtained.[53]
Annual world production of yttrium oxide had reached 600 tonnes by 2001, with reserves
estimated at 9 million tonnes.[45] Only a few tonnes of yttrium metal are produced each
year by reducing yttrium fluoride to a metal sponge with calcium magnesium alloy. The
temperature of an arc furnace of above 1,600 °C is sufficient to melt the yttrium.[45] [53]
Yttrium 9
Applications
Consumer
Yttria (Y2O3) can serve as host lattice for doping with
Eu3+ cations as well as reactant to gain doped yttrium
orthovanadate YVO4:Eu3+ or yttrium oxide sulfide
Y2O2S:Eu3+ phosphors that give the red color in color
television picture tubes,[4] [5] [54] though the red color
itself is actually emitted from the europium while the
yttrium collects energy from the electron gun and
passes it to the phosphor.[55] Yttrium compounds can
serve as host lattices for doping with different
lanthanoid cations. Besides Eu3+ also Tb3+ can be used
as a doping agent leading to green luminescence. Yttria
is also used as a sintering additive in the production of Yttrium is one of the elements used to
porous silicon nitride[56] and as a common starting make the red color in CRT televisions.
material for both material science and for producing
other compounds of yttrium.
Yttrium compounds are used as a catalyst for ethylene polymerization.[4] As a metal, it is

used on the electrodes of some high-performance spark plugs.[57] Yttrium is also used in the
manufacturing of gas mantles for propane lanterns as a replacement for thorium, which is
radioactive.[58]
Developing uses include yttrium-stabilized zirconia in particular as a solid electrolyte and
as an oxygen sensor in automobile exhaust systems.[5]
Garnets
Yttrium is used in the production of a large variety of synthetic garnets,[59] and yttria is
used to make yttrium iron garnets (YIG), which are very effective microwave filters.[4]
Yttrium, iron, aluminium, and gadolinium garnets (e.g. Y3Fe5O12 and Y3Al5O12) have
important magnetic properties.[4] YIG is also very efficient as an acoustic energy
transmitter and transducer.[60] Yttrium aluminium garnet (Y3Al5O12 or YAG) has a hardness
of 8.5 and is also used as a gemstone in jewelry (simulated diamond).[4] Cerium-doped
yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG:Ce) crystals are used as phosphors to make white LEDs.[61]
[62] [63]
YAG, yttria, yttrium lithium fluoride (LiYF4), and yttrium orthovanadate (YVO4) are used in
combination with dopants such as neodymium, erbium, ytterbium in near-infrared lasers.[64]
[65]
YAG lasers have the ability to operate at high power and are used for drilling into and
cutting metal.[51] The single crystals of doped YAG are normally produced by the
Czochralski process.[66]
Yttrium 10
Material enhancer
Small amounts of yttrium (0.1 to 0.2%) have been used to reduce the grain sizes of
chromium, molybdenum, titanium, and zirconium.[67] It is also used to increase the strength
of aluminium and magnesium alloys.[4] The addition of yttrium to alloys generally improves
workability, adds resistance to high-temperature recrystallization and significantly
enhances resistance to high-temperature oxidation (see graphite nodule discussion
below).[55]
Yttrium can be used to deoxidize vanadium and other non-ferrous metals.[4] Yttria is used to
stabilize the cubic form of zirconia for use in jewelry.[68]
Yttrium has been studied for possible use as a nodulizer in the making of nodular cast iron
which has increased ductility (the graphite forms compact nodules instead of flakes to form
nodular cast iron).[4] Yttrium oxide can also be used in ceramic and glass formulas, since it
has a high melting point and imparts shock resistance and low thermal expansion
characteristics.[4] It is therefore used in camera lenses.[45]
Medical
The radioactive isotope yttrium-90 is used in drugs such as Yttrium Y
90-DOTA-tyr3-octreotide and Yttrium Y 90 ibritumomab tiuxetan for the treatment of
various cancers, including lymphoma, leukemia, ovarian, colorectal, pancreatic, and bone
cancers.[47] It works by adhering to monoclonal antibodies, which in turn bind to cancer
cells and kill them via intense β-radiation from the yttrium-90 (see Monoclonal antibody
therapy).[69]
Needles made of yttrium-90, which can cut more precisely than scalpels, have been used to
sever pain-transmitting nerves in the spinal cord,[30] and yttrium-90 is also used to carry
out radionuclide synovectomy in the treatment of inflamed joints, especially knees, in
sufferers of conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis.[70]
A neodymium-doped yttrium-aluminium-garnet laser has been used in an experimental,
robot-assisted radical prostatectomy in canines in an attempt to reduce collateral nerve and
tissue damage,[71] whilst the erbium-doped ones are starting to be used in cosmetic skin
resurfacing.[5]
Superconductors
Yttrium was used in the yttrium barium copper oxide
(YBa2Cu3O7, aka 'YBCO' or '1-2-3') superconductor
developed at the University of Alabama and the
University of Houston in 1987.[42] This superconductor
operated at 93 K, notable because this is above liquid
nitrogen's boiling point (77.1 K).[42] As the price of
liquid nitrogen is lower than that of liquid helium,
which has to be used for the metallic superconductors,
the operating costs would decrease.
YBCO superconductor The actual superconducting material is often written as

YBa2Cu3O7−d, where d must be less than 0.7 if the
Yttrium 11
material is to be superconducting. The reason for this is still not clear, but it is known that
the vacancies occur only in certain places in the crystal, the copper oxide planes and
chains, giving rise to a peculiar oxidation state of the copper atoms, which somehow leads
to the superconducting behaviour.
The theory of low temperature superconductivity has been well understood since the
so-called BCS theory was put forward in 1957. It is based on a peculiarity of the interaction
between 2 electrons in a crystal lattice. However, BCS theory does not explain high
temperature superconductivity, and its precise mechanism is still a mystery. What is known
is that the composition of the copper-oxide materials has to be precisely controlled if
superconductivity is to occur.[72]
The created material was a black and green, multi-crystal, multi-phase mineral.
Researchers are studying a class of materials known as perovskites that are alternative
mixtures of these elements, hoping to eventually develop a practical high-temperature
superconductor.[51]
Precautions
Water soluble compounds of yttrium are considered mildly toxic, while its insoluble
compounds are non-toxic.[47] In experiments on animals, yttrium and its compounds caused
lung and liver damage, though toxicity varies with different yttrium compounds. In rats,
inhalation of yttrium citrate caused pulmonary edema and dyspnea, while inhalation of
yttrium chloride caused liver edema, pleural effusions, and pulmonary hyperemia.[6]
Exposure to yttrium compounds in humans may cause lung disease.[6] Workers exposed to
airborne yttrium europium vanadate dust experienced mild eye, skin, and upper respiratory
tract irritation—though this may have been caused by the vanadium content rather than the
yttrium.[6] Acute exposure to yttrium compounds can cause shortness of breath, coughing,
chest pain, and cyanosis.[6] NIOSH recommends a time-weighted average limit of 1 mg/m3
and an IDLH of 500 mg/m3.[73] Yttrium dust is flammable.[6]
References
[2] IUPAC 2005
[3] Van der Krogt 2005
[4] CRC 2008, v.4, p. 41
[5] Cotton 2008
[6] OSHA 2007
[7] Greenwood 1997, p. 946
[8] Hammond
[9] Daane 1968, p. 817
[10] Emsley 2001, p. 498
[11] Daane 1968, p. 810
[12] Daane 1968, p. 815
[13] Greenwood 1997, p. 945
[14] Greenwood 1997, p. 1234
[15] Greenwood 1997, p. 948
[16] Greenwood 1997, p. 947
[17] Cloke 1993
[18] Schumann 2006
[19] Mikheev 1992
[20] Kang 2005
Yttrium 12
[21] Turner 1920, p. 492

[22] Spencer 1919, p. 135
[23] Pack 2007
[24] Greenwood 1997, pp. 12–13
[25] NNDC 2008
[26] Essentially, a neutron becomes a proton while an electron and antineutrino are emitted.
[27] This stability is thought to result from very low neutron cross-sections (Greenwood 1997, pp. 12—13).
Electron emission of isotopes with those mass numbers is simply less prevalent due to this stability, resulting in
them having a higher abundance.
[28] Audi 2003
[29] Metastable isomers have higher-than-normal energy states than the corresponding non-excited nucleus and
these states last until a gamma ray or conversion electron is emitted from the isomer. They are designated by
an 'm' being placed next to the isotope's mass number.
[30] Emsley 2001, p. 496
[31] Ytterbite was named after the village it was discovered near, plus the -ite ending to indicate it was a mineral.
[32] Gadolin 1794
[33] Stwertka 1998, p. 115 says that the identification occurred in 1789 but is silent on when the announcement
was made. Van der Krogt 2005 cites the original publication, with the year 1794, by Gadolin.
[34] Greenwood 1997, p. 944
[35] Earths were given an -a ending and new elements are normally given an -ium ending
[36] Mosander 1843
[37] Britannica 2005, "ytterbium"
[38] Stwertka 1998, p. 115
[39] Heiserman 1992, p. 150
[40] Wöhler 1828
[41] Coplen and Peiser 1998
[42] Wu et al.. 1987
[43] Tc for YBCO is 93 K and the boiling point of nitrogen is 77 K.
[44] Lenntech, "yttrium"
[45] Emsley 2001, p. 497
[46] Mac Donald et al.. 1952
[47] Emsley 2001, p. 495
[48] Morteani 1991
[49] Kanazawaa 2006
[50] Naumov 2008
[51] Stwertka 1998, p. 116
[52] Zuoping 1996
[53] Holleman 1985
[54] Emsley 2001, p. 497 says that "Yttrium oxysulfide, doped with europium (III), is used as the standard red
component in colour televisions".
[55] Daane 1968, p. 818
[56] US patent 5935888
[57] Carley 2000
[58] Addison 1985
[59] Jaffe 1951
[60] Hosseinivajargah 2007
[61] US patent 6409938
[62] GIA 1995
[63] Kiss and Pressley 1996
[64] Kong et al. 2005
[65] Tokurakawa et al.. 2007
[66] Aleksandar et al.. 2002
[67] PIDC contributors
[68] Berg 2002
[69] Adams et al.. 2004
[70] Fischer 2002
[71] Gianduzzo 2008
[72] Imperial College (http:/ / www. ch. ic. ac. uk/ rzepa/ mim/ century/ html/ ybco_text. htm)
[73] NIOSH 2005
Yttrium 13
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Metals 49 (1): 14–22. http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ y8925j378w4u4175/ .
• NIOSH contributors (September 2005). " Yttrium (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ npg/
npgd0673. html)". NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health. http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ npg/ npgd0673. html.
• NNDC contributors (2008). " Chart of Nuclides (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ chart/ )". in
Alejandro A. Sonzogni (Database Manager). Upton, New York: National Nuclear Data
Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory. http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ chart/ . Retrieved
2008-09-13.
• OSHA contributors (2007-01-11). " Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Yttrium
and Compounds (http:/ / www. osha. gov/ SLTC/ healthguidelines/ yttriumandcompounds/
recognition. html)". United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration. http:/ /
www. osha. gov/ SLTC/ healthguidelines/ yttriumandcompounds/ recognition. html.
Retrieved 2008-08-03. (public domain text)
• Pack, Andreas; Sara S. Russell, J. Michael G. Shelley and Mark van Zuilen (2007). "Geo-
and cosmochemistry of the twin elements yttrium and holmium". Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 71 (18): 4592–4608. doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2007.07.010 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1016/ j. gca. 2007. 07. 010).
• PIDC contributors. Rare Earth metals & compounds (http:/ / www. pidc. com/
products_imaterials_oth. html). Pacific Industrial Development Corporation. http:/ / www.
pidc. com/ products_imaterials_oth. html. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
• Schumann, Herbert; Fedushkin, Igor L. (2006). "Scandium, Yttrium & The Lanthanides:
Organometallic Chemistry". Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry. doi:
Yttrium 16
10.1002/0470862106.ia212 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ 0470862106. ia212).

• Spencer, James F. (1919). The Metals of the Rare Earths (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=W2zxN_FLQm8C& pg=PA135& dq="Yttrium+ chloride"& lr=& as_brr=1).
New York: Longmans, Green, and Co. pp. 135. http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=W2zxN_FLQm8C& pg=PA135& dq=%22Yttrium+ chloride%22& lr=&
as_brr=1. Retrieved 2008-08-12.
• Stwertka, Albert (1998). "Yttrium". Guide to the Elements (Revised ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 115–116. ISBN 0-19-508083-1.
• Tokurakawa, M.; Takaichi, K.; Shirakawa, A.; Ueda, K.; Yagi, H.; Yanagitani, T. and
Kaminskii, A. A. (2007). "Diode-pumped 188 fs mode-locked Yb3+:Y2O3 ceramic laser".
Applied Physics Letters 90: 071101. doi: 10.1063/1.2476385 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1063/ 1. 2476385).
• Turner, Jr., Francis M.; Berolzheimer, Daniel D.; Cutter, William P.; Helfrich, John (1920).
The Condensed Chemical Dictionary (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=y8y0XE0nsYEC& pg=PA492& dq="Yttrium+ chloride"& lr=& as_brr=1). New
York: Chemical Catalog Company. pp. 492. http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=y8y0XE0nsYEC& pg=PA492& dq=%22Yttrium+ chloride%22& lr=& as_brr=1.
• US patent 4533317 (http:/ / v3. espacenet. com/ textdoc?DB=EPODOC&
IDX=US4533317), "Yttrium oxide mantles for fuel-burning lanterns", granted 1985-08-06
, assigned to The Coleman Company, Inc.
IDX=US5734166), "Low-energy neutron detector based upon lithium lanthanide borate
scintillators", granted 1998-03-31 , assigned to Mission Support Inc
IDX=US5935888), "Porous silicon nitride with rodlike grains oriented", granted
1999-08-10 , assigned to Agency Ind Science Techn (JP) and Fine Ceramics Research Ass
(JP),.
IDX=US6409938), "Aluminum fluoride flux synthesis method for producing cerium doped
YAG", granted 2002-06-25 , assigned to General Electrics
• van der Krogt, Peter (2005-05-05). " 39 Yttrium (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ elem/
y. html)". Elementymology & Elements Multidict. http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/
elem/ y. html. Retrieved 2008-08-06.
• Wöhler, Friedrich (1828). "Ueber das Beryllium und Yttrium". Annalen der Physik 89 (8):
577–582. doi: 10.1002/andp.18280890805 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ andp.
18280890805).
• Wu, M. K.; Ashburn, J. R.; Torng, C. J.; Hor, P. H.; Meng, R. L.; Gao, L.; Huang, Z. J.;
Wang, Y. Q. and Chu, C. W. (1987). "Superconductivity at 93 K in a New Mixed-Phase
Y-Ba-Cu-O Compound System at Ambient Pressure". Physical Review Letters 58:
908–910. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.908 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevLett.
58. 908).
• Zheng, Zuoping; Lin Chuanxian (1996). "The behaviour of rare-earth elements (REE)
during weathering of granites in southern Guangxi, China". Chinese Journal of
Geochemistry 15 (4): 344–352. doi: 10.1007/BF02867008 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/
BF02867008).
Yttrium 17
External links
• WebElements.com – Yttrium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/
text/ Y/ index. html)
pnb:‫میرتیا‬

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License
Zirconium 1
Zirconium
40 yttrium ← zirconium → niobium

Ti
↑
Zr
↓
Hf

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number zirconium, Zr, 40

−1

2 2
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3

(1855 °C, 3371 °F)

(4409 °C, 7968 °F)
Heat of fusion 14 kJ·mol−1
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2639 2891 3197 3575 4053 4678
Atomic properties
Crystal structure hexagonal close-packed

Zirconium 2

4, 3, 2, 1,
(amphoteric oxide)

(more)
2nd: 1270 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2218 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Shear modulus 33 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.34
Mohs hardness 5.0
Vickers hardness 903 MPa
Zirconium 3
Main article: Isotopes of zirconium

88
Zr syn 83.4 d ε - 88
Y
γ 0.392D -
89
Zr syn 78.4 h ε - 89
Y
β+ 0.902 89
Y
γ 0.909D -
90
Zr 51.45% 90
Zr is stable with 50 neutron
91
Zr 11.22% 91
92
Zr 17.15% 92
93
Zr syn 1.53×10 y
6
β
− 0.060 93
Nb
94
Zr 17.38% 1.1 × 10
17
y β β
− − - 94
Mo
96 2.8% 19 [3] − − 3.348 96
Zr 2.0×10 y β β Mo
References
Zirconium (pronounced /zərˈkoʊniəm/) is a chemical

element with the symbol Zr and atomic number 40. It is
a lustrous, gray-white, strong transition metal that
resembles titanium. Zirconium is used as an alloying
agent due to its high resistance to corrosion. It is never
found as a native metal; it is obtained mainly from the
mineral zircon, which can be purified by chlorine.
Zirconium was first isolated in an impure form in 1824
by Jöns Jakob Berzelius.
Zirconium rod
Zirconium has no known biological role. Zirconium
forms both inorganic and organometallic compounds
such as zirconium dioxide and zirconocene dichloride, respectively. There are five
naturally-occurring isotopes, three of which are stable. Short-term exposure to zirconium
powder causes minor irritation, and inhalation of zirconium compounds can cause skin and
lung granulomas.
Characteristics
Zirconium is a lustrous, grayish-white, soft, ductile, and malleable metal which is solid at
room temperature, though it becomes hard and brittle at lower purities.[4] [5] In powder
form, zirconium is highly flammable, but the solid form is far less prone to igniting.
Zirconium is highly resistant to corrosion by alkalis, acids, salt water, and other agents.[6]
However, it will dissolve in hydrochloric and sulfuric acid, especially when fluorine is
present.[7] Alloys with zinc become magnetic below 35 K.[6]
Zirconium 4
The melting point of zirconium is at 1855°C, and the boiling point is at 4409°C.[6] Zirconium
has an electronegativity of 1.33 on the Pauling scale. Of the elements within d-block,
zirconium has the fourth lowest electronegativity after yttrium, lutetium, and hafnium.[8]
Applications
Because of zirconium's excellent resistance to corrosion, it is often used as an alloying
agent in materials that are exposed to corrosive agents, such as surgical appliances,
explosive primers, vacuum tube getters and filaments. Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) is used in
laboratory crucibles, metallurgical furnaces, and as a refractory material.[6] Zircon (ZrSiO4)
is cut into gemstones for use in jewelry. Zirconium carbonate (3ZrO2·CO2·H2O) was used in
lotions to treat poison ivy, but this was discontinued as it caused bad skin reactions in some
cases.[4] 90% of all zirconium produced is used in nuclear reactors because of its low
neutron-capture cross-section and resistance to corrosion.[5] [6] Zirconium alloys are used in
space vehicle parts for their resistance to heat, an important quality given the extreme heat
associated with atmospheric reentry.[9] Zirconium is also a component in some abrasives,
such as grinding wheels and sandpaper.[10] Zirconium is used in weapons such as the
BLU-97/B Combined Effects Bomb for incendiary effect. Zirconium in the oxidized form is
also used in dentistry for crowning of the teeth because of its biocompatibility, strength and
appearance.
Refining
Upon being collected from coastal waters, the solid mineral zircon is purified by spiral
concentrators to remove excess sand and gravel and by magnetic separators to remove
ilmenite and rutile. The byproducts can then be dumped back into the water safely, as they
are all natural components of beach sand. The refined zircon is then purified into pure
zirconium by chlorine or other agents, then sintered until sufficiently ductile for
metalworking.[5] Zirconium and hafnium are both contained in zircon and they are quite
difficult to separate due to their similar chemical properties.[9]
History
The zirconium-containing mineral zircon, or its
variations (jargoon, hyacinth, jacinth, ligure), were
mentioned in biblical writings.[6] [9] The mineral was not
known to contain a new element until 1789,[10] when
Klaproth analyzed a jargoon from the island of Sri
Zirconium crystal bar, 99,97%, made Lanka in the Indian Ocean. He named the new element
by the crystal bar process
Zirkonerde (zirconia).[6] Humphry Davy attempted to
isolate this new element in 1808 through electrolysis,
but failed.[4] Zirconium (from Syriac zargono,[11] Arabic zarkûn from Persian zargûn ‫نوگرز‬
meaning "gold like")[9] was first isolated in an impure form in 1824 by Berzelius by heating
a mixture of potassium and potassium-zirconium fluoride in a small decomposition process
conducted in an iron tube.[6]
The crystal bar process (or Iodide process), discovered by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan
Hendrik de Boer in 1925, was the first industrial process for the commercial production of
pure metallic zirconium. The process involved thermally decomposing zirconium
Zirconium 5
tetraiodide. It was superseded in 1945 by the much cheaper Kroll process developed by
William Justin Kroll, in which zirconium tetrachloride is broken down by magnesium.[5] [12]
Occurrence
Geological
Zirconium has a concentration of about 130 mg/kg
within the earth's crust and about .026 μg/L in sea
water,[13] though it is never found in nature as a native
metal. The principal commercial source of zirconium is
the zirconium silicate mineral, zircon (ZrSiO4),[4] which
Zirconium output in 2005
is found primarily in Australia, Brazil, India, Russia,
South Africa, and the United States, as well as in
smaller deposits around the world.[5] 80% of zircon
mining occurs in Australia and South Africa.[4] Zircon
resources exceed 60 million metric tons worldwide[14]
and annual worldwide zirconium production is
approximately 900,000 metric tons.[13]
Zircon is a by-product of the mining and processing of

the titanium minerals ilmenite and rutile, as well as tin
mining.[15] From 2003 to 2007, zircon prices have
World production trend of zirconium steadily increased from $360 to $840 per metric ton.[14]
mineral concentrates Zirconium also occurs in more than 140 other
recognized mineral species including baddeleyite and
kosnarite.[16] This metal is commercially produced mostly by the reduction of the
zirconium(IV) chloride with magnesium metal in the Kroll process.[6] Commercial-quality
zirconium for most uses still has a content of 1% to 3% hafnium.[4]
This element is relatively-abundant in S-type stars, and it has been detected in the sun and
in meteorites. Lunar rock samples brought back from several Apollo program missions to
the moon have a quite high zirconium oxide content relative to terrestrial rocks.[6]
See also zirconium minerals.
Biological
Zirconium has no known biological role, though zirconium salts are of low toxicity. The
human body contains, on average, only 1 milligram of zirconium, and daily intake is
approximately 50 μg per day. Zirconium content in human blood is as low as 10 parts per
billion. Aquatic plants readily take up soluble zirconium, but it is rare in land plants. 70% of
plants have no zirconium content at all, and those that do have as little as 5 parts per
billion.[4]
Zirconium 6
Compounds
As a transition metal, zirconium forms various inorganic compounds, such as zirconium
dioxide (ZrO2). This compound, also referred to as zirconia, has exceptional fracture
toughness and chemical resistance, especially in its cubic form.[17] These properties make
zirconia useful as a thermal barrier coating,[18] though it is also a common diamond
substitute.[17] Zirconium tungstate is an unusual substance in that it shrinks in all
directions when heated, whereas other elements expand when heated.[6] ZrZn2 is one of
only two substances to exhibit superconductivity and ferromagnetism simultaneously, with
the other being UGe2.[19] Other inorganic zirconium compounds include zirconium(II)
hydride, zirconium nitride, and zirconium tetrachloride (ZrCl4), which is used in the
Friedel-Crafts reaction.[20]
Organozirconium chemistry is the study of compounds containing a carbon-zirconium bond.
These organozirconium compounds are often employed as polymerization catalysts. The
first such compound was zirconocene dibromide, prepared in 1952 by John M. Birmingham
at Harvard University.[21] Schwartz's reagent, prepared in 1970 by P. C. Wailes and H.
Weigold,[22] is a metallocene used in organic synthesis for transformations of alkenes and
alkynes.[23]
Isotopes
Naturally-occurring zirconium is composed of five isotopes. 90Zr, 91Zr, and 92Zr are stable.
94
Zr has a half-life of 1.10×1017 years. 96Zr has a half-life of 2.4×1019 years, making it the
longest-lived radioisotope of zirconium. Of these natural isotopes, 90Zr is the most common,
making up 51.45% of all zirconium. 96Zr is the least common, comprising only 2.80% of
zirconium.[24]
28 artificial isotopes of zirconium have been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 78 to
110. 93Zr is the longest-lived artificial isotope, with a half-life of 1.53×106 years. 110Zr, the
heaviest isotope of zirconium, is also the shortest-lived, with an estimated half-life of only
30 milliseconds. Radioactive isotopes at or above mass number 93 decay by β−, whereas
those at or below 89 decay by β+. The only exception is 88Zr, which decays by ε.[24]
Zirconium also has six metastable isomers, 83mZr, 85mZr, 89mZr, 90m1Zr, 90m2Zr, and 91mZr.
Of these, 90m2Zr has the shortest half-life at 131 nanoseconds. 89mZr is the longest lived
with a half-life of 4.161 minutes.[24]
Toxicity
Short-term exposure to zirconium powder can cause irritation, but only contact with the
eyes requires medical attention.[25] Inhalation of zirconium compounds can cause skin and
lung granulomas. Zirconium aerosols can cause pulmonary granulomas. Persistent
exposure to zirconium tetrachloride resulted in increased mortality in rats and guinea pigs
and a decrease of blood hemoglobin and red blood cells in dogs. OSHA recommends a
5 mg/m3 time weighted average limit and a 10 mg/m3 short-term exposure limit.[26]
Zirconium 7
See also
• Zirconium compounds
• Zirconium minerals
External links
[27]
• WebElements.com: Zirconium
pnb:‫مینوکرز‬
References
[1] " Zirconium: zirconium(I) fluoride compound data (http:/ / openmopac. net/ data_normal/ zirconium(i)
fluoride_jmol. html)". OpenMOPAC.net. . Retrieved 2007-12-10.
[3] Pritychenko, Boris; V. Tretyak. " Adopted Double Beta Decay Data (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ bbdecay/ list.
html)". National Nuclear Data Center. . Retrieved 2008-02-11.
0-19-850341-5.
[5] " Zirconium (http:/ / www. madehow. com/ Volume-1/ Zirconium. html)". How Products Are Made. Advameg
Inc.. 2007. . Retrieved 2008-03-26.
[6] Lide, David R., ed. (2007–2008), "Zirconium", CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 4, New York: CRC
Press, pp. 42, 978-0-8493-0488-0
[7] Considine, Glenn D., ed. (2005), "Zirconium", Van Nostrand's Encyclopedia of Chemistry, New York:
Wylie-Interscience, pp. 1778–1779, ISBN 0-471-61525-0
[8] Winter, Mark (2007). " Electronegativity (Pauling) (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ properties/
text/ image-flash/ electroneg-pauling. html)". University of Sheffield. . Retrieved 2008-03-05.
[9] Stwertka, Albert (1996). A Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. pp. 117–119. ISBN 0-19-508083-1.
[10] Krebs, Robert E. (1998). The History and Use of our Earth's Chemical Elements. Westport, Connecticut:
Greenwood Press. pp. 98–100. ISBN 0-313-30123-9.
[11] Pearse, Roger (2002-09-16). " Syriac Literature (http:/ / www. tertullian. org/ rpearse/ oriental/ syriac. htm)".
. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
[12] Hedrick, James B. (1998), " Zirconium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ metal_prices/
metal_prices1998. pdf)" (PDF), Metal Prices in the United States through 1998, US Geological Survey,
pp. 175–178, , retrieved 2008-02-26
[13] Peterson, John; MacDonell, Margaret (2007), " Zirconium (http:/ / www. evs. anl. gov/ pub/ doc/
ANL_ContaminantFactSheets_All_070418. pdf)" (PDF), Radiological and Chemical Fact Sheets to Support
Health Risk Analyses for Contaminated Areas, Argonne National Laboratory, pp. 64–65, , retrieved 2008-02-26
[14] " Zirconium and Hafnium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ zirconium/ mcs-2008-zirco.
pdf)" (PDF). Mineral Commodity Summaries (US Geological Survey): 192–193. January 2008. . Retrieved
2008-02-24.
[15] Callaghan, R. (2008-02-21). " Zirconium and Hafnium Statistics and Information (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/
minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ zirconium/ )". US Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-02-24.
[16] Ralph, Jolyon; Ida Ralph (2008). " Minerals that include Zr (http:/ / www. mindat. org/ chemsearch.
php?inc=Zr,& exc=& sub=Search+ for+ Minerals)". Mindat.org. . Retrieved 2008-02-23.
[17] " Zirconia (http:/ / www. azom. com/ details. asp?ArticleID=133#_Key_Properties)". AZoM.com. 2008. .
[18] Gauthier, V.; Dettenwanger, F.; Schütze, M. (2002-04-10). "Oxidation behavior of γ-TiAl coated with zirconia
thermal barriers". Intermetallics (Frankfurt, Germany: Karl Winnacker Institut der Dechema) 10 (7): 667–674.
[19] Day, Charles (September 2001). "Second Material Found that Superconducts in a Ferromagnetic State".
Physics Today (American Institute of Physics) 54 (9): 16. doi: 10.1063/1.1420499 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/
1. 1420499).
[20] Bora U. (2003). "Zirconium Tetrachloride". Synlett: 1073–1074. doi: 10.1055/s-2003-39323 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1055/ s-2003-39323).
[21] Rouhi, A. Maureen (2004-04-19). " Organozirconium Chemistry Arrives (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ nlw/
8216sci1. html)". Science & Technology (Chemical & Engineering News) 82 (16): 36–39. ISSN 0009-2347
Zirconium 8
(http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 0009-2347). . Retrieved 2008-03-17.

[22] P. C. Wailes and H. Weigold (1970). "Hydrido complexes of zirconium I. Preparation". Journal of
Organometallic Chemistry 24: 405–411. doi: 10.1016/S0022-328X(00)80281-8 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/
S0022-328X(00)80281-8).
[23] D. W. Hart and J. Schwartz (1974). "Hydrozirconation. Organic Synthesis via Organozirconium Intermediates.
Synthesis and Rearrangement of Alkylzirconium(IV) Complexes and Their Reaction with Electrophiles". J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 96 (26): 8115–8116. doi: 10.1021/ja00833a048 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ja00833a048).
[24] Audi, G (2003). "Nubase2003 Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass
2003. 11. 001).
[25] " Zirconium (http:/ / www. oit. org/ public/ english/ protection/ safework/ cis/ products/ icsc/ dtasht/ _icsc14/
icsc1405. htm)", International Chemical Safety Cards, International Labour Organization, October 2004, ,
retrieved 2008-03-30
[26] " Zirconium Compounds (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ pel88/ 7440-67. html)". National Institute for
Occupational Health and Safety. 2007-12-17. . Retrieved 2008-02-17.
[27] http:/ / webelements. com/ zirconium/

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License
Niobium 1
Niobium
41 zirconium ← niobium → molybdenum

V
↑
Nb
↓
Ta

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number niobium, Nb, 41
Appearance gray metallic

−1

4 1
Physical properties
Phase solid

(2477 °C, 4491 °F)

(4744 °C, 8571 °F)
Heat of fusion 30 kJ·mol−1
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2942 3207 3524 3910 4393 5013
Atomic properties

Niobium 2
Oxidation states 5, 4, 3, 2, -1
(mildly acidic oxide)

(more)
2nd: 1380 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2416 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous
Electrical resistivity (0 °C) 152 nΩ·m

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Bulk modulus 170 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.40
Mohs hardness 6.0
Niobium 3
Main article: Isotopes of niobium

91
Nb syn 6.8×102 y ε - 91
Zr
91m
Nb syn 60.86 d IT 0.104e 91
Nb
92
Nb syn 10.15 d ε - 92
Zr
γ 0.934 -
92
Nb syn 3.47×107y ε - 92
Zr
γ 0.561, 0.934 -
93
Nb 100% 93
Nb is stable with 52 neutron
93m
Nb syn 16.13 y IT 0.031e 93
Nb
94
Nb syn 2.03×10 y
4
β
− 0.471 94
Mo
γ 0.702, 0.871 -
95
Nb syn 34.991 d β
− 0.159 95
Mo
γ 0.765 -
95m
Nb syn 3.61 d IT 0.235 95
Nb
References
Niobium (pronounced /naɪˈoʊbiəm/) (Greek mythology: Niobe, daughter of Tantalus), or

columbium (/kəˈlʌmbiəm/), is the chemical element with the symbol Nb and the atomic
number 41. A rare, soft, grey, ductile transition metal, niobium is found in the minerals
pyrochlore, the main commercial source for niobium, and columbite.
Niobium has physical and chemical properties similar to those of the element tantalum, and
the two are therefore difficult to distinguish. The English chemist Charles Hatchett
reported a new element similar to tantalum in 1801, and named it columbium. In 1809, the
English chemist William Hyde Wollaston wrongly concluded that tantalum and columbium
were identical. The German chemist Heinrich Rose determined in 1846 that tantalum ores
contain a second element, which he named niobium. In 1864 and 1865, a series of scientific
findings clarified that niobium and columbium were the same element (as distinguished
from tantalum), and for a century both names were used interchangeably. The name of the
element was officially adopted as niobium in 1949.
It was not until the early 20th century that niobium was first used commercially. Brazil is
the leading producer of niobium and ferroniobium, an alloy of niobium and iron. Niobium is
used mostly in alloys, the largest part in special steel such as that used in gas pipelines.
Although alloys contain only a maximum of 0.1%, that small percentage of Niobium
improves the strength of the steel. The temperature stability of niobium-containing
superalloys is important for its use in jet engines and rocket engines. Niobium is used in
various superconducting materials. These superconducting alloys, also containing titanium
and tin, are widely used in the superconducting magnets of MRI scanners. Other
applications of niobium include its use in welding, nuclear industries, electronics, optics,
numismatics and jewellery. In the last two applications, niobium's low toxicity and ability to
Niobium 4
be coloured by anodisation are particular advantages.
History
Niobium was discovered by the English chemist Charles Hatchett
in 1801.[1] He found a new element in a mineral sample that had
been sent to England from Massachusetts, United States in 1734 by
a John Winthrop,[2] and named the mineral columbite and the new
element columbium after Columbia, the poetical name for
America.[3] The columbium discovered by Hatchett was probably a
mixture of the new element with tantalum.[3]
Subsequently, there was considerable confusion[4] over the

difference between columbium (niobium) and the closely related
Charles Hatchett tantalum. In 1809, the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston
discoverer of
compared the oxides derived from both columbium—columbite,
columbium.
with a density 5.918 g/cm3, and tantalum—tantalite, with a density
7.935 g/cm3, and concluded that the two oxides, despite the
significant difference in density, were identical; thus he kept the
name tantalum.[4] This conclusion was disputed in 1846 by the
German chemist Heinrich Rose, who argued that there were two
different elements in the tantalite sample, and named them after
children of Tantalus: niobium (from Niobe), and pelopium (from
Pelops).[5] [6] This confusion arose from the minimal observed
differences between tantalum and niobium. Both tantalum and
niobium react with chlorine and traces of oxygen, including
atmospheric concentrations, with niobium forming two compounds:
the white volatile niobium pentachloride (NbCl5) and the
non-volatile niobium oxychloride (NbOCl3). The claimed new
Picture of a Hellenistic elements pelopium, ilmenium and dianium[7] were in fact identical
sculpture representing
to niobium or mixtures of niobium and tantalum.[8]
Niobe by Giorgio
Sommer
The differences between tantalum and niobium were unequivocally
demonstrated in 1864 by Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand,[8] and
Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville, as well as Louis J. Troost, who determined the formulas
of some of the compounds in 1865[8] [9] and finally by the Swiss chemist Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac[10] in 1866, who all proved that there were only two elements. These
discoveries did not stop scientists from publishing articles about ilmenium until 1871.[11] De
Marignac was the first to prepare the metal in 1864, when he reduced niobium chloride by
heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen.[12]
Although de Marignac was able to produce tantalum-free niobium on a larger scale by

1866, it was not until the early 20th century that niobium was first used commercially, in
incandescent lamp filaments.[9] This use quickly became obsolete through the replacement
of niobium with tungsten, which has a higher melting point and thus is preferable for use in
incandescent lamps. The discovery that niobium improves the strength of steel was made in
the 1920s, and this remains its predominant use.[9] In 1961 the American physicist Eugene
Kunzler and coworkers at Bell Labs discovered that niobium-tin continues to exhibit
superconductivity in the presence of strong electric currents and magnetic fields,[13]
Niobium 5
making it the first material known to support the high currents and fields necessary for
making useful high-power magnets and electrically powered machinery. This discovery
would allow—two decades later—the production of long multi-strand cables that could be
wound into coils to create large, powerful electromagnets for rotating machinery, particle
[14] [15]
accelerators, or particle detectors.
Columbium (symbol Cb[16] ) was the name originally given to this element by Hatchett, and
this name remained in use in American journals—the last paper published by American
Chemical Society with columbium in its title dates from 1953[17] —while niobium was used
in Europe. To end this confusion, the name niobium was chosen for element 41 at the 15th
Conference of the Union of Chemistry in Amsterdam in 1949.[18] A year later this name was
officially adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) after
100 years of controversy, despite the chronological precedence of the name Columbium.[18]
The latter name is still sometimes used in US industry.[19] This was a compromise of
sorts;[18] the IUPAC accepted tungsten instead of wolfram, in deference to North American
usage; and niobium instead of columbium, in deference to European usage. Not everyone
agreed, and while many leading chemical societies and government organizations refer to it
by the official IUPAC name, many leading metallurgists, metal societies, and the United
States Geological Survey still refer to the metal by the original "columbium".[20] [21]
Characteristics
Niobium is a lustrous, grey, ductile, paramagnetic metal in group 5 of the periodic table
(see table to right),
Z Element No. of electrons/shell
23 vanadium 2, 8, 11, 2
41 niobium 2, 8, 18, 12, 1
73 tantalum 2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2
105 dubnium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2
although it has an atypical configuration in its outermost electron shells compared to the
rest of the members. (This can be observed in the neighborhood of niobium (41), ruthenium
(44), rhodium (45), and palladium (46).)
The metal takes on a bluish tinge when exposed to air at room temperature for extended
periods.[22] Despite presenting a high melting point in elemental form (2,468 °C), it has a
low density in comparison to other refractory metals. Furthermore, it is corrosion resistant,
exhibits superconductivity properties, and forms dielectric oxide layers. These properties—
especially the superconductivity —are strongly dependent on the purity of the niobium
metal.[23] When very pure, it is comparatively soft and ductile, but impurities make it
harder.[24]
The atoms of niobium is slightly less electropositive and smaller than the atoms of its
predecessor in the periodic table, zirconium, while it is virtually identical in size to the
heavier tantalum atoms as a consequence of the lanthanide contraction.[24] As a result,
niobium's chemical properties are very similar to the chemical properties of tantalum,
which appears directly below niobium in the periodic table.[9] Although its corrosion
resistance is not as outstanding as that of tantalum, its lower price and greater availability
make niobium attractive for less exact uses such as linings in chemical plants.[24]
Niobium 6
Isotopes
Naturally occurring niobium is composed of one stable isotope, 93Nb.[25] As of 2003, at
least 32 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 81 to 113.
The most stable of these is 92Nb with a half-life of 34.7 million years. One of the least stable
is 113Nb, with an estimated half-life of 30 milliseconds. Isotopes that are lighter than the
stable 93Nb tend to decay by β+ decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β- decay,
with some exceptions. 81Nb, 82Nb, and 84Nb have minor β+ delayed proton emission decay
paths, 91Nb decays by electron capture and positron emission, and 92Nb decays by both β+
and β- decay.[25]
At least 25 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 84 to 104.
Within this range, only 96Nb, 101Nb, and 103Nb do not have isomers. The most stable of
niobium's isomers is 93mNb with a half-life of 16.13 years. The least stable isomer is 84mNb
with a half-life of 103 ns. All of niobium's isomers decay by isomeric transition or beta
decay except 92m1Nb, which has a minor electron capture decay chain.[25]
Chemistry
Niobium is in many ways similar to its predecessors in group 5. It reacts with most
nonmetals at high temperatures: niobium reacts with fluorine at room temperature, with
chlorine and hydrogen at 200 °C, and with nitrogen at 400 °C, giving products that are
frequently interstitial and nonstoichiometric.[24] The metal begins to oxidize in air at
200 °C,[26] and is resistant to corrosion by fused alkalis and by acids, including aqua regia,
hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric and phosphoric acids.[24] Niobium is attacked by hot,
concentrated mineral acids, such as fluorhydric acid and fluorhydric/nitric acid mixtures.
Although niobium exhibits all the formal oxidation states from +5 down to -1, its most
stable state is +5.[24]
Niobium is able to form oxides with the oxidation states +5 (Nb2O5), +4 (NbO2) and +3
(Nb2O3),[26] as well as with the rarer oxidation state +2 (NbO).[27] The most stable
oxidation state is +5, the pentoxide which, along with the dark green non-stoichiometric
dioxide, is the most common of the oxides.[26] Niobium pentoxide is used mainly in the
production of capacitors, optical glass, and as starting material for several niobium
compounds.[28] The compounds are created by dissolving the pentoxide in basic hydroxide
solutions or by melting it in another metal oxide. Examples are lithium niobate (LiNbO3)
and lanthanum niobate (LnNbO4). In the lithium niobate, the niobate ion NbO3− is not alone
but part of a trigonally distorted perovskite-like structure, while the lanthanum niobate
contains lone NbO43− ions.[26] Lithium niobate, which is a ferroelectric, is used extensively
in mobile telephones and optical modulators, and for the manufacture of surface acoustic
wave devices. It belongs to the ABO3 structure ferroelectrics like lithium tantalate and
barium titanate.[29]
Niobium 7
Niobium forms halogen compounds in the oxidation

states of +5, +4, and +3 of the type NbX5, NbX4, and
NbX3, although multi-core complexes and
[26] [30]
substoichiometric compounds are also formed.
Niobium pentafluoride (NbF5) is a white solid with a
melting point of 79.0 °C and niobium pentachloride
(NbCl5) is a yellowish-white solid (see image at left)
with a melting point of 203.4 °C. Both are hydrolyzed
by water and react with additional niobium at elevated
temperatures by forming the black and highly
hygroscopic niobium tetrafluoride (NbF4) and niobium
tetrachloride (NbCl4). While the trihalogen compounds
Niobium pentachloride (NbCl5)
can be obtained by reduction of the pentahalogens with
hydrogen, the dihalogen compounds do not exist.[26]
Spectroscopically, the monochloride (NbCl) has been observed at high temperatures.[31]
The fluorides of niobium can be used after its separation from tantalum.[32] The niobium
pentachloride is used in organic chemistry as a Lewis acid in activating alkenes for the
carbonyl-ene reaction and the Diels-Alder reaction.[33] The pentachloride is also used to
generate the organometallic compound niobocene dichloride ((C5H5)2NbCl2), which in turn
is used as a starting material for other organoniobium compounds.[34]
Other binary compounds of niobium include niobium nitride (NbN), which becomes a
superconductor at low temperatures and is used in detectors for infrared light,[35] and
niobium carbide, an extremely hard, refractory, ceramic material, commercially used in tool
bits for cutting tools. The compounds niobium-germanium (Nb3Ge) and niobium-tin
(Nb3Sn), as well as the niobium-titanium alloy, are used as a type II superconductor wire
for superconducting magnets.[36] [37] Niobium sulfide as well as a few interstitial
compounds of niobium with silicon are also known.[24]
Occurrence
According to estimates, niobium is 33rd on the list of the most common elements in the
Earth’s crust with 20 ppm.[38] The abundance on Earth should be much greater, but the
“missing” niobium may be located in the Earth’s core due to the metal's high density.[20]
The free element is not found in nature, but it does occur in minerals.[24] Minerals that
contain niobium often also contain tantalum, for example, columbite ((Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6),
columbite-tantalite (or coltan, (Fe,Mn)(Ta,Nb)2O6) and pyrochlore
[32]
((Na,Ca)2Nb2O6(OH,F)). Columbite-tantalite minerals are most usually found as
accessory minerals in pegmatite intrusions, and in alkaline intrusive rocks. Less common
are the niobates of calcium, uranium, thorium and the rare earth elements such as
pyrochlore and euxenite ((Y,Ca,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6). These large deposits of niobium
have been found associated with carbonatites (carbonate-silicate igneous rocks) and as a
constituent of pyrochlore.[39]
The two largest deposits of pyrochlore were found in the 1950s in Brazil and Canada, and
both countries are still the major producers of niobium mineral concentrates.[9] The largest
deposit is hosted within a carbonatite intrusion at Araxá, Minas Gerais Brazil, owned by
CBMM (Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração); the other deposit is located at
Catalão, Goiás owned by Anglo American plc (through its subsidiary Mineração Catalão),
Niobium 8
also hosted within a carbonatite intrusion.[40] Altogether these two Brazilian mines produce
around 75% of world supply. The third largest producer of niobium is the
carbonatite-hosted Niobec Mine, Saint-Honoré near Chicoutimi, Quebec owned by Iamgold
Corporation Ltd, which produces around 7% of world supply.[40]
Extensive though unexploited resources are located in Nigeria, Democratic Republic of
Congo, Tanzania, Malawi, Australia and Russia.
Production
After the separation from the other
minerals, the mixed oxides of
tantalum Ta2O5 and niobium
Nb2O5 are obtained. The first step
in the processing is the reaction of
the oxides with hydrofluoric
[32]
acid:
Ta2O5 + 14HF → 2H2[TaF7] +

5H2O, and Niobium producers in 2007
Nb2O5 + 10HF →
2H2[NbOF5] + 3H2O
The first industrial scale separation, developed by de Marignac, used the difference in
solubility between the complex niobium and tantalum fluorides, dipotassium
oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate (K2[NbOF5]·H2O) and dipotassium
heptafluorotantalate (K2[TaF7]) in water. Newer processes use the liquid extraction of the
fluorides from aqueous solution by organic solvents like cyclohexanone.[32] The complex
niobium and tantalum fluorides are extracted separately from the organic solvent with
water and either precipitated by the addition of potassium fluoride to produce a potassium
fluoride complex, or precipitated with ammonia as the pentoxide:[26]
H2[NbOF5] + 2KF → K2[NbOF5]↓ + 2HF, then
2H2[NbOF5] + 10NH4OH → Nb2O5↓ + 10NH4F + 7H2O
Several methods are used for the reduction to metallic niobium. The electrolysis of a molten
mixture of K2[NbOF5] and sodium chloride is one; the other is the reduction of the fluoride
with sodium. With this method niobium with a relatively high purity can be obtained. In
large scale production the reduction of Nb2O5 with hydrogen or carbon[26] is used. In the
process involving the aluminothermic reaction a mixture of iron oxide and niobium oxide is
reacted with aluminium:
3Nb2O5 + Fe2O3 + 12Al → 6Nb + 2Fe + 6Al2O3
To enhance the reaction, small amounts of oxidizers like sodium nitrate are added. The
result is aluminium oxide and ferroniobium, an alloy of iron and niobium used in the steel
production.[41] [42] The ferroniobium contains between 60 and 70% of niobium.[40] Without
addition of iron oxide, aluminothermic process is used for the production of niobium.
Further purification is necessary to reach the grade for superconductive alloys. Electron
beam melting under vacuum is the method used by the two major distributors of
niobium.[30] [43]
Niobium 9
The United States Geological Survey estimates that the production increased from 38,700
metric tonnes in 2005 to 44,500 tonnes in 2006.[44] [45] The world wide resources are
estimated to be 4,400,000 tonnes.[45] During the ten year period between 1995 and 2005,
the production more than doubled starting from 17,800 tonnes in 1995.[46]
Applications
It is estimated that out of 44,500 metric tons of niobium
mined in 2006, 90% ended up in the production of
high-grade structural steel, followed by its use in
superalloys.[47] The use of niobium alloys for
superconductors and in electronic components account
only for a small share of the production.[47]
Steel production
Niobium is an effective microalloying element for steel.
Adding niobium to the steel causes the formation of A niobium foil
niobium carbide and niobium nitride within the
structure of the steel.[20] These compounds improve the grain refining, retardation of
recrystallization, and precipitation hardening of the steel. These effects in turn increase the
toughness, strength, formability, and weldability of the microalloyed steel.[20] Microalloyed
stainless steels have a niobium content of less than 0.1%.[48] It is an important alloy
addition to high strength low alloy steels which are widely used as structural components in
modern automobiles.[20] These niobium containing alloys are strong and are often used in
pipeline construction.[49] [50]
Superalloys
Appreciable amounts of the element, either in its pure
form or in the form of high-purity ferroniobium and
nickel niobium, are used in nickel-, cobalt-, and
iron-base superalloys for such applications as jet engine
components, gas turbines, rocket subassemblies, and
heat resisting and combustion equipment. Niobium
precipitates a hardening γ''-phase within the grain
structure of the superalloy.[51] The alloys contain up to
6.5% niobium.[48] One example of a nickel-based
niobium-containing superalloy is Inconel 718, which Apollo CSM with the dark rocket
consists of roughly 50% nickel, 18.6% chromium, 18.5% nozzle made from niobium-titanium
alloy
iron, 5% niobium, 3.1% molybdenum, 0.9% titanium,
[52] [53]
and 0.4% aluminium. These superalloys are
used, for example, in advanced air frame systems such as those used in the Gemini
program.
An alloy used for liquid rocket thruster nozzles, such as in the main engine of the Apollo
Lunar Modules, is C103, which consists of 89% niobium, 10% hafnium and 1% titanium.[54]
Another niobium alloy was used for the nozzle of the Apollo Service Module. As niobium is
oxidized at temperatures above 400 °C, a protective coating is necessary for these
Niobium 10
applications to prevent the alloy from becoming brittle.[54]
Superconducting magnets
Niobium becomes a superconductor when lowered to
cryogenic temperatures. At atmospheric pressure, it
has the highest critical temperature of the elemental
superconductors: 9.2 K.[55] Niobium has the largest
magnetic penetration depth of any element.[55] In
addition, it is one of the three elemental Type II
superconductors, along with vanadium and technetium.
Niobium-tin and niobium-titanium alloys are used as
wires for superconducting magnets capable of
A 3 tesla clinical magnetic resonance
producing exceedingly strong magnetic fields. These
imaging scanner using
superconducting magnets are used in magnetic niobium-superconducting alloy
resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance
instruments as well as in particle accelerators.[56] For example, the Large Hadron Collider
uses 600 metric tons of superconducting strands, while the International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor is estimated to use 600 metric tonnes of Nb3Sn strands and 250
metric tonnes of NbTi strands.[57] In 1992 alone, niobium-titanium wires were used to
construct more than 1 billion US dollars worth of clinical magnetic resonance imaging
systems.[14]
Numismatics
Niobium is used as a precious metal in commemorative
coins, often with silver or gold. For example, Austria
produced a series of silver niobium euro coins starting
in 2003; the colour in these coins is created by
diffraction of light by a thin oxide layer produced by
anodising.[58] In 2008, six coins are available showing a
broad variety of colours in the centre of the coin: blue,
green, brown, purple, violet, or yellow. Two more
examples are the 2004 Austrian €25 150 Years
Semmering Alpine Railway commemorative coin,[59]
and the 2006 Austrian €25 European Satellite
Navigation commemorative coin.[60] Latvia produced a A 150 Years Semmering Alpine
similar series of coins starting in 2004,[61] with one Railway Coin made of niobium and
following in 2007.[62] silver
Other uses
Niobium and some niobium alloys are used in medical devices such as pacemakers, because
they are physiologically inert (and thus hypoallergenic).[63] Niobium treated with sodium
hydroxide forms a porous layer that aids osseointegration.[64] Along with titanium,
tantalum, and aluminium, niobium can also be electrically heated and anodized, resulting in
a wide array of colours using a process known as reactive metal anodizing which is useful
Niobium 11
in making jewelry.[65] [66]

The fact that niobium is hypoallergenic also benefits its use in
jewelry.[67]
The arc-tube seals of high pressure sodium vapor lamps are made from niobium, or niobium
with 1% of zirconium, because niobium has a very similar coefficient of thermal expansion
to the sintered alumina arc tube ceramic, a translucent material which resists chemical
attack or reduction by the hot liquid sodium and sodium vapour contained inside the
operating lamp.[68] [69] [70] The metal is also used in arc welding rods for some stabilized
grades of stainless steel.[71]
Niobium was evaluated as a cheaper alternative to tantalum in capacitors,[72] but tantalum
capacitors are still predominant. Niobium is added to glass in order to attain a higher
refractive index, a property of use to the optical industry in making thinner corrective
glasses. The metal has a low capture cross-section for thermal neutrons;[73] thus it is used
in the nuclear industries.[74]
The Superconducting Radio Frequency (RF) cavities used in the free electron lasers TESLA
and XFEL are made from pure niobium.[75]
The high sensitivity of superconducting niobium nitride bolometers make them an ideal
detector for electromagnetic radiation in the THz frequency band. These detectors were
tested at the Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope, the South Pole Telescope, the
Receiver Lab Telescope, and at APEX and are now used in the HIFI instrument on board the
Herschel Space Observatory.[76]
Precautions
Niobium has no known biological role. While niobium dust is an eye and skin irritant and a
potential fire hazard, elemental niobium on a larger scale is physiologically inert (and thus
hypoallergenic) and harmless. It is frequently used in jewelry and has been tested for use in
some medical implants.[77] [78]
Niobium-containing compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but some are toxic
and should be treated with care. The short and long term exposure to niobates and niobium
chloride, two chemicals that are water soluble, have been tested in rats. Rats treated with a
single injection of niobium pentachloride or niobates show a median lethal dose (LD50)
between 10 and 100 mg/kg.[79] [80] [81] For oral administration the toxicity is lower; a study
with rats yielded a LD50 after seven days of 940 mg/kg.[79]
External links
• Los Alamos National Laboratory – Niobium [82]
• WebElements.com – Niobium [83]
• Tantalum-Niobium International Study Center [84]
• Niobium for particle accelerators eg ILC. 2005 [85]
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[79] Haley, Thomas J.; Komesu, N.; Raymond, K. (1962). "Pharmacology and toxicology of niobium chloride".
Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 4 (3): 385–392. doi: 10.1016/0041-008X(62)90048-0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1016/ 0041-008X(62)90048-0).
[80] Downs, William L.; Scott, James K.; Yuile, Charles L.; Caruso, Frank S.; Wong, Lawrence C. K. (1965). " The
Toxicity of Niobium Salts (http:/ / www. informaworld. com/ smpp/ content~content=a789022664~db=all)".
American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal 26 (4): 337–346. doi: 10.1080/00028896509342740 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 00028896509342740). .
[81] Schroeder, Henry A.; Mitchener, Marian; Nason, Alexis P. (01 Jan 1970). " Zirconium, Niobium, Antimony,
Vanadium and Lead in Rats: Life term studies (http:/ / jn. nutrition. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 100/ 1/ 59)".
Journal of Nutrition 100 (1): 59–68. PMID 5412131. .
[83] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Nb/ index. html
[84] http:/ / www. tanb. org/
[85] http:/ / www. symmetrymag. org/ cms/ ?pid=1000173

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License
Molybdenum 1
Molybdenum
42 niobium ← molybdenum → technetium

Cr
↑
Mo
↓
W

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number molybdenum, Mo, 42
Appearance gray metallic

−1

5 1
Physical properties
Phase solid

(2623 °C, 4753 °F)

(4639 °C, 8382 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2742 2994 3312 3707 4212 4879
Atomic properties
Molybdenum 2

6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 , -1, -2

(more)
2nd: 1560 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2618 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 53.4 n Ω·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 138 W·m

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) 5400 m·s

−1
Poisson ratio 0.31
Mohs hardness 5.5
Molybdenum 3
Main article: Isotopes of molybdenum

92
Mo 14.84% 92
Mo is stable with 50 neutron
93
Mo syn 4×103 y ε - 93
Nb
94
Mo 9.25% 94
95
Mo 15.92% 95
96
Mo 16.68% 96
97
Mo 9.55% 97
98
Mo 24.13% 98
99
Mo syn 65.94 h β
− 0.436, 1.214 99
Tc
γ 0.74, 0.36, -
0.14
100
Mo 9.63% 7.8×10
18
y β β
− − 3.04 100
Ru
References
Molybdenum (pronounced /məˈlɪbdənəm/, from the Greek word for the metal "lead"), is a
Group 6 chemical element with the symbol Mo and atomic number 42. The free element,
which is a silvery metal, has the sixth-highest melting point of any element. It readily forms
hard, stable carbides, and for this reason it is often used in high-strength steel alloys.
Molybdenum does not occur as the free metal in nature, but rather in a variety of oxidation
states in minerals. Industrially molybdenum compounds are used in high-pressure and
temperature resistant greases between metals, as pigments, and catalysts.
Molybdenum minerals have long been known, but the element was "discovered" (in the
sense of differentiating it as a new entity from minerals salts of other metals) in 1778 by
Carl Wilhelm Scheele. The metal was first isolated in 1781 by Peter Jacob Hjelm.
Most of molybdenum's compounds have low water solubility, but the molybdate ion MoO2−4
is soluble, and will form if molybdenum-containing minerals are in contact with free oxygen
and water. Recent theories suggest that the release of free oxygen by early life was
important in removing molybdenum from minerals into a soluble form in the early oceans,
where it was available to be used as a catalyst by single-celled organisms. This sequence
may have been important in the history of life, because molybdenum-containing enzymes
then became the most important catalysts used by some bacteria to break the bond in
atmospheric molecular nitrogen, allowing biological nitrogen fixation. This, in turn allowed
biologically driven nitrogen-fertilization of the oceans, and thus the development of more
complex organisms. Aside from bacterial enzymes involved with nitrogen fixation, about 20
different molybdenum-containing enzymes are known today in animals. Molybdenum is a
required element for life in these higher organisms, though not in all bacteria.
Molybdenum 4
Characteristics
Physical
Molybdenum is a transition metal with an electronegativity of 1.8 on the Pauling scale and
an atomic mass of 95.94 g/mole.[3] It does not react with oxygen or water at room
temperature. At elevated temperatures, molybdenum trioxide is formed in the reaction
2 Mo + 3 O2 → 2 MoO3.[4]
In its pure metal form, molybdenum is silvery white with a Mohs hardness of 5.5, though it
is somewhat more ductile than tungsten. It has a melting point of 2623 °C (4753 °F); of the
naturally occurring elements, only tantalum, osmium, rhenium, tungsten, and carbon have
higher melting points.[5] Molybdenum burns only at temperatures above 600 °C
(1112 °F).[6] It has the lowest heating expansion of any commercially used metal.[7]
Molybdenum has a value of approximately $65,000 per tonne as of 4 May 2007. It
maintained a price at or near $10,000 per tonne from 1997 through 2002, and reached a
high of $103,000 per tonne in June 2005.[8]
Occurrence
The world's largest producers of molybdenum materials
are the United States, Canada, Chile, Russia, and
China.[7] [9]
Molybdenum output in 2005
Though molybdenum is found in such minerals as

wulfenite (PbMoO4) and powellite (CaMoO4), the main
commercial source of molybdenum is molybdenite
(MoS2). Molybdenum is mined as a principal ore, and is
also recovered as a byproduct of copper and tungsten
mining.[5] Large mines in Colorado (such as the
Henderson mine and the now-inactive Climax mine)[10]
and in British Columbia yield molybdenite as their
primary product, while many porphyry copper deposits
Molybdenite on quartz
such as the Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah and the
Chuquicamata mine in northern Chile produce
molybdenum as a byproduct of copper mining. The Knaben mine in southern Norway was
opened in 1885, making it the first molybdenum mine. It remained open until 1973.
Molybdenum is the 54th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and the 25th most
abundant element in the oceans, with an average of 10 parts per billion; it is 42nd most
abundant element in the Universe.[6] [7] The Russian Luna 24 mission discovered a single
molybdenum-bearing grain (1 × 0.6 µm) in a pyroxene fragment taken from Mare Crisium
on the Moon.[11]
A side product of molybdenum mining is rhenium. As it is always present in small varying
quantities in molybdenite, the only commercial source for rhenium is molybdenum mines.
Molybdenum 5
Isotopes
There are 35 known isotopes of molybdenum ranging in atomic mass from 83 to 117, as
well as four metastable nuclear isomers. Seven isotopes occur naturally, with atomic
masses of 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, and 100. Of these naturally occurring isotopes, only
molybdenum-92 and molybdenum-100 are unstable.[12] All unstable isotopes of
molybdenum decay into isotopes of niobium, technetium, and ruthenium.[13]
Molybdenum-98 is the most abundant isotope, comprising 24.14% of all molybdenum.
Molybdenum-100 has a half-life of approximately 1×1019 y and undergoes double beta
decay into ruthenium-100. Molybdenum isotopes with mass numbers from 111 to 117 all
have half-lives of approximately 150 ns.[12] [13]
As also noted below, the most common isotopic molybdenum application involves
molybdenum-99, which is a fission product. It is used as a parent radioisotope to the
short-lived gamma-emitting daughter radioisotope technetium-99m, a nuclear isomer which
is used in various imaging applications in medicine.[14]
Oxidation states
[15]
of molybdenum.
−2 Na2[Mo2(CO)10]
0 Mo(CO)6
+1 Na[C6H6Mo]
+2 MoCl2
+3 Na3[Mo(CN)]6
+4 MoS2
+5 MoCl5
+6 MoF6
Molybdenum has several common oxidation states, +2, +3, +4, +5 and +6. The chemistry
and the compounds show more similarity to those of tungsten than that of chromium. An
example is the instability of molybdenum(III) and tungsten(III) compounds compared to the
stability of the chromium(III) compounds. The highest oxidation state is common in the
molybdenum(VI) oxide MoO3 while the normal sulfur compound is molybdenum disulfide
MoS2.
Molybdenum 6
Molybdenum(VI) oxide is soluble in alkaline water,

forming molybdates (MoO2−4). Molybdates are weaker
oxidants than chromates, but they show a similar
tendency to form complex oxyanions by condensation at
lower pH values, such as [Mo7O24]6- and [Mo8O26]4-.
Polymolybdates can incorporate other ions into their
structure, forming polyoxometalates.[16] The dark blue
phosphorus-containing heteropolymolybdate
3-
P[Mo12O40] is used for the spectroscopic detection of
phosphorus. Molybdenum has a broad range of
oxidation states, several of which are demonstrated by
the various compounds of molybdenum and chlorine:
Keggin structure of the
phosphomolybdate anion • Molybdenum(II) chloride MoCl2 (yellow solid)
(P[Mo12O40]3-), an example of a
• Molybdenum(III) chloride MoCl3 (dark red solid)
polyoxometalate
• Molybdenum(V) chloride MoCl5 (dark green solid)
• Molybdenum(VI) chloride MoCl6 (brown solid)
The structure of the MoCl2 is composed of Mo6Cl84+ clusters with four chloride ions to
compensate the charge.
Like chromium and some other transition metals molybdenum is able to form quadruple
bonds. Mo2(CH3COO)4 is an example for a quadruple bond. This compound can be
transformed into the chlorine compound Mo2Cl84-.
The oxidation state 0 is possible with carbon monoxide as ligand, such as in molybdenum
hexacarbonyl, Mo(CO)6.
History
Molybdenite (from the Ancient Greek Μόλυβδος molybdos, meaning lead),[5] the principal
ore from which molybdenum is now extracted, was previously known as molybdena.
Molybdena was confused with and often implemented as though it were graphite. Even
when the two ores were distinguishable, molybdena was thought to be a lead ore.[7] In
1754, Bengt Qvist examined the mineral and determined that it did not contain lead.[17]
It was not until 1778 that Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele realized molybdena was
neither graphite nor lead.[18] [19] He and other chemists then correctly assumed that it was
the ore of a distinct new element, named molybdenum for the mineral in which it was
discovered. Peter Jacob Hjelm successfully isolated molybdenum using carbon and linseed
oil in 1781.[7] [20] For a long time there was no industrial use for molybdenum. The French
Schneider Electrics company produced the first steel molybdenum alloy armor plates in
1894. Until World War I most other armor factories also used molybdenum alloys. In World
War I, some British tanks were protected by 75 mm (3.0 in) manganese plating, but this
proved to be ineffective. The manganese plates were then replaced with 25 mm (0.98 in)
molybdenum plating. These allowed for higher speed, greater maneuverability, and, despite
being thinner, better protection.[7] The high demand for molybdenum in World War I and
World War II and the steep decrease after the wars had a great influence on prices and
production of molybdenum.
In 2008 the London Metal Exchange announced that molybdenum would be be traded as a
commodity on the exchange.[21]
Molybdenum 7
Production
The molybdenite is first heated to a temperature of 700 °C (1292 °F) and the sulfide is
oxidized into molybdenum(VI) oxide by air:
2 MoS2 + 7 O2 → 2 MoO3 + 4 SO2
The oxidized ore is then either heated to 1100 °C (2010 °F) to sublimate the oxide, or
leached with ammonia which reacts with the molybdenum(VI) oxide to form water-soluble
molybdates:
MoO3 + 2 NH4OH → (NH4)2(MoO4) + H2O
Copper, an impurity in molybdenite, is less soluble in ammonia. To completely remove it
from the solution, it is precipitated with hydrogen sulfide.
Pure molybdenum is produced by reduction of the oxide with hydrogen, while the
molybdenum for steel production is reduced by the aluminothermic reaction with addition
of iron to produce ferromolybdenum. A common form of ferromolybdenum contains 60%
molybdenum.[7] [22]
Applications
The ability of molybdenum to withstand extreme temperatures without significantly
expanding or softening makes it useful in applications that involve intense heat, including
the manufacture of aircraft parts, electrical contacts, industrial motors, and filaments.[7] [23]
Molybdenum is also used in alloys for its high corrosion resistance and weldability.[6] [24]
Molybdenum contributes corrosion resistance to type 316 stainless steel by 'gettering'
residual carbon, preventing the formation of chromium carbide at grain boundaries. Most
high-strength steel alloys are .25% to 8% molybdenum.[5] Despite being used in such small
portions, more than 43 million kg of molybdenum is used as an alloying agent each year in
stainless steels, tool steels, cast irons, and high-temperature superalloys.[6]
Because of its lower density and more stable price, molybdenum is implemented in the
place of tungsten.[6] An example is the 'M' series of high-speed steels such as M2, M4, and
M42 as substitution for the 'T' series of HSS. Molybdenum can be implemented both as an
alloying agent and as a flame-resistant coating for other metals. Although its melting point
is 2623 °C (4753 °F), molybdenum rapidly oxidizes at temperatures above 760 °C
(1400 °F), making it better-suited for use in vacuum environments.[23]
Molybdenum based alloys have only limited applications. Due to the corrosion resistance
against molten zinc, molybdenum and the molybdenum tungsten alloy (70%/30%) are used
for piping, stirrers and pump impellers which come into contact with molten zinc.[25]
Molybdenum-99 is used as a parent radioisotope to the daughter radioisotope
Technetium-99m, which is used in many medical procedures.
Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is used as a solid lubricant and an extreme pressure (EP)
antiwear agent. It forms strong films on metallic surfaces, and is highly resistant to both
extreme temperatures and high pressure, and for this reason, it is a common additive to
extreme pressure application greases; in case of a catastrophic failure, the thin layer of
molybdenum prevents metal-on-metal contact.
Molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) is used as an adhesive between enamels and metals.[18]
Molybdenum powder is used as a fertilizer for some plants, such as cauliflower.[6]
Molybdenum 8
Lead molybdate (Wulfenite) co-precipitated with lead chromate and lead sulfate is a
bright-orange pigment used with ceramics and plastics.[26]
Also used in NO, NO2, NOx analyzers in power plants for pollution controls. At 350 °C
(662 °F) the element acts as a catalyst for NO2/NOx to form only NO molecules for
consistent readings by infrared light.
Biological role
The most important use of the molybdenum atom in living organisms is as a metal
hetero-atom at the active site in certain enzymes. In nitrogen fixation in certain bacteria,
the nitrogenase enzyme which is involved in the terminal step of reducing molecular
nitrogen, usually contains molybdenum in the active site (though replacement of Mo with
iron or vanadium is known). The structure of the catalytic center of the enzyme is similar to
that in iron-sulfur proteins, it incorporates a Fe4S3 and MoFe3S3 cluster.[27]
In March 2008, researchers reported that they had found strong evidence for the
hypothesis that a scarcity of molybdenum in the Earth's early oceans was a limiting factor
in the further evolution of eukaryotic life (which includes all plants and animals) as
eukaryotes cannot fix nitrogen and must acquire it from prokaryotic bacteria.[28] [29] [30]
The scarcity of molybdenum resulted from the relative lack of oxygen in the early ocean.
Oxygen dissolved in seawater is the primary mechanism for dissolving molybdenum from
minerals on the sea bottom.
Though molybdenum forms compounds with various
organic molecules, including carbohydrates and amino
acids, it is transported throughout the human body as
MoO2−4.[31] Molybdenum is present in approximately
20 enzymes in animals, including aldehyde oxidase,
sulfite oxidase and xanthine oxidase.[7] In some
animals, the oxidation of xanthine to uric acid, a
Molybdenum containing cofactor process of purine catabolism, is catalyzed by xanthine
molybdopterin oxidase, a molybdenum-containing enzyme. The activity
of xanthine oxidase is directly proportional to the
amount of molybdenum in the body. However, an extremely high concentration of
molybdenum reverses the trend, and can act as an inhibitor in both purine catabolism and
other processes. Molybdenum concentrations also affect protein synthesis, metabolism, and
growth.[31] These enzymes in plants and animals catalyze the reaction of oxygen in small
molecules, as part of the regulation of nitrogen-, sulfur- and carbon cycles.[32]
Human body contains about 0.07 mg of molybdenum per kilogram.[33] It occurs in higher
concentrations in the liver and kidneys, and in lower concentrations in the vertebrae.[6]
Molybdenum is also present within human tooth enamel and may help prevent the decaying
thereof.[34] Pork, lamb, and beef liver each have approximately 1.5 parts per million of
molybdenum. Other significant dietary sources include green beans, eggs, sunflower seeds,
wheat flour, lentils, and cereal grain.[7]
The average daily intake of molybdenum varies between 120 µg and 240 µg but strongly
depending on the molybdenum content of the food.[35] Acute toxicity has not been seen in
humans, and the toxicity depends strongly on the chemical state. Studies on rats show a
median lethal dose (LD50) as low as 180 mg/kg for some Mo compounds.[36] Although
Molybdenum 9
human toxicity data is unavailable, animal studies have shown that chronic ingestion of
more than 10 mg/kg of molybdenum can cause diarrhea, growth retardation, sterility, low
birth weight, and gout, as well as affecting the lungs, kidneys, and liver. Molybdenum
deficiency is not usually seen in healthy people.[37] Sodium tungstate is a competitive
inhibitor of molybdenum. Dietary tungsten reduces the concentration of molybdenum in
tissues.[6]
Dietary deficiency in molybdenum from low soil concentration has been associated with
increased rates of esophageal cancer in a geographical band from [[northern China to
Iran.[38] [39] Compared to the United States, which has a greater supply of molybdenum in
the soil, those living in these areas have a 16 times greater risk for esophageal squamous
cell carcinoma.
Copper-molybdenum antagonism
High levels of molybdenum can interfere with the body's uptake of copper, producing
copper deficiency. Molybdenum prevents plasma proteins from binding to copper, and it
also increases the amount of copper that is excreted in urine. Ruminants that consume high
amounts of molybdenum develop symptoms including diarrhea, stunted growth, anemia,
and achromotrichia (loss of hair pigment). These symptoms can be alleviated by the
administration of more copper into the system, both in dietary form and by injection.[40] The
condition can be aggravated by excess sulfur.[6]
Precautions
Molybdenum dusts and fumes, as can be generated by mining or metalworking, can be
toxic, especially if ingested (including dust trapped in the sinuses and later swallowed).[36]
Low levels of prolonged exposure can cause irritation to the eyes and skin. The direct
inhalation or ingestion of molybdenum and its oxides should also be avoided.[41] [42] OSHA
regulations specify the maximum permissible molybdenum exposure in an 8-hour day to be
5 mg/m³. Chronic exposure to 60 to 600 mg Mo/m³ can cause symptoms including fatigue,
headaches, and joint pains.[43]
External links
• WebElements.com [44] — Molybdenum
[45]
• International Molybdenum Association — Main page
References
[1] " Molybdenum: molybdenum(I) fluoride compound data (http:/ / openmopac. net/ data_normal/ molybdenum(i)
[3] " Properties of Molybdenum (http:/ / www. qivx. com/ ispt/ elements/ ptw_042. php)". Integral Scientist
Periodic Table. Qivx, Inc.. 2003. . Retrieved 2007-06-10.
[4] Winter, Mark. " Chemistry (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Mo/ chem. html)".
Molybdenum. The University of Sheffield. . Retrieved 2007-06-10.
[5] Lide, David R., ed. (1994), "Molybdenum", CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 4, Chemical Rubber
Publishing Company, p. 18, ISBN 0849304741
[6] Considine, Glenn D., ed (2005). "Molybdenum". Van Nostrand's Encyclopedia of Chemistry. New York:
Wiley-Interscience. pp. 1038–1040. ISBN 9780471615255.
Molybdenum 10
[7] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&
pg=PA265). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 262–266. ISBN 0198503415. .
[8] " Dynamic Prices and Charts for Molybdenum (http:/ / www. infomine. com/ investment/ metalschart.
asp?c=molybdenum& u=mt& submit1=Display+ Chart& x=usd& r=15y)". InfoMine Inc.. 2007. . Retrieved
2007-05-07.
[9] Lide, David R., ed (2006). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 4. Chemical Rubber Publishing Company.
pp. 22–23. ISBN 0849304873.
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[13] Lide, David R., ed. (2006), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 11, CRC, pp. 87–88, ISBN 0849304873
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dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ anie. 199100341).
[17] Van der Krogt, Peter (2006-01-10). " Molybdenum (http:/ / www. vanderkroft. net/ elements/ elem/ mo. html)".
[18] Gagnon, Steve. " Molybdenum (http:/ / education. jlab. org/ itselemental/ ele042. html)". Jefferson Science
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[19] C. W. K. Scheele (1779). " Versuche mit Wasserbley;Molybdaena (http:/ / resolver. sub. uni-goettingen. de/
purl?PPN324352840_0040)". Svenska vetensk. Academ. Handlingar 40: 238. .
[20] P. J. Hjelm (1788). " Versuche mit Molybdäna, und Reduction der selben Erde (http:/ / resolver. sub.
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September 2008. . Retrieved 28 July 2009.
[22] Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; (1985) (in German). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie
(91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1056–1057. ISBN 3-11-007511-3.
[23] " Molybdenum (http:/ / www. azom. com/ details. asp?ArticleID=616)". AZoM.com Pty. Limited. 2007. .
[24] " Molybdenum Statistics and Information (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
molybdenum/ )". U.S. Geological Survey. 2007-05-10. . Retrieved 2007-05-10.
[25] Cubberly, W. H.; Bakerjian, Ramon (1989). Tool and manufacturing engineers handbook (http:/ / books.
google. de/ books?id=NRXnXmFRjWYC& pg=PT421). Society of Manufacturing Engineers. p. 421. ISBN
9780872633513. .
[26] International Molybdenum Association, http:/ / www. moly. imoa. info
[27] Dos Santos, Patricia C.; Dean, Dennis R. (2008). "A newly discovered role for iron-sulfur clusters". PNAS 105:
11589. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0805713105 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1073/ pnas. 0805713105).
[28] Scott, C.; et al. (2008). "Tracing the stepwise oxygenation of the Proterozoic ocean". Nature 452 (7186):
456–460. doi: 10.1038/nature06811 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ nature06811).
[29] " International team of scientists discover clue to delay of life on Earth (http:/ / www. eurekalert. org/
pub_releases/ 2008-03/ asu-ito032508. php)". Eurekalert.org. . Retrieved 2008-10-25.
[30] " Scientists uncover the source of an almost 2 billion year delay in animal evolution (http:/ / www. eurekalert.
org/ pub_releases/ 2008-03/ nu-sut032508. php)". Eurekalert.org. . Retrieved 2008-10-25.
[31] Mitchell, Phillip C. H. (2003). " Overview of Environment Database (http:/ / www. hse. imoa. info/ Default.
asp?page=110)". International Molybdenum Association. . Retrieved 2007-05-05.
[32] Kisker, C.; Schindelin, H.; Baas, D.; Rétey, J.; Meckenstock, R.U.; Kroneck, P.M.H. (1999). "A structural
comparison of molybdenum cofactor-containing enzymes". FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 22: 503. doi:
10.1111/j.1574-6976.1998.tb00384.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1111/ j. 1574-6976. 1998. tb00384. x). PMID
9990727.
[33] Arnold F. Holleman, Egon Wiberg (2001). Inorganic chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=vEwj1WZKThEC& pg=PA1384). Academic Press. p. 1384. ISBN 0123526515. .
Molybdenum 11
[34] Ismail, Mumtaz. " Dental Problems and Diet (http:/ / www. bawarchi. com/ health/ dental. html)". Health and
Nutrition. Bawarchi. . Retrieved 2007-05-19.
[35] Coughlan, M. P. (1983). "The role of molybdenum in human biology". Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease
6: 70. doi: 10.1007/BF01811327 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF01811327).
[36] " Risk Assessment Information System: Toxicity Summary for Molybdenum (http:/ / rais. ornl. gov/ tox/
profiles/ molybdenum_f_V1. shtml)". Oak Ridge National Laboratory. .
[37] " Nutrient Reference Values for Australia (http:/ / www. nrv. gov. au/ Nutrients. aspx?code=71128006)".
National Medical and Health Research Council (Australia). . Retrieved 2008-04-23.
[38] Yang, Chung S. (1980). " Research on Esophageal Cancer in China: a Review (http:/ / cancerres. aacrjournals.
org/ cgi/ reprint/ 40/ 8_Part_1/ 2633. pdf)". Cancer Research 40: 2633. .
[39] Nouri, Mohsen; Chalian, Hamid; Bahman, Atiyeh; Mollahajian, Hamid; Ahmadi-Faghih, Mohammadamin;
Fakheri, Hafez; Soroush, Ahmadreza (2008). " Nail Molybdenum and Zinc Contents in Populations with Low and
Moderate Incidence of Esophageal Cancer (http:/ / www. ams. ac. ir/ AIM/ 08114/ 0010. pdf)". Archives of
Iranian Medicine 11: 392. .
[40] Suttle, N. F. (December 1974). "Recent studies of the copper-molybdenum antagonism". Proceedings of the
Nutrition Society (CABI Publishing) 33 (3): 299–305. doi: 10.1079/PNS19740053 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1079/
PNS19740053).
[41] " Material Safety Data Sheet - Molybdenum (http:/ / www. rembar. com/ MSDSmo. htm)". The REMBAR
Company, Inc.. 2000-09-19. . Retrieved 2007-05-13.
[42] " Material Safety Data Sheet - Molybdenum Powder (http:/ / asp. cerac. com/ CatalogNet/ default.
aspx?p=msdsFile& msds=m000121. htm)". CERAC, Inc.. 1994-02-23. . Retrieved 2007-10-19.
[43] " NIOSH Documentation for ILDHs Molybdenum (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ idlh/ moly-mo. html)".
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 1996-08-16. . Retrieved 2007-05-31.
[44] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ molybdenum/
[45] http:/ / www. imoa. info/ index. html

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License
Technetium 1
Technetium
43 molybdenum ← technetium → ruthenium

Mn
↑
Tc
↓
Re

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number technetium, Tc, 43
Appearance silvery gray metal
Standard atomic weight [98](0) g·mol

−1

5 2
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 11 g·cm−3

(2157 °C, 3915 °F)

(4265 °C, 7709 °F)
Vapor pressure (extrapolated)
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2727 2998 3324 3726 4234 4894
Atomic properties

Technetium 2
Oxidation states [1] [2]

7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 , -1, -3
Electron affinity -53 kJ/mol
Ionization energies 1st: 702 kJ/mol
2nd: 1470 kJ/mol
3rd: 2850 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering Paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1
Main article: Isotopes of technetium

95m
Tc syn 61 d ε - 95
Mo
γ 0.204, 0.582, -
0.835
IT 0.0389, e 95
Tc
96
Tc syn 4.3 d ε - 96
Mo
γ 0.778, 0.849, -
0.812
97
Tc syn 2.6×106 y ε - 97
Mo
97m
Tc syn 90 d IT 0.965, e 97
Tc
98
Tc syn 4.2×106 y β− 0.4 98
Ru
γ 0.745, 0.652 -
99
Tc trace 2.111×105 y β− 0.294 99
Ru
99m
Tc trace 6.01 h IT 0.142, 0.002 99
Tc
γ 0.140 -
References
Technetium (pronounced /tɛkˈniːʃɪəm/) is the lightest chemical element with no stable

isotope, and therefore the lightest radioactive element (but not the lightest radioactive
isotope, which is tritium). It is a synthetic element with the atomic number 43 and is given
the symbol Tc. The chemical properties of this silvery grey, crystalline transition metal are
intermediate between rhenium and manganese. Its short-lived gamma-emitting nuclear
isomer 99mTc (technetium-99m) is used in nuclear medicine for a wide variety of diagnostic
Technetium 3
tests. 99Tc is used as a gamma ray-free source of beta particles. The pertechnetate ion
(TcO4-) has been suggested as a strong anodic corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in closed
cooling systems.
Before the element was discovered, many of the properties of element 43 were predicted by
Dmitri Mendeleev. Mendeleev noted a gap in his periodic table and called the element
ekamanganese (Em). In 1937 its isotope 97Tc became the first predominantly artificial
element to be produced, hence its name (from the Greek τεχνητός, meaning "artificial").
Most technetium produced on Earth is a by-product of fission of uranium-235 in nuclear
reactors and is extracted from nuclear fuel rods. No isotope of technetium has a half-life
longer than 4.2 million years (98Tc), so its detection in red giants in 1952 helped bolster the
theory that stars can produce heavier elements. On Earth, technetium occurs in trace but
measurable quantities as a product of spontaneous fission in uranium ore or by neutron
capture in molybdenum ores.
Characteristics
Technetium is a silvery-grey radioactive metal with an appearance similar to platinum.
However, it is commonly obtained as a grey powder. Its position in the group 7 of the
periodic table is between rhenium and manganese and as predicted by the periodic law its
properties are intermediate between those two elements. Technetium, together with
promethium, is unusual among the lighter elements in that it has no stable isotopes.
Technetium is therefore extremely rare on Earth. Technetium plays no natural biological
role and is not normally found in the human body.[3]
The metal form of technetium slowly tarnishes in moist air. Its oxides are TcO2 and Tc2O7.
Under oxidizing conditions technetium (VII) will exist as the pertechnetate ion, TcO4-.
Common oxidation states of technetium include 0, +2, +4, +5, +6 and +7. Technetium will
burn in oxygen when in powder form.[4] It dissolves in aqua regia, nitric acid, and
concentrated sulfuric acid, but it is not soluble in hydrochloric acid of any strength.[3] It has
characteristic spectral lines at 363 nm, 403 nm, 410 nm, 426 nm, 430 nm, and 485 nm.[5]
The metal form is slightly paramagnetic, meaning its magnetic dipoles align with external
magnetic fields even though technetium is not normally magnetic.[4] The crystal structure
of the metal is hexagonal close-packed. Pure metallic single-crystal technetium becomes a
type II superconductor at 7.46 K; irregular crystals and trace impurities raise this
temperature to 11.2 K for 99.9% pure technetium powder.[6] Below this temperature
technetium has a very high magnetic penetration depth, the largest among the elements
apart from niobium.[7]
Technetium is produced in quantity by nuclear fission, and spreads more readily than many
radionuclides. In spite of the importance of understanding its toxicity in animals and
humans, experimental evidence is scant. It appears to have low chemical toxicity. Its
radiological toxicity (per unit of mass) is a function of compound, type of radiation for the
isotope in question, and the isotope's half-life. Technetium-99m is particularly attractive for
medical applications, as the radiation from this isotope is a gamma ray with the same
wavelength as X-rays used for common medical diagnostic X-ray applications, giving it
adequate penetration while causing minimal damage for a gamma photon. This, plus the
extremely short half-life of this metastable nuclear isomer, followed by the relatively long
half-life of the daughter isotope Tc-99 which allows it to be eliminated from the body before
it decays. This leads to a relatively low dose of administered radiation in biologically
Technetium 4
dose-equivalent amounts (sieverts) for a typical Tc-99m based nuclear scan (see more on
this subject below).[8]
All isotopes of technetium must be handled carefully. The most common isotope,
technetium-99, is a weak beta emitter; such radiation is stopped by the walls of laboratory
glassware. Soft X-rays are emitted when the beta particles are stopped, but as long as the
body is kept more than 30 cm away these should pose no problem. The primary hazard
when working with technetium is inhalation of dust; such radioactive contamination in the
lungs can pose a significant cancer risk. For most work, careful handling in a fume hood is
sufficient; a glove box is not needed.[9]
History
Search for element 43

For a number of years there was a gap in the periodic
table between molybdenum (element 42) and ruthenium
(element 44). Many early researchers were eager to be
the first to discover and name the missing element; its
location in the table suggested that it should be easier
to find than other undiscovered elements. It was first
thought to have been found in platinum ores in 1828. It
was given the name polinium but it turned out to be
impure iridium. Then in 1846 the element ilmenium was
claimed to have been discovered but was determined to
be impure niobium. This mistake was repeated in 1847
Dmitri Mendeleev predicted
with the "discovery" of pelopium.[10] Dmitri Mendeleev
technetium's properties before it was
predicted that this missing element, as part of other discovered.
predictions, would be chemically similar to manganese
and gave it the name ekamanganese.
In 1877, the Russian chemist Serge Kern reported discovering the missing element in
platinum ore. Kern named what he thought was the new element davyum, after the noted
English chemist Sir Humphry Davy, but it was determined to be a mixture of iridium,
rhodium and iron. Another candidate, lucium, followed in 1896 but it was determined to be
yttrium. Then in 1908 the Japanese chemist Masataka Ogawa found evidence in the mineral
thorianite which he thought indicated the presence of element 43. Ogawa named the
element nipponium, after Japan (which is Nippon in Japanese). In 2004 H. K Yoshihara
utilized "a record of X-ray spectrum of Ogawa's nipponium sample from thorianite [which]
was contained in a photographic plate preserved by his family. The spectrum was read and
indicated the absence of the element 43 and the presence of the element 75 (rhenium)."[11]
German chemists Walter Noddack, Otto Berg and Ida Tacke (later Mrs. Noddack) reported
the discovery of element 75 and element 43 in 1925 and named element 43 masurium
(after Masuria in eastern Prussia, now in Poland, the region where Walter Noddack's family
originated).[12] The group bombarded columbite with a beam of electrons and deduced
element 43 was present by examining X-ray diffraction spectrograms. The wavelength of
the X-rays produced is related to the atomic number by a formula derived by Henry
Moseley in 1913. The team claimed to detect a faint X-ray signal at a wavelength produced
by element 43. Contemporary experimenters could not replicate the discovery, and in fact it
Technetium 5
was dismissed as an error for many years.[13] [14]
In 1998 John T. Armstrong of the National Institute of Standards and Technology ran
"computer simulations" of the 1925 experiments and obtained results quite close to those
reported by the Noddack team. He claimed that this was further supported by work
published by David Curtis of the Los Alamos National Laboratory measuring the (tiny)
natural occurrence of technetium.[13] [15] However, the Noddack's experimental results
have never been reproduced, and they were unable to isolate any element 43. Debate still
exists as to whether the 1925 team actually did discover element 43.
Official discovery and later history

Discovery of element 43 was finally confirmed in a 1937 experiment at the University of
Palermo in Sicily conducted by Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segrè. In the summer of 1936
Segrè and his wife visited the United States, first New York at Columbia University, where
he had spent time the previous summer, and then Berkeley at Ernest O. Lawrence's
Radiation Laboratory. He persuaded cyclotron inventor Lawrence to let him take back some
discarded cyclotron parts that had become radioactive. In early 1937 Lawrence mailed him
a molybdenum foil that had been part of the deflector in the cyclotron. Segrè enlisted his
experienced chemist colleague Perrier to attempt to prove through comparative chemistry
that the molybdenum activity was indeed Z = 43, an element not existent in nature because
of its instability against nuclear decay. With considerable difficulty they finally succeeded in
isolating three distinct decay periods (90, 80, and 50 days) that eventually turned out to be
two isotopes, 95Tc and 97Tc, of technetium, the name given later by Perrier and Segrè to
the first man-made element.[16] University of Palermo officials wanted them to name their
discovery panormium, after the Latin name for Palermo, Panormus. The researchers
instead named element 43 after the Greek word τεχνητός, meaning "artificial", since it was
the first element to be artificially produced.[10] [12] Segrè returned to Berkeley and
immediately sought out Glenn T. Seaborg. They isolated the technetium-99m isotope which
is now used in some 10,000,000 medical diagnostic procedures annually.[17]
In 1952 astronomer Paul W. Merrill in California detected the spectral signature of
technetium (in particular, light at 403.1 nm, 423.8 nm, 426.8 nm, and 429.7 nm) in light
from S-type red giants. These massive stars near the end of their lives were rich in this
short-lived element, meaning nuclear reactions within the stars must be producing it. This
evidence was used to bolster the then unproven theory that stars are where
nucleosynthesis of the heavier elements occurs.[16] More recently, such observations
provided evidence that elements were being formed by neutron capture in the s-process.[18]
Since its discovery, there have been many searches in terrestrial materials for natural
sources. In 1962, technetium-99 was isolated and identified in pitchblende from the Belgian
Congo in extremely small quantities (about 0.2 ng/kg);[18] there it originates as a
spontaneous fission product of uranium-238. This discovery was made by B.T. Kenna and
P.K. Kuroda. There is also evidence that the Oklo natural nuclear fission reactor produced
significant amounts of technetium-99, which has since decayed to ruthenium-99.[18]
Technetium 6

Since technetium is unstable, only minute traces occur
naturally in the Earth's crust as a spontaneous fission
product of uranium. In 1999 David Curtis (see above)
estimated that a kilogram of uranium contains 1
nanogram (1×10−9 g) of technetium.[16] Extraterrestrial
technetium was found in some red giant stars (S-, M-,
and N-types) that contain an absorption line in their
spectrum indicating the presence of this element.[3]
Uranium ores contain traces of
Technetium
Long-lived
fission products
Prop: Yield Q* βγ
t½
Unit: % KeV *
Ma
99 .211 6.1385 294 β

Tc
126 .230 .1084 4050 βγ

Sn
79 .295 .0447 151 β

Se
93 1.53 5.4575 91 βγ
Zr
135 2.3 6.9110 269 β

Cs
107 6.5 1.2499 33 β

Pd
129 15.7 .8410 194 βγ

I
Byproduct production of Tc-99 in fission wastes

In contrast with the rare natural occurrence, bulk quantities of technetium-99 are produced
each year from spent nuclear fuel rods, which contain various fission products. The fission
of a gram of uranium-235 in nuclear reactors yields 27 mg of 99Tc, giving technetium a
fission product yield of 6.1%.[4] Other fissile isotopes also produce similar yields of
technetium, e.g. 4.9% from uranium-233 or 6.21% from plutonium-239.[19]
It is estimated that up to 1994, about 49,000 TBq (78 metric tons) of technetium was
produced in nuclear reactors, which is by far the dominant source of terrestrial
technetium.[20] However, only a fraction of the production is used commercially. As of 2005,
technetium-99 in the form of ammonium pertechnate is available to holders of an ORNL
permit for US$83/g plus packing charges.[3] This is higher than the spot price of platinum,
which has never been worth more than $72.40 per gram.
Since the yield of technetium-99 as a product of the nuclear fission of both uranium-235
and plutonium-239 is moderate, it is present in radioactive waste of fission reactors and is
produced when a fission bomb is detonated. The amount of artificially produced technetium
in the environment exceeds its natural occurrence by many orders of magnitude. This is
Technetium 7
due to release by atmospheric nuclear testing along with the disposal and processing of
high-level radioactive waste. Due to its high fission yield and relatively high half-life,
technetium-99 is one of the main components of nuclear waste. Its decay, measured in
becquerels per amount of spent fuel, is dominant at about 104 to 106 years after the
[20]
creation of the nuclear waste.
An estimated 160 TBq (about 250 kg) of technetium-99 was released into the environment
up to 1994 by atmospheric nuclear tests.[20] The amount of technetium-99 from nuclear
reactors released into the environment up to 1986 is estimated to be on the order of
1000 TBq (about 1600 kg), primarily by nuclear fuel reprocessing; most of this was
discharged into the sea. In recent years, reprocessing methods have improved to reduce
emissions, but as of 2005 the primary release of technetium-99 into the environment is by
the Sellafield plant, which released an estimated 550 TBq (about 900 kg) from 1995–1999
into the Irish Sea. From 2000 onwards the amount has been limited by regulation to 90 TBq
(about 140 kg) per year.[21]
As a result of nuclear fuel reprocessing, technetium has been discharged into the sea in a
number of locations, and some seafood contains tiny but measurable quantities. For
example, lobster from west Cumbria contains small amounts of technetium.[22] The
anaerobic, spore-forming bacteria in the Clostridium genus are able to reduce Tc(VII) to
Tc(IV). Clostridia bacteria play a role in reducing iron, manganese and uranium, thereby
affecting these elements' solubility in soil and sediments. Their ability to reduce technetium
may determine a large part of mobility of technetium in industrial wastes and other
subsurface environments.[23]
The long half-life of technetium-99 and its ability to form an anionic species makes it (along
with 129I) a major concern when considering long-term disposal of high-level radioactive
waste. In addition, many of the processes designed to remove fission products from
medium-active process streams in reprocessing plants are designed to remove cationic
species like caesium (e.g., 137Cs) and strontium (e.g., 90Sr). Hence the pertechnetate is able
to escape through these treatment processes. Current disposal options favor burial in
geologically stable rock. The primary danger with such a course is that the waste is likely to
come into contact with water, which could leach radioactive contamination into the
environment. The anionic pertechnetate and iodide are less able to absorb onto the surfaces
of minerals so they are likely to be more mobile.
By comparison plutonium, uranium, and caesium are much more able to bind to soil
particles. For this reason, the environmental chemistry of technetium is an active area of
research. An alternative disposal method, transmutation, has been demonstrated at CERN
for technetium-99. This transmutation process is one in which the technetium (99Tc as a
metal target) is bombarded with neutrons to form the short-lived 100Tc (half life = 16
seconds) which decays by beta decay to ruthenium (100Ru). If recovery of usable ruthenium
is a goal, an extremely pure technetium target is needed; if small traces of the minor
actinides such as americium and curium are present in the target, they are likely to
undergo fission and form more fission products which increase the radioactivity of the
irradiated target. The formation of 106Ru (half-life 374 days) from the fresh fission is likely
to increase the activity of the final ruthenium metal, which will then require a longer
cooling time after irradiation before the ruthenium can be used.
The actual production of technetium-99 from spent nuclear fuel is a long process. During
fuel reprocessing, it appears in the waste liquid, which is highly radioactive. After sitting
Technetium 8
for several years, the radioactivity has fallen to a point where extraction of the long-lived
isotopes, including technetium-99, becomes feasible. Several chemical extraction processes
are used yielding technetium-99 metal of high purity.[24]
Neutron activation of molybdenum or other pure elements

The metastable (a state where the nucleus is in an excited state) isotope 99mTc is produced
as a fission product from the fission of uranium or plutonium in nuclear reactors. Because
used fuel is allowed to stand for several years before reprocessing, all 99Mo and 99mTc will
have decayed by the time that the fission products are separated from the major actinides
in conventional nuclear reprocessing. The PUREX raffinate will contain a high
concentration of technetium as TcO4- but almost all of this will be 99Tc. The vast majority of
the 99mTc used in medical work is formed from 99Mo which is formed by the neutron
activation of 98Mo. 99Mo has a half-life of 67 hours, so short-lived 99mTc (half-life: 6 hours),
which results from its decay, is being constantly produced.[16] The hospital then chemically
extracts the technetium from the solution by using a technetium-99m generator
("technetium cow", also occasionally called a "molybdenum cow").
By working in this way, there is no need for the complex chemical steps which would be
required to separate molybdenum from a fission product mixture. This alternative method
requires that an enriched uranium target be irradiated with neutrons to form 99Mo as a
fission product, then separated.[25]
Other technetium isotopes are not produced in significant quantities by fission; when
needed, they are manufactured by neutron irradiation of parent isotopes (for example, 97Tc
can be made by neutron irradiation of 96Ru).
Isotopes
Technetium is one of the two elements in the first 82 that have no stable isotopes (in fact, it
is the lowest-numbered element that is exclusively radioactive); the other such element is
promethium. The most stable radioisotopes are 98Tc (half-life of 4.2 Ma), 97Tc (half-life: 2.6
Ma) and 99Tc (half-life: 211.1 ka).[26]
Twenty-two other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic masses ranging from
87.933 u (88Tc) to 112.931 u (113Tc). Most of these have half-lives that are less than an
hour; the exceptions are 93Tc (half-life: 2.75 hours), 94Tc (half-life: 4.883 hours), 95Tc
(half-life: 20 hours), and 96Tc (half-life: 4.28 days).[26]
Technetium also has numerous meta states. 97mTc is the most stable, with a half-life of
90.1 days (0.097 MeV). This is followed by 95mTc (half life: 61 days, 0.038 MeV), and 99mTc
(half-life: 6.01 hours, 0.143 MeV). 99mTc only emits gamma rays, subsequently decaying to
99
Tc.[26]
For isotopes lighter than the most stable isotope, 98Tc, the primary decay mode is electron
capture, giving molybdenum. For the heavier isotopes, the primary mode is beta emission,
giving ruthenium, with the exception that 100Tc can decay both by beta emission and
electron capture.[26] [27]
Technetium-99 is the most common and most readily available isotope, as it is a major
product of the fission of uranium-235. One gram of 99Tc produces 6.2×108 disintegrations a
second (that is, 0.62 GBq/g).[4]
Technetium 9
Applications
Nuclear medicine
Technetium-99m or 99mTc ("m" indicates that this is a
metastable nuclear isomer) is used in radioactive isotope
medical tests, for example as a radioactive tracer that
medical equipment can detect in the human body.[16] It is
well suited to the role because it emits readily detectable
140 keV gamma rays, and its half-life is 6.01 hours
(meaning that about fifteen sixteenths of it decays to 99Tc
in 24 hours).[4] Klaus Schwochau's book Technetium lists
31 radiopharmaceuticals based on 99mTc for imaging and
functional studies of the brain, myocardium, thyroid, lungs,
liver, gallbladder, kidneys, skeleton, blood, and tumors.[28]
99m
Immunoscintigraphy incorporates Tc into a monoclonal
antibody, an immune system protein, capable of binding to
cancer cells. A few hours after injection, medical
equipment is used to detect the gamma rays emitted by
the 99mTc; higher concentrations indicate where the tumor
is. This technique is particularly useful for detecting
hard-to-find cancers, such as those affecting the intestine.
These modified antibodies are sold by the German
company Hoechst (now part of Sanofi-Aventis) under the
name "Scintium".[16]
99m
When Tc is combined with a tin compound it binds to
Technetium scintigraphy of a neck
red blood cells and can therefore be used to map
of Graves' disease patient
circulatory system disorders. It is commonly used to detect
gastrointestinal bleeding sites. A pyrophosphate ion with
99m
Tc adheres to calcium deposits in damaged heart muscle, making it useful to gauge
damage after a heart attack.[29] The sulfur colloid of 99mTc is scavenged by the spleen,
making it possible to image the structure of the spleen.[4]
Radiation exposure due to diagnostic treatment involving Tc-99m can be kept low. Because
99m
Tc has a short half-life and emits primarily a gamma ray (allowing small amounts to be
easily detected), its quick decay into the far-less radioactive 99Tc results in relatively less
total radiation dose to the patient, per unit of initial activity after administration. In the
form administered in these medical tests (usually pertechnetate) both isotopes are quickly
eliminated from the body, generally within a few days.[29] Technetium for nuclear medicine
purposes is usually extracted from technetium-99m generators, because of its short 6 hour
half-life.[30]
Technetium 10
Environmental science and biology

The longer-lived isotope 95mTc, with a half-life of 61 days, is used as a radioactive tracer to
study the movement of technetium in the environment and in plant and animal systems.[31]
Industrial and chemical

Technetium-99 decays almost entirely by beta decay, emitting beta particles with consistent
low energies and no accompanying gamma rays. Moreover, its long half-life means that this
emission decreases very slowly with time. It can also be extracted to a high chemical and
isotopic purity from radioactive waste. For these reasons, it is a NIST standard beta
emitter, used for equipment calibration.[32]
Technetium-99 has also been proposed for use in optoelectronic devices and nanoscale
nuclear batteries.[33]
Like rhenium and palladium, technetium can serve as a catalyst. For certain reactions, for
example the dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol, it is a far more effective catalyst than
either rhenium or palladium. Of course, its radioactivity is a major problem in finding safe
applications.[34]
Under certain circumstances, a small concentration (5×10−5 mol/L) of the pertechnetate
ion in water can protect iron and carbon steels from corrosion. For this reason,
pertechnetate has been used as a possible anodic corrosion inhibitor for steel, although
technetium's radioactivity poses problems which limit this application to self-contained
systems.[35] While (for example) CrO42− can also inhibit corrosion, it requires a
concentration ten times as high. In one experiment, a test specimen was kept in an aqueous
solution of pertechnetate for 20 years and was still uncorroded. The mechanism by which
pertechnetate prevents corrosion is not well-understood, but seems to involve the
reversible formation of a thin surface layer. One theory holds that the pertechnetate reacts
with the steel surface to form a layer of technetium dioxide which prevents further
corrosion; the same effect explains how iron powder can be used to remove pertechnetate
from water. (Activated carbon can also be used for the same effect.) The effect disappears
rapidly if the concentration of pertechnetate falls below the minimum concentration or if
too high a concentration of other ions is added.
As noted, the radioactive nature of technetium (3 MBq per liter at the concentrations
required) makes this corrosion protection impractical in almost all situations. Nevertheless,
corrosion protection by pertechnetate ions was proposed (but never adopted) for use in
boiling water reactors.[36]
Technetium 11
Compounds and chemical reactions

Chemical properties of technetium resemble those of rhenium, in particular chemical
inertness and tendency to form covalent bonds. Contrary to manganese, technetium does
not readily form cations.
Hydride
Reaction of technetium with hydrogen produces
anionic, negatively charged hydride [TcH9]2−. It
consists of a trigonal prism with Tc atom in the center
and six hydrogen atoms at the corners. Three more
hydrogens make a triangle lying parallel to the base
and crossing the prism in its center (see figure). A few
hydrogens (~2) can be replaced by sodium (Na+) or
potassium (K+) ions. [37]
Oxides
Many technetium oxides are known. At temperatures
400-450 °C, technetium oxidizes to form pale-yellow
heptoxide:
4 Tc + 7 O → 2 Tc O Technetium hydride
2 2 7
It adopts a centrosymmetric corner-shared
bi-tetrahedral structure, in which the terminal and bridging Tc-O bonds are 167 pm and
184 pm respectively and the O-Tc-O angle is 180°[38]
Technetium heptoxide is the anhydride of pertechnic acid and the precursor to sodium
pertechnetate:[39]
Tc2O7 + 2 NaOH → 2 NaTcO4 + H2O
Black-colored technetium dioxide (TcO2) can be produced by reduction of heptoxide with
technetium or hydrogen. [40]
Pertechnetic acid
Pertechnetic acid (HTcO4) is produced by reacting Tc2O7 with water or oxidizing acids,
such as nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid, aqua regia, or a mixture of nitric and
hydrochloric acids. The resulting dark red, hygroscopic substance is a strong acid and
easily donates protons.
The remaining pertechnate anion TcO4− consists of a tetrahedron with oxygens in the
corners and Te atom in the center. Unlike permanganate MnO4−, it is a weak oxidizing
agent. Pertechnate is often used as a convenient water-soluble source of Te isotopes, such
as Tc-99m, and as a catalyst. [41]
Technetium 12
Sulfide, selenide, telluride

Technetium forms various sulfides. TcS2 is obtained by
direct reaction of technetium and sulfur, and Tc2S7 is
formed as follows:
2 HTcO4 + 7 H2S → Tc2S7 + 8 H2O
In this reaction, technetium is not reduced, which is
different from the similar reaction of manganese. Upon
Technetium clusters Tc6 and Tc8
heating, technetium heptasulfide decomposes into
disulphide and elementary sulfur:
Tc2S7 → 2 TcS2 + 3 S
[42]
Analogous reactions occur with selenium and tellurium.
Technetium clusters
Two main technetium clusters are known, Tc6 and Tc8. Both clusters have prism shapes
where vertical pairs of Tc atoms are connected by triple bonds and the planar atoms by
single bonds (see figure) . Every Tc atoms makes six bonds the remaining valence electrons
can be saturated by one axial and two mu-bridging halogen atoms such as chlorine or
bromine. [43]
Organic complexes
Technetium forms numerous organic complexes, which
are relatively well investigated because of their
importance for nuclear medicine. Technetium carbonyl
Tc2(CO)10 is a white solid. In the molecule, two
technetium atoms are weakly bound to each other; each
Technetium carbonyl Tc2(CO)10 atom is surrounded by octahedra of five carbonyl
ligands (see left figure). The bond length between Tc
atoms, 303 pm, is larger than the distance between two
atoms in metallic technetium. Similar carbonyls are
formed by manganese and rhenium. [44]
An example of a technetium complex with an organic

ligand is shown in the right figure and is used in
nuclear medicine. It has a unique Tc-O moiety oriented
normal to the plane of the molecule, where oxygen
atom can be replaced by nitrogen.
Further reading
Organic complex of technetium
• The radiochemical Manual, 2nd Ed, edited by B.J.
Wilson, 1966.
• E.R.Scerri (2007). The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance [45]. Oxford
University Press,. http:/ / www. us. oup. com/ us/ catalog/ general/ subject/ Chemistry/
?view=usa& ci=9780195305739.
• Radiochemistry and nuclear chemistry [46], Gregory Choppin, Jan-Olov Liljenzin, and Jan
Rydberg, 3rd Edition, 2002, the chapter on nuclear stability (pdf) [47] (viewed 5 January
Technetium 13
2007)
• WebElements.com – Technetium [48], and EnvironmentalChemistry.com – Technetium [49]
per the guidelines at Wikipedia's WikiProject Elements [50] (all viewed 1 December 2002)
• Nudat 2 [51] nuclide chart from the National Nuclear Data Center, Brookhaven National
Laboratory
• Nuclides and Isotopes [52] Fourteenth Edition: Chart of the Nuclides, General Electric
Company, 1989
References
[1] " Technetium: technetium(III) iodide compound data (http:/ / openmopac. net/ data_normal/ technetium(iii)
triiodide_jmol. html)". OpenMOPAC.net. . Retrieved 2007-12-10.
[2] " Technetium: technetium(I) fluoride compound data (http:/ / www. openmopac. net/ data_normal/ tcfr_jmol.
html)". OpenMOPAC.net. . Retrieved 2007-12-10.
0849304857.
[4] S. J. Rimshaw (1968). Cifford A. Hampel. ed. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold
Book Corporation. pp. 689-693.
[5] "Line Spectra of the Elements". The CRC Handbook. CRC press. 2004–2005.
[6] *Schwochau, Klaus (2000). Technetium. Wiley-VCH. pp. 96. ISBN 3-527-29496-1.
[7] S. H. Autler. " Technetium as a Material for AC Superconductivity Applications (http:/ / www. bnl. gov/
magnets/ Staff/ Gupta/ Summer1968/ 0049. pdf)". Proceedings of the 1968 Summer Study on Superconducting
Devices and Accelerators. . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[8] Schwochau, pp. 371-381
[9] Schwochau, p.40
[10] Norman E. Holden. " History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers (http:/ / www.
nndc. bnl. gov/ content/ elements. html)". Brookhaven National Laboratory. . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[11] Yoshihara, H. K. (2004). "Discovery of a new element 'nipponium': re-evaluation of pioneering works of
Masataka Ogawa and his son Eijiro Ogawa". Atomic spectroscopy (Spectrochim. Acta, Part B) vol. 59 (no8):
1305–1310. doi: 10.1016/j.sab.2003.12.027 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. sab. 2003. 12. 027).
[12] Peter van der Krogt. " Elentymolgy and Elements Multidict, "Technetium" (http:/ / www. vanderkrogt. net/
elements/ elem/ tc. html)". . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[13] Armstrong, John T. (2003). " Technetium (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ technetium. html)". Chemical &
Engineering News. .
[14] Nies, Kevin A. (2001). " Ida Tacke and the warfare behind the discovery of fission (http:/ / www. hypatiamaze.
org/ ida/ tacke. html)". . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[15] Using first-principles X-ray-emission spectral-generation algorithms developed at NIST, I simulated the X-ray
spectra that would be expected for Van Assche's initial estimates of the Noddacks' residue compositions. The
first results were surprisingly close to their published spectrum! Over the next couple of years, we refined our
reconstruction of their analytical methods and performed more sophisticated simulations. The agreement
between simulated and reported spectra improved further. Our calculation of the amount of element 43
required to produce their spectrum is quite similar to the direct measurements of natural technetium
abundance in uranium ore published in 1999 by Dave Curtis and colleagues at Los Alamos. We can find no
other plausible explanation for the Noddacks' data than that they did indeed detect fission
"masurium.#Armstrong, John T. " Technetium" (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ technetium. html) Chemical &
Engineering News (2003).
[16] John Emsley (2001). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. New York: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-850340-7.
[17] The transuranium people: The inside story (http:/ / www. worldscibooks. com/ physics/ p074. html). Chapter
1.2: Early Days at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory: University of California, Berkeley & Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory. 2000. pp. pp.15. ISBN ISBN 1-86094-087-0. .
[18] Schwochau, pp.7-9
[20] K. Yoshihara (1996). "Technetium in the Environment". in K. Yoshihara and T. Omori. Topics in Current
Chemistry: Technetium and Rhenium. 176. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
[21] Keiko Tagami (2003). " Technetium-99 Behaviour in the Terrestrial Environment - Field Observations and
Radiotracer Experiments (http:/ / www. soc. nii. ac. jp/ jnrs/ paper/ JN41/ j041Tagami. pdf)". Journal of Nuclear
Technetium 14
and Radiochemical Sciences 4: A1-A8. .

[22] J D Harrison et al. (2001). " Gut transfer and doses from environmental technetium (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/
abstract/ 0952-4746/ 21/ 1/ 004)". J. Radiol. Prot. 21: 9. doi: 10.1088/0952-4746/21/1/004 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1088/ 0952-4746/ 21/ 1/ 004). .
[23] Arokiasamy J. Francis, Cleveland J. Dodge, G. E. Meinken. (2002). " Biotransformation of pertechnetate by
Clostridia (http:/ / www. extenza-eps. com/ OLD/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1524/ ract. 2002. 90. 9-11_2002. 791)".
Radiochimica Acta 90: 791. doi: 10.1524/ract.2002.90.9-11_2002.791 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1524/ ract. 2002.
90. 9-11_2002. 791). .
[25] J. L. Snelgrove et al., (1995). " Development and Processing of LEU Targets for Mo-99 Production (http:/ /
www. rertr. anl. gov/ MO99/ JLS. pdf)". . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[26] " "Technetium", Nuclides / Isotopes (http:/ / environmentalchemistry. com/ yogi/ periodic/ Tc-pg2. html)". .
[27] "Table of the isotopes". The CRC Handbook. CRC press. 2004–2005.
[28] Schwochau, p.414
[29] Joseph F. Smith. " Technetium heart scan (http:/ / www. chclibrary. org/ micromed/ 00067370. html)". .
[30] Dilworth, Jonathan R.; Parrott, Suzanne J. (1998). "The biomedical chemistry of technetium and rhenium".
Chemical Society Reviews 27: 43–55. doi: 10.1039/a827043z (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ a827043z).
[31] Schwochau, pp. 12-27
[32] Schwochau, p. 87
[33] " University Research Program in Robotics REPORT (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ bridge/ servlets/ purl/
895620-n4Nt3U/ 895620. PDF)" (PDF). University of Florida. 2006-11-30. . Retrieved 2007-10-12.
[35] " EPA: 402-b-04-001b-14-final (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ radiation/ docs/ marlap/ 402-b-04-001b-14-final. pdf)"
(PDF). Marlap. July 2004. . Retrieved 2008-08-04.
[38] Krebs, B. (1969). "Technetium(VII)-oxid: Ein Übergangsmetalloxid mit Molekülstruktur im festen Zustand".
Angewandte Chemie 81: 328 - 329. doi: doi (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ doi).
[39] Herrell, A. Y.; Busey, R. H.; Gayer, K. H. (1977). Technetium(VII) Oxide, in Inorganic Syntheses. XVII.
pp. 155-158. ISBN 0-07-044327-0.
[43] German, K. E.; Kryutchkov S. V. (2002). "Polynuclear Technetium Halide Clusters". Russian Journal of
Inorganic Chemistry 47 (4): 578–583..
[44] Schwochau, p.286, 328
[45] http:/ / www. us. oup. com/ us/ catalog/ general/ subject/ Chemistry/ ?view=usa& ci=9780195305739
[46] http:/ / book. nc. chalmers. se/
[47] http:/ / book. nc. chalmers. se/ KAPITEL/ CH03NY3. PDF
[48] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Tc/ index. html
[49] http:/ / environmentalchemistry. com/ yogi/ periodic/ Tc. html
[50] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Wikipedia:WikiProject_Elements
[51] http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ nudat2/ index. jsp

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License
Ruthenium 1
Ruthenium
44 technetium ← ruthenium → rhodium

Fe
↑
Ru
↓
Os

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number ruthenium, Ru, 44

−1

7 1
Physical properties

−3

(2334 °C, 4233 °F)

(4150 °C, 7502 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2588 2811 3087 3424 3845 4388
Atomic properties

Ruthenium 2

8, 7, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1, , -2
Ionization energies 1st: 710.2 kJ/mol
2nd: 1620 kJ/mol
3rd: 2747 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Poisson ratio 0.30
Mohs hardness 6.5
Ruthenium 3
Main article: Isotopes of ruthenium

96
Ru 5.52% 96
Ru is stable with 52 neutron
97
Ru syn 2.9 d ε - 97
Tc
γ 0.215, 0.324 -
98
Ru 1.88% 98
99
Ru 12.7% 99
100
Ru 12.6% 100
101
Ru 17.0% 101
102
Ru 31.6% 102
103
Ru syn 39.26 d β
− 0.226 103
Rh
γ 0.497 -
104
Ru 18.7% 104
106
Ru syn 373.59 d β
− 3.54 106
Rh
References
Ruthenium (pronounced /ruːˈθiːniəm/) is a chemical element that has the symbol Ru and
atomic number 44. A rare transition metal of the platinum group of the periodic table,
ruthenium is found associated with platinum ores and used as a catalyst in some platinum
alloys.
Characteristics
A polyvalent hard white metal, ruthenium is a member of the platinum group, and is in
group 8 of the periodic table:
26 iron 2, 8, 14, 2
44 ruthenium 2, 8, 18, 15, 1
76 osmium 2, 8, 18, 32, 14, 2
108 hassium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2
but has an atypical configuration in its outermost electron shells compared to the rest of
the members. (This can be observed in the neighborhood of niobium (41), ruthenium (44),
rhodium (45), and palladium (46).)
Ruthenium has four crystal modifications and does not tarnish at normal temperatures, but
does oxidize readily on exposure to air to form ruthenium tetroxide, RuO4, a strong
oxidising agent with properties analogous to those of osmium tetroxide. Ruthenium
dissolves in fused alkalis, is not attacked by acids but is attacked by halogens at high
temperatures. Small amounts of ruthenium can increase the hardness of platinum and
Ruthenium 4
palladium. The corrosion resistance of titanium is increased markedly by the addition of a

small amount of ruthenium.
This metal can be plated either by electroplating or by thermal decomposition methods.
One ruthenium-molybdenum alloy has been found to be superconductive at 10.6 K. The
oxidation states of ruthenium range from +1 to +8, and -2 is known, though oxidation
states of +2, +3, and +4 are most common.
Uses
Due to its ability to harden platinum and palladium, ruthenium is used in platinum and
palladium alloys to make wear-resistant electrical contacts. Because of its lower cost and
similar properties compared to rhodium,[3] the use as plating material for electric contacts
is one of the major applications.[4] [5] The coatings are either put on by electroplating[6] or
sputtering[7] .
Ruthenium dioxide and lead and bismuth[8] ruthenates, the later with perovskite crystal
structure,[9] are used thick film chip resistors. A mixture of the one of the above mentioned
substances is mixed with a glass substrate and printed on a ceramic material and heated to
860°C.[10] The first two applications account for 50% of the ruthenium consumption.[11]
It is sometimes alloyed with gold in jewelry. 0.1% ruthenium is added to titanium to
improve its corrosion resistance.[12]
Ruthenium is also used in some advanced high-temperature single-crystal superalloys, with
applications including the turbine blades in jet engines. Two nickel based superalloy
compositions described in the literature are EPM-102 (with 3 % Ru) and TMS-162 (with 6 %
Ru), both contain 6 % rhenium.[13]
Fountain pen nibs are frequently tipped with alloys containing ruthenium. From 1944
onward, the famous Parker 51 fountain pen was fitted with the "RU" nib, a 14K gold nib
tipped with 96.2% ruthenium and 3.8% iridium.
Ruthenium is also a versatile catalyst. Hydrogen sulfide can be split by light by using an
aqueous suspension of CdS particles loaded with ruthenium dioxide. This may be useful in
the removal of H2S from oil refineries and from other industrial processes.
Ruthenium is a component of mixed-metal oxide (MMO) anodes used for cathodic
protection of underground and submerged structures, and for electrolytic cells for chemical
processes such as generating chlorine from saltwater.
Organometallic ruthenium carbene and allenylidene complexes have recently been found as
highly efficient catalysts for olefin metathesis with important applications in organic and
pharmaceutical chemistry.
The fluorescence of some ruthenium complexes is quenched by oxygen, which has led to
their use as optode sensors for oxygen.
Ruthenium red, [(NH3)5Ru-O-Ru(NH3)4-O-Ru(NH3)5]6+, is a biological stain used to stain
polyanionic molecules such as pectin and nucleic acids for light microscopy and electron
microscopy.
The beta-decaying isotope 106 of ruthenium is used in radiotherapy of eye tumors, mainly
malignant melanomae of the uvea.
Ruthenium-centered complexes are being researched for possible anticancer properties.[14]
Ruthenium, unlike traditional platinum complexes, show greater resistance to hydrolysis
Ruthenium 5
and more selective action on tumors. NAMI-A and KP1019 are two drugs undergoing
clinical evaluation against metastatic tumors and colon cancers.
Applications of ruthenium thin films in microelectronics

Relatively recently, ruthenium has been suggested as a material that could beneficially
replace other metals and silicides in microelectronics components. Ruthenium tetroxide
(RuO4) is highly volatile, as is ruthenium trioxide (RuO3).[15] By oxidizing ruthenium (for
example with an oxygen plasma) into the volatile oxides, ruthenium can be easily
patterned.[16] [17] [18] [19] The properties of the common ruthenium oxides make ruthenium
a metal compatible with the semiconductor processing techniques needed to manufacture
microelectronics.
In order to continue miniaturization of microelectronics, new materials are needed as
dimensions change. There are three main applications for thin ruthenium films in
microelectronics. The first is using thin films of ruthenium as electrodes on both sides of
tantalum pentoxide (Ta2O5) or barium strontium titanate ((Ba, Sr)TiO3, also known as BST)
in the next generation of three-dimensional dynamic random access memories (DRAMs).[20]
[21] [22]
Ruthenium thin film electrodes could also be deposited on top of lead zirconate
titanate (Pb(ZrxTi1-x)O3, also known as PZT) in another kind of RAM, ferroelectric random
access memory (FRAM).[23] [24] Platinum has been used as the electrodes in RAMs in
laboratory settings, but it is difficult to pattern. Ruthenium is chemically similar to
platinum, preserving the function of the RAMs, but in contrast to Pt patterns easily. The
second is using thin ruthenium films as metal gates in p-doped metal-oxide-semiconductor
field effect transistors (p-MOSFETs).[25] When replacing silicide gates with metal gates in
MOSFETs, a key property of the metal is its work function. The work function needs to
match the surrounding materials. For p-MOSFETs, the ruthenium work function is the best
materials property match with surrounding materials such as HfO2, HfSiOx, HfNOx, and
HfSiNOx, to achieve the desired electrical properties. The third large-scale application for
ruthenium films is as a combination adhesion promoter and electroplating seed layer
between TaN and Cu in the copper dual damascene process.[26] [27] [28] [29] [30] Copper can
be directly electroplated onto ruthenium[31] , in contrast to tantalum nitride. Copper also
adheres poorly to TaN, but well to Ru. By depositing a layer of ruthenium on the TaN
barrier layer, copper adhesion would be improved and deposition of a copper seed layer
would not be necessary.
There are also other suggested uses. In 1990, IBM scientists discovered that a thin layer of
ruthenium atoms created a strong anti-parallel coupling between adjacent ferromagnetic
layers, stronger than any other nonmagnetic spacer-layer element. Such a ruthenium layer
was used in the first giant magnetoresistive read element for hard disk drives. In 2001, IBM
announced a three-atom-thick layer of the element ruthenium, informally referred to as
"pixie dust", which would allow a quadrupling of the data density of current hard disk drive
media.[32]
Ruthenium 6
Thin-film Solar cells

Some ruthenium complexes absorb light throughout the visible spectrum and are being
actively researched in various, potential, solar energy technologies.
Ruthenium-based dyes have been used as the electron providers in dye-sensitized solar
cells, a promising new low-cost solar cell system.
History
Though naturally occurring platinum, containing all six platinum group metals, was used
for a long time by pre-Columbian Americans and known to European chemists from the
mid-16th century, it took until the mid-17th century for platinum to be discovered. The
discovery that natural platinum contained palladium, rhodium, osmium and iridium took
place in the first decade of the 18th century. Platinum in alluvial sands of Russian rivers
gave access to raw material for use in plates and medals and for the minting of ruble coins,
starting in 1828.[33] Residues of platinum production for minting where available in the
Russian Empire, and therefore most of the research on them was done in Eastern Europe.
It is possible that the Polish chemist Jędrzej Śniadecki isolated element 44 (which he called
"vestium") from platinum ores in 1807. His work was never confirmed, however, and he
later withdrew his claim of discovery. Jöns Berzelius and Gottfried Osann nearly discovered
ruthenium in 1827.[34] The men examined residues that were left after dissolving crude
platinum from the Ural Mountains in aqua regia. Berzelius did not find any unusual metals,
but Osann thought he found three new metals, pluranium, ruthenium and polinium. This
discrepency led to a long-standing controversy between Berzelius and Osann about the
composition of the residues.[35]
In 1844 the Russian scientist Karl Klaus showed that the compounds prepared by Gottfried
Osann contained small amounts of ruthenium, which Klaus had discovered the same
year.[36] Klaus isolated ruthenium from the platinium residues of the rouble production
while he was working in Kazan University, Kazan.[35] Klaus showed that ruthenium oxide
contained a new metal and obtained 6 grams of ruthenium from the part of crude platinum
that is insoluble in aqua regia.[35]
The name derives from Ruthenia, the Latin word for Rus', a historical area which includes
present-day western Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and parts of Slovakia and Poland. Karl Klaus
named the element in honour of his birthland, as he was born in Tartu, Estonia, which was
at the time a part of the Russian Empire.
Occurrence
Normal mining
This element is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the Ural
Mountains and in North and South America. Small but commercially important quantities
are also found in pentlandite extracted from Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, and in pyroxenite
deposits in South Africa. The native ruthenium is very rare mineral (Ir replaces part of Ru
in its structure).[4] [37]
Ruthenium is exceedingly rare and is the 74th most abundant metal on Earth.[11] Roughly
12 tonnes of Ru is mined each year with world reserves estimated to be 5000 tonnes.[11]
Ruthenium 7
The composition of the mined platinum group metal mixtures varies in a wide range
depending on the geochemical formation, for example the PGM mined in South Africa
contain on average 11% ruthenium while the PGM mined in the USSR containe only 2%
based on reseach dating from 1992.[38] [39]
From used nuclear fuels

It is also possible to extract ruthenium from used nuclear fuel. Each kilo of fission products
of 235U will contain 63.44 grams of ruthenium isotopes with halflives longer than a day.
Since a typical used nuclear fuel contains about 3% fission products, one ton of used fuel
will contain about 1.9 kg of ruthenium. The 103Ru and 106Ru will render the fission
ruthenium very radioactive. If the fission occurs in an instant then the ruthenium thus
formed will have an activity due to 103Ru of 109 TBq g-1 and 106Ru of 1.52 TBq g-1. Ru 103
has a half life of about 39 days meaning that within 390 days it will have effectively decayed
to ground state, well before any reprocessing is likely to occur. Ru 106 has a half life of
about 373 days meaning that if the fuel is let to cool for 5 years before reprocessing only
about 3% of the original quantity will remain, the rest will have decayed to ground state.
Production
Ruthenium, like the other
platin group metals, is
obtained commercially as a
by-product from nickel and
copper mining and processing
or by direct processing of
platin group metal ores.
During electrorefining of
copper and nickel, noble
metals such as silver, gold and
the platinum group metals
The radioactivity in MBq per gram of each of the platinum group
including selenium and
metals which are formed by the fission of uranium. Of the metals
tellurium settle to the bottom shown, ruthenium is the most radioactive. Palladium has an almost
of the cell as anode mud, constant activity due to the very long lived 107Pd while rhodium is the
which forms the starting point least radioactive.
[37] [4]
for their extraction. In
order to separate the metals, they must first be brought into solution. Several methods are
available depending on the separation process and the composition of the mixture; two
representative methods are fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua
regia, and dissolution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid.[40] [41] Osmium,
ruthenium, rhodium and iridium can be separated from platinum and gold and base metals
by their insolubility in aqua regia, leaving a solid residue. Rhodium can be separated from
the residue by treatment with molten sodium bisulphate. The insoluble residue, containing
Ru, Os and Ir is treated with sodium oxide, in which Ir is insoluble, producing water-soluble
Ru and Os salts. After oxidation to the volatile oxides, RuO4 is separated from OsO4 by
precipitation of (NH4)3RuCl6 with ammonium chloride.
Ruthenium 8
This metal is commercially isolated through a complex chemical process in which hydrogen
is used to reduce ammonium ruthenium chloride yielding a powder. The powder is then
consolidated by powder metallurgy techniques or by argon-arc welding.
After it is dissolved, osmium is separated from the other platinum group metals by
distillation or extraction with organic solvents of the volatile osmium tetroxide.[42] The first
method is similar to the procedure Tennant and William Hyde Wollaston used for their
separation. Both methods are suitable for industrial scale production. In either case, the
product is reduced using hydrogen, yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be
treated using powder metallurgy techniques.[43]
Compounds
Ruthenium compounds are often similar in properties to those of osmium and exhibit at
least eight oxidation states, but the +2, +3, and +4 states are the most common. Examples
are ruthenium(IV) oxide (RuO2, oxidation state +4), dipotassium ruthenate (K2RuO4, +6),
potassium perruthenate (KRuO4, +7) and ruthenium tetroxide (RuO4, +8). Compounds of
ruthenium with chlorine are ruthenium(II) chloride (RuCl2) and ruthenium(III) chloride
(RuCl3).
Isotopes
Naturally occurring ruthenium is composed of seven stable isotopes. Additionally, 34
radioactive isotopes have been discovered. Of these radioisotopes, the most stable are
106
Ru with a half-life of 373.59 days, 103Ru with a half-life of 39.26 days and 97Ru with a
half-life of 2.9 days.
Fifteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from
89.93 u (90Ru) to 114.928 u (115Ru). Most of these have half-lives that are less than five
minutes except 95Ru (half-life: 1.643 hours) and 105Ru (half-life: 4.44 hours).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant isotope, 102Ru, is electron capture and
the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay product before 102Ru is
technetium and the primary mode after is rhodium.
Organometallic chemistry
Ruthenium is a versatile metal that can easily form compounds with carbon ruthenium
bonds, as these compounds tend to be darker and react more quickly than the osmium
compounds. Recently, Professor Anthony Hill and his co-workers have been making
compounds of ruthenium in which a boron atom binds to the metal atom.[44]
The organometallic ruthenium compound that is easiest to make is RuHCl(CO)(PPh3)3. This
compound has two forms (yellow and pink) that are identical once they are dissolved but
different in the solid state.
An organometallic compound similar to ruthenocene,
bis(2,4-dimethylpentadienyl)ruthenium, is readily synthesized in near quantitative yields
and has applications in vapor-phase deposition of metallic ruthenium, as well as in
catalysis, including Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of transportation fuels.
Important catalysts based on ruthenium are Grubbs' catalyst and Roper's complex.
Ruthenium 9
Chemical vapor deposition of ruthenium

A unique challenge arises in trying to grow impurity-free films of a catalyst in Chemical
vapor deposition (CVD). Ruthenium metal activates C-H and C-C bonds, which aids C-H and
C-C bond scission. This creates a potential catalytic decomposition path for all
metal-organic CVD precursors that is likely to lead to significant carbon incorporation.
Platinum, a chemically similar catalyst, catalyzes dehydrogenation of five- and six-member
cyclic hydrocarbons into benzene.[45] The d-bands of ruthenium lie higher than those in
platinum, generally predicting stronger ruthenium-adsorbate bonds than on platinum.
Therefore, it is likely that ruthenium also catalyzes dehydrogenation of five- and
six-member hydrocarbon rings to benzene. Benzene dehydrogenates further on ruthenium
surfaces into hydrocarbon fragments similar to those formed by acetylene and ethene on
ruthenium surfaces.[46] [47] In addition to benzene, acetylene and ethene, pyridine also
decomposes on ruthenium surfaces, leaving bound fragments on the surface.[48] Ruthenium
is unusually well studied in the surface science and catalysis literature due to its industrial
importance as a catalyst. There are many studies of individual molecular behavior on
ruthenium in surface science. However, understanding the behavior of each ligand on its
own is not equivalent to understanding their behavior when co-adsorbed with each other
and with the precursor. While there is no significant pressure difference between surface
science studies and CVD, there is often a temperature gap between temperatures reported
in surface science studies and CVD growth temperatures. Despite these complications,
ruthenium is a promising candidate for understanding chemical vapor deposition and
precursor design of catalytic films.
Ligands that are stable compounds in their own right, short ligand-ruthenium contact times
and moderate substrate temperatures help minimize unwanted ligand decomposition on the
surface.[49] [50] [51] The C-H and C-C bond activation is temperature-dependent. Product
desorption is also temperature-dependent, if the products are not bound to the ruthenium
surface. This suggests that there is some optimum temperature, at which most
independently stable ligands have just enough thermal energy to desorb from the
ruthenium film surface before C-H activation can occur. For example, benzene starts
decomposing on ruthenium at 87°C. However, the dehydrogenation reaction does not go to
fragments until 277°C, and compete fragmentation is not seen at low surface coverages.
This suggests that provided adsorbed benzene molecules are not close to one another on
the surface and temperatures are below 277°C, the vast majority of benzene molecules may
not contribute to carbon incorporation in films. Therefore, a key consideration in growing
CVD films of catalytic metals such as ruthenium is combining molecule design and the
kinetic aspects of growth in a favorable way.
Before metal-organic precursors were explored, triruthenium dodecacarbonyl (Ru3(CO)12)
was tested as a CVD precursor.[52] [53] While this precursor gives good-quality films, the
vapor pressure is poor, complicating its practical use in a CVD process. Ruthenocene[54] [55]
and bis(ethylcyclopentadienyl)ruthenium(II)[56] [57] [58] [59] and beta-diketonate
ruthenium(II) compounds[60] [61] [62] have been fairly extensively explored. Although these
precursors also can give pure films of low resistivity when reacted with oxygen, the growth
rates are very low or not reported. One high-growth precursor,
cyclopentadienyl-propylcyclopentadienylruthenium(II) (RuCp(i-PrCp)), has been
identified.[63] (RuCp(i-PrCp) has achieved growth rates of 7.5 nm/min to 20 nm/min as well
as low resistivities. However, it does not nucleate on oxides, ruling out its use in all
Ruthenium 10
applications but copper interconnect playing layers.

A new zero-valent, single-source precursor design paradigm was launched by Schneider et
al. with (1,5-cyclooctadiene)(toluene)Ru(0) ((1,5-COD)(toluene)Ru)[64] and
[65]
(1,3-cyclohexadiene)(benzene)Ru(0) ((1,3-CHD)(benzene)Ru) , also independently tested
[66]
by Choi et al. Using (1,5-COD)(toluene)Ru, Schneider found that C-H bonds were readily
activated in 1,5-COD. Although carbon incorporation levels were low (1-3%), the growth
rates were only around 0.28 nm/min at best. Using (1,3-CHD)(benzene)Ru, the 1,3-CHD was
dehydrogenated to benzene as expected, but the large variety of possible surface reactions
involving the two ligands resulted in a narrow process window in which carbon
concentrations were low.
Precautions
The compound ruthenium tetroxide, RuO4, similar to osmium tetroxide, is volatile, highly
toxic and may cause explosions if allowed to come into contact with combustible
materials.[67] Ruthenium plays no biological role but does strongly stain human skin, may
be carcinogenic[68] and bio-accumulates in bone.
In fiction
Ruthenium's use as a catalyst is a plot device in the novel Arctic Drift by Clive Cussler and
Dirk Cussler
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The Electrochemical Society 2003, 150, (5), C347-C350.
[29] Kwon, O.-K.; Kwon, S.-H.; Park, H.-S.; Kang, S.-W., PEALD of a Ruthenium Adhesion Layer for Copper
Interconnects. Journal of The Electrochemical Society 2004, 151, (12), C753-C756.
[30] Kwon, O.-K.; Kim, J.-H.; Park, H.-S.; Kang, S.-W., Atomic Layer Deposition of Ruthenium Thin Films for
Copper Glue Layer. Journal of The Electrochemical Society 2004, 151, (2), G109-G112.
[31] Moffat, T. P.; Walker, M.; Chen, P. J.; Bonevich, J. E.; Egelhoff, W. F.; Richter, L.; Witt, C.; Aaltonen, T.; Ritala,
M.; Leskelä, M.; Josella, D., Electrodeposition of Cu on Ru Barrier Layers for Damascene Processing. Journal of
The Electrochemical Society 2006, 153, (1), C37-C50.
[32] Brian Hayes, Terabyte Territory (http:/ / www. americanscientist. org/ template/ AssetDetail/ assetid/ 14750),
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[33] Raub, Christoph J. (2004). The Minting of Platinum Roubles. Part I: History and Current Investigations (http:/
/ www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/ 48-2-066-069). 48. pp. 66–69. .
[34] New Metals in the Uralian Platina (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=x57C3yhRPUAC& pg=PA391). 2.
1827. pp. 391–392. .
[35] Pitchkov, V. N. (1996). " The Discovery of Ruthenium (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/
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[36] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1933). "VIII. The Platinum MetalsSome Eighteenth-Century Metals". The Discovery of
the Elements. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education. ISBN 0-7661-3872-0.
Ruthenium 12
[37] " Comodity Report: Platinum-Group Metals (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ platinum/
mcs-2008-plati. pdf)". United States Geological Survey USGS. . Retrieved 2008-09-16.
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Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. p. 69. ISBN 9780873351003. .
[39] Harris, Donald C.; Cabri , Louis J. (01 Aug 1973). " The nomenclature of the natural alloys of osmium, iridium
and ruthenium based on new compositional data of alloys from world-wide occurrences (http:/ / canmin.
geoscienceworld. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 12/ 2/ 104)". The Canadian Mineralogist 12 (2): 104–112. .
[40] Renner, H.; Schlamp, G.; Kleinwächter, I.; Drost, E.; Lüschow, H. M.; Tews, P.; Panster, P.; Diehl, M.; Lang,
J.; Kreuzer, T.; Knödler, A.; Starz, K. A.; Dermann, K.; Rothaut, J.; Drieselman, R. (2002). "Platinum group
metals and compounds". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley. doi:
10.1002/14356007.a21_075 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ 14356007. a21_075).
[41] Seymour, R. J.; O'Farrelly, J. I. (2001). "Platinum-group metals". Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology. Wiley. doi: 10.1002/0471238961.1612012019052513.a01.pub2 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/
0471238961. 1612012019052513. a01. pub2).
[42] Gilchrist, Raleigh (1943). "The Platinum Metals.". Chemical Reviews 32 (3): 277–372. doi:
[43] Hunt, L. B.; Lever, F. M. (1969). " Platinum Metals: A Survey of Productive Resources to industrial Uses
(http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ pdf/ pmr-v13-i4-126-138. pdf)". Platinum Metals Review 13 (4):
126–138. .
[44] - Professor Anthony Hill (http:/ / rsc. anu. edu. au/ research/ hill. php) - Current Research
[45] Manner, W. L.; Girolami, G. S.; Nuzzo, R. G., Sequential Dehydrogenation of Unsaturated Cyclic C5 and C6
Hydrocarbons on Pt(111). J. Phys. Chem. B 1998, 102, (50), 10295-10306.
[46] Jakob, P.; Menzel, D., The adsorption of benzene on Ru(001). Surface Science 1988, 210, 503-530.
[47] Jakob, P. Adsorption und thermische Evolution von aromatischen Molekülen auf Ru(001): Benzol, Benzol+O,
CO, H und Pyridin. Doctoral, Technische Universität München, München, 1989.
[48] Jakob, P. Adsorption und thermische Evolution von aromatischen Molekülen auf Ru(001): Benzol, Benzol+O,
CO, H und Pyridin. Doctoral, Technische Universität München, München, 1989.
[49] Schneider, A.; Popovska, N.; Jipa, I.; Atakan, B.; Siddiqi, M. A.; Siddiqui, R.; Zenneck, U., Minimizing the
carbon content of thin ruthenium films by MOCVD precursor complex design and process control. Chemical
Vapor Deposition 2007, 13, (8), 389-395.
[50] Schneider, A.; Popovska, N.; Holzmann, F.; Gerhard, H.; Topf, C.; Zenneck, U.,
[(1,5-Cyclooctadiene)(toluene)ruthenium(0)]: A Novel Precursor for the MOCVD of Thin Ruthenium Films.
Chemical Vapor Deposition 2005, 11, (2), 99-105.
[51] Schneider, A. Metallorganische Chemische Dasphasenabscheidung (MOCVD) von Übergangsmetallen am
Beispiel von Eisen, Ruthenium und Wolfram. Doctoral, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 2006.
[52] Green, M. L.; Gross, M. L.; Papa, L. E.; Schnoes, K. J.; Brasen, D., Chemical Vapor Deposition of Ruthenium
and Ruthenium Dioxide Films. Journal of The Electrochemical Society 1985, (132), 2677.
[53] Wang, Q.; Ekerdt, J. G.; Gay, D.; Sun, Y.-M.; White, J. M., Low-temperature chemical vapor deposition and
scaling limit of ultrathin Ru films. Applied Physics Letters 2004, 84, (8), 1380-1382.
[54] Trent, D. E.; Paris, B.; Krause, H. H., Vapor Deposition of Pure Ruthenium Metal from Ruthenocene. Inorg.
Chem. 1964, 3, (7), 1057-1058.
[55] Park, S. E.; Kim, H. M.; Kim, K. B.; Min, S. H., Metallorganic chemical vapor deposition of Ru and RuO2 using
ruthenocene precursor and oxygen gas. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2000, 147, (1), 203-209.
[56] Aoyama, T.; Eguchi, K., Ruthenium films prepared by liquid source chemical vapor deposition using
bis-(ethylcyclopentadienyl)ruthenium. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 1999, 38, (10A), 1134-6.
[57] Kang, S. Y.; Choi, K. H.; Lee, S. K.; Hwang, C. S.; Kim, H. J., Thermodynamic Calculations and Metallorganic
Chemical Vapor Deposition of Ruthenium Thin Films Using Bis(ethyl-pi-cyclopentadienyl)Ru for Memory
Applications. Journal of The Electrochemical Society 2000, 147, (3), 1161-1167.
[58] Matsui, Y.; Hiratani, M.; Nabatame, T.; Shimamoto, Y.; Kimura, S., Characteristics of Ruthenium Films
Prepared by Chemical Vapor Deposition Using Bis(ethylcyclopentadienyl)ruthenium Precursor. Electrochemical
and Solid-State Letters 2002, 5, (1), C18-C21.
[59] Nabatame, T.; Hiratani, M.; Kadoshima, M.; Shimamoto, Y.; Matsui, Y.; Ohji, Y.; Asano, I.; Fujiwara, T.;
Suzuki, T., Properties of ruthenium films prepared by liquid source metalorganic chemical vapor deposition
using Ru(EtCp)2 with tetrahydrofuran solvent. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 2000, 39, (11B), 1188-90.
[60] Kadoshima, M.; Nabatame, T.; Hiratani, M.; Nakamura, Y.; Asano, I.; Suzuki, T., Ruthenium Films Prepared
by Liquid Source Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition Using Ru(dpm)3 Dissolved with Tetrahydrofuran
Solvent. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 2002, 41Part 2, (3B), L347-L350.
Ruthenium 13
[61] Lai, Y.-H.; Chen, Y.-L.; Chi, Y.; Liu, C.-S.; Carty, A. J.; Peng, S.-M.; Lee, G.-H., Deposition of Ru and RuO2 thin
films employing dicarbonyl bis-diketonate ruthenium complexes as CVD source reagents. Journal of Materials
Chemistry 2003, 13, 1999-2006.
[62] Lee, J.-H.; Kim, J.-Y.; Rhee, S.-W.; Yang, D.; Kim, D.-H.; Yang, C.-H.; Han, Y.-K.; Hwang, C.-J., Chemical vapor
deposition of Ru thin films by direct liquid injection of Ru(OD)3 (OD=octanedionate). Journal of Vacuum
Science & Technology A 2000, 18, (5), 2400-2403.
[63] Kang, S. Y.; Lim, H. J.; Hwang, C. S.; Kim, H. J., Metallorganic chemical vapor deposition of Ru films using
cyclopentadienyl-propylcyclopentadienylruthenium(II) and oxygen. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2002,
149, (6), C317-C323.
[64] Schneider, A.; Popovska, N.; Holzmann, F.; Gerhard, H.; Topf, C.; Zenneck, U.,
[(1,5-Cyclooctadiene)(toluene)ruthenium(0)]: A Novel Precursor for the MOCVD of Thin Ruthenium Films.
Chemical Vapor Deposition 2005, 11, (2), 99-105.
[65] Schneider, A.; Popovska, N.; Jipa, I.; Atakan, B.; Siddiqi, M. A.; Siddiqui, R.; Zenneck, U., Minimizing the
carbon content of thin ruthenium films by MOCVD precursor complex design and process control. Chemical
Vapor Deposition 2007, 13, (8), 389-395.
[66] Choi, J.; Choi, Y.; Hong, J.; Tian, H.; Roh, J.-S.; Kim, Y.; Chung, T.-M.; Woo Oh, Y.; Kim, Y.; Kim, C. G.; No, K.,
Composition and Electrical Properties of Metallic Ru Thin Films Deposited Using Ru(C6H6)(C6H8) Precursor.
Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 2002, 41, (11B), 6852-6856.
[67] Ruthenium Tetroxide and Other Ruthenium Compounds? (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/
n265k571444pw788/ )
[68] INHALATION OF RADIONUCLIDES AND CARCINOGENESIS (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ energycitations/
product. biblio. jsp?osti_id=4142243)
• Los Alamos National Laboratory – Ruthenium (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 44.
html)
External links
• Nano-layer of ruthenium stabilizes magnetic sensors (http:/ / www. brightsurf. com/
news/ headlines/ 32014/ Nano-layer_of_ruthenium_stabilizes_magnetic_sensors. html)
• WebElements.com – Ruthenium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/
elements/ text/ Ru/ index. html)
pnb:‫مینیھتور‬

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License
Rhodium 1
Rhodium
45 ruthenium ← rhodium → palladium

Co
↑
Rh
↓
Ir

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number rhodium, Rh, 45

−1

8 1
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3

(1964 °C, 3567 °F)

(3695 °C, 6683 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2288 2496 2749 3063 3405 3997
Atomic properties

Rhodium 2

6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 , -1
(amphoteric oxide)
2nd: 1740 kJ/mol
3rd: 2997 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (0 °C) 43.3 nΩ·m

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Poisson ratio 0.26
Mohs hardness 6.0
Rhodium 3
Main article: Isotopes of rhodium

99
Rh syn 16.1 d ε - 99
Ru
γ 0.089, 0.353, -
0.528
101m
Rh syn 4.34 d ε - 101
Ru
IT 0.157 101
Rh
γ 0.306, 0.545 -
101
Rh syn 3.3 y ε - 101
Ru
γ 0.127, 0.198, -
0.325
102m
Rh syn 2.9 y ε - 102
Ru
γ 0.475, 0.631, -
0.697, 1.046
102
Rh syn 207 d ε - 102
Ru
β
+ 0.826, 1.301 102
Ru
β
− 1.151 102
Pd
γ 0.475, 0.628 -
103
Rh 100% 103
Rh is stable with 58 neutron
105
Rh syn 35.36 h β
− 0.247, 0.260, 105
Pd
0.566
γ 0.306, 0.318 -
References
Rhodium (pronounced /ˈroʊdiəm/) is a chemical element that is a rare, silvery-white, hard

transition metal and a member of the platinum group. Rhodium is found in platinum ores
and is used in alloys with platinum and as a catalyst. It is abbreviated to Rh and has atomic
number 45. It is one of the most expensive precious metals.
Characteristics
Rhodium is a hard silvery white and durable metal that has a high reflectance. Rhodium
metal does not normally form an oxide, even when heated.[3] Oxygen is absorbed from the
atmosphere at the melting point of rhodium, but on solidification, the oxygen is released.[4]
Rhodium has both a higher melting point and lower density than platinum. It is not attacked
by acids: it is completely insoluble in nitric acid and dissolves slightly in aqua regia.
Rhodium 4
Chemical properties
Rhodium belongs to group 9 in the periodic table,
27 cobalt 2, 8, 15, 2
45 rhodium 2, 8, 18, 16, 1
77 iridium 2, 8, 18, 32, 15, 2
109 meitnerium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 15, 2
but has an atypical configuration in its outermost electron shells compared to the rest of
the members. (This can also be observed in the neighborhood of niobium (41), ruthenium
(44), rhodium (45), and palladium (46).)
Oxidation states
of rhodium
+0 Rh4(CO)12
+1 RhCl(PH3)2
+2 Rh2(O2CCH3)
+3 RhCl3, Rh2O3
+4 RhF4, RhO2
+5 RhF5, Sr3LiRhO6
+6 RhF6
Common oxidation states of rhodium is +3, but oxidation states from +0 to +6 are
observed.[5]
Unlike ruthenium and osmium, rhodium forms no volatile oxygen compounds. The known
stable oxides include Rh2O3, RhO2, RhO2·xH2O, Na2RhO3, Sr3LiRhO6 and Sr3NaRhO6[6] .
Halogen compounds are known in nearly the full range of possible oxidation states.
Rhodium(III) chloride, rhodium(IV) fluoride, rhodium(V) fluoride and rhodium(VI) fluoride
are some examples. The lower oxidation states are only stable if ligands are present.[7]
The best known example is the Wilkinson's catalyst
chlorotris(triphenylphosphine)rhodium(I). The catalyst
is for example used for the hydrogenation of alkenes.[8]
Isotopes
Wilkinson's catalyst Naturally occurring rhodium is composed of only one
isotope, 103Rh. The most stable radioisotopes are 101Rh
with a half-life of 3.3 years, 102Rh with a half-life of 207 days, 102mRh with a half-life of 2.9
years, and 99Rh with a half-life of 16.1 days. Twenty other radioisotopes have been
characterized with atomic weights ranging from 92.926 u (93Rh) to 116.925 u (117Rh). Most
of these have half-lives that are less than an hour except 100Rh (half-life: 20.8 hours) and
105
Rh (half-life: 35.36 hours). There are also numerous meta states with the most stable
being 102mRh (0.141 MeV) with a half-life of about 2.9 years and 101mRh (0.157 MeV) with a
half-life of 4.34 days. See isotopes of rhodium.[9]
Rhodium 5
The primary decay mode before the only stable isotope, 103Rh, is electron capture and the
primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay product before 103Rh is ruthenium
and the primary product after is palladium.[10]
History
Rhodium (Greek rhodon meaning "rose") was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde
Wollaston,[11] [12] soon after his discovery of palladium.[13] [14] He made this discovery in
England using crude platinum ore that he presumably obtained from South America.[15]
His procedure involved dissolving the ore in aqua regia and neutralizing the acid with
sodium hydroxide (NaOH). He then precipitated the platinum by adding ammonium
chloride, NH4Cl, as ammonium chloroplatinate. All other metals like copper, lead,
palladium and rhodium were precipitated with zinc. Diluted nitric acid dissolved all but
palladium and rhodium, which were dissolved in aqua regia and the rhodium was
precipitated by the addition of sodium chloride as Na3[RhCl6]·nH2O. After washing with
ethanol, the rose red precipitate was reacted with zinc forming rhodium metal.[16]
Applications
The primary use of this element is in automobiles as a catalytic
converter, which converts harmful emissions from the engine into
less harmful gases.[17] [18]
Rhodium foil and

wire
Catalytic converter
In 2007 81%[17] of the world production of rhodium was consumed to
produce three-way catalytic converters.[17] Rhodium shows some
advantages over the other platinum metals in the reduction of
nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen:[19]
Cross section of a
Metal-core Converter 2NOx → xO2 + N2
The recycling of catalytic converters also became a valuable source for rhodium. In 2007
5.7 t were extracted from this source. Compared to the 22 t which have been mined, this is
a relatively high recycling rate.[17]
Rhodium 6
Other uses
Rhodium is used as an alloying agent for hardening and improving the corrosion
resistance[3] of platinum and palladium. These alloys are used in furnace windings,
bushings for glass fiber production, thermocouple elements, electrodes for aircraft spark
plugs, and laboratory crucibles.[20] Other uses include:
• An electrical contact material due to its low electrical resistance, low and stable contact
resistance, and high corrosion resistance.[21]
• Plated rhodium, made by electroplating or evaporation, is extremely hard and is used for
optical instruments.[22]
• This metal finds use in jewelry and for decorations. It is
electroplated on white gold and platinum to give it a reflective
white surface. This is known as rhodium flashing in the jewelry
business. It also may be used in coating sterling silver in order to
strengthen the metal from tarnish, as a result from the copper
Rhodium plated compound found in sterling silver. Solid (pure) Rhodium jewelry is
white gold wedding
very rare, because the metal has both high melting point and poor
ring
malleability (making such jewelry very hard to fabricate) rather
than due to its high price.[23]
• It is also a highly useful catalyst in a number of industrial processes. Notably, it is used in
the automobile catalytic converters and for catalytic carbonylation of methanol to
produce acetic acid by the Monsanto process)[24] It is also used to catalyze addition of
hydrosilanes to molecular double bonds, a process important in manufacture of certain
silicone rubbers.[25]
• Rhodium catalysts can be used to reduce benzene to cyclohexane.[26]
• The complex of a rhodium ion with BINAP gives a widely used chiral catalyst for chiral
synthesis, as in the synthesis of menthol.[27]
• It is also used as a filter in mammography systems because of the characteristic X-rays it
produces.[28]
• It is also used in high quality pen surfaces due to its high chemical and mechanical
resistance. These pens include Graf von Faber-Castell[29] and Caran D'ache[30] .
• Rhodium neutron detectors are used in Combustion Engineering Nuclear Reactors to
measure neutron flux levels - a method that requires a digital filter to determine the
current neutron flux level, as there are three signals generated: immediate, a few
seconds later, and a minute later, each with its own signal level, and all three are
combined in the rhodium detector signals. The three Palo Verde nuclear reactors each
have 305 rhodium neutron detectors, 61 detectors on each of 5 vertical levels, providing
an accurate 3-D "picture" of reactivity, allowing fine tuning to most economically burn
the nuclear fuel.[31]
Occurrence
Normal mining
The industrial extraction of rhodium is complex as the metal occurs in ores mixed with
other metals such as palladium, silver, platinum, and gold. It is found in platinum ores and
obtained free as a white inert metal which is very difficult to fuse. Principal sources of this
element are located in South Africa, in river sands of the Ural Mountains, and in North
Rhodium 7
America, including the copper-nickel sulfide mining area of the Sudbury, Ontario region.
Although the quantity at Sudbury is very small, the large amount of processed nickel ore
makes rhodium recovery cost effective. The main exporter of rhodium is South Africa
(>80%) followed by Russia.[32] The annual world production of this element is only about 25
tons and there are very few rhodium-bearing minerals. As of October 2007, rhodium costs
approximately eight times more than gold, 450 times more than silver, and 27,250 times
more than copper by weight. Rhodium's typical historical price is about $1,000/troy oz,[33]
but in recent years, it has increased to about $4500/troy oz.[34] In 2008 the price briefly
rose above $10,000 per ounce.[34] The 3rd quarter 2008 economic slowdown has pushed
prices sharply back below $1,000 per ounce, however.[34]
Fission product
It is also possible to extract rhodium from used nuclear fuel, which contains rhodium (1 kg
of the fission products of 235U contains 13.3 grams of 103Rh). As a typical used fuel has 3%
fission products by weight, it will contain about 400 grams of rhodium per ton of used fuel.
The longest lived radioisotope of rhodium is 102mRh which has a half life of 2.9 years,
whereas the ground state (102Rh) has a half life of 207 days.
One kilogram of fission
rhodium will contain 6.62 ng
of 102Rh and 3.68 ng of
102m
Rh. As 102Rh decays by
beta decay to either 102Ru
(80%) (some positron emission
will occur) or 102Pd (20%)
(gamma ray photons with
about 500 keV are generated)
and the excited state decays
by beta decay (electron
102
capture) to Ru (gamma ray
photons with about 1 MeV are
The radioactivity in MBq per gram of each of the platinum group
generated). If the fission metals which are formed by the fission of uranium, ruthenium is the
occurs in an instant then 13.3 most radioactive. Palladium has an almost constant activity due to the
grams of rhodium will contain very long lived 107Pd, while rhodium is the least radioactive
67.1 MBq (1.81 mCi) of 102Rh

and 10.8 MBq (291 μCi) of 102mRh. As it is normal to allow used nuclear fuel to rest for
about five years before reprocessing, much of this activity will decay leaving 4.7 MBq of
102
Rh and 5.0 MBq of 102mRh. If the rhodium metal was then left for 20 years after fission,
then the 13.3 grams of rhodium metal would contain 1.3 kBq of 102Rh and 500 kBq of
102m
Rh. At first glance, the rhodium might be adding to the resource value of reprocessed
fission waste, but the cost of the separation of rhodium from other metals needs to be
considered.[35]
Rhodium 8
Precautions
Rhodium metal is, as a noble metal, inert. However, when rhodium is chemically bound, it is
reactive. Lethal intake (LD50) for rats is 12.6 mg/kg of rhodium chloride (RhCl3).[36]
Rhodium compounds can strongly stain human skin. The element plays no biological role in
humans. If used in elemental form rather than as compounds, the metal is harmless.[37]
Ornamental uses
Rhodium has been used for honours, or to symbolize wealth, when more commonly used
metals such as silver, gold, or platinum are deemed insufficient. In 1979 the Guinness Book
of World Records gave Paul McCartney a rhodium-plated disc for being history's all-time
best-selling songwriter and recording artist.[38]
See also
• Rhodium compounds
External links
• WebElements.com – Rhodium [39]
• Current Rhodium price [40]
• Rhodium Technical and Safety Data [41]
[42]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory – Rhodium
References
[1] " Rhodium: rhodium(I) fluoride compound data (http:/ / openmopac. net/ data_normal/ rhfr_jmol. html)".
OpenMOPAC.net. . Retrieved 2007-12-10.
[3] Cramer, Stephen; S., Jr Covino, Bernard (1990). ASM handbook (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=QV0sWU2qF5oC& pg=PA396). Materials Park, OH: ASM International. pp. 393–396. ISBN
0-87170-707-1. .
[4] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks ((Hardcover, First Edition) ed.). Oxford University Press.
pp. 363. ISBN 0198503407.
[5] Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; (1985). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (91–100 ed.).
Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1056–1057. ISBN 3-11-007511-3.
[6] Reisner, B. A.; Stacy, A. M. (1998). 120. pp. 9682–9989. doi: 10.1021/ja974231q (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/
ja974231q).
[7] Griffith, W. P. The Rarer Platinum Metals; John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1976; p 313.
[8] Osborn, J. A.; Jardine, F. H.; Young, J. F.; Wilkinson, G. (1966). "The Preparation and Properties of
Tris(triphenylphosphine)halogenorhodium(I) and Some Reactions Thereof Including Catalytic Homogeneous
Hydrogenation of Olefins and Acetylenes and Their Derivatives". Journal of the Chemical Society A: 1711–1732.
doi: 10.1039/J19660001711 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ J19660001711).
[9] Audi, G. (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass
2003. 11. 001).
[10] David R. Lide (ed.), Norman E. Holden in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 85th Edition CRC Press.
Boca Raton, Florida (2005). Section 11, Table of the Isotopes.
[11] " WebElements - The History of Rhodium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Rh/
hist. html)". . Retrieved 2009-02-06.
[12] Wollaston, W. H. (1805). "On the Discovery of Palladium; With Observations on Other Substances Found with
Platina". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 95: 316–330. doi: 10.1098/rstl.1805.0024
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rstl. 1805. 0024).
Rhodium 9
[13] W. P. Griffith (2003). " Rhodium and Palladium - Events Surrounding Its Discovery (http:/ / www.
platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/ 47-4-175-183)". Platinum Metals Review 47 (4): 175–183. .
[14] Wollaston, W. H. (1804). "On a New Metal, Found in Crude Platina". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 94: 419–430. doi: 10.1098/rstl.1804.0019 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rstl. 1804. 0019).
[15] Lide, David R (2004). CRC handbook of chemistry and physics: a ready-reference book of chemical and
physical data. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 4–26. ISBN 0-8493-0485-7.
[16] Griffith, W. P. (2003). "Bicentenary of Four Platinum Group Metals: Osmium and iridium – events surrounding
their discoveries". Platinum Metals Review 47 (4): 175–183.
[17] George, Micheal W.. " Commodity Report: Platinum-Group Metals (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/
pubs/ commodity/ platinum/ mcs-2008-plati. pdf)". United States Geological Survey USGS. . Retrieved
2008-09-16.
2008-09-16.
[19] Shelef, M.; Graham, G. W. (1994). "Why Rhodium in Automotive Three-Way Catalysts?". Catalysis Reviews 36
(3): 433–457. doi: 10.1080/01614949408009468 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 01614949408009468).
[20] Lide, David R (2004). CRC handbook of chemistry and physics: a ready-reference book of chemical and
physical data (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WDll8hA006AC). Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 4–26. ISBN
0-8493-0485-7. .
[21] Weisberg, Alfred M. (1999). "Rhodium plating". Metal Finishing 97 (1): 296–299. doi:
10.1016/S0026-0576(00)83088-3 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0026-0576(00)83088-3).
[22] Smith, Warren J. (2007). " Reflectors (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=DrtM_bAnf_YC)". Modern optical
engineering: the design of optical systems. McGraw-Hill. pp. 247–248. ISBN 9780071476874. .
[23] Fischer, Torkel (1984). "Contact sensitivity to nickel in white gold". Contact Dermatitis 10: 23–24. doi:
[24] Roth, James F. (1975). " Rhodium Catalysed Carbonylation of Methanol (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview.
com/ pdf/ pmr-v19-i1-012-014. pdf)" (PDF). Platinum Metals Review 19 (1 January): 12–14. .
[25] M. Heidingsfeldova and M. Capka "Rhodium complexes as catalysts for hydrosilylation crosslinking of silicone
rubber" Journal of Applied Polymer Science 30 (2003) 1837 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ app. 1985.
070300505)
[26] S. B. Halligudi et al. "Hydrogenation of benzene to cyclohexane catalyzed by rhodium(I) complex supported
on montmorillonite clay" Reaction Kinetics and Catalysis Letters 48 (1992) 547 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/
BF02162706)
[27] S. Akutagawa "Asymmetric synthesis by metal BINAP catalysts" Applied Catalysis A: 128 (1995) 171 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0926-860X(95)00097-6)
[28] C P McDonagh, J L Leake and S A Beaman "Optimum x-ray spectra for mammography: choice of K-edge
filters for tungsten anode tubes" Phys. Med. Biol. 29 (1984) 249 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1088/ 0031-9155/ 29/
3/ 004)
[29] Guilloche luxury pen range by Graf von Faber-Castell (http:/ / www. pensfromheaven. com/
pens_luxury_Graf-von-Faber-Castell_Guilloche. htm)
[30] Caran D'Ache Ecridor Type 55 Rhodium Fountain Pen (http:/ / www. pengallery. com/ details.
aspx?productID=2990)
[31] cite journal | first = A. P. | last = Sokolov Pochivalin, G. P.; Shipovskikh, Yu. M.; Garusov, Yu. V.; Chernikov O.
G.; Shevchenko V. G. | title = Rhodium self-powered detector for monitoring neutron fluence, energy
production, and isotopic composition of fuel | doi = 10.1007/BF00844622 | journal = Atomic Energy | volume =
74 | year = 1993 pages = 365–367
[32] Chevalier, Patrick. " Mineral Yearbook: Platinum Group Metals (http:/ / nrcan. gc. ca/ mms/ cmy/ content/
2004/ 71. pdf)". Natural Resources Canada. . Retrieved 2008-10-17.
[33] (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 45. html)
[34] KITCO Rhodium Price Charts (http:/ / www. kitco. com/ charts/ rhodium. html)
[35] Bush, R. P. (1991). "Recovery of Platinum Group Metals from High Level Radioactive Waste". Platinum Metals
Review 35 (4): 202–208.
[36] Landolt, Robert R.; Berk Harold W.; Russell, Henry T. (1972). "Studies on the toxicity of rhodium trichloride
in rats and rabbits". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 21 (4): 589–590. doi:
10.1016/0041-008X(72)90016-6 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0041-008X(72)90016-6).
[37] Leikin, Jerrold B.; Paloucek Frank P. (2008). Poisoning and Toxicology Handbook (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=0Bw2UJTC_uMC). Informa Health Care. pp. 846. ISBN 9781420044799. .
[38] " Hit & Run: Ring the changes (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ people/ hit-and-run/
hit--run-ring-the-changes-1044166. html)". The Independent. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
Rhodium 10
[39] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Rh/ index. html
[40] http:/ / www. kitco. com/ market/
[41] http:/ / www. americanelements. com/ rh. html

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License
Palladium 1
Palladium
46 rhodium ← palladium → silver

Ni
↑
Pd
↓
Pt

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number palladium, Pd, 46

−1
Electron configuration [Kr] 4d

10
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1554.9 °C, 2830.82 °F)

(2963 °C, 5365 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1721 1897 2117 2395 2753 3234
Atomic properties
Palladium 2
Oxidation states 0, +1, +2, +4, +6

(mildly basic oxide)
2nd: 1870 kJ/mol
3rd: 3177 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Poisson ratio 0.39
Mohs hardness 4.75
Palladium 3
Main article: Isotopes of palladium

100
Pd syn 3.63 d ε - 100
Rh
γ 0.084, 0.074, -
0.126
102
Pd 1.02% 102
Pd is stable with 56 neutron
103
Pd syn 16.991 d ε - 103
Rh
104
Pd 11.14% 104
105
Pd 22.33% 105
106
Pd 27.33% 106
107
Pd syn 6.5×10 y
6
β
− 0.033 107
Ag
108
Pd 26.46% 108
110
Pd 11.72% 110
References
Palladium (pronounced /pəˈleɪdiəm/) is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Pd

and an atomic number of 46. Palladium is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal that was
discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston, who named it after the asteroid Pallas,
which in turn, was named after the epithet of the Greek goddess Athena, acquired by her
when she slew Pallas.
Palladium, along with platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium form a group of
elements referred to as the platinum group metals (PGMs). Platinum group metals share
similar chemical properties, but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least
dense of these precious metals.
The unique properties of palladium and other platinum group metals account for their
widespread use. One in four goods manufactured today either contain platinum group
metals or had platinum group metals play a key role during their manufacturing process[2] .
Over half of the supply of palladium and its congener platinum goes into catalytic
converters, which convert up to 90% of harmful gases from auto exhaust (hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide) into less harmful substances (nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and water vapor). Palladium is found in many electronics including computers,
mobile phones, multi-layer ceramic capacitors, component plating, low voltage electrical
contacts, and SED/OLED/LCD televisions. Palladium is also used in dentistry, medicine,
hydrogen purification, chemical applications, and groundwater treatment. Palladium plays
a key role in the technology used for fuel cells, which combines hydrogen and oxygen to
produce electricity, heat and water.
Palladium bullion has ISO currency codes of XPD and 964. Palladium is one of only four
metals to have such codes, the others being gold, silver and platinum.
Ore deposits of palladium and other platinum group metals are rare, and the most extensive
deposits have been found in the norite belt of the Bushveld Igneous Complex in the
Palladium 4
Transvaal in South Africa, the Stillwater Complex in Montana, United States, the Sudbury
District of Ontario, Canada, and the Norilsk Complex in Russia. In addition to mining,
recycling is also a source of palladium, mostly from scrapped catalytic converters. The
numerous applications and limited supply sources of palladium result in palladium drawing
considerable investment interest.
History
Palladium was discovered by William Hyde Wollaston in 1803.[3] [4] This element was
named by Wollaston in 1804 after the asteroid Pallas, which had been discovered two years
earlier.[5] Wollaston found palladium in crude platinum ore from South America by
dissolving the ore in aqua regia, neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide, and
precipitating platinum as ammonium chloroplatinate with ammonium chloride. He added
mercuric cyanide to form the compound palladium cyanide, which was heated to extract
palladium metal.
Palladium chloride was at one time prescribed as a tuberculosis treatment at the rate of
0.065g per day (approximately one milligram per kilogram of body weight). This treatment
did have many negative side-effects, and was later replaced by more effective drugs.[6]
Palladium's affinity for hydrogen led it to play an essential role in the Fleischmann-Pons
experiment in 1989, also known as cold fusion.
In the run up to 2000, Russian supply of palladium to the global market was repeatedly
delayed and disrupted[7] because the export quota was not granted on time, for political
reasons. The ensuing market panic drove the palladium price to an all-time high of $1100
per ounce in January 2001.[8] Around this time, the Ford Motor Company, fearing auto
vehicle production disruption due to a possible palladium shortage, stockpiled large
amounts of the metal purchased near the price high. When prices fell in early 2001, Ford
lost nearly US$1 billion.[9] World demand for palladium increased from 100 tons in 1990 to
nearly 300 tons in 2000. The global production of palladium from mines was 222 metric
tons in 2006 according to USGS data.[10] Most palladium is used for catalytic converters in
the automobile industry.[11]
Occurrence
In 2005, Russia was the top producer of palladium, with
at least 50% world share, followed by South Africa,
Canada and the U.S., reports the British Geological
Survey.
Palladium may be found as a free metal alloyed with
Palladium output in 2005 gold and other platinum group metals in placer deposits
of the Ural Mountains, Australia, Ethiopia, South and
North America. It is commercially produced from nickel-copper deposits found in South
Africa, Ontario, and Siberia; It takes processing of many metric tons of ore to extract just
one troy ounce of palladium. However, the mine production could still be profitable,
depending on current metal prices, as other metals are produced together: nickel, copper,
platinum and rhodium.
The world's largest single producer of palladium is MMC Norilsk Nickel produced from the
Norilsk–Talnakh nickel deposits. The Merensky Reef of the Bushveld Igneous Complex of
Palladium 5
South Africa contains significant palladium in addition to other platinum group elements.
The Stillwater igneous complex of Montana and the Roby zone orebody of the Lac des Îles
igneous complex of Ontario also contain mineable palladium.
Palladium is also produced in nuclear fission reactors and can be extracted from spent
nuclear fuel (see synthesis of noble metals) though the quantity produced is insignificant.
Palladium is found in the rare minerals cooperite and polarite.
Characteristics
Palladium belongs to group 10 in the periodic table:
28 nickel 2, 8, 16, 2
46 palladium 2, 8, 18, 18
78 platinum 2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1
110 darmstadtium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 17, 1
but has a very atypical configuration in its outermost electron shells compared to the rest of
the members of group 10, if not to all elements. (See also niobium (41), ruthenium (44), and
rhodium (45).)
Palladium is a soft silver-white metal that resembles platinum. It is the least dense and has
the lowest melting point of the platinum group metals. It is soft and ductile when annealed
and greatly increases its strength and hardness when it is cold-worked. Palladium dissolves
slowly in sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acid.[5] This metal also does not react with
oxygen at normal temperatures (and thus does not tarnish in air). Palladium heated to
800°C will produce a layer of palladium(II) oxide (PdO). It lightly tarnishes in moist
atmosphere containing sulfur.
The metal has the uncommon ability to absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen
at room temperatures. It is thought that this possibly forms palladium hydride (PdH2) but it
is not yet clear if this is a true chemical compound.[5] When palladium has absorbed large
amounts of hydrogen, it will expand slightly in size.[12]
Common oxidation states of palladium are 0,+1, +2 and +4. Although originally +3 was
thought of as one of the fundamental oxidation states of palladium, there is no evidence for
palladium occurring in the +3 oxidation state; this has been investigated via X-ray
diffraction for a number of compounds, indicating a dimer of palladium(II) and
palladium(IV) instead. Recently, compounds with an oxidation state of +6 were synthesised.
Isotopes
Naturally-occurring palladium is composed of six isotopes. The most stable radioisotopes
are 107Pd with a half-life of 6.5 million years, 103Pd with a half-life of 17 days, and 100Pd
with a half-life of 3.63 days. Eighteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with
atomic weights ranging from 92.936 u (93Pd) to 119.924 u (120Pd). Most of these have
half-lives that are less than a half-hour, except 101Pd (half-life: 8.47 hours), 109Pd (half-life:
13.7 hours), and 112Pd (half-life: 21 hours).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 106Pd, is electron
capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay product before 106Pd
Palladium 6
is rhodium and the primary product after is silver.

Radiogenic 107Ag is a decay product of 107Pd and was first discovered in the Santa Clara,
California meteorite of 1978.[13] The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and
differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a
nucleosynthetic event. 107Pd versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have clearly
been melted since accretion of the solar system, must reflect the presence of short-lived
nuclides in the early solar system.[14]
Compounds
Palladium chloride, bromide and acetate are reactive and relatively inexpensive, making
them convenient entry points to palladium chemistry. All three compounds are not
monomeric; the chloride and bromide often need to be refluxed in acetonitrile to obtain the
more reactive acetonitrile complex monomers, e.g.:[15]
PdCl2 + 2 MeCN → PdCl2(MeCN)2
The great many reactions in which palladium compounds serve as catalysts are collectively
known as palladium coupling reactions. Prominent examples include the Heck, Suzuki
reaction, and Stille reactions. Palladium(II) acetate,
tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) (Pd(PPh3), and
tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) (Pd2(dba)3) are useful in this regard, either as
catalysts, or as starting points to catalysts.
Applications
Palladium is used in jewelry, in dentistry,[16] [17] watch making, in blood sugar test strips, in
aircraft spark plugs and in the production of surgical instruments and electrical
contacts.[18] Palladium is also used to make professional transverse flutes.[19]
Electronics
The second biggest application of palladium in electronics is making the multilayer ceramic
capacitor.[20] Palladium (and palladium-silver alloys) are used as electrodes in multi-layer
ceramic capacitors.[16] Palladium (sometimes alloyed with nickel) is used in connector
platings in consumer electronics.
It is also used in plating of electronic components and in soldering materials. The electronic
sector consumed 1.07 million troy ounces (33.2 tonnes) of palladium in 2006, according to a
Johnson Matthey report.[21]
Technology
Hydrogen easily diffuses through heated palladium; thus, it provides a means of purifying
the gas.[5] Membrane reactors with Pd membranes are therefore used for the production of
hydrogen.
It is a part of the palladium-hydrogen electrode in electrochemical studies. Palladium(II)
chloride can absorb large amounts of carbon monoxide gas, and is used in carbon monoxide
detectors.
Palladium 7
Catalysis
When it is finely divided, such as in palladium on carbon, palladium forms a good catalyst
and is used to speed up hydrogenation and dehydrogenation reactions, as well as in
petroleum cracking. A large number of carbon-carbon bond forming reactions in organic
chemistry (such as the Heck and Suzuki coupling) are facilitated by catalysis with palladium
compounds. The largest use of palladium today is in catalytic converters.[16] . In addition
palladium, when dispersed on conductive materials, proves to be an excellent
electrocatalyst for oxidation of primary alcohols in alkaline media.[22]
Pd is also a versatile metal for homogeneous catalysis. It is used in combination with a
broad variety of ligands for highly selective chemical transformations.
A 2008 study showed that palladium is an effective catalyst for making carbon-fluoride
bonds.[23]
Hydrogen storage
Palladium hydride is metallic palladium that contains a substantial quantity of hydrogen
within its crystal lattice. At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, palladium can
absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen in a reversible process. This property
has been investigated because hydrogen storage is of such interest and a better
understanding of what happens at the molecular level could give clues to designing
improved metal hydrides. A palladium based store, however, would be prohibitively
expensive due to the cost of the metal.[24]
Jewelry
Palladium itself has been used as a precious metal in jewelry
since 1939, as an alternative to platinum or white gold. This
is due to its naturally white properties, giving it no need for
rhodium plating. It is slightly whiter, much lighter and about
12% harder than platinum. Similar to gold, palladium can be
beaten into a thin leaf form as thin as 100 nm (1/250,000
in).[5] Like platinum, it will develop a hazy patina over time.
Unlike platinum, however, palladium may discolor at high A Palladium plated belt buckle.
soldering temperatures, become brittle with repeated
heating and cooling, and react with strong acids.[25]
Palladium is one of the three most popular metals used to make white gold alloys.[16]
(Nickel and silver can also be used.) Palladium-gold is a more expensive alloy than
nickel-gold, but seldom causes allergic reactions (though certain cross-allergies with nickel
may occur).[26]
When platinum was declared a strategic government resource during World War II, many
jewelry bands were made out of palladium.[27] As recently as September 2001,[28] palladium
was more expensive than platinum and rarely used in jewelry also due to the technical
obstacle of casting. However the casting problem has been resolved, and its use in jewelry
has increased because of a large spike in the price of platinum and a drop in the price of
palladium.[29]
Prior to 2004, the principal use of palladium in jewelry was as an alloy in the manufacture
of white gold jewelry, but, beginning early in 2004 when gold and platinum prices began to
Palladium 8
rise steeply, Chinese jewelers began fabricating significant volumes of palladium jewelry.
Johnson Matthey estimated that in 2004, with the introduction of palladium jewelry in
China, demand for palladium for jewelry fabrication was 920,000 ounces, or approximately
14% of the total palladium demand for 2004 - an increase of almost 700,000 ounces from
the previous year. This growth continued during 2005, with estimated worldwide jewelry
demand for palladium of about 1.4 million ounces, or almost 21% of net palladium supply,
again with most of the demand centered in China. The popularity of palladium jewelry is
expected to grow in 2008 as the world's biggest producers embark on a joint marketing
effort to promote palladium jewelry worldwide [30]
Photography
With the platinotype printing process photographers make fine-art black-and-white prints
using platinum or palladium salts. Often used with platinum, palladium provides an
alternative to silver.[31]
Art
Palladium leaf is one of several alternatives to silver leaf used in manuscript illumination.
The use of silver leaf is problematic due to its surprisingly fast tarnishing process.
Aluminum leaf is a very inexpensive alternative, however aluminum is much more difficult
to work than gold or silver and results in less than optimal results when employing
traditional metal leafing technique, and so palladium leaf is considered the best substitute
despite its considerable cost. Platinum leaf may be used to the same effect as palladium leaf
with similar working properties, but it is not as readily available in leaf form
commercially.[32] [33]
Safety
Finely divided palladium metal can be pyrophoric. The bulk material is quite inert.
See also
• Palladium coin
• Precious metal
• Palladium as an investment
• Platinum
• Periodic Table
Palladium 9
External links
• WebElements.com – Palladium [34]
• Current and Historical Palladium Price [35]
[36]
• picture of 999.5 fine Palladium in the element collection from Heinrich Pniok
• Comprehensive Data on Palladium [37]
References
[2] " Palladium (http:/ / www. ipa-news. com/ pgm/ index. htm)". International Platinum Group Metals Association.
.
[3] W. P. Griffith (2003). " Rhodium and Palladium - Events Surrounding Its Discovery (http:/ / www.
platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/ 47-4-175-183)". Platinum Metals Review 47 (4): 175–183. .
[4] Wollaston, W. H. (1804). "On a New Metal, Found in Crude Platina". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 94: 419–430. doi: 10.1098/rstl.1804.0019 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rstl. 1804. 0019).
0849304857.
[6] Garrett, Christine E.; Prasad, Kapa (2004). "The Art of Meeting Palladium Specifications in Active
Pharmaceutical Ingredients Produced by Pd-Catalyzed Reactions". Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis 346 (8):
889–900. doi: 10.1002/adsc.200404071 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ adsc. 200404071).
[7] Alan Williamson. " Russian PGM Stocks (http:/ / www. lbma. org. uk/ conf2003/ 5d. williamson LBMAConf2003.
pdf)". The LBMA Precious Metals Conference 2003. The London Bullion Market Association. .
[8] " Historical Palladium Charts and Data (http:/ / www. kitco. com/ charts/ historicalpalladium. html)". Kitco. .
[9] " Ford fears first loss in a decade (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ business/ 1763406. stm)". BBC News.
2002-01-16. . Retrieved 2008-09-19.
[10] " Platinum-Group Metals (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ platinum/ platimcs07. pdf)".
Mineral Commodity Summaries. United States Geological Survey. January 2007. .
[11] J. Kielhorn, C. Melber, D. Keller, I. Mangelsdorf (2002). "Palladium – A review of exposure and effects to
human health". International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 205 (6): 417. doi:
10.1078/1438-4639-00180 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1078/ 1438-4639-00180).
[12] Gray, Theodore. " 46 Palladium (http:/ / www. theodoregray. com/ periodictabledisplay/ Elements/ 046/ index.
s9. html)". Element Displays. . Retrieved 2007-10-14.
[13] W. R. Kelly, G. J. Wasserburg, (1978). "Evidence for the existence of 107Pd in the early solar system".
Geophysical Research Letters 5: 1079–1082. doi: 10.1098/rsta.2001.0893 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rsta.
2001. 0893).
[14] J. H. Chen, G. J. Wasserburg (1990). "The isotopic composition of Ag in meteorites and the presence of 107Pd
in protoplanets". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 54 (6): 1729–1743. doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(90)90404-9
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0016-7037(90)90404-9).
[15] Gordon K. Anderson, Minren Lin (1990). "Bis(Benzonitrile)Dichloro Complexes of Palladium and Platinum".
Inorganic Syntheses 28: 60–63. doi: 10.1002/9780470132593.ch13 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/
9780470132593. ch13).
[16] " Palladium (http:/ / www. unctad. org/ infocomm/ anglais/ palladium/ uses. htm)". United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development. . Retrieved 2007-02-05.
[17] Roy Rushforth (2004). " Palladium in Restorative Dentistry: Superior Physical Properties make Palladium an
Ideal Dental Metal (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/ 48-1-030-031)". Platinum
Metals Review 48 (1). .
[18] Hesse, Rayner W. (2007). " palladium (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=DIWEi5Hg93gC& pg=PA146)".
Jewelrymaking through history: an encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 146. .
[19] Toff, Nancy (1996). The flute book: a complete guide for students and performers (http:/ / books. google. de/
books?id=pCSanDD4CtsC& pg=PA20). Oxford University Press. pp. 20. ISBN 9780195105025. .
[20] Dennis Zogbi (February 3, 2003). " Shifting Supply and Demand for Palladium in MLCCs (http:/ / www. ttiinc.
com/ object/ ME_Zogbi_20030203. html)". TTI, Inc.. .
[21] David Jollie (2007). " Platinum 2007 (http:/ / www. platinum. matthey. com/ uploaded_files/ 2007/
07_palladium. pdf)" (PDF). Johnson Matthey. .
Palladium 10
[22] Jiro Tsuji (2004). Palladium reagents and catalysts: new perspectives for the 21st century (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=RDT0OUdlj0MC& pg=PA90). John Wiley and Sons. p. 90. ISBN 0470850329. .
[23] Chemical & Engineering News Vol. 86 No. 35, 1 Sept. 2008, "Palladium's Hidden Talent", p. 53
[24] W. Grochala, P. P. Edwards (2004). "Thermal Decomposition of the Non-Interstitial Hydrides for the Storage
and Production of Hydrogen". Chem. Rev. 104 (3): 1283–1316. doi: 10.1021/cr030691s (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1021/ cr030691s).
[25] Emil Raymond Riegel, James A. Kent (2007). Kent and Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry and
Biotechnology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zPZWYerB3SYC& pg=PA1037). Springer. p. 1037. ISBN
0387278427. .
[26] " Cross-reactivity between nickel and palladium demonstrated by systemic administration of nickel. (http:/ /
www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 15982224)". PubMed. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[27] " What Is Palladium? (http:/ / www. jewelry. com/ palladium-what-is. shtml)". Jewelry.com. November 3, 2008.
.
[28] " Daily Metal Prices: September 2001 (http:/ / www. platinum. matthey. com/ prices/ September2001. php)".
Johnson Matthey. .
[29] Holmes, E. (February 13, 2007). "Palladium, Platinum's Cheaper Sister, Makes a Bid for Love". Wall Street
Journal (Eastern edition). pp. B.1.
[30] " Stillwater Mining Up on Jewelry Venture (http:/ / biz. yahoo. com/ ap/ 080311/ stillwater_mining_mover.
html)". Yahoo Finance. .
[31] Mike Ware (2005). "Book Review of : Photography in Platinum and Palladium". Platinum Metals Review 49
(4): 190–195. doi: 10.1595/147106705X70291 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1595/ 147106705X70291).
[32] Margaret Morgan (2007). The Bible of Illuminated Letters. Barron's Educational Series. p. 50. ISBN
978-0764158209.
[33] " Palladium Leaf (http:/ / www. theodoregray. com/ PeriodicTable/ Samples/ 046. 6/ index. s12. html)".
Theodore Gray. .
[34] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Pd/ index. html
[35] http:/ / www. kitco. com/ charts/ livepalladium. html
[36] http:/ / www. pse-mendelejew. de/ bilder/ pd. jpg
[37] http:/ / www. mrteverett. com/ Chemistry/ pdictable/ q_elements. asp?Symbol=Pd

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License
Silver 1
Silver
47 palladium ← silver → cadmium

Cu
↑
Ag
↓
Au

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number silver, Ag, 47
Appearance lustrous white metal

−1

10
5s
1
Physical properties
Color silver
Phase solid

(961.78 °C, 1763.2 °F)

(2162 °C, 3924 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1283 1413 1575 1782 2055 2433
Atomic properties
Silver 2
Crystal structure face-centered cubic
(amphoteric oxide)
2nd: 2070 kJ/mol
3rd: 3361 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic

−1
·K
−1
Thermal diffusivity (300 K) 174 mm²/s

−1
·K
−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) −1

(r.t.) 2680 m·s
Poisson ratio 0.37
Mohs hardness 2.5
Silver 3
Main article: Isotopes of silver

105
Ag syn 41.2 d ε - 105
Pd
γ 0.344, 0.280, -
0.644, 0.443
106m
Ag syn 8.28 d ε - 106
Pd
γ 0.511, 0.717, -
1.045, 0.450
107
Ag 51.839% 107
Ag is stable with 60 neutron
108m
Ag syn 418 y ε - 108
Pd
IT 0.109 108
Ag
γ 0.433, 0.614, -
0.722
109
Ag 48.161% 109
Ag is stable with 62 neutron
111
Ag syn 7.45 d β
− 1.036, 0.694 111
Cd
γ 0.342 -
References
Silver is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag (Latin: argentum, from the
Ancient Greek: ἀργήεντος - argēentos, gen. of ἀργήεις - argēeis, "white, shining" ) and
atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical
conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal. The metal
occurs naturally in its pure, free form (native silver), as an alloy with gold (electrum) and
other metals, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. Most silver is produced
as a by-product of copper, gold, lead, and zinc refining.
Silver has been known since ancient times and has long been valued as a precious metal,
used to make ornaments, jewelry, high-value tableware, utensils (hence the term
silverware), and currency coins. Today, silver metal is used in electrical contacts and
conductors, in mirrors and in catalysis of chemical reactions. Its compounds are used in
photographic film and dilute solutions of silver nitrate and other silver compounds are used
as disinfectants. Although the antimicrobial uses of silver have largely been supplanted by
the use of antibiotics, further research into its clinical potential is in progress.
Silver 4
Characteristics
Silver is a very ductile and malleable (slightly harder
than gold) monovalent coinage metal with a brilliant
white metallic luster that can take a high degree of
polish. It has the highest electrical conductivity of all
metals, even higher than copper, but its greater cost
and tarnishability have prevented it from being widely
used in place of copper for electrical purposes, though
13540 tons were used in the electromagnets used for
Silver 1000oz bullion bar
enriching uranium during World War II (mainly because
of the wartime shortage of copper).[1] [2] Another
notable exception is in high-end audio cables.[3]
Among metals, pure silver has the highest thermal

conductivity[4] (the non-metal diamond and superfluid
helium II are higher), the whitest color, and the highest
optical reflectivity[5] (although aluminium slightly
outdoes it in parts of the visible spectrum, and it is a
poor reflector of ultraviolet light). Silver also has the
lowest contact resistance of any metal. Silver halides
are photosensitive and are remarkable for their ability
a silver crystal, electrolytic refined
with visible dendritic structures. to record a latent image that can later be developed
chemically. Silver is stable in pure air and water, but
tarnishes when it is exposed to air or water containing ozone or hydrogen sulfide to form a
black layer of silver sulfide which can be cleaned off with dilute hydrochloric acid.[6] The
most common oxidation state of silver is +1 (for example, silver nitrate: AgNO3); in
addition, +2 compounds (for example, silver(II) fluoride: AgF2) and +3 compounds (for
example, potassium tetrafluoroargentate: K[AgF4]) are known.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring silver is composed of two stable isotopes, 107Ag and 109Ag, with 107Ag
being the most abundant (51.839% natural abundance). Silver's standard atomic mass is
107.8682(2) u. Twenty-eight radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being
105
Ag with a half-life of 41.29 days, 111Ag with a half-life of 7.45 days, and 112Ag with a
half-life of 3.13 hours. This element has numerous meta states, the most stable being
108m
Ag (t* 418 years), 110mAg (t* 249.79 days) and 106mAg (t* 8.28 days). All of the
remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than an hour, and the majority
of these have half-lives that are less than 3 minutes.
Isotopes of silver range in atomic weight from 93.943 u (94Ag) to 123.929 u (124Ag). The
primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 107Ag, is electron capture
and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before 107Ag are
palladium (element 46) isotopes, and the primary products after are cadmium (element 48)
isotopes.
The palladium isotope 107Pd decays by beta emission to 107Ag with a half-life of 6.5 million
years. Iron meteorites are the only objects with a high-enough palladium-to-silver ratio to
yield measurable variations in 107Ag abundance. Radiogenic 107Ag was first discovered in
Silver 5
the Santa Clara meteorite in 1978.[7] The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and
differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a
nucleosynthetic event. 107Pd–107Ag correlations observed in bodies that have clearly been
melted since the accretion of the solar system must reflect the presence of unstable
[8]
nuclides in the early solar system.
Silver compounds
Silver metal dissolves readily in nitric acid (HNO3) to produce silver nitrate (AgNO3), a
transparent crystalline solid that is photosensitive and readily soluble in water. Silver
nitrate is used as the starting point for the synthesis of many other silver compounds, as an
antiseptic, and as a yellow stain for glass in stained glass. Silver metal does not react with
sulfuric acid, which is used in jewellery-making to clean and remove copper oxide firescale
from silver articles after silver soldering or annealing. However, silver reacts readily with
sulfur or hydrogen sulfide H2S to produce silver sulfide, a dark-coloured compound familiar
as the tarnish on silver coins and other objects. Silver sulfide also forms silver whiskers
when silver electrical contacts are used in an atmosphere rich in hydrogen sulfide.
Silver bromide is a yellow, low hardness salt.
Silver chloride (AgCl) is precipitated from solutions of
silver nitrate in the presence of chloride ions, and the
other silver halides used in the manufacture of
photographic emulsions are made in the same way
using bromide or iodide salts. Silver chloride is used in
glass electrodes for pH testing and potentiometric
measurement, and as a transparent cement for glass.
Silver iodide has been used in attempts to seed clouds
Cessna 210 equipped with a silver
to produce rain.[6] iodide generator for cloud seeding
Silver oxide (Ag O) produced when silver nitrate

2
solutions are treated with a base, is used as a positive electrode (cathode) in watch
(battery) batteries. Silver carbonate (Ag2CO3) is precipitated when silver nitrate is treated
with sodium carbonate (Na2CO3).[9]
Silver fulminate (AgONC), a powerful, touch-sensitive explosive used in percussion caps, is
made by reaction of silver metal with nitric acid in the presence of ethanol (C2H5OH).
Another dangerously explosive silver compound is silver azide (AgN3), formed by reaction
of silver nitrate with sodium azide (NaN3).[10]
Latent images formed in silver halide crystals are developed by treatment with alkaline
solutions of reducing agents such as hydroquinone, metol (4-(methylamino)phenol sulfate)
or ascorbate which reduce the exposed halide to silver metal. Alkaline solutions of silver
nitrate can be reduced to silver metal by reducing sugars such as glucose, and this reaction
is used to silver glass mirrors and the interior of glass Christmas ornaments. Silver halides
are soluble in solutions of sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) which is used as a photographic
fixer, to remove excess silver halide from photographic emulsions after image
development.[9]
Silver metal is attacked by strong oxidizers such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), and in the presence of potassium bromide (KBr), these
compounds are used in photography to bleach silver images, converting them to silver
Silver 6
halides that can either be fixed with thiosulfate or re-developed to intensify the original
image. Silver forms cyanide complexes (silver cyanide) that are soluble in water in the
presence of an excess of cyanide ions. Silver cyanide solutions are used in electroplating of
silver.[9]
Applications
Precious metal
A major use of silver is as a precious metal, and it has
long been used for making high-value objects reflecting
the wealth and status of the owner. For example the
idiom "[to be] born with a Silver Spoon in one's mouth".
Currency
Silver, in the form of electrum (a gold-silver alloy), was

coined to produce money in around 700 BCE by the
Lydians. Later, silver was refined and coined in its pure
Goddess Minerva on a Roman silver
form. Many nations used silver as the basic unit of plate, 1st century BCE
monetary value. The words for "silver" and "money" are
the same in at least 14 languages. In the modern world, silver bullion has the ISO currency
code XAG. The name of the United Kingdom monetary unit "pound" reflects the fact that it
originally represented the value of one troy pound of sterling silver. In the 1800s, many
nations, such as the United States and Great Britain, switched from silver to a gold
standard of monetary value, then in the 20th century to fiat currency.
Jewellery and silverware

Jewellery and silverware are traditionally made from sterling silver (standard silver), an
alloy of 92.5% silver with 7.5% copper. In the United States, only an alloy consisting of at
least 92.5% fine silver can be marketed as "silver". Sterling silver is harder than pure silver,
and has a lower melting point (893 °C) than either pure silver or pure copper.[6] Britannia
silver is an alternative hallmark-quality standard containing 95.8% silver, often used to
make silver tableware and wrought plate. With the addition of germanium, the patented
modified alloy Argentium Sterling Silver is formed, with improved properties including
resistance to firescale.
Sterling silver jewelry is often plated with a thin coat of .999 fine silver to give the item a
shiny finish. This process is called "flashing". Silver jewelry can also be plated with rhodium
(for a bright, shiny look) or gold.
Silver is a constituent of almost all colored carat gold alloys and carat gold solders, giving
the alloys paler colour and greater hardness.[11] White 9 carat gold contains 62.5% silver
and 37.5% gold, while 22 carat gold contains up to 8.4% silver or 8.4% copper.[11]
Historically the training and guild organization of goldsmiths included silversmiths as well,
and the two crafts remain largely overlapping. Unlike blacksmiths, silversmiths do not
shape the metal while it is red-hot but instead, work it at room temperature with gentle and
carefully placed hammerblows. The essence of silversmithing is to take a flat piece of metal
and by means of different hammers, stakes and other simple tools, to transform it into a
Silver 7
useful object.[12]
While silversmiths specialize in, and principally work, silver, they also work with other
metals such as gold, copper, steel, and brass. They make jewellery, silverware, armour,
vases, and other artistic items. Because silver is such a malleable metal, silversmiths have a
large range of choices with how they prefer to work the metal. Historically, silversmiths are
mostly referred to as goldsmiths, which was usually the same guild. In the western
Canadian silversmith tradition, guilds do not exist; however, mentoring through colleagues
becomes a method of professional learning within a community of craftspeople.[13]
Silver is cheaper than gold, though still valuable, and so is very popular with jewellers who
are just starting out and cannot afford to make pieces in gold, or as a practicing material
for goldsmith apprentices. Silver has also become very fashionable, and is used frequently
in more artistic jewellery pieces.
Traditionally silversmiths mostly made "silverware" (cutlery, table flatware, bowls,
candlesticks and such). Only in more recent times has silversmithing become mainly work
in jewellery, as much less solid silver tableware is now handmade.
Silver is used in medals, denoting second place. Some high-end musical instruments are
made from sterling silver, such as the flute.
Dentistry
Silver can be alloyed with mercury, tin and other metals at room temperature to make
amalgams that are widely used for dental fillings. To make dental amalgam, a mixture of
powdered silver and other metals is mixed with mercury to make a stiff paste that can be
adapted to the shape of a cavity. The dental amalgam achieves initial hardness within
minutes but sets hard in a few hours.
Photography and electronics

Photography used 30.98% of the silver consumed in 1998 in the form of silver nitrate and
silver halides. In 2001, 23.47% was used for photography, while 20.03% was used in
jewelry, 38.51% for industrial uses, and only 3.5% for coins and medals. The use of silver in
photography has rapidly declined, due to the lower demand for consumer colour film from
the advent of digital technology, since in 2007 of the 894.5 million ounces of silver in
supply, just 128.3 million ounces (14.3%) were consumed by the photographic sector, and
the total amount of silver consumed in 2007 by the photographic sector compared to 1998
is just 50%.[14]
Some electrical and electronic products use silver for its superior conductivity, even when
tarnished. For example, printed circuits are made using silver paints,[6] and computer
keyboards use silver electrical contacts. Some high-end audio hardware (DACs,
preamplifiers, etc.) are fully silver-wired, which is believed to cause the least loss of quality
in the signal. Silver cadmium oxide is used in high voltage contacts because it can
withstand arcing.
During World War II the short supply of copper brought about the government's use of
silver from the Treasury vaults for conductors at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. (After the
war ended the silver was returned to the vaults.)[15]
Silver 8
Solder and brazing

Silver is used to make solder and brazing alloys, electrical contacts, and high-capacity
silver-zinc and silver-cadmium batteries. Silver in a thin layer on top of a bearing material
can provide a significant increase in galling resistance and reduce wear under heavy load,
particularly against steel.
Mirrors and optics

Mirrors which need superior reflectivity for visible light are made with silver as the
reflecting material in a process called silvering, though common mirrors are backed with
aluminium. Using a process called sputtering, silver (and sometimes gold) can be applied to
glass at various thicknesses, allowing different amounts of light to penetrate. Silver is
usually reserved for coatings of specialized optics, and the silvering most often seen in
architectural glass and tinted windows on vehicles is produced by sputtered aluminium,
which is cheaper and less susceptible to tarnishing and corrosion.[16]
Nuclear reactors
Because silver readily absorbs free neutrons, it is commonly used to make control rods that
regulate the fission chain reaction in pressurized water nuclear reactors, generally in the
form of an alloy containing 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.
Catalyst
Silver's catalytic properties make it ideal for use as a catalyst in oxidation reactions, for
example, the production of formaldehyde from methanol and air by means of silver screens
or crystallites containing a minimum 99.95 weight-percent silver. Silver (upon some
suitable support) is probably the only catalyst available today to convert ethylene to
ethylene oxide (later hydrolyzed to ethylene glycol, used for making polyesters)—a very
important industrial reaction.
Oxygen dissolves in silver relatively easily compared to other gases present in air. Attempts
have been made to construct silver membranes of only a few monolayers thickness. Such a
membrane could be used to filter pure oxygen from air and water.
Silver 9
Medicine
Silver ions and silver compounds show a toxic effect on some
bacteria, viruses, algae and fungi, typical for heavy metals like lead
or mercury, but without the high toxicity to humans that are
normally associated with these other metals. Its germicidal effects
kill many microbial organisms in vitro, but testing and
standardization of silver products is difficult.[17]
Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, wrote that silver had

beneficial healing and anti-disease properties, and the Phoenicians
used to store water, wine, and vinegar in silver bottles to prevent
spoiling. In the early 1900s people would put silver dollars in milk
bottles to prolong the milk's freshness.[18] Its germicidal effects Handforged silver wine
goblets. Usage of
increased its value in utensils and as jewellery. The exact process of
silverware was
silver's germicidal effect is still not well understood, although encouraged by the
theories exist. One of these is the oligodynamic effect, which antibiotic action of
explains the effect on microorganisms but would not explain silver
antiviral effects.
Silver compounds were used to prevent infection in World War I before the advent of
antibiotics. Silver nitrate solution was a standard of care but was largely replaced by silver
sulfadiazine cream (SSD Cream),[19] which was generally the "standard of care" for the
antibacterial and antibiotic treatment of serious burns until the late 1990s.[20] Now, other
options, such as silver-coated dressings (activated silver dressings), are used in addition to
SSD cream. However, the evidence for the effectiveness of such silver-treated dressings is
mixed and although the evidence is promising it is marred by the poor quality of the trials
used to assess these products.[21] Consequently a major systematic review by the Cochrane
Collaboration found insufficient evidence to recommend the use of silver-treated dressings
to treat infected wounds.[21]
The widespread use of silver went out of fashion with the development of modern
antibiotics. However, recently there has been renewed interest in silver as a
broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent. In particular, silver is being used with alginate, a
naturally occurring biopolymer derived from seaweed, in a range of products designed to
prevent infections as part of wound management procedures, particularly applicable to
burn victims.[22] In 2007, AGC Flat Glass Europe introduced the first antibacterial glass to
fight hospital-caught infection: it is covered with a thin layer of silver.[23] In addition, the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recently approved an endotracheal breathing
tube with a fine coat of silver for use in mechanical ventilation, after studies found it
reduced the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia.[24]
It has long been known that antibacterial action of silver is enhanced by the presence of an
electric field. Applying a few volts of electricity across silver electrodes drastically
enhances the rate that bacteria in solution are killed. It was found recently that the
antibacterial action of silver electrodes is greatly improved if the electrodes are covered
with silver nanorods.[25]
Silver 10
Medication
Today, various kinds of silver compounds, or devices to make solutions or colloids
containing silver, are sold as remedies for a wide variety of diseases. Although most
colloidal silver preparations are harmless, some people using these home-made solutions
excessively have developed argyria over a period of months or years.[26] High doses of
colloidal silver can result in coma, pleural edema, and hemolysis.[27]
Silver is widely used in topical gels and impregnated into bandages because of its
wide-spectrum antimicrobial activity. The anti-microbial properties of silver stem from the
chemical properties of its ionized form, Ag+. This ion forms strong molecular bonds with
other substances used by bacteria to respire, such as molecules containing sulfur, nitrogen,
and oxygen.[28] Once the Ag+ ion complexes with these molecules, they are rendered
unusable by the bacteria, depriving it of necessary compounds and eventually leading to the
bacteria's death.
Food
Silver is now considered to be a bioaccumulating carcinogen and thus its use in food is not
advised. In India and Pakistan, foods, especially sweets, can be found decorated with a thin
layer of silver known as vark. Silver as a food additive is given the E number E174 and is
classed as a food coloring. It is used solely for external decoration, such as on chocolate
confectionery, in the covering of dragées and the decoration of sugar-coated flour
confectionery. In Australia, it is banned as a food additive.
Clothing
Silver inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi. It keeps odor to a minimum and reduces
the risk of bacterial and fungal infection. In clothing, the combination of silver and moisture
movement (wicking) may help to reduce the harmful effects of prolonged use in active and
humid conditions.
Silver is used in clothing in two main forms:
• A form in which silver ions are integrated into the polymer from which yarns are made (a
form of nanotechnology)
• A form in which the silver is coated onto the yarns.
In both cases the silver prevents the growth of a broad spectrum of bacteria and fungi.
Recorded use of silver to prevent infection dates to ancient Greece and Rome, it was
rediscovered in the Middle Ages, where it was used for several purposes, such as to
disinfect water and food during storage, and also for the treatment of burns and wounds as
wound dressing. In the 19th century, sailors on long ocean voyages would put silver coins
in barrels of water and wine to keep the liquid pure. Pioneers in America used the same
idea as they made their journey from coast to coast. Silver solutions were approved in the
1920s by the US Food and Drug Administration for use as antibacterial agents. Today,
wound dressings containing silver are well established for clinical wound care and have
recently been introduced in consumer products such as sticking plasters.[29]
Silver 11
History
The word "silver" appears in Anglo-Saxon in various
spellings such as seolfor and siolfor. A similar form is
seen throughout the Teutonic languages (compare Old
High German silabar and silbir). The chemical symbol
Ag is from the Latin for "silver", argentum (compare
Greek άργυρος, árgyros), from the Indo-European root
*arg- meaning "white" or "shining". Silver has been
known since ancient times. It is mentioned in the book
of Genesis, and slag heaps found in Asia Minor and on
the islands of the Aegean Sea indicate that silver was
being separated from lead as early as the 4th
The symbol for the Moon has been
millennium BC using surface mining.[6]
used since ancient times to represent
In the Gospels, Jesus' disciple Judas Iscariot is infamous
silver.
for having taken a bribe of thirty coins of silver from
religious leaders in Jerusalem to turn Jesus Christ over
to the Romans.
Set aside certain circumstances, Islam permits Muslim men to wear silver jewelry.
Muhammad himself wore a silver signet ring.
Occurrence and extraction

Silver is found in native form, alloyed with gold or
combined with sulfur, arsenic, antimony or chlorine in
ores such as argentite (Ag2S), horn silver (AgCl), and
pyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3). The principal sources of silver
are the ores of copper, copper-nickel, lead, and
lead-zinc obtained from Peru, Mexico, China, Australia,
Chile, Poland and Serbia.[6] Peru and Mexico have been
mining silver since 1546 and are still major world
producers. Top silver-producing mines are Proaño /
Silver ore with Lincoln cent for scale
Fresnillo (Mexico), Cannington (Queensland, Australia),
Dukat (Russia), Uchucchacua (Peru) and Greens Creek
mine (Alaska).[30]
The metal can also be produced during the electrolytic

refining of copper and by the application of the Parkes
process on lead metal obtained from lead ores that
contain small amounts of silver. Commercial-grade fine
silver is at least 99.9% pure silver, and purities greater
than 99.999% are available. In 2007, Peru was the
world's top producer of silver, closely followed by
Time trend of silver production
Mexico, according to the British Geological Survey.
Silver 12
Price
As of October 2008 silver is about
1/75th the price of gold by
mass.[31] Silver once traded at
1/6th to 1/12th the price of gold,
prior to the Age of Discovery and
the discovery of great silver
deposits in the Americas, including
Peru, Mexico and the United
States, such as the vast Comstock
Silver output in 2005
Lode in Virginia City, Nevada,
USA. This then resulted in the
debate over cheap Free Silver to benefit the agricultural sector, which was among the most
prolonged and difficult in that country's history and dominated public discourse during the
latter decades of the nineteenth century.
Over the last 100 years the price of silver and the gold/silver price ratio have fluctuated
greatly due to competing industrial and store-of-value demands. In 1980 the silver price
rose to an all-time high of US$49.45 per troy ounce. By December 2001 the price had
dropped to US$4.15 per ounce, and in May 2006 it had risen back as high as US$15.21 per
ounce. In March 2008 silver reached US$21.34 per ounce.[32]
The price of silver is important in Judaic Law. The lowest fiscal amount that a Jewish court,
or Beth Din, can convene to adjudicate a case over is a shova pruta (value of a Babylonian
pruta coin). This is fixed at 1/8 of a gram of pure, unrefined silver, at market price.
Precautions
Silver plays no known natural biological role in humans, and possible health effects of silver
are a subject of dispute. Silver itself is not toxic but most silver salts are, and some may be
carcinogenic. Silver and compounds containing silver (like colloidal silver) can be absorbed
into the circulatory system and become deposited in various body tissues leading to a
condition called argyria which results in a blue-grayish pigmentation of the skin, eyes, and
mucous membranes. Although this condition does not otherwise harm a person's health, it
is disfiguring and usually permanent. Argyria is rare, and mild forms are sometimes
mistaken for cyanosis.[6]
See also
• List of Silver Compounds
• Silverpoint drawing
External links
• WebElements.com – Silver [33]
[34]
• Society of American Silversmiths
• Silver Statistics and Information [35], USGS publications on the worldwide production of
silver
• The Silver Institute [36] A silver industry website
Silver 13
• A collection of silver items [37] Samples of silver

• Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment [38]
• Picture in the Element collection from Heinrich Pniok [39]
References
[1] Nichols, Kenneth D. (1987). The Road to Trinity. Morrow, New York: Morrow. p. 42. ISBN 068806910X.
[2] " Eastman at Oak Ridge - Dr. Howard Young (http:/ / www. tnengineering. net/ AICHE/
eastman-oakridge-young. htm)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[3] Oman, H. (1992). "Not invented here? Check your history". Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine 7 (1):
51–53. doi: 10.1109/62.127132 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ 62. 127132).
[4] " WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements | Silver | Essential information (http:/ / www. webelements.
com/ silver/ )". Webelements.com. . Retrieved 2009-04-05.
[5] Edwards, H.W. & Petersen, R.P. (1936). "Reflectivity of evaporated silver films". Phys. Rev. 9: 871.
0849304814.
[7] Kelly, William R. (1978). "Evidence for the existence of 107Pd in the early solar system". Geophysical Research
Letters 5: 1079. doi: 10.1029/GL005i012p01079 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1029/ GL005i012p01079).
[8] Russell, Sara S.; Gounelle, Matthieu; Hutchison, Robert (2001 pages = 1991–2004). " Origin of Short-Lived
Radionuclides (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 3066270)". Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical
and Engineering Sciences 359 (1787). doi:10.2307/3066270 (inactive 2009-05-30) . .
[9] Hans I. Bjelkhagen (1995). Silver-halide recording materials: for holography and their processing. Springer.
pp. 156-166. ISBN 3540586199.
[10] Rudolf Meyer, Josef Köhler, Axel Homburg (2007). Explosives (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=ATiYCfo1VcEC& pg=PA284& dq="silver+ + fulminate"& lr=& num=100& as_brr=3). Wiley-VCH.
p. 284. ISBN 3527316566. .
[11] " Gold Jewellery Alloys > Utilise Gold. Scientific, industrial and medical applications, products ,suppliers from
the World Gold Council (http:/ / www. utilisegold. com/ jewellery_technology/ colours/ colour_alloys/ )".
Utilisegold.com. 2000-01-20. . Retrieved 2009-04-05.
[12] " Chambers Search Chambers (http:/ / www. chambersharrap. co. uk/ chambers/ features/ chref/ chref. py/
main?query=Silversmith& title=21st& sourceid=Mozilla-search)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[13] Kelly McRae. " Trade Secrets (http:/ / westernhorseman. com/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view&
id=861& Itemid=79)". Western Horseman Magazine. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[14] " Silver Supply & Demand (http:/ / www. silverinstitute. org/ supply_demand. php)". The Silver Institute. .
[15] Isaac Asimov. Building Blocks of the Universe.
[16] Ray N. Wilson (2004). Reflecting Telescope Optics: Basic design theory and its historical development (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=isH9fTnpc7YC& lpg=PA429& dq=silver optics& lr=& as_drrb_is=q&
as_minm_is=0& as_miny_is=& as_maxm_is=0& as_maxy_is=& num=100& as_brr=3& pg=PA429). Springer.
p. 422. ISBN 3540401067. .
[17] Chopra I (April 2007). "The increasing use of silver-based products as antimicrobial agents: a useful
development or a cause for concern?". The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy 59 (4): 587–90. doi:
10.1093/jac/dkm006 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ jac/ dkm006). PMID 17307768.
[18] " Antibacterial effects of silver (http:/ / www. saltlakemetals. com/ Silver_Antibacterial. htm)". .
[19] Chang TW, Weinstein L (December 1975). " Prevention of herpes keratoconjunctivitis in rabbits by silver
sulfadiazine (http:/ / aac. asm. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=1211919)". Antimicrob. Agents
Chemother. 8 (6): 677–8. PMID 1211919. PMC: 429446 (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender.
fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=429446). .
[20] Atiyeh BS, Costagliola M, Hayek SN, Dibo SA (March 2007). "Effect of silver on burn wound infection control
and healing: review of the literature". Burns : journal of the International Society for Burn Injuries 33 (2):
139–48. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2006.06.010 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. burns. 2006. 06. 010). PMID
17137719.
[21] Lo SF, Hayter M, Chang CJ, Hu WY, Lee LL (August 2008). "A systematic review of silver-releasing dressings
in the management of infected chronic wounds". Journal of clinical nursing 17 (15): 1973–85. doi:
10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02264.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1111/ j. 1365-2702. 2007. 02264. x). PMID
18705778.
[22] Hermans MH (December 2006). "Silver-containing dressings and the need for evidence". The American
journal of nursing 106 (12): 60–8; quiz 68–9. PMID 17133010.
Silver 14
[23] " AGC Flat Glass Europe launches world’s first antibacterial glass (http:/ / www. agc-flatglass. eu/ AGC+
Flat+ Glass+ Europe/ English/ Homepage/ News/ Press+ room/ Press-Detail-Page/ page. aspx/
979?pressitemid=1031)". 2007-09-04. .
[24] " FDA Clears Silver-Coated Breathing Tube For Marketing (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ bbs/ topics/ NEWS/ 2007/
NEW01741. html)". 2007-11-08. . Retrieved 2007-11-11.
[25] O. Akhavan and E. Ghaderi (2009). " Enhancement of antibacterial properties of Ag nanorods by electric field
(http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ article/ 1468-6996/ 10/ 1/ 015003/ stam9_1_015003. pdf)". Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater.
10: 015003. doi: 10.1088/1468-6996/10/1/015003 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1088/ 1468-6996/ 10/ 1/ 015003). .
[26] Fung MC, Bowen DL (1996). "Silver products for medical indications: risk-benefit assessment". Journal of
toxicology. Clinical toxicology 34 (1): 119–26. doi: 10.3109/15563659609020246 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 3109/
15563659609020246). PMID 8632503.
[27] Wadhera A, Fung M (2005). " Systemic argyria associated with ingestion of colloidal silver (http:/ /
dermatology. cdlib. org/ 111/ case_reports/ argyria/ wadhera. html)". Dermatology online journal 11 (1): 12.
PMID 15748553. .
[28] Slawson RM, Van Dyke MI, Lee H, Trevors JT (January 1992). "Germanium and silver resistance,
accumulation, and toxicity in microorganisms". Plasmid 27 (1): 72–9. doi: 10.1016/0147-619X(92)90008-X
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0147-619X(92)90008-X). PMID 1741462.
[29] " Silver in Textiles and Clothing (http:/ / www. americanelements. com/ agnp. html)". Americanelements.com.
. Retrieved 2009-04-05.
[30] " Top silver producers (http:/ / www. infomine. com/ commodities/ silver. asp)". Infomine.com. . Retrieved
2009-04-05.
[31] O’Connell, Rhona. " Gold:silver ratio will narrow, but base metals outlook ultra-gloomy – UBS (http:/ / www.
mineweb. com/ mineweb/ view/ mineweb/ en/ page33?oid=71867& sn=Detail)". Mineweb.com. . Retrieved
2008-11-13.
[32] " Silver Cash daily plot (http:/ / charts3. barchart. com/ chart. asp?sym=SIY0& data=A& jav=adv& vol=Y&
evnt=adv& grid=Y& code=BSTK& org=stk& fix=)". Barchart.com. .
[33] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Ag/ index. html
[34] http:/ / www. silversmithing. com
[35] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ silver/
[36] http:/ / www. silverinstitute. org
[37] http:/ / www. theodoregray. com/ PeriodicTable/ Elements/ 047/ index. html
[38] http:/ / digital. library. wisc. edu/ 1711. dl/ EcoNatRes. Argentum
[39] http:/ / www. pniok. de/ ag. htm

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License
Cadmium 1
Cadmium
48 silver ← cadmium → indium

Zn
↑
Cd
↓
Hg

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number cadmium, Cd, 48
Appearance silvery gray metallic

−1
[Kr] 5s 4d
10
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3

(321.07 °C, 609.93 °F)

(767 °C, 1413 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 530 583 654 745 867 1040
Atomic properties

Cadmium 2
Oxidation states 2, 1
2nd: 1631.4 kJ/mol
3rd: 3616 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

diamagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Bulk modulus 42 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.30
Mohs hardness 2.0
Cadmium 3
Main article: Isotopes of cadmium

106
Cd 1.25% >9.5×1017 y εε2ν - 106
Pd
107
Cd syn 6.5 h ε 1.417 107
Ag
108
Cd 0.89% >6.7×1017 y εε2ν - 108
Pd
109
Cd syn 462.6 d ε 0.214 109
Ag
110
Cd 12.49% 110
Cd is stable with 62 neutron
111
Cd 12.8% 111
112
Cd 24.13% 112
113
Cd 12.22% 7.7×10
15
y β
− 0.316 113
In
113m
Cd syn 14.1 y β
− 0.580 113
In
IT 0.264 113
Cd
114
Cd 28.73% >9.3×10
17
y ββ2ν - 114
Sn
115
Cd syn 53.46 h β
− 1.446 115
In
116
Cd 7.49% 2.9×10
19
y ββ2ν - 116
Sn
References
Cadmium (pronounced /ˈkædmiəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic
number 48. The soft, bluish-white transition metal is chemically similar to the two other
metals in group 12, zinc and mercury. Similar to zinc it prefers oxidation state +2 in most
of its compounds and similar to mercury it shows a low melting point for a transition metal.
Cadmium is a relatively abundant element. Cadmium was discovered in 1817 by Friedrich
Strohmeyer as an impurity in zinc carbonate.
Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and therefore is a by-product of
zinc production. Cadmium was for a long time used as pigment and for corrosion resistant
plating on steel. Cadmium compounds were used to stabilize plastic. With the exception of
its use in nickel-cadmium batteries, the use of cadmium is generally decreasing in all other
applications. This decrease is due to the high toxicity and carcinogenicity of cadmium and
the associated health and environmental concerns. Although cadmium is toxic, one enzyme,
a carbonic anhydrase with a cadmium as reactive centre has been discovered.
Cadmium 4
Characteristics
Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, toxic, bluish-white bivalent metal. It is similar in
many respects to zinc but forms more complex compounds.
Chemical
The most common oxidation state of cadmium is +2, though rare examples of +1 can be
found. Cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous cadmium oxide (CdO). The
crystalline form of the same compound is dark red and changes colour when heated, similar
to zinc oxide. Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming
cadmium chloride (CdCl2) cadmium sulfate (CdSO4) or cadmium nitrate (Cd(NO3)2). The
oxidation state +1 can be reached by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride
and aluminium chloride, forming the Cd22+ which is similar to the Hg22+ in mercury(I)
chloride.[2]
Cd + CdCl2 + 2 AlCl3 → Cd2[AlCl4]2
Isotopes
Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of 8 isotopes. For two of them, natural
radioactivity was observed, and three others are predicted to be radioactive but their decay
is not observed, due to extremely long half-life times. The two natural radioactive isotopes
are 113Cd (beta decay, half-life is 7.7 × 1015 years) and 116Cd (two-neutrino double beta
decay, half-life is 2.9 × 1019 years). The other three are 106Cd, 108Cd (double electron
capture), and 114Cd (double beta decay); only lower limits on their half-life times have been
set. At least three isotopes - 110Cd, 111Cd, and 112Cd - are stable. Among the isotopes
absent in natural cadmium, the most long-lived are 109Cd with a half-life of 462.6 days, and
115
Cd with a half-life of 53.46 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have
half-lives that are less than 2.5 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less
than 5 minutes. This element also has 8 known meta states, with the most stable being
113m
Cd (t½ 14.1 years), 115mCd (t½ 44.6 days), and 117mCd (t½ 3.36 hours).
The known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass
from 94.950 u (95Cd) to 131.946 u (132Cd). The primary
decay mode before the second-most-abundant stable
isotope, 112Cd, is electron capture, and the primary
modes after are beta emission. The primary decay
product before 112Cd is element 47 (silver), and the
primary product after is element 49 (indium).
One isotope of cadmium, 113Cd, absorbs neutrons with

The cadmium-113 total cross section very high probability if they have an energy below the
clearly showing the cadmium cutoff. cadmium cut-off and transmits them readily otherwise.
The cadmium cut-off is about 0.5 eV.[3] Neutrons with
energy below the cutoff are deemed slow neutrons, distinguishing them from intermediate
and fast neutrons.
Cadmium 5
Applications
Batteries
About three-quarters of all the cadmium used is in
batteries, predominantly in rechargeable
nickel-cadmium batteries. Nickel-cadmium cells have a
nominal cell potential of 1.2 V. The cell consists of a
positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative
cadmium electrode plate separated by an alkaline
electrolyte (potassium hydroxide). More recent
nickel-metal hydride batteries reduce the use of Ni-Cd
Ni-Cd batteries
batteries. The European Union banned the use of
cadmium in electronics in 2004 with several exceptions
but reduced the allowed content of cadmium in electronics to 0.002 %.[4]
Other uses
Most of the remaining quarter is used mainly for cadmium pigments, coatings and plating,
and as stabilizers for plastics. Other uses include:
• In some of the lowest-melting alloys, for example
Wood's metal
• In bearing alloys, due to a low coefficient of friction
and very good fatigue resistance[5]
• In electroplating (6% cadmium)[5] . Cadmium
electroplating is widely used in aircraft industry due
to the excellent corrosion resistance of
cadmium-plated steel components. Cadmium
provides cathodic protection to low-alloyed steels,
Train painted with cadmium yellow
since it is positioned lower in the galvanic series. The
coating is usually passivated by chromate salts. A
significant limitation of cadmium plating is hydrogen embrittlement of high-strength
steels caused by the electroplating process. Therefore, steel parts heat-treated to tensile
strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be coated by an alternative method (such as
special low-embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor
deposition).
• In many kinds of solder[5]
• As a barrier to control neutrons in nuclear fission[5]
• The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric Company uses an alloy
consisting of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.[5]
• Cadmium oxide in black and white television phosphors and in the blue and green
phosphors for colour television picture tubes[6]
• Cadmium sulfide (CdS) as a photoconductive surface coating for photocopier drums.
• In paint pigments, cadmium forms various salts, with CdS being the most common. This
sulfide is used as a yellow pigment. Cadmium selenide can be used as red pigment,
commonly called cadmium red. To painters who work with the pigment, cadmium
yellows, oranges, and reds are the most potent colours to use. In fact, during production,
these colours are significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and binders,
Cadmium 6
or blended into watercolours, gouaches, acrylics, and other paint and pigment
formulations. These pigments are toxic, and it is recommended to use a barrier cream on
the hands to prevent absorption through the skin when working with them.
• In some semiconductors such as cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and cadmium
telluride, which can be used for light detection or solar cells. HgCdTe is sensitive to
infrared.
• In PVC as stabilizers.
• In molecular biology, it is used to block voltage-dependent calcium channels from fluxing
calcium ions.
See also Category:Cadmium compounds.
History
Cadmium (Latin cadmia, Greek καδμεία meaning "calamine", a cadmium-bearing mixture of
minerals, which was named after the Greek mythological character, Κάδμος Cadmus) was
discovered in Germany in 1817 by Friedrich Strohmeyer.[7] Strohmeyer found the new
element as an impurity in zinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained
the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for
calamine, since the metal was found in this zinc compound. Strohmeyer noted that some
impure samples of calamine changed colour when heated but pure calamine did not. He
was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting
and reduction of the sulfide.
Even though cadmium and its compounds are highly
toxic, the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1907
states that cadmium iodide was used as a medicine to
treat "enlarged joints, scrofulous glands,[8] and
chilblains".
Friedrich Strohmeyer
Cadmium 7
In 1927, the International Conference on Weights and

Measures redefined the metre in terms of a red
cadmium spectral line (1m = 1,553,164.13
[9]
wavelengths). This definition has since been changed
(see krypton).
After the industrial scale production of cadmium
started in the 1930s and 1940s the major application
was the coating of steel and copper alloys to prevent
World production trend
corrosion. In 1944 62 % and in 1956 59 % of the
cadmium in the United States was used for this
[10]
purpose. The second application where red and yellow pigments based on sulfides and
selenides of cadmium. In 1956 24 % of the cadmium used within the United States was
used for this purpose.[10] The stabilizing effect of cadmium containing chemicals on plastics
led to a increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s. The use of Cadmium in
all applications mentioned above declined drastically due to environmental and health
regulations from 1980 on. In 2006 only 7 % of the cadmium is used for plating and coating
and only 10% is used for pigments. The decrease in the consumption in other applications
was made up by a growing demand of cadmium in nickel-cadmium batteries, which
accounted for 81% of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006. The overall
consumption of cadmium was nearly constant from the 1970s till 2009.[10]
Occurrence
Cadmium-containing ores are rare and are found to
occur in small quantities. However, traces do naturally
occur in phosphate, and have been shown to transmit in
food through fertilizer application.[11] Greenockite
(CdS), the only cadmium mineral of importance, is
nearly always associated with sphalerite (ZnS). As a
consequence, cadmium is produced mainly as a
byproduct from mining, smelting, and refining sulfide
ores of zinc, and, to a lesser degree, lead and copper.
Cadmium metal
Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption,
are produced from secondary sources, mainly from dust
generated by recycling iron and steel scrap. Production in the United States began in 1907,
but it was not until after World War I that cadmium came into wide use.
One place where metallic cadmium can be found is the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia.[12]
See also Category:Cadmium minerals.
Cadmium 8
Extraction
In 2001, China was the top producer of cadmium with
almost one-sixth world share closely followed by South
Korea and Japan, reports the British Geological Survey.
Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores, and it is
most often isolated during the production of zinc. Some
zinc ores concentrates from sulfidic zinc ores contain Cadmium output in 2005
[13]
up to 1,4 % of cadmium. In 1970s the output of
cadmium was 6.5 pounds per ton of zinc.[13] Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presence of
oxygen, converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide. Zinc metal is produced either by smelting
the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid. Cadmium is isolated from the zinc
metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is precipitated out of
the electrolysis solution.[14]
Biological role
A role of cadmium in biology has been recently discovered. A cadmium-dependent carbonic
anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms. Cadmium does the same job as zinc in other
anhydrases, but the diatoms live in environments with very low zinc concentrations, thus
biology has taken cadmium rather than zinc, and made it work. The discovery was made
using X-ray absorption fluorescence spectroscopy (XAFS), and cadmium was characterized
by noting the energy of the X-rays that were absorbed.[15] [16]
Toxicity
Cadmium poisoning is an occupational hazard
associated with industrial processes such as metal
plating and the production of nickel-cadmium batteries,
pigments, plastics, and other synthetics. The primary
route of exposure in industrial settings is inhalation.
Inhalation of cadmium-containing fumes can result
initially in metal fume fever but may progress to
chemical pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, and death.[17]
Image of the violet light from a helium
Cadmium is also a potential environmental hazard. cadmium metal vapor laser. The highly
monochromatic color arises from the
Human exposures to environmental cadmium are
441.563 nm transition line of cadmium.
primarily the result of the burning of fossil fuels and
municipal wastes.[18] However, there have been notable
instances of toxicity as the result of long-term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food
and water. In the decades leading up to World War II, Japanese mining operations
contaminated the Jinzu River with cadmium and traces of other toxic metals. As a
consequence, cadmium accumulated in the rice crops growing along the riverbanks
downstream of the mines. The local agricultural communities consuming the contaminated
rice developed Itai-itai disease and renal abnormalities, including proteinuria and
glucosuria.[19] Cadmium is one of six substances banned by the European Union's
Restriction on Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive, which bans certain hazardous
substances in electronics.
Cadmium 9
Cadmium and several cadmium-containing compounds are known carcinogens and can
induce many types of cancer.[20]
Research has found that cadmium toxicity may be carried into the body by zinc binding
proteins; in particular, proteins that contain zinc finger protein structures. Zinc and
cadmium are in the same group on the periodic table, contain the same common oxidation
state (+2), and when ionized are almost the same size. Due to these similarities, cadmium
can replace zinc in many biological systems, in particular, systems that contain softer
ligands such as sulfur. Cadmium can bind up to ten times more strongly than zinc in certain
biological systems, and is notoriously difficult to remove. In addition, cadmium can replace
magnesium and calcium in certain biological systems, although these replacements are
rare.
Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in the general
population. It has been estimated that about 10% of the cadmium content of a cigarette is
inhaled through smoking. The absorption of cadmium from the lungs is much more effective
than that from the gut, and as much as 50% of the cadmium inhaled via cigarette smoke
may be absorbed.[21]
On average, smokers have 4-5 times higher blood cadmium concentrations and 2-3 times
higher kidney cadmium concentrations than non-smokers. Despite the high cadmium
content in cigarette smoke, there seems to be little exposure to cadmium from passive
smoking. No significant effect on blood cadmium concentrations could be detected in
children exposed to environmental tobacco smoke.[22]
See also
• List of breast carcinogenic substances
External links
• ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Cadmium Toxicity [23] U.S. Department
• IARC Monograph "Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds" [24]
• National Pollutant Inventory - Cadmium and compounds [25]
• WebElements.com – Cadmium [26]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory – Cadmium [27]
• [28] Warning Moose and Deer Liver
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Cadmium Page [29]
• USGS Comodity Report cadmium [30]
Cadmium 10
References
(91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1056–1057. ISBN 3-11-007511-3.
[3] Knoll, G.F. (1999). Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd edition. Wiley. ISBN 978-0471073383. p505
[4] " Battery collection;recycling, nature protected (http:/ / www. europarl. europa. eu/ sides/ getDoc.
do?pubRef=-/ / EP/ / TEXT+ IM-PRESS+ 20060628BRI09328+ FULL-TEXT+ DOC+ XML+ V0/ / EN)". .
[5] Scoullos, Michael J.; Vonkeman, Gerrit H.; Thornton, Iain; Makuch, Zen (2001). Mercury, Cadmium, Lead:
Handbook for Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy and Regulation (http:/ / books. google. de/
books?id=9yzN-QGag_8C). Springer. ISBN 9781402002243. .
[6] Lee, Ching-Hwa; Hs, Chi-Shiung (2002). "Recycling of Scrap Cathode Ray Tubes". Environmental Science and
Technology 36 (1): 69–75. doi: 10.1021/es010517q S0013-936X(01)00517-X (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/
es010517q+ S0013-936X(01)00517-X).
[7] Hermann; Strohmeyer F. (1818). "Noch ein schreiben über das neue Metall(Another letter about the new
metal)". Annalen der Physik 59: 113.
[8] Dunglison, Robley (1866). Medical Lexicon: A Dictionary of Medical Science (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=PmohO5jV2YsC). Henry C. Lea. pp. 159. .
[9] Burdun, G. D. (1958). " On the new determination of the meter (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/
tk70442064438147/ fulltext. pdf?page=1)" (pdf). Measurement Techniques 1 (3): 259–264. doi:
10.1007/BF00974680 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF00974680). .
[10] Lansche, Arnold M.. " Minerals Yearbook 1956: Cadmium (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/
EcoNatRes/ EcoNatRes-idx?type=turn& entity=EcoNatRes. MinYB1956v1. p0289& id=EcoNatRes.
MinYB1956v1& isize=XL& q1=cadmium)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-04-21.
[11] Jiao, You; Grant, Cynthia A.; Bailey, Loraine D.. "Effects of phosphorus and zinc fertilizer on cadmium uptake
and distribution in flax and durum wheat". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 84 (8): 777–785. doi:
10.1002/jsfa.1648 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ jsfa. 1648).
[12] Fleischer, Michael; Cabri, LouisJ.; Chao, Georg Y.; Papst, Adolf (1980). " New Mineral Names (http:/ / www.
minsocam. org/ ammin/ AM65/ AM65_1065. pdf)". American Mineralogist 65: 1065–1070. .
[13] National Research Council (U.S.), Panel on Cadmium, Committee on Technical Aspects of Critical and
Strategic Material (1969). Trends in Usage of Cadmium: Report (http:/ / books. google. de/
books?id=okArAAAAYAAJ). National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of
Engineering. pp. 1–3. .
[14] Cadmium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Cd/ key. html) at WebElements.com
[15] Lane, Todd W.; Morel, François M. M. (2000). " A biological function for cadmium in marine diatoms (http:/ /
www. pnas. org/ content/ 97/ 9/ 4627. full. pdf+ html)". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97 (9): 4627–4631. doi:
10.1073/pnas.090091397 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1073/ pnas. 090091397). .
[16] Lane, Todd W. ,; Saito, Mak A.; George, Graham N.; Pickering, Ingrid J.; Prince, Roger C.; Morel, François M.
M. (2005). " A cadmium enzyme from a marine diatom (http:/ / www. whoi. edu/ cms/ files/ msaito/ 2005/ 5/
LaneSaitoMorel_CdCA_Nature2005_2944. pdf)". Nature 435 (42). doi: 10.1038/435042a (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1038/ 435042a). .
[17] Hayes, Andrew Wallace (2007). Principles and Methods of Toxicology (http:/ / books. google. de/
books?id=vgHXTId8rnYC& dq). Philadelphia: CRC Press. .
[18] " EPA summary on cadmium (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ttn/ atw/ hlthef/ cadmium. html)". U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. . Retrieved 2008-04-21.
[19] Nogawa, Koji; Kobayashi, Etsuko; Okubo, Yasushiand; Suwazono, Yasushi (2004). " Environmental cadmium
exposure, adverse effects, and preventative measures in Japan (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/
n0773057mw738u05/ )". Biometals 17 (5): 581–587. doi: 10.1023/B:BIOM.0000045742.81440.9c (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1023/ B:BIOM. 0000045742. 81440. 9c). .
[20] " 11th Report on Carcinogens (http:/ / ntp. niehs. nih. gov/ index.
cfm?objectid=32BA9724-F1F6-975E-7FCE50709CB4C932)". National Toxicology Program. . Retrieved
2008-04-21.
[21] Friberg, L. (1983). "Cadmium". Annual Review of Public Health 4: 367–367. doi:
10.1146/annurev.pu.04.050183.002055 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1146/ annurev. pu. 04. 050183. 002055).
[22] Jarup, L.; Berglund, M.; Elinder, C. G.; Nordberg, G.; Vahter, M (1998). "Health effects of cadmium
exposure—a review of the literature and a risk estimate.". Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and
Health 24: 11–51.
Cadmium 11
[23] http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ csem/ cadmium/

[24] http:/ / www-cie. iarc. fr/ htdocs/ monographs/ vol58/ mono58-2. htm
[26] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Cd/ index. html
[28] http:/ / publicdocs. mnr. gov. on. ca/ View. asp?Document_ID=10690& Attachment_ID=25585
[29] http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ topics/ Cadmium
[30] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ cadmium/

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Indium 1
Indium
49 cadmium ← indium → tin

Ga
↑
In
↓
Tl

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number indium, In, 49
Element category poor metals
Appearance silvery lustrous gray

−1

10 2
5s 5p
1
Physical properties
Phase solid

(156.5985 °C, 313.8773 °F)

(2072 °C, 3762 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1196 1325 1485 1690 1962 2340
Atomic properties
Indium 2
Crystal structure tetragonal
(amphoteric oxide)

(more)
2nd: 1820.7 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2704 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

diamagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Mohs hardness 1.2
Main article: Isotopes of indium

113
In 4.3% 113
In is stable with 64 neutron
115
In 95.7% 4.41×1014 y β− 0.495 115
Sn
References
Indium (pronounced /ˈɪndiəm/) is a chemical element with chemical symbol In and atomic
number 49. This rare, soft, malleable and easily fusible post-transition metal is chemically
similar to aluminium or gallium but more closely resembles zinc (zinc ores are also the
primary source of this metal).
Indium's current primary application is to form transparent electrodes from indium tin
oxide in liquid crystal displays and touchscreens, and this use largely determines its global
mining production. It is widely used in thin-films to form lubricated layers (during World
War II it was widely used to coat bearings in high-performance aircraft). It is also used for
making particularly low melting point alloys, and is a component in some lead-free solders.
Radioactive indium-111 is used in nuclear medicine as a imaging agent to follow the
movement of leukocytes in the body.
Indium 3
Characteristics
Indium is a very soft, silvery-white, relatively rare true
metal with a bright luster. As a pure metal indium emits
a high-pitched "cry", when it is bent.[2] Both gallium
and indium are able to wet glass.
One unusual property of indium is that its most
common isotope is slightly radioactive; it very slowly
decays by beta emission to tin. This radioactivity has a
half-life of 4.41 × 1014 years, four orders of magnitude
Indium wetting the glass surface of a larger than the age of the universe and nearly 50,000
test tube times longer than that of natural thorium. Unlike its
period 5 neighbor cadmium, indium is not a cumulative
poison.
Applications
The first large-scale application for indium was as a coating for bearings in
high-performance aircraft engines during World War II. Afterward, production gradually
increased as new uses were found in fusible alloys, solders, and electronics. In the 1950s,
tiny beads of it were used for the emitters and collectors of PNP alloy junction transistors.
In the middle and late 1980s, the development of indium phosphide semiconductors and
indium tin oxide thin films for liquid crystal displays (LCD) aroused much interest. By 1992,
the thin-film application had become the largest end use.[3] [4]
Electronics
• Indium oxide (In2O3) and indium tin oxide (ITO) are used as a transparent conductive
coating applied to glass substrates in the making of electroluminescent panels.
• Some indium compounds such as indium antimonide, indium phosphide,[5] and indium
nitride[6] are semiconductors with useful properties.
• Indium is used in the synthesis of the semiconductor copper indium gallium selenide
(CIGS), which is used for the manufacture of thin film solar cells.[7]
• Used in light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and Laser Diodes (LDs) based on compound
semiconductors such as InGaN, InGaP that are fabricated by Metalorganic Vapor Phase
Epitaxy (MOVPE) technology.
• The ultrapure metalorganics of indium, specifically high purity trimethylindium (TMI) is
used as a precursor in III-V compound semiconductors, while it is also used as the
semiconductor dopant in II-VI compound semiconductors.[8]
Indium 4
Alloys and Metal

• For manufacture of low-melting-temperature alloys. An alloy consisting of 24% indium
and 76% gallium is liquid at room temperature.
• Can also be plated onto metals and evaporated onto glass which forms a mirror which is
as good as those made with silver[9] but has higher corrosion resistance.
• Very small amounts used in aluminium alloy sacrificial anodes (for salt water
applications) to prevent passivation of the aluminium.
• To bond gold electrical test leads to superconductors, Indium is used as a conducting
glue and applied under a microscope with precision tweezers.
• In the form of a wire it is used as a vacuum seal in cryogenics and ultra-high vacuum
applications.
• Used as a calibration material for Differential scanning calorimetry.
Other uses
• Indium tin oxide is used as a light filter in low pressure sodium vapor lamps. The infrared
radiation is reflected back into the lamp, which increases the temperature within the
tube and therefore improves the performance of the lamp.[4]
• Indium's melting point of 429.7485 K (156.5985 °C) is a defining fixed point on the
international temperature scale ITS-90.
• Indium's high neutron capture cross section for thermal neutrons makes it suitable for
use in control rods for nuclear reactors, typically in an alloy containing 80% silver, 15%
indium, and 5% cadmium.
• In nuclear engineering, the (n,n') reactions of 113In and 115In are used to determine
magnitudes of neutron fluxes.
• 111In emits gamma radiation and is used in scintigraphy, a technique of medical imaging.
Scintigraphy has many applications, including early phase drug development, and
monitoring the activity of white blood cells. A blood test is taken from the patient, white
cells removed and labeled with the radioactive 111In, then re-injected back into the
patient. Gamma imaging will reveal any areas of high white cell activity such as an
abscess.
• Indium is also used as a thermal interface material by personal computer enthusiasts in
the form of pre-shaped foil sheets fitted between the heat-transfer surface of a
microprocessor and its heat sink. The application of heat partially melts the foil and
allows the indium metal to fill in any microscopic gaps and pits between the two surfaces,
removing any insulating air pockets that would otherwise compromise heat transfer
efficiency.
History
The German chemists Ferdinand Reich and Hieronymous Theodor Richter were testing ores
from the mines around Freiberg, Saxony. They dissolved the minerals pyrite, arsenopyrite,
galena and sphalerite in hydrochloric acid and distilled the raw zinc chloride. As it was
known that ores from that region sometimes contain thallium they searched for the green
emission lines with spectroscopic methods. The green lines were absent but a blue line was
present in the spectrum. As no element was known with a bright blue emission they
concluded that a new element was present in the minerals. They named the element with
the blue spectral line indium.[10] [11] Richter went on to isolate the metal in 1864.[12]
Indium 5
Until 1924, only approximately a gram of indium constituted the world's supply.
Occurrence and consumption

Indium ranks 61st in abundance in the Earth's crust at
approximately 0.25 ppm,[13] which means it is more
than three times as abundant as silver, which occurs at
0.075 ppm.[14] Fewer than 10 indium minerals are
known, none occurring in significant deposits.
Examples are the dzhalindite (In(OH)3) and indict
(FeIn2S4).[15]
Production
Ductile Indium wire
The lack of indium mineral deposits and the fact that
indium is enriched in sulfidic lead, tin, copper, iron and predominately in zinc deposits,
makes the zinc production the main source for indium. The indium is leached from slag and
dust of zinc production. Further purification is done by electrolysis.[16]
Up until 1924, there was only about a gram of isolated indium on the planet. Indium is
produced mainly from residues generated during zinc ore processing but is also found in
iron, lead, and copper ores.[2] Canada is a leading producer of indium. The Teck Cominco
refinery in Trail, British Columbia, is the largest single source, with production of 32,500 kg
in 2005, 41,800 kg in 2004 and 36,100 kg in 2003.
The amount of indium consumed is largely a function of
worldwide LCD production. Worldwide production is
currently 476 tonnes per year from mining and a
further 650 tonnes per year from recycling.[17] Demand
has risen rapidly in recent years with the popularity of
LCD computer monitors and televisions, which now
account for 50% of indium consumption.[18] Increased
manufacturing efficiency and recycling (especially in
Japan) maintain a balance between demand and supply.
Demand increased as the metal is used in LCDs and
televisions, and supply decreased when a number of
Chinese mining concerns stopped extracting indium
from their zinc tailings. In 2002, the price was US$94
per kilogram. The recent changes in demand and
supply have resulted in high and fluctuating prices of
indium, which from 2005 to 2007 ranged from
US$700/kg to US$1,000/kg.[19] Demand for indium may
increase with large-scale manufacture of CIGS-based TFT display
thin film solar technology starting by several companies

in 2008, including Nanosolar and Miasole, although zinc oxide is often used instead.
Indium 6
Resources
Based on content of indium in zinc ore stocks, there is a worldwide reserve base of
approximately 6,000 tonnes of economically-viable indium.[19] This figure has led to
estimates suggesting that, at current consumption rates, there is only 13 years' supply of
indium left.[20] However, the Indium Corporation, the largest processor of indium, claims
that, on the basis of increasing recovery yields during extraction, recovery from a wider
range of base metals (including tin, copper and other polymetallic deposits) and new mining
investments, the long-term supply of indium is sustainable, reliable and sufficient to meet
increasing future demands.[17] This conclusion also seems reasonable in light of the fact
that silver, a less abundant element, is currently mined at approximately 18,300 tonnes per
annum,[21] which is 40 times greater than current indium mining rates.
On the other hand, replacements for indium tin oxide are already on the horizon. According
to recent research, mass production of transparent conductors made from graphene, a
modification of the virtually inexhaustible element carbon discovered in 2004, may be just
years away.[22]
Precautions
Pure indium in metal form is considered non-toxic by most sources. In the welding and
semiconductor industries, where indium exposure is relatively high, there have been no
reports of any toxic side-effects.
This may not be the case with indium compounds. For example, an anhydrous indium
trichloride (InCl3) is quite toxic, while indium phosphide (InP) is both toxic and a suspected
carcinogen.[23] [24]
See also
• Indium compounds
References
Notations
[25]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory – Indium
External links
• WebElements.com – Indium [26]
• The Indium Corporation [27]
• Reducing Agents > Indium low valent [28]
[29]
• Indium picture in the element collection from Heinrich Pniok
pnb:‫میڈنا‬
Indium 7
References
[2] Alfantazi, A. M.; Moskalyk, R. R. (2003). "Processing of indium: a review". Minerals Engineering 16 (8):
[3] Tolcin, Amy C.. " Mineral Yearbook 2007: Indium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
indium/ indiumyb06. pdf)" (pdf). United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-10-28.
[4] Downs, Anthony John (1993). " Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium, and Thallium (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=v-04Kn758yIC)". Springer. pp. 89 and 106. .
[5] Bachmann, K. J. (1981). "Properties, Preparation, and Device Applications of Indium Phosphide". Annual
Review of Materials Science 11: 441–484. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ms.11.080181.002301 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1146/ annurev. ms. 11. 080181. 002301).
[6] Bhuiyan, Ghani; Hashimoto, Akihiro; Yamamoto, Akioare (2003). "Indium nitride (InN): A review on growth,
characterization, and properties". Journal of Applied Physics 94: 2779. doi: 10.1063/1.1595135 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 1595135).
[7] Powalla, M.; Dimmler, B. (2000). "Scaling up issues of CIGS solar cells". Thin Solid Films 361-362: 540–546.
[8] Shenai, Deodatta V.; Timmons, Michael L.; DiCarlo Jr., Ronald L.; Marsman, Charles J. (2004). "Correlation of
film properties and reduced impurity concentrations in sources for III/V-MOVPE using high-purity
trimethylindium and tertiarybutylphosphine". Journal of Crystal Growth 272: 603–608. doi:
10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2004.09.006 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. jcrysgro. 2004. 09. 006).
[9] Borra, E. F.; Tremblay, G.; Huot, Y.; Gauvin, J.. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 109:
319-325. http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ full/ 1997PASP. . 109. . 319B Title: Gallium Liquid Mirrors: Basic
Technology, Optical-Shop Tests, and Observations.
[10] Reich, F.; Richter, T. (1863). "Ueber das Indium". Journal für Praktische Chemie 90 (1): 172–176. doi:
10.1002/prac.18630900122 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ prac. 18630900122).
[11] Venetskii, S. (1971). "Indium". Metallurgist 15 (2): 148–150. doi: 10.1007/BF01088126 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1007/ BF01088126).
[12] Reich, F.; Richter, T. (1864). "Ueber das Indium". Journal für Praktische Chemie 92 (1): 480–485. doi:
10.1002/prac.18640920180 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ prac. 18640920180).
[13] " The Element Indium (http:/ / education. jlab. org/ itselemental/ ele049. html)". It's Elemental. . Retrieved
2007-12-26.
[14] " The Element Silver (http:/ / education. jlab. org/ itselemental/ ele047. html)". It's Elemental. . Retrieved
2007-12-26.
[15] Sutherland, J. K. (01 Jun 1971). " A second occurrence of dzhalindite (http:/ / canmin. geoscienceworld. org/
cgi/ content/ abstract/ 10/ 5/ 781)". The Canadian Mineralogist 10 (5): 781–786. .
[16] Schwarz-Schampera, Ulrich; Herzig, Peter M. (2002). Indium: Geology, Mineralogy, and Economics (http:/ /
books. google. de/ books?hl=de& lr=& id=k7x_2_KnupMC). Springer. ISBN 9783540431350. .
[17] " Indium and Gallium Supply Sustainability September 2007 Update (http:/ / www. indium. com/ _dynamo/
download. php?docid=552)" (pdf). 22nd EU PV Conference, Milan, Italy. . Retrieved 2007-12-26.
[18] " Indium Price Supported by LCD Demand and New Uses for the Metal (http:/ / geology. com/ articles/
indium. shtml)" (pdf). Geology.com. . Retrieved 2007-12-26.
[19] " Mineral Commodities Summary 2007: Indium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
indium/ indiumcs07. pdf)" (pdf). United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2007-12-26.
[20] " How Long Will it Last? (http:/ / environment. newscientist. com/ channel/ earth/ mg19426051.
200-earths-natural-wealth-an-audit. html)". New Scientist 194 (2605): 38–39. May 26, 2007. ISSN 0262-4079
(http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 0262-4079). .
[21] " Top World Silver Producers (http:/ / www. nma. org/ pdf/ g_silver_producers. pdf)" (pdf). World Silver
Survey 2007. .
[22] " Graphene-based gadgets may be just years away (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news128776023. html)". June
23, 2008. .
[23] Tanaka, A.; Hirata, M.; Omura, M., (2002). "Pulmonary toxicity of indium-tin oxide and indium phosphide
after intratracheal instillations into the lung of hamsters". Journal of the Occupational Health 44: 99–102. doi:
10.1539/joh.44.99 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1539/ joh. 44. 99).
[24] Blazka, ME; Dixon, D., Haskins, E., Rosenthal, G. J. (1994). "Pulmonary toxicity to intratracheally
administered indium trichloride in Fischer 344 rats". Fundamental Applied Toxicology 22: 231–239. doi:
10.1006/faat.1994.1027 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1006/ faat. 1994. 1027).
Indium 8
[26] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ In/ index. html
[27] http:/ / www. indium. com
[28] http:/ / www. organic-chemistry. org/ chemicals/ reductions/ indiumlowvalent. shtm
[29] http:/ / www. pse-mendelejew. de/ bilder/ in. jpg

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Tin 1
Tin
50 indium ← tin → antimony

Ge
↑
Sn
↓
Pb

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number tin, Sn, 50

−1

10 2
5s 5p
2
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) (white) 7.365 g·cm−3
Density (near r.t.) (gray) 5.769 g·cm−3

(231.93 °C, 449.47 °F)

(2602 °C, 4716 °F)
Heat of fusion (white) 7.03 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization (white) 296.1 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capacity (25 °C) (white)

27.112 J·mol−1·K−1
Tin 2
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1497 1657 1855 2107 2438 2893
Atomic properties
Crystal structure Tetragonal (white), diamond cubic (gray)
Oxidation states 4, 2, -4
(amphoteric oxide)

(more)
2nd: 1411.8 kJ·mol−1
−1
3rd: 2943.0 kJ·mol
Miscellaneous

(gray)diamagnetic , (white) paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (rolled) 2730 m·s

−1
Bulk modulus 58 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.36
Mohs hardness 1.5
Tin 3
Main article: Isotopes of tin

112
Sn 0.97% 112
Sn is stable with 62 neutron
114
Sn 0.66% 114
115
Sn 0.34% 115
116
Sn 14.54% 116
117
Sn 7.68% 117
118
Sn 24.22% 118
119
Sn 8.59% 119
120
Sn 32.58% 120
122
Sn 4.63% 122
124
Sn 5.79% 124
126
Sn syn ~1×10 y
5
β
− 0.380 126
Sb
References
Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (Latin: Stannum) and atomic number 50. It is
a main group metal in group 14 of the periodic table. Tin shows chemical similarity to both
neighboring group 14 elements, germanium and lead, like the two possible oxidation states
+2 and +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 isotopes, the largest
number of stable isotopes in the periodic table. Tin is obtained chiefly from the mineral
cassiterite, where it occurs as tin dioxide, SnO2.
This silvery, malleable poor metal is not easily oxidized in air, and is used to coat other
metals to prevent corrosion. The first alloy used in large scale since 3000 BC was bronze,
an alloy of tin and copper. After 600 BC pure metallic tin was produced. Pewter, which is an
alloy of 85 % to 90 % tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony and
lead, was used for flatware from the Bronze Age until the 20th century. In modern times tin
is used in many alloys, most notably tin/lead soft solders, typically containing 60% or more
of tin. Another large application for tin is corrosion-resistant tin plating of steel. Due to its
low toxicity, tin-plated metal is also used for food packaging, giving the name to tin cans,
which are made mostly out of aluminium or tin-plated steel.
Characteristics
Physical and allotropes

Tin is a malleable, ductile, and highly crystalline silvery-white metal. It is malleable at
ordinary temperatures but is brittle when it is cooled, due to the properties of its two major
allotropes, α- and β-tin. When a bar of tin is bent, a crackling sound known as the tin cry
can be heard due to the twinning of the crystals.[2] The two allotropes that are encountered
at normal pressure and temperature, α-tin and β-tin, are more commonly known as gray tin,
Tin 4
and respectively white tin. Two more allotropes, γ and σ, exist at temperatures above
161 °C and pressures above several GPa.[3] White tin, or the β-form, is metallic, and is the
stable one at room conditions or at higher temperatures. Below 13.2 °C, tin exists in the
gray α-form, which has a diamond cubic crystal structure, similar to diamond, silicon or
germanium. Gray tin has no metallic properties at all, is a dull-gray powdery material, and
has few uses, other than a few specialized semiconductor applications.[2]
Although the α-β transformation temperature is nominally 13.2 °C, impurities (e.g. Al, Zn,
etc.) lower the transition temperature well below 0 °C, and upon addition of Sb or Bi the
transformation may not occur at all.[4] This conversion is known as tin disease or tin pest.
Tin pest was a particular problem in northern Europe in the 18th century as organ pipes
made of tin alloy would sometimes be affected during long cold winters. Some sources also
say that during Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812, the temperatures became so cold
that the tin buttons on the soldiers' uniforms disintegrated, contributing to the defeat of the
Grande Armée. The veracity of this story is debatable, because the transformation to gray
tin often takes a reasonably long time.[5]
Commercial grades of tin (99.8%) resist transformation because of the inhibiting effect of
the small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead, and silver present as impurities. Alloying
elements such as copper, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, and silver increase its hardness. Tin
tends rather easily to form hard, brittle intermetallic phases, which are often undesirable. It
does not form wide solid solution ranges in other metals in general, and there are few
elements that have appreciable solid solubility in tin. Simple eutectic systems, however,
occur with bismuth, gallium, lead, thallium, and zinc.[4]

See also Tin compounds
Tin is classified as a semimetal, as its chemical properties fall between those of metals and
non-metals, just as the semiconductors silicon and germanium do. It resists corrosion from
distilled, sea and soft tap water, but can be attacked by strong acids, alkalis, and acid salts.
Tin can be highly polished and is used as a protective coat for other metals in order to
prevent corrosion or other chemical action. Tin acts as a catalyst when oxygen is in solution
and helps accelerate chemical attack.[2]
Tin forms the dioxide SnO2 (cassiterite) when it is heated in the presence of air. SnO2, in
turn, is feebly acidic and forms stannate (SnO32−) salts with basic oxides. There are also
stannates with the structure [Sn(OH)6]2−, like K2[Sn(OH)6], although the free stannic acid
H2[Sn(OH)6] is unknown.
Tin combines directly with chlorine forming tin(IV) chloride, while reacting tin with
hydrochloric acid in water gives tin(II) chloride and hydrogen. Several other compounds of
tin exist in the +2 and +4 oxidation states, such as tin(II) sulfide and tin(IV) sulfide (Mosaic
gold). There is only one stable hydride, however: stannane (SnH4), where tin is in the +4
oxidation state.[2]
The most important salt is stannous chloride, which has found use as a reducing agent and
as a mordant in the calico printing process. Electrically conductive coatings are produced
when tin salts are sprayed onto glass. These coatings have been used in panel lighting and
in the production of frost-free windshields.
Tin is added to some dental care products[6] [7] as stannous fluoride (SnF2). Stannous
fluoride can be mixed with calcium abrasives while the more common sodium fluoride
Tin 5
gradually becomes biologically inactive combined with calcium.[8] It has also been shown to
be more effective than sodium fluoride in controlling gingivitis.[9]
Organotin compounds or stannanes are chemical compounds based on tin with hydrocarbon
substituents.[10] Organotin compounds usually have high toxicity and have been used as
biocides, but their use is slowly being phased out. The first organotin compound was
diethyltin diiodide (Sn(C2H5)2I2), discovered by Edward Frankland in 1849. Organotin
compounds differ from their lighter analogues of germanium and silicon in that there is a
greater occurrence of the +2 oxidation state due to the "inert pair effect"; it also has a
greater range of coordination numbers, and the common presence of halide bridges
between polynuclear compounds. Most organotin compounds are colorless liquids or solids
that are usually stable to air and water. The tetraalkyl stannates (R4Sn) always have a
tetrahedral geometry at the tin atom. The halide derivatives R3SnX often form chained
structures with Sn-X-Sn bridges. Alkyltin compounds are usually prepared via Grignard
reagent reactions such as in:
SnCl4 + 4 RMgBr → R4Sn + 4 MgBrCl.[11]
Isotopes
Tin is the element with the greatest number of stable isotopes, ten; these include all those
with atomic masses between 112 and 124, with the exception of 113, 121 and 123. Of these,
the most abundant ones are 120Sn (at almost a third of all tin), 118Sn, and 116Sn, while the
least abundant one is 115Sn. The isotopes possessing even atomic numbers have no nuclear
spin while the odd ones have a spin of +1/2. Tin, with its three common isotopes 115Sn,
117
Sn and 119Sn, is among the easiest elements to detect and analyze by NMR
spectroscopy, and its chemical shifts are referenced against SnMe4.[12] [13]
This large number of stable isotopes is thought to be a direct result of tin possessing an
atomic number of 50, which is a "magic number" in nuclear physics. There are 28 additional
unstable isotopes that are known, encompassing all the remaining ones with atomic masses
between 99 and 137. Aside from 126Sn, which has a half-life of 230,000 years, all the
radioactive isotopes have a half-life of less than a year. The radioactive 100Sn is one of the
few nuclides possessing a "doubly magic" nucleus and was discovered relatively recently, in
1994.[14] Another 30 metastable isomers have been characterized for isotopes between 111
and 131, the most stable of which being 121mSn, with a half-life of 43.9 years.
Etymology
The Latin name Stannum is connected to "stagnum" and "stag" (Indo-European) for
dripping because tin melts easily. The former "stagnum" was the word for a stale pool or
puddle, with a cognate in the English word "stagnant." The English word "tin" has cognates
in many Germanic and Celtic languages. The American Heritage Dictionary speculates that
the word was borrowed from a pre-Indo-European language. The later name "stannum" and
its Romance derivatives come from the lead-silver alloy of the same name for the finding of
the silver in ores. The word definitely assumed its present meaning in the 4th century (H.
Kopp).
According to Meyers Konversationslexikon Stannum is derived from Cornish stean (present
orthography sten), and is proof that Cornwall in the first centuries AD was the main source
of tin. Other sources, however, see the Cornish stean merely as a back-derivation from the
Latin stannum [15] . The Latin Stannum became the source for most European words.
Tin 6
According to SMI [16] the English word for the metal is named after an Etruscan god, Tinia.
(variants include Old English: tin, Old Latin: plumbum candidum ("white lead"), Old
German: tsin, Late Latin: stannum)
History
Antiquity
Tin is one of the earliest metals known.[17] Late Stone
Age metal-workers discovered that putting a small
amount of tin, about 5%, in molten copper produced an
alloy called bronze that was easier to work and much
harder than copper.[18] This discovery so revolutionized
civilization that any culture that made widespread use
of bronze to make tools and weapons became part of
what archaeologists call the Bronze Age. The Bronze
Age arrived in Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Indus
Valley culture by around 3000 BC.[19] [20]
As of 2001, the oldest tin mine found is in the Taurus

Mountains in Turkey. Younger but still ancient tin Ceremonial giant dirk, 1500–1300 BC.
mines are located in Spain, Brittany, and Great

Britain.[19] European tin mining is believed to have
started in Cornwall and perhaps on Dartmoor in Devon
in Classical times, and a thriving tin trade developed
with the civilizations of the Mediterranean.[21] [22]
Securing these strategically important sites is one
reason why the Romans invaded and occupied Great
Britain.[19]
The alchemical
symbol for tin.
Also used as the
glyph for
Jupiter.
A Bronze Age shipwreck of about 1750 BC

was found at the mouth of the river Erme in
Devon, with ingots of tin. A shipwreck at
Uluburun, Turkey dating to 1336 BC
contains a shipment of tin, perhaps
originating in Afghanistan.[23]
Although pure tin metal was not widely

used until about 600 BC, one of the oldest
View from Dolcoath Mine towards Redruth, c. 1890
tin artifacts is a ring and bottle made
mostly of tin that was found in an 18th Dynasty (1580–1350 BC) tomb in Egypt, even though
no tin ore reserves are known to exist in that country.[18]
Tin 7
Modern times
During the Middle Ages, and again in the early 19th century Cornwall was the major tin
producer. This changed after large amounts of tin were found in the Bolivian tin belt and
the east Asian tin belt, stretching from China through Thailand and Laos to Malaya and
Indonesia. Tasmania also hosts deposits of historical importance, most notably Mount
Bischoff and Renison Bell.
In 1931 the tin producers founded the International Tin Committee, followed in 1956 by the
International Tin Council, an institution to control the tin market. After the collapse of the
market in October 1985 the price for tin nearly halved.[24]
Today, the word "tin" is often improperly used as a generic term for any silvery metal that
comes in sheets. Most everyday materials that are commonly called "tin", such as
aluminium foil, beverage cans, corrugated building sheathing and tin cans, are actually
made of steel or aluminium, although tin cans (tinned cans) do contain a thin coating of tin
to inhibit rust. Likewise, so-called "tin toys" are usually made of steel, and may or may not
have a coating of tin to inhibit rust. The original Ford Model T was known colloquially as
the "Tin Lizzy".
Occurrence
Tin is the 49th most abundant element in the
Earth's crust, representing 2 ppm compared with
75 ppm for zinc, 50 ppm for copper, and 14 ppm for
lead.[25]
Tin does not occur naturally by itself, and must be
extracted from a base compound, usually cassiterite
(SnO2), the only commercially important source of
tin, although small quantities of tin are recovered
Crystals of cassiterite tin ore
from complex sulfides such as stannite, cylindrite,
franckeite, canfieldite, and teallite. Minerals with
tin are almost always in association with granite
rock, which when contain the mineral, have a 1% tin
oxide content.[26]
Due to the higher specific gravity of tin and its

resistance to corrosion, about 80% of mined tin is
Tin output in 2005 from secondary deposits found downstream from
the primary lodes. Tin is often recovered from
granules washed downstream in the past and deposited in valleys or under sea. The most
economical ways of mining tin are through dredging, hydraulic methods or open cast
mining. Most of the world's tin is produced from placer deposits, which may contain as little
as 0.015% tin.
It was estimated in January 2008 that there were 6.1 million tons of economically
recoverable primary
Tin 8
reserves, from a known base reserve of 11 million tons.

Below are the nations with the 10 largest known
reserves.
Estimates of tin production have historically varied with
the dynamics of economic feasibility and the
development of mining technologies, but it is estimated
that, at current consumption rates and technologies,
the Earth will run out of tin that can be mined in 40
years.[27] However Lester Brown has suggested tin
Tin ore
could run out within 20 years based on an extremely
conservative extrapolation of 2% growth per year.[28]
[29]
World tin mine reserves and reserve base in tons
Country Reserves Reserve Base
China 1,700,000 3,500,000
Malaysia 1,000,000 1,200,000
Peru 710,000 1,000,000
Indonesia 800,000 900,000
Brazil 540,000 2,500,000
Bolivia 450,000 900,000
Russia 300,000 350,000
Thailand 170,000 250,000
Australia 150,000 300,000
Other 180,000 200,000
Estimated economically recoverable

[26]
world tin reserves in million tons
1965 4,265
1970 3,930
1975 9,060
1980 9,100
1985 3,060
1990 7,100
2008 [30]
6,100
Secondary, or scrap, tin is also an important source of the metal and the recovery of tin
through secondary production, or recycling of scrap tin, is increasing rapidly. While the
United States has neither mined since 1993 nor smelted tin since 1989, it was the largest
secondary producer, recycling nearly 14,000 tons in 2006.[29]
New deposits are reported to be in southern Mongolia, and in 2009, new deposits of tin
were discovered in Colombia, South America, by the Seminole Enterprises Group.[31] [32]
Tin 9
Production
Tin is produced by reducing the ore with coal in a reverberatory furnace.
Mining and smelting

In 2006, total worldwide tin mine production was 321,000 tons, and smelter production was
340,000 tons. From its production level of 186,300 tons in 1991, around where it had
hovered for the previous decades, production of tin shot up 89%, to 351,800 tons in 2005.
Most of the increase came from China and Indonesia, with the largest spike in 2004–2005,
when it increased 23%. While in the 1970s Malaysia was the largest producer, with around
a third of world production, it has steadily fallen, and now remains a major smelter and
market center. In 2007, the People's Republic of China was the largest producer of tin,
where the tin deposits are concentrated in the southeast Yunnan tin belt,[33] with 43% of
the world's share, followed by Indonesia, with an almost equal share, and Peru at a distant
third, reports the USGS.[30]
The table below shows the countries with the largest mine production and the largest
smelter output.[34]
Mine and smelter production (tons), 2006

Country Mine Production Smelter Production
China 114,300 129,400
Indonesia 117,500 80,933
Peru 38,470 40,495
Bolivia 17,669 13,500
Thailand 225 27,540
Malaysia 2,398 23,000
Belgium 0 8,000
Russia 5,000 5,500
Congo-Kinshasa ('08) 15,000 0
After the discovery of tin in what is now Bisie, North Kivu in the Democratic Republic of
Congo in 2002, illegal production has increased there to around 15,000 tons.[35] This is
largely fueling the ongoing and recent conflicts there, as well as affecting international
markets.
Tin 10
Industry
The ten largest companies produced most of world's tin in 2007. It is not clear which of
these companies include tin smelted from the mine at Bisie, Congo-Kinshasa, which is
controlled by a renegade militia and produces 15,000 tons. Most of the world's tin is traded
on the London Metal Exchange (LME), from 8 countries, under 17 brands.[36]
Largest tin mining companies by production in tons

Company Polity 2006 2007 %Change
Yunnan Tin China 52,339 61,129 16.7
PT Timah Indonesia 44,689 58,325 30.5
Minsur Peru 40,977 35,940 −12.3
Malay China 52,339 61,129 16.7
Malaysia Smelting Corp Malaysia 22,850 25,471 11.5
Thaisarco Thailand 27,828 19,826 −28.8
Yunnan Chengfeng China 21,765 18,000 −17.8
Liuzhou China Tin China 13,499 13,193 −2.3
EM Vinto Bolivia 11,804 9,448 −20.0
Gold Bell Group China 4,696 8,000 70.9
Prices of tin were at $11,900 per ton as of Nov 24, 2008. Prices reached an all-time high of
nearly $25,000 per ton in May 2008, largely because of the effect of the decrease of tin
production from Indonesia, and have been volatile because of reliance from mining in
Congo-Kinshasa.
Applications
In 2006, the categories of tin use were solder (52%),
tinplate (16%), chemicals (13%), brass and bronze
(5.5%), glass (2%), and variety of other applications
(11%)[37]
Tin 11
Metal or alloy
Tin is used by itself, or in combination with other
elements for a wide variety of useful alloys. Tin is most
commonly alloyed with copper. Pewter is 85–99% tin;
Babbitt metal has a high percentage of tin as well.
Bronze is mostly copper (12% tin), while addition of
phosphorus gives phosphor bronze. Bell metal is also a
copper-tin alloy, containing 22% tin.
Pewter plate
Tin bonds readily to iron, and is used for coating lead or

zinc and steel to prevent corrosion. Tin-plated steel
containers are widely used for food preservation, and
this forms a large part of the market for metallic tin. A
tinplate canister for preserving food was first
manufactured in London in 1812. Speakers of British
English call them "tins"; Americans call them "cans" or
"tin cans". One thus-derived use of the slang term
"tinnie" or "tinny" means "can of beer". The tin whistle
Tin plated metal from can
is so called because it was first mass-produced in
tin-plated steel.
Window glass is most often made via floating molten glass on top of molten tin (creating
float glass) in order to make a flat surface (this is called the "Pilkington process").[38]
Most metal pipes in a pipe organ are made of varying amounts of a tin/lead alloy, with
50%/50% being the most common. The amount of tin in the pipe defines the pipe's tone,
since tin is the most tonally resonant of all metals. When a tin/lead alloy cools, the lead
cools slightly faster and makes a mottled or spotted effect. This metal alloy is referred to as
spotted metal.
Tin foil was once a common wrapping material for foods and drugs; replaced in the early
20th century by the use of aluminium foil, which is now commonly referred to as tin foil.
Hence one use of the slang term "tinnie" or "tinny" for a small pipe for use of a drug such as
cannabis or for a can of beer.
Tin becomes a superconductor below 3.72 K. In fact, tin was one of the first
superconductors to be studied; the Meissner effect, one of the characteristic features of
superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals. The niobium-tin
compound Nb3Sn is commercially used as wires for superconducting magnets, due to the
material's high critical temperature (18 K) and critical magnetic field (25 T). A
superconducting magnet weighing only a couple of kilograms is capable of producing
magnetic fields comparable to a conventional electromagnet weighing tons.
Tin 12
Solder
Tin has long been used as a solder in the form of an
alloy with lead, tin comprising 5 to 70% w/w. Tin forms
a eutectic mixture with lead containing 63% tin and
37% lead. Such solders are primarily used for solders
for joining pipes or electric circuits. Since the European
Union Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Directive (WEEED) and Restriction of Hazardous
Substances Directive (RoHS) came into effect on 1 July
2006, the use of lead in such alloys has decreased. A coil of lead-free solder wire
Replacing lead has many problems, including a higher
melting point, and the formation of tin whiskers causing electrical problems. Replacement
[39]
alloys are rapidly being found.
Organotin compounds
Organotin compounds have the widest range of uses of all main-group organometallic
compounds, with an annual worldwide industrial production of probably exceeding 50,000
tonnes. Their major application is in the stabilization of halogenated PVC plastics, which
would otherwise rapidly degrade under heat, light, and atmospheric oxygen, to give
discolored, brittle products. It is believed that the tin scavenges labile chlorine ions (Cl-),
which would otherwise initiate loss of HCl from the plastic material.[11]
Organotin compounds have a relatively high toxicity, and for this they have been used for
their biocidal effects in/as fungicides, pesticides, algacides, wood preservatives, and
antifouling agents.[40] Tributyltin oxide is used as a wood preservative. Tributyltin was used
as additive for ship paint to prevent growth of marine organisms on ships. The use declined
after organotin compounds were recognized as persistent organic pollutants with a
extremely high toxicity for some marine organisms, for example the dog whelk.[41] The EU
banned the use of organotin compounds in 2003.[42] Concerns over toxicity of these
compounds to marine life and their effects over the reproduction and growth of some
marine species,[40] (some reports describe biological effects to marine life at a
concentration of 1 nanogram per liter) have led to a worldwide ban by the International
Maritime Organization. Many nations now restrict the use of organotin compounds to
vessels over 25 meters long.[40]
The Stille reaction couples organotin compounds with organic halides or pseudohalides.[43]
Precautions
Tin plays no known natural biological role in humans, and possible health effects of tin are
a subject of dispute. Tin itself is not toxic but most tin salts are. The corrosion of tin plated
food cans by acidic food and beverages has caused several intoxications with soluble tin
compounds. Nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea have been reported after ingesting canned
food containing 200 mg/kg of tin.[44] This observation led, for example, the Food Standards
Agency in the UK to propose upper limits of 200 mg/kg.[45] A study showed that 99.5% of
the controlled food cans contain tin in an amount below that level.[46]
Organotin compounds are very toxic. Tri-n-alkyltins are phytotoxic and, depending on the
organic groups, can be powerful bactericides and fungicides. Other triorganotins are used
Tin 13
as miticides and acaricides.
See also
• Stannary
• Tinning
• Cassiterides (the mythical Tin Islands)
• Tin pest
• Whisker (metallurgy) (tin whiskers)
• Terne
• Tin mining in Britain
References
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[4] Schwartz, Mel (2002). "Tin and Alloys, Properties". Encyclopedia of Materials, Parts and Finishes (2nd ed.).
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[5] Le Coureur, Penny; Burreson, Jay (2004). Napoleon's Buttons: 17 Molecules that Changed History. New York:
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[11] . p. 343. ISBN 0716748789.
[12] Only H, F, P, Tl and Xe have a higher receptivity for NMR analysis for samples containing isotopes at their
natural abundance.
[13] " Interactive NMR Frequency Map (http:/ / www. nyu. edu/ cgi-bin/ cgiwrap/ aj39/ NMRmap. cgi)". . Retrieved
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[14] Walker, Phil (1994). " Doubly Magic Discovery of Tin-100 (http:/ / physicsworldarchive. iop. org/ index.
cfm?action=summary& doc=7/ 6/ phwv7i6a24@pwa-xml& qt=)". Physics World 7 (June). .
[15] " The Ancient Mining of Tin (http:/ / www. oxleigh. freeserve. co. uk/ pt77a. htm)". . Retrieved 2009-07-07.
[16] http:/ / www. vanderkrogt. net/ elements/ source. html#smi
[17] Johann Beckmann, William Francis, William Johnston, John William Griffith (1846). A History of Inventions,
Discoveries, and Origins (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=qGMSAAAAIAAJ). H.G. Bohn. pp. 57–68. .
[18] Emsley 2001, p. 446
[19] Emsley 2001, p. 447
[20] Maddin, R.; Wheeler, T. S.; Muhly, J. D.; (1977). "Tin in the ancient Near East: old questions and new finds".
Expedition 19 (2): 35–47.
[21] Wake, H. (2006-04-07). " Why Claudius invaded Britain (http:/ / romans. etrusia. co. uk/ whyinvade. php)".
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[24] Thoburn, John T. (1994). Tin in the World Economy. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0748605169.
[25] Emsley 2001, pp. 124, 231, 449 and 503
Tin 14
[26] " Tin: From Ore to Ingot (http:/ / www. itri. co. uk/ pooled/ articles/ BF_TECHART/ view.
asp?Q=BF_TECHART_230527)". International Tin Research Institute. 1991. . Retrieved 2009-03-21.
[27] "How Long Will it Last?". New Scientist 194 (2605): 38–39. May 26, 2007. ISSN 4079 0262 4079 (http:/ /
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[28] Brown, Lester (2006). Plan B 2.0. New York: W.W. Norton. pp. 109. ISBN 978-0393328318.
[29] Carlin, Jr., James F.. " Minerals Yearbook 2006: Tin (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
tin/ myb1-2006-tin. pdf)" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-11-23.
[30] Carlin, Jr., James F.. " Mineral Commodity Summary 2008: Tin (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/
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[31] " Seminole Group Colombia Discovers High Grade Tin Ore in the Amazon Jungle (http:/ / www.
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[32] " Seminole Enterprises Group Discovers High Grade Tin Ore In The Amazons Of Colombia (http:/ / www.
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[34] Estimates vary between USGS and The British Geological Survey. The latter was chosen because it indicates
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[35] " The Spoils: Congo's Riches, Looted by Renegade Troops (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 11/ 16/ world/
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[38] Pilkington, L. A. B.. " Review Lecture. The Float Glass Process (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2416528)".
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[39] Black, Harvey. (2005). " Getting the Lead out of Electronics (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/
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[41] Eisler, Ronald. " Tin Hazards To Fish, Wildlife, and Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review (http:/ / www. dtic. mil/
cgi-bin/ GetTRDoc?AD=ADA322822& Location=U2& doc=GetTRDoc. pdf)" (PDF). U.S. Fish and Wildlife
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[42] " Regulation (EC) No 782/2003 of the European Parlament and of the Council of 14 April 2003 on the
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[43] Farina, Vittorio; Krishnamurthy, Venkat; Scott, William J. (1997). "The Stille Reaction". Organic Reactions.
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[44] Blunden, Steve; Wallace, Tony (2003). "Tin in canned food: a review and understanding of occurrence and
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[45] " Eat well, be well — Tin (http:/ / www. eatwell. gov. uk/ healthissues/ factsbehindissues/ tins/ )". Food
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[46] " Tin in canned fruit and vegetables (Number 29/02) (http:/ / www. food. gov. uk/ multimedia/ pdfs/
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Tin 15
Bibliography
• CRC contributors (2006). David R. Lide (editor). ed. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
(87th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 0-8493-0487-3.
• Emsley, John (2001). "Tin". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements.
• Stwertka, Albert (1998). "Tin". Guide to the Elements (Revised ed.). Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-508083-1.
• MacIntosh, Robert M. (1968). "Tin". in Clifford A. Hampel (editor). The Encyclopedia of
the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 722–732. LCCN
68-29938.
• Heiserman, David L. (1992). "Element 50: Tin". Exploring Chemical Elements and their
Compounds. New York: TAB Books. ISBN 0-8306-3018-X.
External links
• WebElements.com – Tin (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/
Sn/ index. html)
• Theodore Gray's Wooden Periodic Table Table (http:/ / www. theodoregray. com/
PeriodicTable/ Elements/ 050/ index. s7. html): Tin samples and castings
• Base Metals: Tin (http:/ / www. basemetals. com/ html/ sninfo. htm)
• Comprehensive Data on Tin (http:/ / www. mrteverett. com/ Chemistry/ pdictable/
q_elements. asp?Symbol=Sn)

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Antimony 1
Antimony
tin ← antimony → telluriumAs
↑
Sb
↓
Bi

51Sb
Periodic table

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

Antimony 2
at T/K 807 876 1011 1219 1491 1858

modulusBulk modulusMohs hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS registry number Most stable
isotopes Main article: Isotopes of antimony
121 57.36% 121

Sb Sb is stable with 70 neutron
123 42.64% 123

Sb Sb is stable with 72 neutron
125 syn 2.7582 y 0.767

β− 125
Sb Te
antimony, Sb, 51 metalloid15, 5, p121.760(1) g·mol−1 [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3 2, 8, 18, 18, 5
(Image) solid 6.697 g·cm−3 6.53 g·cm−3 903.78 K,630.63 °C,1167.13 °F
1860 K,1587 °C,2889 °F 19.79 kJ·mol−1 193.43 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 25.23 J·mol−1·K−15, 3, -3
2.05 (Pauling scale) 1st: 834 kJ·mol−1140 pm139±5 pm rhombohedral diamagnetic[1]
(20 °C) 417 nΩ·m (300 K) 24.4 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 11 µm·m−1·K−1 (20 °C) 3420 m/s 55 GPa
20 GPa 42 GPa 3.0 294 MPa 7440-36-0
Antimony (pronounced /ænˈtɪmənɪ/ (UK) or English pronunciation: /ˈæntɨmoʊni/ (US)) is a
chemical element with the symbol Sb (Latin: stibium, meaning "mark") and atomic number
51. A metalloid, antimony has four allotropic forms. The stable form of antimony is a
blue-white metalloid. Yellow and black antimony are unstable non-metals. Antimony is used
in flame-proofing, paints, ceramics, enamels, a wide variety of alloys, electronics, and
rubber.
Properties
Antimony in its elemental form is a silvery white, brittle, fusible, crystalline solid that
exhibits poor electrical and heat conductivity properties and vaporizes at low temperatures.
A metalloid, antimony resembles a metal in its appearance and in many of its physical
properties, but does not chemically react as a metal. It is also attacked by or reactive with
oxidizing acids and halogens. Antimony and some of its alloys are unusual in that they
expand on cooling. Antimony is geochemically categorized as a chalcophile, occurring with
sulfur and the heavy metals lead, copper, and silver.
The abundance of antimony in the Earth's crust is estimated at 0.2 to 0.5 parts per
million.[2]
Antimony 3
Applications
Antimony is increasingly being used in the semiconductor industry in the production of
diodes, infrared detectors, and Hall-effect devices. As an alloy, this metalloid greatly
increases lead's hardness and mechanical strength. The most important use of antimony is
as a hardener in lead for storage batteries. Uses include:
• Batteries
• antifriction alloys
• small arms, buckshot, and tracer ammunition
• cable sheathing
• matches
• medicines, antiprotozoan drugs
• plumbing
• soldering - some "lead-free" solders contain 5% Sb
• main and big-end bearings in internal combustion engines (as alloy)
• used in the past to treat Schistosomiasis; today Praziquantel is universally used
• used in type metal, e.g. for linotype printing machines
• used in pewter
Antimony compounds in the form of oxides, sulfides, sodium antimonate, and antimony
trichloride are used in the making of flame-proofing compounds, ceramic enamels, glass,
paints, and pottery. Antimony trioxide is the most important of the antimony compounds
and is primarily used in flame-retardant formulations. These flame-retardant applications
include such markets as children's clothing, toys, aircraft and automobile seat covers. It is
also used in the fiberglass composites industry as an additive to polyester resins for such
items as light aircraft engine covers. The resin will burn while a flame is held to it but will
extinguish itself as soon as the flame is removed. Antimony sulfide is also one of the
ingredients of safety matches.
In the 1950s, tiny beads of a lead-antimony alloy were used for the emitters and collectors
of NPN alloy junction transistors.
The natural sulfide of antimony, stibnite, was known and used in Biblical times, as medicine
and in Islamic/Pre-Islamic times as a cosmetic. The Sunan Abi Dawood reports,
“Muhammad said: 'Among the best types of collyrium use is antimony (ithmid) for it clears
the vision and makes the hair sprout.'”[3]
Stibnite is still used in some developing countries as medicine. Antimony has been used for
the treatment of schistosomiasis. Antimony attaches itself to sulfur atoms in certain
enzymes which are used by both the parasite and human host. Small doses can kill the
parasite without causing damage to the patient. Antimony and its compounds are used in
several veterinary preparations like Anthiomaline or Lithium antimony thiomalate, which is
used as a skin conditioner in ruminants. Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect
on keratinized tissues, at least in animals. Tartar emetic is another antimony preparation
which is used as an anti-schistosomal drug. Treatments chiefly involving antimony have
been called antimonials.
Antimony-based drugs such as allopurinol and Meglumine, are also considered the drugs of
choice for the treatment of leishmaniasis in domestic animals. Unfortunately, as well as
having low therapeutic indices, the drugs are poor at penetrating the bone marrow, where
some of the Leishmania amastigotes reside, and so cure of the disease - especially the
visceral form - is very difficult.
Antimony 4
A coin made of antimony was issued in the Keichow Province of China in 1931. The coins
were not popular, being too soft and they wore quickly when in circulation. After the first
issue no others were produced.[4]
Etymology
The ancient words for antimony mostly have, as their chief meaning, kohl, the sulfide of
antimony. Pliny the Elder, however, distinguishes between male and female forms of
antimony; his male form is probably the sulfide, the female form, which is superior, heavier,
and less friable, is probably native metallic antimony.[5]
The Egyptians called antimony mśdmt; in hieroglyphics, the vowels are uncertain, but there
is an Arabic tradition that the word is mesdemet.[6] The Greek word, stimmi, is probably a
loan word from Arabic or Egyptian, and is used by the Attic tragic poets of the 5th century
BC; later Greeks also used stibi, as did Celsus and Pliny, writing in Latin, in the first
century AD. Pliny also gives the names stimi [sic], larbaris, alabaster, and the "very
common" platyophthalmos, "wide-eye" (from the effect of the cosmetic). Later Latin authors
adapted the word to Latin as stibium. The Arabic word for the substance, as opposed to the
cosmetic, can appear as ithmid, athmoud, othmod, or uthmod. Littré suggests the first form,
which is the earliest, derives from stimmida, (one) accusative for stimmi.[7]
The use of Sb as the standard chemical symbol for antimony is due to the 18th century
chemical pioneer, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who used this abbreviation of the name stibium.
The medieval Latin form, from which the modern
languages and late Byzantine Greek, take their
names, is antimonium. The origin of this is
uncertain; all suggestions have some difficulty
either of form or interpretation. The popular
etymology, from anti-monachos or French
antimoine, still has adherents; this would mean "monk-killer", and is explained by many
early alchemists being monks, and antimony being poisonous.[8] So does the hypothetical
Greek word antimonos, "against one", explained as "not found as metal", or "not found
unalloyed".[9] Lippmann conjectured a Greek word, anthemonion, which would mean
"floret", and he cites several examples of related Greek words (but not that one) which
describe chemical or biological efflorescence.[10]
The early uses of antimonium include the translations, in 1050-1100, by Constantine the
African of Arabic medical treatises.[11] Several authorities believe that antimonium is a
scribal corruption of some Arabic form; Meyerhof derives it from ithmid;[12] other
possibilities include Athimar, the Arabic name of the metal, and a hypothetical *as-stimmi,
derived from or parallel to the Greek.[13]
Antimony 5
History
Antimony's sulfide compound, antimony (III) trisulfide,
Sb2S3 was recognized in antiquity, at least as early as
3000 BC. Pastes of Sb2S3 powder in fat[14] or in other
materials have been used since that date as eye
cosmetics in the Middle East and farther afield; in this
use, Sb2S3 is called kohl. It was used to darken the
brows and lashes, or to draw a line around the
One of the perimeter of the eye.
alchemical
An artifact made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC
symbols for
antimony. was found at Tello, Chaldea (part of present-day Iraq),
and a copper object plated with antimony dating
between 2500 BC and 2200 BC has been found in
Egypt.[15] There is some uncertainty as to the
description of the artifact from Tello. Although it is
sometimes reported to be a vase, a recent detailed
discussion of reports it to be rather a fragment of
indeterminate purpose.[16] The first European
description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in
the book De la pirotechnia of 1540 by Vannoccio
Biringuccio, written in Italian. This book precedes the
more famous 1556 book in Latin by Agricola, De re
metallica, even though Agricola has been often
Native massive antimony with
incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic
oxidation products antimony. A text describing the preparation of metallic
antimony that was published in Germany in 1604
purported to date from the early fifteenth century, and if authentic it would predate
Biringuccio. The book, in German, was the Triumph Wagen Antimonii (Triumphal Chariot of
Antimony), and its putative author was a certain Benedictine monk, writing under the name
Basilius Valentinus. Already in 1710 Wilhelm Gottlob Freiherr von Leibniz, after careful
inquiry, concluded that the work was spurious, that there was no monk named Basilius
Valentinus, and the book's author was its ostensible editor, Johann Thölde (ca. 1565-ca.
1624). There is now agreement among professional historians that the Triumph Wagen was
written after the middle of the sixteenth century and that Thölde was likely its author.[17]
An English translation of the Triumph Wagen appeared in English in 1660, under the title
The Triumphant Chariot of Antimony. The work remains of great interest, chiefly because it
documents how followers of the renegade German physician, Philippus Theophrastus
Paracelsus von Hohenheim (of whom Thölde was one), came to associate the practice of
alchemy with the preparation of chemical medicines.
According to the traditional history of Middle Eastern alchemy, pure antimony was well
known to Geber, sometimes called "the Father of Chemistry", in the 8th century. Here there
is still an open controversy: Marcellin Berthelot, who translated a number of Geber's books,
stated that antimony is never mentioned in them, but other authors claim that Berthelot
translated only some of the less important books, while the more interesting ones (some of
which might describe antimony) are not yet translated, and their content is completely
Antimony 6
unknown.
The first natural occurrence of pure antimony ('native antimony') in the Earth's crust was
described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in
1783. The type-sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining
district of south central Sweden.
Production
Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in
over 100 mineral species. Antimony is sometimes found
native, but more frequently it is found in the sulfide
stibnite (Sb2S3) which is the predominant ore mineral.
Commercial forms of antimony are generally ingots,
broken pieces, granules, and cast cake. Other forms are Antimony output in 2005
powder, shot, and single crystals.
In 2005, China was the top producer of antimony with

about 84% world share followed at a distance by South
Africa, Bolivia and Tajikistan, reports the British
Geological Survey.
World production trend of antimony
Country Tonnes % of total
People's Republic of China 126,000 84.0
South Africa 6,000 4.0
Bolivia 5,225 3.5
Tajikistan 4,073 2.7
Russia 3,000 2.0
Top 5 144,298 96.2
Total world 150,000 100.0
Chiffres de 2003, métal contenue dans les minerais et concentrés, source: L'état du monde 2005
The largest mine in China is Xikuangshan mine in Hunan Province.

Antimony 7
Precautions
Antimony and many of its compounds are toxic. Clinically, antimony poisoning is very
similar to arsenic poisoning. In small doses, antimony causes headache, dizziness, and
depression. Larger doses cause violent and frequent vomiting, and will lead to death in a
few days.
Antimony leaches from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles into bottled water, but at
levels below drinking water guidelines.[18] [19] The guidelines are:
• World Health Organization: 20 µg/L
• Japan: 15 µg/L[20]
• United States Environmental Protection Agency, Health Canada and the Ontario Ministry
of Environment: 6 µg/L
• German Federal Ministry of Environment: 5 µg/L[21]
The acidic nature of the drink is sufficient to dissolve small amounts of antimony trioxide
contained in the packaging of the drink; modern manufacturing methods prevent this
occurrence. The longer the beverage has been bottled and the higher the temperature, the
more antimony is leached.[22]
Compounds
Important compounds of antimony include:
• Antimony pentafluoride SbF5
• Antimony trioxide Sb2O3
• Stibine (antimony trihydride SbH3)
• Indium antimonide (InSb)
• Fluoroantimonic acid (HSbF6)
See also
• Antimonial
• Phase change memory
• Naturalis Historia
• Pliny the Elder
Bibliography
• W. F. Albright "Notes on Egypto-Semitic Etymology. II" [23], The American Journal of
Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 34, No. 4. (Jul., 1918), pp. 215–255 (p.230)
• Endlich, F.M. "On Some Interesting Derivations of Mineral Names" [24], The American
Naturalist, Vol. 22, No. 253. (Jan., 1888), pp. 21–32 (p.28)
• Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 5th ed. 2004. Entry for antimony.
• Edmund Oscar von Lippmann (1919) Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie, teil 1.
Berlin: Julius Springer. In German.
• Moorey, PRS. (1994) Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: the Archaeological
Evidence. New York: Clarendon Press.
• Priesner, Claus and Figala, Karin, eds. (1998) Alchemie. Lexikon einer hermetischen
Wissenschaft. München: C.H. Beck. 412 p. In German.
Antimony 8
• Sarton, George. (1935) Review [25] of Al-morchid fi'l-kohhl, ou Le guide d'oculistique,

translated by Max Meyerhof. Isis (1935), 22(2):539-542 In French.
• Shotyk, W; Krachler, M; Chen, B (Feb 2006). "Contamination of Canadian and European
bottled waters with antimony from PET containers.". Journal of environmental monitoring
: JEM 8 (2): 288–92. doi:10.1039/b517844b [26]. ISSN 1464-0325 [27]. PMID 16470261.
• Public Health Statement for Antimony [28]
[29]
• Wakayama, Hiroshi, "Revision of Drinking Water Standards in Japan" , Ministry of
Health, Labor and Welfare (Japan), 2003
External links
[30]
• National Pollutant Inventory - Antimony and compounds
• WebElements.com – Antimony [31]
pnb:‫ینومیٹنیا‬
References
[2] " Antimony Statistics and Information (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ antimony/ )".
United States Geological Survey. 2009-01-31. . Retrieved 2009-04-15.
[3] Sunan Abu-Dawud (Ahmad Hasan translation). Book 32, Number 4050 (http:/ / www. muslimaccess. com/
sunnah/ hadeeth/ abudawud/ 032. html). .
[4] " Metals Used in Coins and Medals (http:/ / www. tclayton. demon. co. uk/ metal. html)". Tclayton.demon.co.uk.
. Retrieved 2008-09-12.
[5] Pliny, Natural history, 33.33; W.H.S. Jones, the Loeb Classical Library translator, supplies a note suggesting
the identifications.
[6] Albright, p.230; Sarton p.541, quotes Meyerhof, the translator of the book he is reviewing.
[7] LSJ, s.v., vocalisation, spelling, and declension vary; Endlich, p.28; Celsus, 6.6.6 ff; Pliny Natural History
33.33; Lewis and Short: Latin Dictionary. OED, s. "antimony".
[8] The use of a symbol resembling an upside down "female" symbol for antimony could also hint at a satirical pun
in this origin
[9] See, for example, Diana Fernando, Alchemy : an illustrated A to Z (1998) and Kirk-Othmer (below)
respectively. Fernando even derives it from the story of how "Basil Valentine" and his fellow monastic
alchemists poisoned themselves by working with antimony; antimonium is found two centuries before his time.
"Popular etymology" from OED; as for antimonos, the pure negative would be more naturally expressed by a-
"not".
[10] Lippman, p.643-5
[11] Lippman, p.642, writing in 1919, says "zuerst".
[12] Meyerhof as quoted in Sarton, p.541, asserts that ithmid or athmoud became corrupted in the medieval
"traductions barbaro-latines".; the OED asserts that some Arabic form is the origin, and if ithmid is the root,
posits athimodium, atimodium, atimonium, as intermediate forms.
[13] Endlich, p.28; one of the advantages of as-stimmi would be that it has a whole syllable in common with
antimonium.
[14] Priesner and Figala
[15] Kirk-Othmer, entry "Antimony"
[16] The fragment was presented in a lecture in 1892. One contemporary commented, "we only know of antimony
at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal, which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase,
and therefore this remarkable 'find' must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable." Moorey
1994:241
[17] E.g., Claus Priesner and Karin Figala, eds. (1998), Alchemie: Lexikon einer hermetischen Wissenschaft
(Munich: Beck), s.v. "Basilius Valentinus." Harold Jantz was perhaps the only modern scholar to deny Thölde's
authorship, but he too agrees that the work dates from after 1550: see his catalogue of German Baroque
literature, available online at (http:/ / microformguides. gale. com/ Data/ Download/ 2025000R. pdf).
[18] Shotyk, W; Krachler, M; Chen, B (Feb 2006). "Contamination of Canadian and European bottled waters with
antimony from PET containers.". Journal of environmental monitoring : JEM 8 (2): 288–92. doi:
Antimony 9
10.1039/b517844b (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ b517844b). ISSN 1464-0325 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/
1464-0325). PMID 16470261.
[19] " London Free Press: (http:/ / www. lfpress. com/ cgi-bin/ publish. cgi?p=120232& x)". Lfpress.com. .
[20] H. Wakayama, Table 2, p. 84
[21] Shotyk et al., 2006
[22] Westerhoff, P; Prapaipong P, Shock E, Hillaireau A (February 2008). "Antimony leaching from polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) plastic used for bottled drinking water". Water Research 42 (3): 551–556. doi:
10.1016/j.watres.2007.07.048 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. watres. 2007. 07. 048). PMID 17707454.
[23] http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=1062-0516%28191807%2934%3A4%3C215%3ANOEEI%3E2. 0. CO%3B2-J
[24] http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0003-0147%28188801%2922%3A253%3C21%3AOSIDOM%3E2. 0.
CO%3B2-W
[25] http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0021-1753%28193502%2922%3A2%3C539%3A%28FOLGD%3E2. 0.
CO%3B2-L
[26] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039%2Fb517844b
[27] http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 1464-0325
[28] http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ toxprofiles/ phs23. html
[29] http:/ / www. nilim. go. jp/ lab/ bcg/ siryou/ tnn/ tnn0264pdf/ ks0264011. pdf
[31] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Sb/ index. html

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Tellurium 1
Tellurium
52 antimony ← tellurium → iodine

Se
↑
Te
↓
Po

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number tellurium, Te, 52

−1
[Kr] 5s 4d
10
5p
4
Physical properties
Phase solid

(449.51 °C, 841.12 °F)

(988 °C, 1810 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) (775) (888) 1042 1266
Atomic properties

Tellurium 2

(more)
2nd: 1790 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2698 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

diamagnetic
Thermal conductivity (300 K)

−1 −1
(1.97–3.38) W·m ·K
Bulk modulus 65 GPa
Mohs hardness 2.25
Main article: Isotopes of tellurium

120
Te 0.09% >2.2×1016y εε 1.701 120
Sn
121
Te syn 16.78 d ε 1.040 121
Sb
122
Te 2.55% 122
Te is stable with 70 neutron
123
Te 0.89% >1.0×1013 y ε 0.051 123
Sb
124
Te 4.74% 124
125
Te 7.07% 125
126
Te 18.84% 126
127
Te syn 9.35 h β− 0.698 127
I
128
Te 31.74% 2.2×1024 y β−β− 0.867 128
Xe
129
Te syn 69.6 min β− 1.498 129
I
130
Te 34.08% 7.9×1020 y β−β− 2.528 130
Xe
References
Tellurium 3
Tellurium (pronounced /tɪˈlʊəriəm, tɛlˈlʊəriəm/) is a chemical element that has the symbol
Te and atomic number 52. A brittle silver-white metalloid which looks similar to tin,
tellurium is chemically related to selenium and sulfur. Tellurium is primarily used in alloys
and as a semiconductor.
Characteristics
Tellurium is extremely rare, one of the nine rarest metallic elements on Earth. It is in the
same chemical family as oxygen, sulfur, selenium, and polonium (the chalcogens).
When crystalline, tellurium is silvery-white and when it is in pure state it has a metallic
luster. This is a brittle and easily pulverized metalloid. Amorphous tellurium is found by
precipitating it from a solution of tellurous or telluric acid (Te(OH)6). However, there is
some debate whether this form is really amorphous or made of minute crystals.
Applications
Tellurium is a p-type semiconductor that shows a greater conductivity in certain directions
which depends on atomic alignment. Chemically related to selenium and sulfur, the
conductivity of this element increases slightly when exposed to light (photoconductivity).
It can be doped with copper, gold, silver, tin, or other metals. When in its molten state,
tellurium is corrosive to copper, iron, and stainless steel.
Tellurium gives a greenish-blue flame when burned in normal air and forms tellurium
dioxide as a result.
[2]
Metal alloys:
• It is mostly used in alloys with other metals. It is added to lead to improve its strength
and durability, and to decrease the corrosive action of sulfuric acid.
• When added to stainless steel and copper it makes these metals more workable. It is
alloyed into cast iron for chill control.
Other uses:
• Used in ceramics.
• It is used in chalcogenide glasses.
• Tellurium is used in blasting caps.
• Organic tellurides have been employed as initiators for living radical polymerisation and
electron-rich mono- and di-tellurides possess antioxidant activity.
• Tellurite agar is used to identify member of the corynebacterium genus, most typically
Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the pathogen responsible for diphtheria.
High purity metalorganics of both selenium and tellurium are used in the semiconductor
industry, and are prepared by adduct purification.[3] [4]
Semiconductor and electronic industry uses:
• Tellurium as a tellurium suboxide is used in the media layer of several types of rewritable
optical discs, including ReWritable Compact Discs (CD-RW), ReWritable Digital Video
Discs (DVD-RW) and ReWritable Blu-ray Discs. [5] [6]
• Tellurium is used in the new phase change memory chips[7] developed by Intel.[8]
• Bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) is used in thermoelectric devices.
Tellurium 4
• Tellurium is used in cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar panels. NREL lab tests using this
material achieved some of the highest efficiencies for solar cell electric power
generation. First Solar started massive commercial production of CdTe solar panels in
recent years, significantly increased tellurium demand. If some of the cadmium in CdTe
is replaced by zinc then CdZnTe is formed which is used in solid-state x-ray detectors.
• Alloyed with both cadmium and mercury, to form mercury cadmium telluride, an infrared
sensitive semiconductor material is formed. Organotellurium compounds such as
dimethyl telluride, diethyl telluride, diisopropyl telluride, diallyl telluride and methyl allyl
telluride are used as precursors for MOVPE growth of II-VI compound semiconductors.
Diisopropyl telluride (DIPTe) is employed as the preferred precursor for achieving the
low temperature growth of CdHgTe by MOVPE.
History
Tellurium (Latin tellus meaning "earth") was discovered in 1782 by the Hungarian
Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein (Müller Ferenc) in Nagyszeben (now, Sibiu)
Transylvania. In 1789, another Hungarian scientist, Pál Kitaibel, also discovered the
element independently, but later he gave the credit to Müller. In 1798, it was named by
Martin Heinrich Klaproth who earlier isolated it.[9]
Tellurium was used as a chemical bonder in the making of the outer shell of the first atom
bomb. The 1960s brought growth in thermoelectric applications for tellurium, as well as its
use in free-machining steel, which became the dominant use.
Occurrence
With an abundance in the Earth's crust even lower than
platinum, tellurium is, apart from the precious metals,
the rarest stable solid element in the Earth's crust. Its
abundance in the Earth's crust is 1 to 5 ppb, compared
with 5 to 37 ppb for platinum. By comparison, even the
rarest of the lanthanides have crustal abundances of
500 ppb.
The extreme rarity of tellurium in the Earth's crust is

Tellurium on quartz (Moctezuma,
not a reflection of its cosmic abundance, which is in fact
Sonora, Mexico)
greater than that of rubidium[10], even though
rubidium is ten thousand times more abundant in the
Earth's crust. The extraordinarily low abundance of tellurium on Earth is because during
the Earth's formation, the stable form of elements in the absence of oxygen and water was
controlled by the oxidation and reduction of hydrogen. Under this scenario elements such
as tellurium which form volatile hydrides were severely depleted during the formation of
the Earth's crust through evaporation. Tellurium and selenium are the heavy elements
mostly depleted in the Earth's crust by this process.
Tellurium is sometimes found in its native (elemental) form, but is more often found as the
tellurides of gold (calaverite, krennerite, petzite, sylvanite, and others). Tellurium
compounds are the most common chemical compounds of gold found in nature (rare
non-tellurides such as gold aurostibite and bismuthide are known). Tellurium is also found
combined with elements other than gold, in salts of other metals. The principal source of
Tellurium 5
tellurium is from anode sludges produced during the electrolytic refining of blister copper.
It is a component of dusts from blast furnace refining of lead. Treatment of 500 tons of
copper ore typically yields [11] one pound of tellurium. Tellurium is produced mainly in the
United States, Canada, Peru, and Japan. See here [12].
Commercial-grade tellurium is usually marketed as minus 200-mesh powder but is also
available as slabs, ingots, sticks, or lumps. The year-end price for tellurium in 2000 was
US$14 per pound. In recent years, tellurium price was driven up [13] by increased demand
and limited supply, reaching as high as US$100 per pound in 2006. See also here [14].
See also: Telluride, Colorado, category:Telluride minerals
Compounds
Tellurium is in the same series as sulfur and selenium and forms similar compounds. A
compound with metal or hydrogen and similar ions is called a telluride. Gold and silver
tellurides are considered good ores. Compounds with tellurate ion complexes TeO2−4 or
TeO6−6 are known as tellurates. Compounds with the anion TeO2−3 are called tellurites.
The tellurium analogues of alcohols and thiols, having the functional group –TeH, are called
tellurols. The -TeH functional group is also referred to with the prefix tellanyl-.
See also: Category:Tellurium compounds
Isotopes
There are 30 known isotopes of tellurium with atomic masses that range from 108 to 137.
Naturally found tellurium consists of eight isotopes (listed in the main article); three of
them are observed to be radioactive. 128Te has the longest known half-life, 2.2×1024
years[15] , among all radioisotopes.[16] Tellurium is the lightest element known to undergo
alpha decay, with isotopes 106Te to 110Te being able to undergo this mode of decay.
Precautions
Tellurium and tellurium compounds are considered to be mildly toxic and need to be
handled with care, although acute poisoning is rare.[17] Tellurium is not reported to be
carcinogenic.[17]
Humans exposed to as little as 0.01 mg/m3 or less in air develop "tellurium breath", which
has a garlic-like odor.[18] The garlic odor that is associated with human intake of tellurium
compounds is caused from the tellurium being metabolized by the body. When the body
metabolizes tellurium in any oxidation state, the tellurium gets converted into dimethyl
telluride, (CH3)2Te, which is volatile and is the cause of the garlic-like smell. Even though
the metabolic pathways of tellurium are not known, it is generally assumed that they
resemble those of the more extensively studied selenium, because the final methylated
metabolic products of the two elements are similar.
Tellurium 6
External links
• WebElements.com – Tellurium [19]
[20]
• USGS Mineral Information on Selenium and Tellurium
• Selenium Tellurium Development Association [21]
• Comprehensive Data on Tellurium [22]
References
[2] George, Micheal W. (2007). " Mineral Yearbook 2007: Selenium and Tellurium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/
minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ selenium/ myb1-2007-selen. pdf)". United States geological Survey. .
[3] "Ultra-pure organotellurium precursors for the low temperature MOVPE growth of II/VI compound
semiconductors". Journal of Crystal Growth 93: 744–749. 1988. doi: 10.1016/0022-0248(88)90613-6 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0022-0248(88)90613-6).
[4] U.S. Patent 5117021 (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=5117021) Method for purification of tellurium
and selenium alkyls
[5] Farivar, Cyrus (2006-10-19). " Panasonic says that its 100GB Blu-ray discs will last a century (http:/ / www.
engadget. com/ 2006/ 10/ 19/ panasonic-says-that-its-100gb-blu-ray-discs-will-last-a-century/ )". . Retrieved
2008-11-13.
[6] Kenichi Nishiuchi, Hideki Kitaura, Noboru Yamada and Nobuo Akahira (1998). "Dual-Layer Optical Disk with
Te–O–Pd Phase-Change Film". Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 37: 2163-2167. doi: 10.1143/JJAP.37.2163 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1143/ JJAP. 37. 2163).
[7] Hudgens, S.; Johnson, B. (2004). " Overview of Phase-Change Chalcogenide Nonvolatile Memory Technology
(http:/ / www. engr. sjsu. edu/ sgleixner/ mate270/ LectureNotes/ Hudgens_MRS. pdf)". Material Research
Society Bulletin 29 (11): 1–4. .
[8] Geppert, Linda. " The New Indelible Memories (http:/ / www. spectrum. ieee. org/ print/ 1501)". IEEE
spectrum online. . Retrieved 2009-02-08.
[9] Diemann, Ekkehard; Müller, Achim; Barbu, Horia (2002). "Die spannende Entdeckungsgeschichte des Tellurs
(1782 - 1798) Bedeutung und Komplexität von Elemententdeckungen". Chemie in unserer Zeit 36 (5): 334–337.
doi: 10.1002/1521-3781(200210)36:5<334::AID-CIUZ334>3.0.CO;2-1 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/
1521-3781(200210)36:5<334::AID-CIUZ334>3. 0. CO;2-1).
[10] http:/ / www. orionsarm. com/ science/ Abundance_of_Elements. html
[11] http:/ / www. stda. net/ se-te. htm
[12] http:/ / www. mmta. co. uk/ economicsFacts/ Articles/ MiningJournalReview/ Tellurium. pdf
[13] http:/ / arizonageology. blogspot. com/ 2007/ 05/ arizona-tellurium-rush. html
[14] http:/ / www. resourceinvestor. com/ pebble. asp?relid=31031
[15] " WWW Table of Radioactive Isotopes: Tellurium (http:/ / ie. lbl. gov/ toi/ nuclide. asp?iZA=520128)". Nuclear
Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 2008. .
[16] " Noble Gas Research (http:/ / presolar. wustl. edu/ work/ noblegas. html#tellurium)". Laboratory for Space
Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis. 2008. .
[17] Harrison, W; S Bradberry, J Vale (1998-01-28). " Tellurium (http:/ / www. intox. org/ databank/ documents/
chemical/ tellur/ ukpid84. htm)" (HTML). International Programme on Chemical Safety. . Retrieved 2007-01-12.
[18] " Tellurium (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 52. html)" (HTML). Los Alamos National Laboratory.
2003-12-15. . Retrieved 2007-01-12.
[19] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Te/ index. html
[20] http:/ / minerals. er. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ selenium
[21] http:/ / www. stda. net/ home. htm
[22] http:/ / www. mrteverett. com/ Chemistry/ pdictable/ q_elements. asp?Symbol=Te

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Archimerged, Arkuat, Aurista25, Az1568, Baccyak4H, Beetstra, Benbest, Bibliomaniac15, BlueEarth, Bogey97, Borislav.dopudja, Boud, Bryan Derksen,
CYD, CanisRufus, Carnildo, ChemGardener, Conversion script, Cpt ricard, Darrien, Darth Panda, David Latapie, Db099221, Dead3y3, Delirium, Delta G,
Dogposter, Donarreiskoffer, Drc79, Dschwen, Edgar181, El C, Emperorbma, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Erik Zachte, Femto, Fivemack, Fredbauder, Gdr,
GreatMizuti, Grendelkhan, Gritchka, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Hadal, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Hannibal, Hmains, I80and, Icairns, Ideyal, Insanity Incarnate, Ioeth,
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Iodine 1
Iodine
53 tellurium ← iodine → xenon

Br
↑
I
↓
At

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number iodine, I, 53
Element category halogens
Appearance solid violet-dark gray, lustrous
violet gas
Standard atomic weight 126.90447(3) g·mol−1
Electron configuration [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5
Physical properties
Phase solid

(113.7 °C, 236.66 °F)

(184.3 °C, 363.7 °F)
Triple point 386.65 K, 12.1×103 Pa
Heat of fusion (I ) 15.52 kJ·mol−1

2
Heat of vaporization (I ) 41.57 kJ·mol−1
2
Iodine 2
Specific heat capacity (25 °C) (I2) 54.44 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure (rhombic)
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 260 282 309 342 381 457
Atomic properties
2nd: 1845.9 kJ/mol
3rd: 3180 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity 7
(0 °C) 1.3×10 Ω·m

−1
·K
−1
Main article: Isotopes of iodine
123
I syn 13 h ε, γ 0.16 123
Te
127
I 100% 127
I is stable with 74 neutron
129
I syn 15.7×106 y β− 0.194 129
Xe
131
I syn 8.02070 d β−, γ 0.971 131
Xe
References
Iodine (pronounced /ˈaɪ.ədaɪn/, English pronunciation: /ˈaɪ.ədɨn/, or in chemistry English

pronunciation: /ˈaɪ.ədiːn/; from Greek: ιώδης iodes "violet"), is a chemical element that has the
symbol I and atomic number 53. Naturally-occurring iodine is a single isotope with 74
neutrons.
Chemically, iodine is the second least reactive of the halogens, and the second most
electropositive halogen; trailing behind astatine in both of these categories. However, the
element does not occur in the free state in nature. As with all other halogens (members of
Iodine 3
Group XVII in the periodic table), when freed from its compounds iodine forms diatomic
molecules (I2).
Iodine and its compounds are primarily used in medicine, photography, and dyes. Although
it is rare in the solar system and Earth's crust, the iodides are very soluble in water, and the
element is concentrated in seawater. This mechanism helps to explain how the element
came to be required in trace amounts by all animals and some plants, being the heaviest
element commonly used by living organisms (only tungsten, used in enzymes by a few
bacteria, is heavier[2] [3] ).
Characteristics
Iodine under standard conditions is a shiny grey solid. It can be seen apparently
sublimating at standard temperatures into a violet-pink gas that has an irritating odor. This
halogen forms compounds with many elements, but is less reactive than the other members
of its Group VII (halogens) and has some metallic light reflectance.
Elemental iodine dissolves easily in chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. The solubility of
elemental iodine in water can be vastly increased by the addition of potassium iodide. The
molecular iodine reacts reversibly with the negative ion, creating the triiodide anion, I3−,
which dissolves well in water. This is also the formulation of some types of medicinal
(antiseptic) iodine, although tincture of iodine classically dissolves the element in alcohol.
The deep blue color of starch-iodine complexes is produced only by the free element.
Students who have seen the classroom demonstration in which iodine crystals are gently
heated in a test tube to violet vapor may gain the impression that liquid iodine does not
exist at atmospheric pressure. This misconception arises because the vapor produced has
such a deep colour that the liquid appears not to form. In fact, if iodine crystals are heated
carefully to just above their melting point of 113.7 °C, the crystals melt into a liquid which
is present under a dense blanket of the vapor.
When iodine is encapsulated into carbon nanotubes it forms atomic chains, whose structure
depends on the nanotube diameter.[4]
Occurrence
Iodine naturally occurs in the environment chiefly as a
dissolved iodide in seawater, although it is also found in
some minerals and soils.[5] This element also exists in small
amounts in the mineral caliche, found in Chile, between the
Andes and the sea. A type of seaweed, kelp, tends to be high
in iodine as well.
Organoiodine compounds are produced by marine life forms,

the most notable being iodomethane (commonly called
Iodomethane methyl iodide). The total iodomethane that is produced by
the marine environment, by microbial activitiy in rice
paddies and by the burning of biological material is estimated to be 214 kilotonnes.[6] The
volatile iodomethane is broken up by oxidation reactions in the atmosphere and a global
iodine cycle is established.[5] [6] Although the element is actually quite rare, kelp and
certain plants and other algae have some ability to concentrate iodine, which helps
introduce the element into the food chain.
Iodine 4
Structure
Iodine crystallizes in the orthorombic space group
Cmca No 64, Pearson symbol oS8, the same as black
phosphorus. In the solid state, I2 molecules are still
represented by a short I-I bond of 270 pm.
Production
From the several places in which iodine occures in
nature only two are used as source for iodine: the Structure of solid iodine
caliche, found in Chile and the iodine containing brines
of gas and oil fields, especially in Japan and the United States.
The caliche, found in Chile contains sodium nitrate, which is the main product of the mining
activities and small amounts of sodium iodate and sodium iodide. During leaching and
production of pure sodium nitrate the sodium iodate and iodide is extracted.[7] The high
concentration of iodine in the caliche and the extensive mining made Chile the largest
producer of iodine in 2007.
Most other producers use natural occurring brine for
the production of iodine. The Japanese Minami Kanto
gas field east of Tokyo and the American Anadarko
Basin gas field in northwest Oklahoma are the two
largest sources for iodine from brine. The brine has a
temperature of over 60°C due to the depth of the Iodine output in 2005
source. The brine is first purified and acidified using
sulfuric acid, then the iodide present is oxidized to iodine with chlorine. An iodine solution
is produced, but is dilute and must be concentrated. Air is blown into the solution, causing
the iodine to evaporate, then it is passed into an absorbing tower containing acid where
sulfur dioxide is added to reduce the iodine. The hydrogen iodide (HI) is reacted with
chlorine to precipitate the iodine. After filtering and purification the iodine is packed.[7] [8]
2 HI + Cl2 → I2↑ + 2 HCl

I2 + 2 H2O + SO2 → 2 HI + H2SO4
2 HI + Cl2 → I2↓ + 2 HCl
The production of iodine from seawater via electrolysis is not used due to the sufficient
abundance of iodine-rich brine. Another source of iodine was kelp, used in the 18th and
19th centuries, but no longer economically viable.
Commercial samples often contain a large amount of impurities; they may be removed by
sublimation. The element may also be prepared in an ultrapure form through the reaction
of potassium iodide with copper(II) sulfate, which gives copper(II) iodide initially. That
decomposes spontaneously to copper(I) iodide and iodine:
Cu2+ + 2 I− → CuI2
2 CuI2 → 2 CuI + I2
There are also other methods of isolating this element in the laboratory, for example the
method used to isolate other halogens: oxidation of the iodide in hydroiodic acid (often
made in situ with an iodide and sulfuric acid) by manganese dioxide (see below in
Iodine 5
Descriptive chemistry).
Isotopes
127
There are 37 known (characterized) isotopes of iodine, but only one, I, is stable.
In many ways, 129I is similar to 36Cl. It is a soluble halogen, fairly non-reactive, exists
mainly as a non-sorbing anion, and is produced by cosmogenic, thermonuclear, and in-situ
reactions. In hydrologic studies, 129I concentrations are usually reported as the ratio of 129I
to total I (which is virtually all 127I). As is the case with 36Cl/Cl, 129I/I ratios in nature are
quite small, 10−14 to 10−10 (peak thermonuclear 129I/I during the 1960s and 1970s reached
about 10−7). 129I differs from 36Cl in that its halflife is longer (15.7 vs. 0.301 million years),
it is highly biophilic, and occurs in multiple ionic forms (commonly, I− and IO3−) which have
different chemical behaviors. This makes it fairly easy for 129I to enter the biosphere as it
becomes incorporated into vegetation, soil, milk, animal tissue, etc.
Excesses of stable 129Xe in meteorites have been shown to result from decay of "primordial"
iodine-129 produced newly by the supernovas which created the dust and gas from which
the solar system formed. 129I was the first extinct radionuclide to be identified as present in
the early solar system. Its decay is the basis of the I-Xe Iodine-xenon radiometric dating
scheme, which covers the first 85 million years of solar system evolution.
Effects of various radioiodine isotopes in biology are discussed below.
History
Iodine was discovered by Bernard Courtois in 1811.[9] [10] He was born to a manufacturer of
saltpeter (a vital part of gunpowder). At the time of the Napoleonic Wars, France was at
war and saltpeter was in great demand. Saltpeter produced from French niter beds
required sodium carbonate, which could be isolated from seaweed washed up on the coasts
of Normandy and Brittany. To isolate the sodium carbonate, seaweed was burned and the
ash then washed with water. The remaining waste was destroyed by adding sulfuric acid.
One day Courtois added too much sulfuric acid and a cloud of purple vapor rose. Courtois
noted that the vapor crystallized on cold surfaces making dark crystals. Courtois suspected
that this was a new element but lacked the money to pursue his observations.
However he gave samples to his friends, Charles Bernard Desormes (1777–1862) and
Nicolas Clément (1779–1841), to continue research. He also gave some of the substance to
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850), a well-known chemist at that time, and to physicist
André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836). On 29 November 1813, Dersormes and Clément made
public Courtois’s discovery. They described the substance to a meeting of the Imperial
Institute of France. On December 6, Gay-Lussac announced that the new substance was
either an element or a compound of oxygen.[11] [12] [13] Ampère had given some of his
sample to Humphry Davy (1778–1829). Davy did some experiments on the substance and
noted its similarity to chlorine.[14] Davy sent a letter dated December 10 to the Royal
Society of London stating that he had identified a new element.[15] A large argument
erupted between Davy and Gay-Lussac over who identified iodine first but both scientists
acknowledged Courtois as the first to isolate the chemical element.
Iodine 6
Applications
Disinfectant and water treatment

Elemental iodine is used as a disinfectant in various forms. The iodine exists as the element,
or as the water soluble triiodide anion I3- generated in situ by adding iodide to
poorly-soluble iodine (the reverse chemical reaction makes some free elemental iodine
availalbe for antisepsis). Alternatively, iodine may come from iodophors, which contain
iodine complexed with a solubilizing agent (iodide ion may be thought of loosely as the
iodophor in triiodide water solutions). Examples of such preparations include:[16]
• Tincture of iodine (iodine in ethanol, or iodine and sodium iodide in a mixture of ethanol
and water)
• Lugol's iodine (iodine and iodide in water, forming mostly tiiodide)
• Povidone iodine (an iodophor)
Staining
Iodine is a common general stain used in thin-layer
chromatography. It is also used in the Gram stain as a
mordant, after the sample is treated with crystal violet.
In particular, iodine forms an intense blue complex with
the glucose polymers starch andglycogen. Many
applications rely on this property:
• Iodometry. The concentration of an oxidant can be
determined by adding it to an excess of iodide with a
little free iodine, to destroy elemental iodine/triiodide Testing a seed for starch with a
as a result of oxidation by the oxidant. A starch solution of iodine
indicator is then used as the indicator close to the
end-point, in order to increase the visual contrast (dark blue becomes colorless, instead
of the yellow of dilute triiodide becoming colorless).
• An Iodine test may be used to test a sample substance for the presence of starch.
• The Iodine clock reaction is an extension of the techniques in iodometry.
• Iodine solutions are used in counterfeit banknote detection pens; the premise being that
counterfeit banknotes made using commercially available paper contain starch.
• Starch-iodide paper are used to test for the presence of oxidants such as peroxides. The
oxidants convert iodide to iodine, which shows up as blue. A solution of starch and iodide
can perform the same function.[17]
• During colposcopy, Lugol's iodine is applied to the vagina and cervix. Normal vaginal
tissue stains brown due to its high glycogen content (a color-reaction similar to that with
starch), while abnormal tissue suspicious for cancer does not stain, and thus appears
pale compared to the surrounding tissue. Biopsy of suspicious tissue can then be
performed. This is called a Schiller's test.
Iodine 7
Radiocontrast agent
Iodine, as a heavy element, is quite radio-opaque.
Organic compounds of a certain type (typically
iodine-substituted benzene derivatives) are thus used in
medicine as X-ray radiocontrast agents for intravenous
injection. This is often in conjunction with advanced
X-ray techniques such as angiography and CT scanning
Radioiodine
Some radioactive iodine isotopes can be used to treat
Diatrizoic acid, a radiocontrast
thyroid cancer. The body accumulates iodine in the
thyroid, thus radioactive iodine can selectively damage
growing thyroid cancer cells while the radioactive dose to the rest of the body remains
small.
Iodine compounds
Iodine forms many compounds. Potassium iodide is the most commercially significant iodine
compound. It is a convenient source of the iodide anion; it is easier to handle than sodium
iodide because it is not hygroscopic. Sodium iodide is especially useful in the Finkelstein
reaction, because it is soluble in acetone, while potassium iodide is poorly so. In this
reaction, an alkyl chloride is converted to an alkyl iodide. This relies on the insolubility of
sodium chloride in acetone to drive the reaction:
R-Cl (acetone) + NaI (acetone) → R-I (acetone) + NaCl (s)
Iodic acid (HIO3) and its salts are strong oxidizers. Periodic acid (HIO4) cleaves vicinal diols
along the C-C bond to give aldehyde fragments. 2-Iodoxybenzoic acid and Dess-Martin
periodinane are hypervalent iodine oxidants used to specifically oxidize alcohols to ketones
or aldehydes. Iodine pentoxide is a strong oxidant as well.
Interhalogen compounds are well known; examples include iodine monochloride and
trichloride; iodine pentafluoride and heptafluoride.
HI He
LiI BeI2 BI3 CI4 NI3 I2O4, IF, Ne

I2O5, IF3,
I4O9 IF5,
IF7
NaI MgI2 AlI3 SiI4 PI3, S ICl, Ar

P2I4 ICl3
KI CaI2 Sc TiI4 VI3 Cr MnI2 Fe CoI2 NiI2 CuI ZnI2 Ga2I6 GeI2, AsI3 Se IBr Kr
GeI4
RbI SrI2 Y ZrI4 Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd AgI CdI2 InI3 SnI4, SbI3 TeI4 I Xe

SnI2
CsI BaI2 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt AuI Hg2I2, TlI PbI2 Bi Po At Rn

HgI2
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

Iodine 8
La Ce Pr Nd Pm SmI2 Eu Gd TbI3 Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Ac ThI4 Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Organic compounds
Many organoiodine compounds exist, the simplest is iodomethane, approved as a soil
fumigant. Iodinated organics are used as synthetic reagents, and also radiocontrast agents.
Biologically active substances like the thyroid hormones are naturally occurring
organoiodine compounds.[18]
Chemistry
Elemental iodine is poorly soluble in water, with one gram dissolving in 3450 ml at 20 °C
and 1280 ml at 50 °C. By contrast with chlorine, the formation of the hypohalite ion (IO–) in
neutral aqueous solutions of iodine is negligible.
I2+ H2O H+ + I− + HIO (K = 2.0×10−13)[19]
Solubility in water is greatly improved if the solution contains dissolved iodides such as
hydroiodic acid, potassium iodide, or sodium iodide; this extra solubility results from the
high solubility of the I3− ion. Dissolved bromides also improve water solubility of iodine.
Iodine is soluble in a number of organic solvents, including ethanol (20.5 g/100 ml at 15 °C,
21.43 g/100 ml at 25 °C), diethyl ether (20.6 g/100 ml at 17 °C, 25.20 g/100 ml at 25 °C),
chloroform, acetic acid, glycerol, benzene (14.09 g/100 ml at 25 °C), carbon tetrachloride
(2.603 g/100 ml at 35 °C), and carbon disulfide (16.47 g/100 ml at 25 °C).[20] Aqueous and
ethanol solutions are brown. Solutions in chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and carbon
disulfide are violet.
Molecular iodine can be prepared by oxidizing iodides with chlorine:
2 I− + Cl2 → I2 + 2 Cl−
or with manganese dioxide in acid solution:[19]
2 I− + 4 H+ + MnO2 → I2 + 2 H2O + Mn2+
Iodine is reduced to hydroiodic acid by hydrogen sulfide:[21]
I2 + H2S → 2 HI + S↓
or by hydrazine:
2 I2 + N2H4 → 4 HI + N2
Iodine is oxidized to iodate by nitric acid:[22]
I2 + 10 HNO3 → 2 HIO3 + 10 NO2 + 4 H2O
or by chlorates:[22]
I2 + 2 ClO3− → 2 IO3− + Cl2
Iodine is converted in a two stage reaction to iodide and iodate in solutions of alkali
hydroxides (such as sodium hydroxide):[19]
(K = 30)
I2 + 2 OH− → I− + IO− + H2O
3 IO− → 2 I− + IO3− (K = 1020)

Iodine 9
Despite having the lowest electronegativity of the common halogens, iodine reacts violently
with some metals, such as aluminum:
3 I2 + 2 Al → 2 AlI3
This reaction produces 314 kJ per mole of aluminum, comparable to thermite's 425 kJ. Yet
the reaction initiates spontaneously, and if unconfined, causes a cloud of gaseous iodine
due to the high heat.
Organic synthesis
With phosphorus, iodine is able to replace hydroxyl groups on alcohols with iodide. For
example, the synthesis of methyl iodide from methanol, red phosphorus, and iodine.[23] The
iodinating reagent is phosphorus triiodide that is formed in situ:
3 CH3OH + PI3 → 3 CH3I + H3PO3
Phosphorous acid is formed as a side-product.
The iodoform test uses an alkaline solution of iodine to react with methyl ketones to give
the labile triiodomethide leaving group, forming iodoform which precipitates.
Iodine is sometimes used to activate magnesium when preparing Grignard reagents; aryl
and alkyl iodides both form Grignard reagents. Alkyl iodides such as iodomethane are good
alkylating agents. Some drawbacks to use of iodo-organics in chemical synthesis are:
• iodine compounds tend to be more expensive than the corresponding bromides and
chlorides, in that order
• iodides tend to be much stronger alkylating agents, and so are more toxic (e.g. methyl
iodide is very toxic (T+)[24]
• low molecular weight iodides tend to have a much higher equivalent weight, compared
with other alkylating agents (e.g. methyl iodide versus dimethyl carbonate), due to the
atomic mass of iodine.
Clandestine synthetic chemical use

In the United States, the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) regards iodine and compounds
containing iodine (ionic iodides, iodoform, ethyl iodide, and so on) as reagents useful for the
clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine. Persons who attempt to purchase
significant quantities of such chemicals without establishing a legitimate use are likely to
find themselves the target of a DEA investigation. Persons selling such compounds without
doing due diligence to establish that the materials are not being diverted to clandestine use
may be subject to stiff penalties, such as expensive fines or even imprisonment.[25] [26]
Biological role
Iodine is an essential trace element for life, the heaviest element commonly needed by
living organisms, and the second-heaviest known to be used by any form of life (only
tungsten, a component of a few bacterial enzymes, has a higher atomic number and atomic
weight). Iodine's main role in animal biology is as constituents of the thyroid hormones,
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These are made from addition condensation
products of the amino acid tyrosine, and are stored prior to release in an iodine-containing
protein called thyroglobulin. T4 and T3 contain four and three atoms of iodine per molecule,
respectively. The thyroid gland actively absorbs iodide from the blood to make and release
these hormones into the blood, actions which are regulated by a second hormone TSH from
Iodine 10
the pituitary. Thyroid hormones are phylogenetically very old molecules which are
synthesized by most multicellular organisms, and which even have some effect on
unicellular organisms.
Thyroid hormones play a basic role in biology, acting on gene transcription to regulate the
basal metabolic rate. The total deficiency of thyroid hormones can reduce basal metabolic
rate up to 50%, while in excessive production of thyroid hormones the basal metabolic rate
can be increased by 100%. T4 acts largely as a precursor to T3, which is (with minor
exceptions) the biologically active hormone.
Extrathyroidal Iodine
Iodine accounts for 65% of the molecular weight of T4 and 59% of the T3. 15–20 mg of
iodine is concentrated in thyroid tissue and hormones, but 70% of the body's iodine is
distributed in other tissues, including mammary glands, eyes, gastric mucosa, the cervix,
and salivary glands. In the cells of these tissues iodide enters direcly by sodium-iodide
symporter (NIS). Its role in mammary tissue is related to fetal and neonatal development,
but its role in the other tissues is unknown.[27] It has been shown to act as an antioxidant in
these tissues.[27]
Iodine may have a relationship with selenium, and iodine supplementation in
selenium-deficient populations may pose risks for thyroid function.[27]
The US Food and Nutrition Board and Institute of Medicine recommended daily allowance
of iodine ranges from 150 micrograms /day for adult humans to 290 micrograms /day for
lactating mothers. However, the thyroid gland needs no more than 70 micrograms /day to
synthesize the requisite daily amounts of T4 and T3. These higher recommended daily
allowance levels of iodine seem necessary for optimal function of a number of body systems,
including lactating breast, gastric mucosa, salivary glands, oral mucosa, thymus, epidermis,
choroid plexus, etc.[28] [29] [30] [31]
Iodine and cancer

*Breast cancer. It is known that a diet lacking in iodine is connected with adverse health
effects collectively referred as iodine deficiency diseases or disorders. Studies also indicate
that iodine deficiency, either dietary or pharmacologic, can lead to breast atypia and
increased incidence of malignancy in animal models, while iodine treatment can reverse
dysplasia.[32] [33] [34] Laboratory evidences demonstrate that the effect of iodine on breast
cancer is in part independent of thyroid function and that iodine inhibit cancer promotion
through modulation of the estrogen pathway. Gene array profiling of estrogen responsive
breast cancer cell line shows that the combination of iodine and iodide alters gene
expression and inhibits the estrogen response through up-regulating proteins involved in
estrogen metabolism. Whether iodine/iodide will be useful as an adjuvant therapy in the
pharmacologic manipulation of the estrogen pathway in women with breast cancer has not
been determined clinically.[32]
*Iodine and stomach cancer Some researchers have found a epidemiologic correlation
between iodine deficiency, iodine-deficient goitre and gastric cancer;[35] [36] [37] a decrease
of the incidence of death rate from stomach cancer after implementation of the effective
iodine-prophylaxis was reported too.[38] The proposed mechanism of action is that iodide
ion can function in gastric mucosa as an antioxidant reducing species that can detoxify
poisonous reactive oxygen species, such as hydrogen peroxide.
Iodine 11
Iodine and immunity

Iodine has important actions in the immune system. The high iodide-concentration of
thymus suggests an anatomical rationale for this role of iodine in immune system. [39] [40]
[41] [42] [43] [44]
Human dietary intake

The United States Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) is 150 micrograms per day
(μg/day) for both men and women, with a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults is
1,100 μg/day (1.1 mg/day).[45] The tolerable upper limit was assessed by analyzing the
effect of supplementation on thyroid-stimulating hormone.[27]
Natural sources of iodine include sea life, such as kelp and certain seafood, as well as
plants grown on iodine-rich soil.[46] [47] Iodized salt is fortified with iodine.[47]
As of 2000, the median intake of iodine from food in the United States was 240 to
300 μg/day for men and 190 to 210 μg/day for women.[45] In Japan, consumption is much
higher due to the frequent consumption of seaweed or kombu kelp.[27]
After iodine fortification programs (e.g. iodized salt) have been implemented, some cases of
iodine-induced hyperthyroidism have been observed (so called Jod-Basedow disease). The
condition mainly seems to occur in people over forty, and the risk appears higher when
iodine deficiency is severe and the initial rise in iodine intake is high.[48]
Deficiency
In areas where there is little iodine in the diet, typically remote inland areas and semi-arid
equatorial climates where no marine foods are eaten, iodine deficiency gives rise to
hypothyroidism, symptoms of which are extreme fatigue, goitre, mental slowing,
depression, weight gain, and low basal body temperatures.[49]
Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of preventable mental retardation, a result which
occurs primarily when babies or small children are rendered hypothyroidic by a lack of the
element. The addition of iodine to table salt has largely eliminated this problem in the
wealthier nations, but as of March 2006, iodine deficiency remained a serious public health
problem in the developing world.[50] Iodine deficiency is also a problem in certain areas of
Europe. In Germany it has been estimated to cause a billion dollars in healthcare costs per
year.[27]
Radioiodine in biology
Radioiodine and the thyroid
The most common compounds of iodine are the iodides of sodium (NaI) and potassium (KI)
and the iodates (KIO3), as elemental iodine is mildly toxic to all living things. Normal iodine
is an essential precursor for the manufacture of thyroid hormone.
Due to preferential uptake of iodine by the thyroid, isotopes with short half lives such was
I131 can be used for thyroid ablation, a procedure in which radioactive iodine is administed
intravenously following a diagnostic scan. This procedure is generally performed on
patients with thyroid cancer or hyperfunctioning thyroid tissue. After uptake, the iodine
undergoes degeneration via beta decay, destroying its associated thyroid tissue. Normally
thyroidectomy is preformed prior to ablation to avoid side effects of epilation and radiation
Iodine 12
toxicity. The purpose of radioablation is to destroy remnant tissue that was unable to be
removed with surgery.
Lower energy isotopes such as iodine-123, and less commonly iodine-125, are used as
tracers to evaluate the anatomic and physiologic function of the thyroid. Abnormal results
may be caused by disorders such as Graves' Disease or Hashimoto's thyroiditis.
Potassium iodide tablets have been distributed to populations exposed to nuclear fission
accidents such as the Chernobyl disaster. Alternatively, SSKI, a saturated solution of
potassium (K) iodide in water, in the form of drops, has been used. In theory, many harmful
late-cancer effects of nuclear fallout might be prevented in this way, since an excess of
thyroid cancers, presumably due to radioiodine uptake, is the only proven radioisotope
contamination effect after a fission accident, or from contamination by fallout from at
atomic bomb (prompt radiation from the bomb also cases other cancers, such as leukemias,
directly). Taking large amounts of thyroid saturates iodide receptors prevents uptake of
most radioactive iodine-131 that may be present from fission product exposure (although it
does not protect from other radioisotopes, nor from any other form of direct radiation). The
protective effect of KI lasts approximately 24 hours, so must be dosed daily until a risk of
significant exposure to radioiodines from fission products no longer exists.[51] [52]
Iodine-131 (the most common radioiodine contaminant in fallout) also decays relatively
rapidly with a half-life of 8 days, so that 99.95% of the original radioiodine is gone after
three months.
Iodine 129
Iodine-129 (129I; half-life 15.7 million years) is a product of cosmic ray spallation on various
isotopes of xenon in the atmosphere, in cosmic ray muon interaction with tellurium-130,
and also uranium and plutonium fission, both in subsurface rocks and nuclear reactors.
Artificial nuclear processes, in particular nuclear fuel reprocessing and atmospheric
nuclear weapons tests, have now swamped the natural signal for this isotope. Nevertheless,
it now serves as a groundwater tracer as indicator of nuclear waste dispersion into the
natural environment. In a similar fasion, 129I was used in rainwater studies to track fission
products following the Chernobyl disaster.
Radioiodine and the kidney

In the 1970s imaging techniques were developed in California to utilize radioiodine in
diagnostics for renal hypertension, although this is clinically not commonly performed
today and has been placaded by other chemical compounds such as DMSA.
Precautions and toxicity of elemental iodine

Elemental iodine is an oxidizing irritant and direct contact with skin can cause lesions, so
iodine crystals should be handled with care. Solutions with high elemental iodine
concentration such as tincture of iodine are capable of causing tissue damage if use for
cleaning and antisepsis is prolonged.
Elemental iodine (I2) is poisonous if taken orally in larger amounts; 2–3 grams of it are a
lethal dose for an adult human.
Iodine vapor is very irritating to the eye, to mucous membranes, and in the respiratory
tract. Concentration of iodine in the air should not exceed 1 mg/m³ (eight-hour
time-weighted average).
Iodine 13
When mixed with ammonia and water, elemental iodine forms nitrogen triiodide which is
extremely shock sensitive and can explode unexpectedly.
Toxicity of iodide ion

Excess iodine has symptoms similar to those of iodine deficiency. Commonly encountered
symptoms are abnormal growth of the thyroid gland and disorders in functioning and
growth of the organism as a whole. Iodides are similar in toxicity to bromides.
See also
• Iodide as an antioxidant
• Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser
• Nutrition facts label
• Starch indicator
External links
• "Micronutrient Research for Optimum Health", Linus Pauling Institute, OSU Oregon
State University [53]
• ATSDR - CSEM: Radiation Exposure from Iodine 131 [54] U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services (public domain)
• ChemicalElements.com - Iodine [55]
• who.int, WHO Global Database on Iodine Deficiency [56]
• Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency [57]
• Oxidizing Agents > Iodine [58]
• WebElements.com – Iodine [59]
pnb:‫نیڈویئآ‬
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[3] Russ Hille (2002). "Molybdenum and tungsten in biology". Trends in Biochemical Sciences 27: 360. doi:
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[4] Guan, L; Suenaga, K; Shi, Z; Gu, Z; Iijima, S (Jun 2007). "Polymorphic structures of iodine and their phase
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Iodine 14
[9] Bernard Courtois (1813). "Découverte d'une substance nouvelle dans le Vareck". Annales de chimie 88: 304. In
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iodotyrosine formation in dispersed cells of mouse extrathyroidal tissues". J Endocrinol. 2: 159.
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[32] Stoddard II, F. R.; Brooks, A. D.; Eskin, B. A.; Johannes, G. J. (2008). " Iodine Alters Gene Expression in the
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v05p0189. htm)". International Journal of Medical Science 5: 189. PMID 18645607. .
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(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF02788999). PMID 14965610.
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10.1054/brst.2000.0267 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1054/ brst. 2000. 0267). PMID 7577324.
[35] Josefssson M, Ekblad E. (2009). Victor R. Preedy, Gerard N. Burrow MD, Ronald Watson. ed. Sodium Iodide
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Nutritional, Biochemical, Pathological and Therapeutic Aspects.
[36] Abnet CC, Fan JH, Kamangar F, Sun XD, Taylor PR, Ren JS, Mark SD, Zhao P, Fraumeni JF Jr, Qiao YL,
Dawsey SM (2006). Self-reported goiter is associated with a significantly increased risk of gastric noncardia
adenocarcinoma in a large population-based Chinese cohort.. 119. p. 1508.
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[37] Behrouzian R, Aghdami N. (2004). East Mediterr Health J.. 10. p. 921.
[38] Golkowski F, Szybinski Z, Rachtan J, Sokolowski A, Buziak-Bereza M, Trofimiuk M, Hubalewska-Dydejczyk A,
Przybylik-Mazurek E, Huszno B. (2007). "Iodine prophylaxis--the protective factor against stomach cancer in
iodine deficient areas". Eur J Nutr. 46: 251. doi: 10.1007/s00394-007-0657-8 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/
s00394-007-0657-8).
[39] Venturi S, Venturi M (September 2009). "Iodine, thymus, and immunity". Nutrition 25 (9): 977–9. doi:
10.1016/j.nut.2009.06.002 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. nut. 2009. 06. 002). PMID 19647627.
[40] Venturi S.; Venturi A, Cimini D, Arduini C, Venturi M, Guidi A. (1993). "A new hypothesis: iodine and gastric
cancer.". Europ. J. Cancer. Prev. 2: 17.
[41] Marani L; Venturi S, Masala R (1985). "Role of iodine in delayed immune response.". Isr. J. Med. Sci. 21: 864.
[42] Ma F; Zhao W, Kudo M, Aoki K, Misumi J. (2002). "Inhibition of vacuolation toxin activity of Helicobacter
pylori by iodine, nitrite and potentiation by sodium chloride, sterigmatocystin and fluoride.". Toxicol in Vitro 16:
531. doi: 10.1016/S0887-2333(02)00045-0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0887-2333(02)00045-0).
[43] Klebanoff S.J. (1967). "Iodination of bacteria: A bacterial mechanism.". J Exp Med 126: 1063. doi:
10.1084/jem.126.6.1063 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1084/ jem. 126. 6. 1063).
[44] "Iodine enhances ig-G-synthesis by human peripheral blood Iyphocytes in vitro.". Acta Endocr 103: 103.
1983.
[45] United States National Research Council (2000). Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic,
Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (http:/ /
books. nap. edu/ openbook. php?record_id=10026& page=258). National Academies Press. pp. 258–259. .
[46] " Sources of iodine (http:/ / www. iccidd. org/ pages/ iodine-deficiency/ sources-of-iodine. php)". International
Council for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders. .
[47] " MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Iodine in diet (http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ medlineplus/ ency/ article/
002421. htm)". .
[48] Wu T, Liu GJ, Li P, Clar C (2002). "Iodised salt for preventing iodine deficiency disorders". Cochrane
Database Syst Rev (3): CD003204. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003204 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ 14651858.
CD003204). PMID 12137681.
[49] Felig, Philip; Frohman, Lawrence A. (2001). " Endemic Goiter (http:/ / books. google. de/
books?id=AZUUGrp6yUgC& pg=RA1-PA351)". Endocrinology & metabolism. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN
9780070220010. .
[50] " Micronutrients - Iodine, Iron and Vitamin A (http:/ / www. unicef. org/ nutrition/ index_iodine. html)".
UNICEF. .
[51] " Frequently Asked Questions on Potassium Iodide (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ Drugs/ EmergencyPreparedness/
BioterrorismandDrugPreparedness/ ucm072265. htm)". Food and Drug Administration. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[52] " Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid Blocking Agent in Radiation Emergencies (http:/ / www. thefederalregister.
com/ d. p/ 2001-12-11-01-30492)". Food and Drug Administration. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[53] http:/ / lpi. oregonstate. edu/ infocenter/ minerals/ iodine/
[54] http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ csem/ iodine/
[55] http:/ / chemicalelements. com/ elements/ i. html
[56] http:/ / whqlibdoc. who. int/ publications/ 2004/ 9241592001. pdf
[57] http:/ / www. iodinenetwork. net/
[58] http:/ / www. organic-chemistry. org/ chemicals/ oxidations/ iodine. shtm
[59] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ I/ index. html

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License
Xenon 1
Xenon
iodine ← xenon → caesiumKr
↑
Xe
↓
Rn

54Xe
Periodic table

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 83 92 103 117 137 165
Atomic properties Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energies 2nd: 2046.4

kJ·mol−1 3rd: 3099.4 kJ·mol−1Covalent radiusVan der Waals radius Miscellaneous Crystal
structureMagnetic orderingThermal conductivitySpeed of soundCAS registry number Most
stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of xenon
124 0.095% 124

Xe Xe is stable with 70 neutron
125 syn 16.9 h ε 1.652 125

Xe I
126 0.089% 126

127 syn 36.345 d ε 0.662 127

Xe I
Xenon 2
128 1.91% 128

129 26.4% 129

130 4.07% 130

131 21.2% 131

132 26.9% 132

133 syn 5.247 d 0.427

β− 133
Xe Cs
134 10.4% 134

135 syn 9.14 h 1.16

β− 135
Xe Cs
136 8.86% 136

xenon, Xe, 54 noble gases 18, 5, p131.293(6) g·mol−1 [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p6 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
(Image) gas (0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
5.894 g/L (101.325 kPa) 161.4 K,−111.7 °C,−169.1 °F (101.325
kPa) 165.03 K,−108.12 °C,−162.62 °F 161.405 K (-112°C), 81.6[1] kPa 289.77 K, 5.841
MPa (101.325 kPa) 2.27 kJ·mol−1 (101.325 kPa) 12.64 kJ·mol−1 (100 kPa, 25 °C) 20.786
J·mol−1·K−10, +1, +2, +4, +6, +8
(rarely more than 0)
(weakly acidic oxide) 2.6 (Pauling scale) 1st: 1170.4 kJ·mol−1140±9 pm 216 pm
face-centered cubic diamagnetic[2] (300 K) 5.65x10-3 W·m−1·K−1 (liquid) 1090 m/s; (gas)
169 m/s 7440-63-3
Xenon (pronounced /ˈzɛnɒn/[3] or [4]
English pronunciation: /ˈziːnɒn/ )
is a chemical element represented by the symbol Xe. Its atomic
number is 54. A colorless, heavy, odorless noble gas, xenon
occurs in the Earth's atmosphere in trace amounts.[5] Although
generally unreactive, xenon can undergo a few chemical
reactions such as the formation of xenon hexafluoroplatinate,
the first noble gas compound to be synthesized.[6] [7] [8]
Naturally occurring xenon consists of nine stable isotopes.

There are also over 40 unstable isotopes that undergo
radioactive decay. The isotope ratios of xenon are an important
tool for studying the early history of the Solar System.[9]
Xenon flash
Xenon-135 is produced as a result of nuclear fission and acts as
a neutron absorber in nuclear reactors.[10]
Xenon is used in flash lamps[11] and arc lamps,[12] and as a general anesthetic.[13] The first
excimer laser design used a xenon dimer molecule (Xe2) as its lasing medium,[14] and the
earliest laser designs used xenon flash lamps as pumps.[15] Xenon is also being used to
search for hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles[16] and as the propellant for
ion thrusters in spacecraft.[17]
Xenon 3
History
Xenon was discovered in England by William Ramsay and Morris Travers on July 12, 1898,
shortly after their discovery of the elements krypton and neon. They found it in the residue
left over from evaporating components of liquid air.[18] [19] Ramsay suggested the name
xenon for this gas from the Greek word ξένον [xenon], neuter singular form of ξένος
[xenos], meaning 'foreign(er)', 'strange(r)', or 'guest'.[20] [21] In 1902, Ramsay estimated the
proportion of xenon in the Earth's atmosphere as one part in 20 million.[22]
During the 1930s, engineer Harold Edgerton began exploring strobe light technology for
high speed photography. This led him to the invention of the xenon flash lamp, in which
light is generated by sending a brief electrical current through a tube filled with xenon gas.
In 1934, Edgerton was able to generate flashes as brief as one microsecond with this
method.[11] [23] [24]
In 1939 Albert R. Behnke Jr. began exploring the causes of "drunkenness" in deep-sea
divers. He tested the effects of varying the breathing mixtures on his subjects, and
discovered that this caused the divers to perceive a change in depth. From his results, he
deduced that xenon gas could serve as an anesthetic. Although Lazharev, in Russia,
apparently studied xenon anesthesia in 1941, the first published report confirming xenon
anesthesia was in 1946 by J. H. Lawrence, who experimented on mice. Xenon was first used
as a surgical anesthetic in 1951 by Stuart C. Cullen, who successfully operated on two
patients.[25]
In 1960 physicist John H. Reynolds discovered that certain meteorites contained an isotopic
anomaly in the form of an overabundance of xenon-129. He inferred that this was a decay
product of radioactive iodine-129. This isotope is produced slowly by cosmic ray spallation
and nuclear fission, but is produced in quantity only in supernova explosions. As the
half-life of 129I is comparatively short on a cosmological time scale, only 16 million years,
this demonstrated that only a short time had passed between the supernova and the time
the meteorites had solidified and trapped the 129I. These two events (supernova and
solidification of gas cloud) were inferred to have happened during the early history of the
Solar System, as the 129I isotope was likely generated before the Solar System was formed,
but not long before, and seeded the solar gas cloud with isotopes from a second source.
This supernova source may also have caused collapse of the solar gas cloud.[26] [27]
Xenon and the other noble gases were for a long time considered to be completely
chemically inert and not able to form compounds. However, while teaching at the
University of British Columbia, Neil Bartlett discovered that the gas platinum hexafluoride
(PtF6) was a powerful oxidizing agent that could oxidize oxygen gas (O2) to form dioxygenyl
hexafluoroplatinate (O2+[PtF6]−).[28] Since O2 and xenon have almost the same first
ionization potential, Bartlett realized that platinum hexafluoride might also be able to
oxidize xenon. On March 23, 1962, he mixed the two gases and produced the first known
compound of a noble gas, xenon hexafluoroplatinate.[29] [8] Bartlett thought its composition
to be Xe+[PtF6]−, although later work has revealed that it was probably a mixture of
various xenon-containing salts.[30] [31] [32] Since then, many other xenon compounds have
been discovered,[33] along with some compounds of the noble gases argon, krypton, and
radon, including argon fluorohydride (HArF),[34] krypton difluoride (KrF2),[35] [36] and radon
fluoride.[37] By 1971, more than 80 xenon compounds were known.[38] [39]
Xenon 4

Xenon is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere, occurring at 0.087±0.001 parts per million
(μL/L), or approximately 1 part per 11.5 million,[40] and is also found in gases emitted from
some mineral springs. Some radioactive species of xenon, for example, 133Xe and 135Xe, are
produced by neutron irradiation of fissionable material within nuclear reactors.[6]
Xenon is obtained commercially as a byproduct of the separation of air into oxygen and
nitrogen. After this separation, generally performed by fractional distillation in a
double-column plant, the liquid oxygen produced will contain small quantities of krypton
and xenon. By additional fractional distillation steps, the liquid oxygen may be enriched to
contain 0.1–0.2% of a krypton/xenon mixture, which is extracted either via adsorption onto
silica gel or by distillation. Finally, the krypton/xenon mixture may be separated into
krypton and xenon via distillation.[41] [42] Extraction of a liter of xenon from the atmosphere
requires 220 watt-hours of energy.[43] Worldwide production of xenon in 1998 was
estimated at 5,000–7,000 m3.[44] Due to its low abundance, xenon is much more expensive
than the lighter noble gases—approximate prices for the purchase of small quantities in
Europe in 1999 were 10 €/L for xenon, 1 €/L for krypton, and 0.20 €/L for neon.[44]
Xenon is relatively rare in the Sun's atmosphere, on Earth, and in asteroids and comets.
The atmosphere of Mars shows a xenon abundance similar to that of Earth: 0.08 parts per
million,[45] however Mars shows a higher proportion of 129Xe than the Earth or the Sun. As
this isotope is generated by radioactive decay, the result may indicate that Mars lost most
of its primordial atmosphere, possibly within the first 100 million years after the planet was
formed.[46] [47] By contrast, the planet Jupiter has an unusually high abundance of xenon in
its atmosphere; about 2.6 times as much as the Sun.[48] This high abundance remains
unexplained and may have been caused by an early and rapid buildup of
planetesimals—small, subplanetary bodies—before the presolar disk began to heat up.[49]
(Otherwise, xenon would not have been trapped in the planetesimal ices.) Within the Solar
System, the nucleon fraction for all isotopes of xenon is 1.56 × 10−8, or one part in
64 million of the total mass.[50] The problem of the low terrestrial xenon may potentially be
explained by covalent bonding of xenon to oxygen within quartz, hence reducing the
outgassing of xenon into the atmosphere.[51]
Unlike the lower mass noble gases, the normal stellar nucleosynthesis process inside a star
does not form xenon. Elements more massive than iron-56 have a net energy cost to
produce through fusion, so there is no energy gain for a star to create xenon.[52] Instead,
many isotopes of xenon are formed during supernova explosions.[53]
Characteristics
An atom of xenon is defined as having a nucleus with 54 protons. At standard temperature
and pressure, pure xenon gas has a density of 5.761 kg/m3, about 4.5 times the surface
density of the Earth's atmosphere, 1.217 kg/m3.[54] As a liquid, xenon has a density of up to
3.100 g/mL, with the density maximum occurring at the triple point.[55] Under the same
conditions, the density of solid xenon, 3.640 g/cm3, is larger than the average density of
granite, 2.75 g/cm3.[55] Using gigapascals of pressure, xenon has been forced into a
metallic phase.[56]
Solid xenon changes from face-centered cubic (FCC) to hexagonal close packed (HCP)
crystal phase under pressure and begins to turn metallic at about 140 GPa, with no
Xenon 5
noticeable volume change in the HCP phase. It is completely metallic at 155 GPa. When
metalized, xenon looks sky blue because an indirect bandgap transition (in the electronic
structure) allows it to absorb red light as had been previously calculated.[57] [58] Metallic
xenon is also transparent to visible light. The possibility that metallic xenon could react
with iron under pressure deep in the earth was considered a possible reason for xenon's
rarity in the atmosphere. However, experimental data and calculations have disproved this
possibility.
Xenon is a member of the zero-valence elements that
are called noble or inert gases. It is inert to most
common chemical reactions (such as combustion, for
example) because the outer valence shell contains eight
electrons. This produces a stable, minimum energy
configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly
bound.[59] However, xenon can be oxidized by powerful
oxidizing agents, and many xenon compounds have
been synthesized.
Xenon in shaped Geissler tubes
In a gas-filled tube, xenon emits a blue or lavenderish
glow when the gas is excited by electrical discharge. Xenon emits a band of emission lines
that span the visual spectrum,[60] but the most intense lines occur in the region of blue
light, which produces the coloration.[61]
Isotopes
Naturally occurring xenon is made of nine stable isotopes, the most of any element with the
exception of tin, which has ten. Xenon and tin are the only elements to have more than
seven stable isotopes.[62] The isotopes 124Xe, 134Xe and 136Xe are predicted to undergo
double beta decay, but this has never been observed so they are considered to be stable.[63]
[64]
Besides these stable forms, there are over 40 unstable isotopes that have been studied.
129
Xe is produced by beta decay of 129I, which has a half-life of 16 million years, while
131m
Xe, 133Xe, 133mXe, and 135Xe are some of the fission products of both 235U and
239
Pu,[65] and therefore used as indicators of nuclear explosions. The various isotopes of
xenon are produced from supernova explosions,[53] red giant stars that have exhausted the
hydrogen at their cores and entered the asymptotic giant branch, classical novae
explosions[66] and the radioactive decay of elements such as iodine, uranium and
plutonium.[65]
The artificial isotope 135Xe is of considerable significance in the operation of nuclear fission
reactors. 135Xe has a huge cross section for thermal neutrons, 2.6×106 barns,[10] so it acts
as a neutron absorber or "poison" that can slow or stop the chain reaction after a period of
operation. This was discovered in the earliest nuclear reactors built by the American
Manhattan Project for plutonium production. Fortunately the designers had made
provisions in the design to increase the reactor's reactivity (the number of neutrons per
fission that go on to fission other atoms of nuclear fuel).[67] 135Xe reactor poisoning played
a major role in the Chernobyl disaster.[68]
Under adverse conditions, relatively high concentrations of radioactive xenon isotopes may
be found emanating from nuclear reactors due to the release of fission products from
cracked fuel rods,[69] or fissioning of uranium in cooling water.[70]
Xenon 6
Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes, xenon isotope ratios in meteorites are a
powerful tool for studying the formation of the solar system. The iodine-xenon method of
dating gives the time elapsed between nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid
object from the solar nebula. Xenon isotopic ratios such as 129Xe/130Xe and 136Xe/130Xe are
[9]
also a powerful tool for understanding terrestrial differentiation and early outgassing.
Excess 129Xe found in carbon dioxide well gases from New Mexico was believed to be from
the decay of mantle-derived gases soon after Earth's formation.[65] [71]
Compounds
See also: Category:Xenon compounds
After the discovery in 1962 by Neil Bartlett that xenon can form chemical compounds, a
large number of xenon compounds have been discovered and described. Almost all known
xenon compounds contain the electronegative atoms fluorine or oxygen.[72]
Halides
Three fluorides are known: XeF , XeF , and XeF . The
2 4 6
fluorides are the starting point for the synthesis of
almost all xenon compounds.
The difluoride XeF is formed when a mixture of
2
fluorine and xenon gases are exposed to ultraviolet
light.[73] Long-term heating of XeF2 at high
temperatures under an NiF2 catalyst yields XeF6.[74]
Pyrolysis of XeF6 in the presence of NaF yields
high-purity XeF4.[75]
The xenon fluorides behave as both fluoride acceptors Xenon tetrafluoride

and fluoride donors, forming salts that contain such
cations as XeF+ and Xe2F+3, and anions such as XeF5−,
XeF7−, and XeF82−. The green, paramagnetic Xe+2 is
formed by the reduction of XeF2 by xenon gas.[76]
XeF2 is also able to form coordination complexes with
transition metal ions. Over 30 such complexes have
been synthesized and characterized.[74]
Whereas the xenon fluorides are well-characterized, the
other halides are not known, the only exception being
the dichloride, XeCl2. Xenon dichloride is reported to be
an endothermic, colorless, crystalline compound that
decomposes into the elements at 80°C, formed by the
high-frequency irradiation of a mixture of xenon,
fluorine, and silicon or carbon tetrachloride.[77]
However, doubt has been raised as to whether XeCl2 is
a real compound and not merely a van der Waals
XeF4 crystals, 1962
molecule consisting of weakly bound Xe atoms and Cl2
molecules.[78] Theoretical calculations indicate that the
linear molecule XeCl2 is less stable than the van der Waals complex.[79]
Xenon 7
Oxides and oxohalides

Only two oxides of xenon are known: xenon trioxide (XeO3) and xenon tetroxide (XeO4),
both of which are dangerously explosive and powerful oxidising agents. Xenon dioxide
(XeO2) remains elusive – only the XeOO+ cation has been identified by infrared
spectroscopy in solid argon.[80]
Xenon does not react with oxygen directly; the trioxide is formed by the hydrolysis of
XeF6:[81]
XeF6 + 3 H2O → XeO3 + 6 HF
XeO3 is weakly acidic, dissolving in alkali to form unstable xenate salts containing the
HXeO4− anion. These unstable salts easily disproportionate into xenon gas and perxenate
salts, containing the XeO64− anion.[82]
Barium perxenate, when treated with concentrated sulfuric acid, yields gaseous xenon
tetroxide:[77]
Ba2XeO6 + 2 H2SO4 → 2 BaSO4 + 2 H2O + XeO4
To prevent decomposition, the xenon tetroxide thus formed is quickly cooled to form a
pale-yellow solid. It explodes above −35.9 °C into xenon and oxygen gas.
A number of xenon oxyfluorides are known, including XeOF2, XeOF4, XeO2F2, and XeO3F2.
XeOF2 is formed by the reaction of OF2 with xenon gas at low temperatures. It may also be
obtained by the partial hydrolysis of XeF4. It disproportionates at −20 °C into XeF2 and
XeO2F2.[83] XeOF4 is formed by the partial hydrolysis of XeF6,[84] or the reaction of XeF6
with sodium perxenate, Na4XeO6. The latter reaction also produces a small amount of
XeO3F2. XeOF4 reacts with CsF to form the XeOF4− anion.[83]
Other compounds
Recently, there has been an interest in xenon compounds where xenon is directly bonded to
a less electronegative element than fluorine or oxygen, particularly carbon.[85]
Electron-withdrawing groups, such as groups with fluorine substitution, are necessary to
stabilize these compounds.[82] Numerous such compounds have been characterized,
including:[83] [86]
• C6F5–Xe+–N≡C–CH3, where C6F5– is the pentafluorophenyl group.
• [C6F5]2Xe
• C6F5–Xe–X, where X is CN, F, or Cl.
• R–C≡C–Xe+, where R is C2F5– or tert-butyl.
• C6F5–XeF+2
• (C6F5Xe)2Cl+
Other compounds containing xenon bonded to a less electronegative element include
F–Xe–N(SO2F)2 and F–Xe–BF2. The latter is synthesized from dioxygenyl tetrafluoroborate,
O2BF4, at −100 °C.[83] [87]
An unusual ion containing xenon is the tetraxenonogold(II) cation, AuXe2+4, which contains
Xe–Au bonds.[88] This ion occurs in the compound AuXe4(Sb2F11)2, and is remarkable in
having direct chemical bonds between two notoriously unreactive atoms, xenon and gold,
with xenon acting as a transition metal ligand.
In 1995, M. Räsänen and co-workers, scientists at the University of Helsinki in Finland,
announced the preparation of xenon dihydride (HXeH), and later xenon hydride-hydroxide
Xenon 8
(HXeOH), hydroxenoacetylene (HXeCCH), and other Xe-containing molecules.[89] In 2008,

Khriachtchev et al. reported the preparation of HXeOXeH by the photolysis of water within
a cryogenic xenon matrix.[90] Deuterated molecules, HXeOD and DXeOH, have also been
produced.[91]
Clathrates and excimers

In addition to compounds where xenon forms a chemical bond, xenon can form
clathrates—substances where xenon atoms are trapped by the crystalline lattice of another
compound. An example is xenon hydrate (Xe·5.75 H2O), where xenon atoms occupy
vacancies in a lattice of water molecules.[92] This clathrate has a melting point of 24 °C.[93]
The deuterated version of this hydrate has also been produced.[94] Such clathrate hydrates
can occur naturally under conditions of high pressure, such as in Lake Vostok underneath
the Antarctic ice sheet.[95] Clathrate formation can be used to fractionally distill xenon,
argon and krypton.[96]
Xenon can also form endohedral fullerene compounds, where a xenon atom is trapped
inside a fullerene molecule. The xenon atom trapped in the fullerene can be monitored via
129
Xe nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Using this technique, chemical reactions
on the fullerene molecule can be analyzed, due to the sensitivity of the chemical shift of the
xenon atom to its environment. However, the xenon atom also has an electronic influence
on the reactivity of the fullerene.[97]
While xenon atoms are at their ground energy state, they repel each other and will not form
a bond. When xenon atoms becomes energized, however, they can form an excimer (excited
dimer) until the electrons return to the ground state. This entity is formed because the
xenon atom tends to fill its outermost electronic shell, and can briefly do this by adding an
electron from a neighboring xenon atom. The typical lifetime of a xenon excimer is 1–5 ns,
and the decay releases photons with wavelengths of about 150 and 173 nm.[98] [99] Xenon
can also form dimers with other elements, such as the halogens bromine, chlorine and
fluorine.[100]
Applications
Although xenon is rare and relatively expensive to extract from the Earth's atmosphere, it
still has a number of applications.
Illumination and optics
Gas-discharge lamps
Xenon is used in light-emitting devices called xenon flash lamps, which are used in
photographic flashes and stroboscopic lamps;[11] to excite the active medium in lasers
which then generate coherent light;[101] and, occasionally, in bactericidal lamps.[102] The
first solid-state laser, invented in 1960, was pumped by a xenon flash lamp,[15] and lasers
used to power inertial confinement fusion are also pumped by xenon flash lamps.[103]
Xenon 9
Continuous, short-arc, high pressure xenon arc lamps

have a color temperature closely approximating noon
sunlight and are used in solar simulators. That is, the
chromaticity of these lamps closely approximates a
heated black body radiator that has a temperature close
to that observed from the Sun. After they were first
introduced during the 1940s, these lamps began
replacing the shorter-lived carbon arc lamps in movie
projectors.[12] They are employed in typical 35mm and
Xenon short-arc lamp
IMAX film projection systems, automotive HID
headlights and other specialized uses. These arc lamps
are an excellent source of short wavelength ultraviolet radiation and they have intense
emissions in the near infrared, which is used in some night vision systems.
The individual cells in a plasma display use a mixture of xenon and neon that is converted
into a plasma using electrodes. The interaction of this plasma with the electrodes generates
ultraviolet photons, which then excite the phosphor coating on the front of the display.[104]
[105]
Xenon is used as a "starter gas" in high pressure sodium lamps. It has the lowest thermal
conductivity and lowest ionization potential of all the non-radioactive noble gases. As a
noble gas, it does not interfere with the chemical reactions occurring in the operating lamp.
The low thermal conductivity minimizes thermal losses in the lamp while in the operating
state, and the low ionization potential causes the breakdown voltage of the gas to be
relatively low in the cold state, which allows the lamp to be more easily started.[106]
Lasers
In 1962, a group of researchers at Bell Laboratories discovered laser action in xenon,[107]
and later found that the laser gain was improved by adding helium to the lasing
medium.[108] [109] The first excimer laser used a xenon dimer (Xe2) energized by a beam of
electrons to produce stimulated emission at an ultraviolet wavelength of 176 nm.[14] Xenon
chloride and xenon fluoride have also been used in excimer (or, more accurately, exciplex)
lasers.[110] The xenon chloride excimer laser has been employed, for example, in certain
dermatological uses.[111]
Anesthesia
Xenon has been used as a general anaesthetic, although it is expensive. Even so, anesthesia
machines that can deliver xenon are about to appear on the European market.[112] Two
mechanisms for xenon anesthesia have been proposed. The first one involves the inhibition
of the calcium ATPase pump—the mechanism cells use to remove calcium (Ca2+)—in the
cell membrane of synapses.[113] This results from a conformational change when xenon
binds to nonpolar sites inside the protein.[114] The second mechanism focuses on the
non-specific interactions between the anesthetic and the lipid membrane.[115]
Xenon has a minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of 71%, making it 50% more potent
than N2O as an anesthetic.[13] Thus it can be used in concentrations with oxygen that have
a lower risk of hypoxia. Unlike nitrous oxide (N2O), xenon is not a greenhouse gas and so it
is also viewed as environmentally friendly. Because of the high cost of xenon, however,
economic application will require a closed system so that the gas can be recycled, with the
Xenon 10
gas being appropriately filtered for contaminants between uses.[43]
Medical imaging
Gamma emission from the radioisotope 133Xe of xenon can be used to image the heart,
lungs, and brain, for example, by means of single photon emission computed tomography.
133
Xe has also been used to measure blood flow.[116] [117] [118]
Nuclei of two of the stable isotopes of xenon, 129Xe and 131Xe, have non-zero intrinsic
angular momenta (nuclear spins). When mixed with alkali vapor and nitrogen and exposed
to a laser beam of circularly polarized light that is tuned to an absorption line of the alkali
atoms, their nuclear spins can be aligned by a spin exchange process in which the alkali
valence electrons are spin-polarized by the light and then transfer their polarization to the
xenon nuclei via magnetic hyperfine coupling.[119] Typically, pure rubidium metal, heated
above 100 °C, is used to produce the alkali vapor. The resulting spin polarization of xenon
nuclei can surpass 50% of its maximum possible value, greatly exceeding the equilibrium
value dictated by the Boltzmann distribution (typically 0.001% of the maximum value at
room temperature, even in the strongest magnets). Such non-equilibrium alignment of spins
is a temporary condition, and is called hyperpolarization.
Because a 129Xe nucleus has a spin of 1/2, and therefore a zero electric quadrupole
moment, the 129Xe nucleus does not experience any quadrupolar interactions during
collisions with other atoms, and thus its hyperpolarization can be maintained for long
periods of time even after the laser beam has been turned off and the alkali vapor removed
by condensation on a room-temperature surface. The time it takes for a collection of spins
to return to their equilibrium (Boltzmann) polarization is called the T1 relaxation time. For
129
Xe it can range from several seconds for xenon atoms dissolved in blood[120] to several
hours in the gas phase[121] and several days in deeply frozen solid xenon.[122] In contrast,
131
Xe has a nuclear spin value of 3/2 and a nonzero quadrupole moment, and has T1
relaxation times in the millisecond and second ranges.[123] Hyperpolarization renders 129Xe
much more detectable via magnetic resonance imaging and has been used for studies of the
lungs and other tissues. It can be used, for example, to trace the flow of gases within the
[124] [125]
lungs.
Other
In nuclear energy applications, xenon is used in bubble chambers,[126] probes, and in other
areas where a high molecular weight and inert nature is desirable. A by-product of nuclear
weapon testing is the release of radioactive Xe-133 and Xe-135. The detection of these
isotopes is used to monitor compliance with test ban treaties,[127] as well as to confirm
nuclear test explosions by states such as North Korea.[128]
Xenon 11
Liquid xenon is being used as a medium for detecting

hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles, or
WIMPs. When a WIMP collides with a xenon nucleus, it
should, theoretically, strip an electron and create a
primary scintillation. By using xenon, this burst of
energy could then be readily distinguished from similar
events caused by particles such as cosmic rays.[16]
However, the XENON experiment at the Gran Sasso
National Laboratory in Italy has thus far failed to find
any confirmed WIMPs. Even if no WIMPs are detected,
the experiment will serve to constrain the properties of
A prototype of a xenon ion engine
being tested at NASA's Jet Propulsion
dark matter and some physics models.[129] The current
Laboratory. detector at this facility has demonstrated sensitivity
comparable to that of the best cryogenic detectors, and
the sensitivity will be increased by an order of magnitude in 2009.[130]
Xenon is the preferred fuel for ion propulsion of spacecraft because of its low ionization
potential per atomic weight, and its ability to be stored as a liquid at near room
temperature (under high pressure) yet be easily converted back into a gas to fuel the
engine. The inert nature of xenon makes it environmentally friendly and less corrosive to an
ion engine than other fuels such as mercury or caesium. Xenon was first used for satellite
ion engines during the 1970s.[131] It was later employed as a propellant for Europe's
SMART-1 spacecraft[17] and for the three ion propulsion engines on NASA's Dawn
Spacecraft.[132]
Chemically, the perxenate compounds are used as oxidizing agents in analytical chemistry.
Xenon difluoride is used as an etchant for silicon, particularly in the production of
microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).[133] The anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil can be
produced by reacting xenon difluoride with uracil.[134] Xenon is also used in protein
crystallography. Applied at pressures from 0.5 to 5 MPa (5 to 50 atm) to a protein crystal,
xenon atoms bind in predominantly hydrophobic cavities, often creating a high quality,
isomorphous, heavy-atom derivative, which can be used for solving the phase problem.[135]
[136]
Precautions
Xenon gas can be safely kept in normal sealed glass or metal containers at standard
temperature and pressure. However, it readily dissolves in most plastics and rubber, and
will gradually escape from a container sealed with such materials.[137] Xenon is non-toxic,
although it does dissolve in blood and belongs to a select group of substances that
penetrate the blood-brain barrier, causing mild to full surgical anesthesia when inhaled in
high concentrations with oxygen (see anesthesia subsection above). Many xenon
compounds are explosive and toxic due to their strong oxidative properties.[138]
At 169 m/s, the speed of sound in xenon gas is slower than that in air[139] (due to the slower
average speed of the heavy xenon atoms compared to nitrogen and oxygen molecules), so
xenon lowers the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract when inhaled. This produces a
characteristic lowered voice pitch, opposite the high-pitched voice caused by inhalation of
helium. Like helium, xenon does not satisfy the body's need for oxygen and is a simple
asphyxiant; consequently, many universities no longer allow the voice stunt as a general
Xenon 12
chemistry demonstration. As xenon is expensive, the gas sulfur hexafluoride, which is

similar to xenon in molecular weight (146 versus 131), is generally used in this stunt,
although it too is an asphyxiant.[140]
It is possible to safely breathe heavy gases such as xenon or sulfur hexafluoride when they
include a 20% mixture of oxygen (although xenon at this concentration would be expected
to produce the unconsciousness of general anesthesia). The lungs mix the gases very
effectively and rapidly, so that the heavy gases are purged along with the oxygen and do
not accumulate at the bottom of the lungs.[141] There is, however, a danger associated with
any heavy gas in large quantities: it may sit invisibly in a container, and if a person enters a
container filled with an odorless, colorless gas, they may find themselves breathing it
unknowingly. Xenon is rarely used in large enough quantities for this to be a concern,
though the potential for danger exists any time a tank or container of xenon is kept in an
unventilated space.[142]
See also
• Penning mixture
External links
• WebElements.com – Xenon [143]
• USGS Periodic Table - Xenon [144]
[145]
• EnvironmentalChemistry.com - Xenon
• Xenon as an anesthetic [146]
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relaxation". Physical Review Letters 88 (11): 113–201. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.113201 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevLett. 88. 113201).
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and Solid Xenon". Physical Review 148 (1): 402–412. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.148.402 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
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[124] Albert, M. S.; Balamore, D. (1998). " Development of hyperpolarized noble gas MRI (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm.
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Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 402: 441–453. doi: 10.1016/S0168-9002(97)00888-7 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0168-9002(97)00888-7). . Retrieved 2007-10-01.
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[125] Irion, Robert (March 23, 1999). " Head Full of Xenon? (http:/ / sciencenow. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/
full/ 1999/ 323/ 3)". Science News. . Retrieved 2007-10-08.
[126] Galison, Peter Louis (1997). Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics. University of Chicago
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[127] Fontaine, J.-P.; Pointurier, F.; Blanchard, X.; Taffary, T. (2004). "Atmospheric xenon radioactive isotope
monitoring". Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 72 (1–2;): 129–135. doi: 10.1016/S0265-931X(03)00194-2
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0265-931X(03)00194-2).
[128] Garwin, Richard L.; von Hippel Frank N. (November 2006). " A Technical Analysis: Deconstructing North
Korea's October 9 Nuclear Test (http:/ / www. armscontrol. org/ act/ 2006_11/ tech)". Arms Control Today
(Arms Control Association) 38 (9). . Retrieved 2009-03-26.
[129] Schumann, Marc (October 10, 2007). " XENON announced new best limits on Dark Matter (http:/ / xenon.
physics. rice. edu/ )". Rice University. . Retrieved 2007-10-08.
[130] Boyd, Jade (August 23, 2007). " Rice physicists go deep for 'dark matter' (http:/ / www. media. rice. edu/
media/ NewsBot. asp?MODE=VIEW& ID=9902& SnID=1256234278)". Hubble News Desk. . Retrieved
2007-10-08.
[131] Zona, Kathleen (March 17, 2006). " Innovative Engines: Glenn Ion Propulsion Research Tames the
Challenges of 21st century Space Travel (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ centers/ glenn/ about/ fs08grc. html)". NASA.
. Retrieved 2007-10-04.
[132] " Dawn Launch: Mission to Vesta and Ceres (http:/ / www. jpl. nasa. gov/ news/ press_kits/ dawn-launch.
pdf)" (PDF). NASA. . Retrieved 2007-10-01.
[133] Brazzle, J. D.; Dokmeci, M. R.; Mastrangelo, C. H. (July 28-August 1, 1975). "Modeling and Characterization
of Sacrificial Polysilicon Etching Using Vapor-Phase Xenon Difluoride". Proceedings 17th IEEE International
Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS). Maastricht, Netherlands: IEEE. pp. 737-740. ISBN
9780780382657.
[134] Staff (2007). " Powerful tool (http:/ / acswebcontent. acs. org/ landmarks/ bartlett/ tool. html)". American
Chemical Society. . Retrieved 2007-10-10.
[135] Staff (December 21, 2004). " Protein Crystallography: Xenon and Krypton Derivatives for Phasing (http:/ /
www. srs. ac. uk/ px/ facilities/ xenon_notes_1. html)". PX. . Retrieved 2007-10-01.
[136] Drenth, Jan; Mesters, Jeroen (2007). "The Solution of the Phase Problem by the Isomorphous Replacement
Method". Principles of Protein X-Ray Crystallography (3rd ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 123–171. doi:
10.1007/0-387-33746-6_7 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ 0-387-33746-6_7). ISBN 978-0-387-33334-2.
[137] LeBlanc, Adrian D.; Johnson, Philip C. (1971). "The handling of xenon-133 in clinical studies". Physics in
Medicine and Biology 16 (1): 105-109. doi: 10.1088/0031-9155/16/1/310 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1088/
0031-9155/ 16/ 1/ 310).
[138] Finkel, A. J.; Katz, J. J.; Miller, C. E. (April 1, 1968). " Metabolic and toxicological effects of water-soluble
xenon compounds are studied (http:/ / ntrs. nasa. gov/ search. jsp?R=306918& id=2& qs=No=40& Ne=26&
N=297+ 140& Ns=PublicationYear%7C0)". NASA. . Retrieved 2007-10-04.
[139] 169.44 m/s in xenon (at 0°C and 107 KPa), compared to 344 m/s in air. See: Vacek, V.; Hallewell, G.;
Lindsay, S. (2001). "Velocity of sound measurements in gaseous per-fluorocarbons and their mixtures". Fluid
Phase Equilibria 185: 305–314. doi: 10.1016/S0378-3812(01)00479-4 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/
S0378-3812(01)00479-4).
[140] Spangler, Steve (2007). " Anti-Helium - Sulfur Hexafluoride (http:/ / www. stevespanglerscience. com/
experiment/ from-donald-duck-to-barry-white-how-gases-change-your-voice)". Steve Spangler Science. .
[141] Yamaguchi, K.; Soejima, K.; Koda, E.; Sugiyama, N (2001). "Inhaling Gas With Different CT Densities Allows
Detection of Abnormalities in the Lung Periphery of Patients With Smoking-Induced COPD". Chest Journal 51:
1907–1916. doi: 10.1378/chest.120.6.1907 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1378/ chest. 120. 6. 1907). PMID 11742921.
[142] Staff (August 1, 2007). " Cryogenic and Oxygen Deficiency Hazard Safety (http:/ / www-group. slac.
stanford. edu/ esh/ hazardous_substances/ cryogenic/ p_hazards. htm)". Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. .
[143] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Xe/ index. html
[144] http:/ / wwwrcamnl. wr. usgs. gov/ isoig/ period/ xe_iig. html
[145] http:/ / environmentalchemistry. com/ yogi/ periodic/ Xe. html
[146] http:/ / www. anaesthetist. com/ anaes/ drugs/ xenon. htm

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License
Caesium 1
Caesium
55 xenon ← caesium → barium

Rb
↑
Cs
↓
Fr

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number caesium, Cs, 55
Appearance silvery gold

−1
Electron configuration [Xe] 6s

1
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1
Physical properties
Phase solid

(28.44 °C, 83.19 °F)
Boiling point 944 K

(671 °C, 1240 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 418 469 534 623 750 940

Caesium 2
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 1
2nd: 2234.3 kJ/mol
3rd: 3400 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 97 µm·m

−1
·K
−1
Mohs hardness 0.2
Main article: Isotopes of caesium

133
Cs 100% 133
Cs is stable with 78 neutron
134
Cs syn 65.159 Ms ε 1.229 134
Xe
(2.0648 y)
β− 2.059 134
Ba
135
Cs trace 73 Ts β− 0.269 135
Ba
(2.3 My)
137
Cs syn 948.9 Ms β− 1.176 137
Ba
(30.07 y)
References
Caesium or cesium (pronounced /ˈsiːziəm/) is the chemical element with the symbol Cs
and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-gold alkali metal with a melting point of 28 °C (83
°F), which makes it one of only five metals that are liquid at or near room temperature.[2]
Caesium is most notably used in atomic clocks.
Caesium is the international spelling standardized by the IUPAC, but in the United States it
is more commonly spelled as cesium.[3]
Caesium 3
Characteristics
The emission spectrum of caesium has two bright
lines in the blue area of the spectrum along with
several other lines in the red, yellow, and green
areas. This metal is silvery gold in color and is both
soft and ductile. Caesium has the lowest ionization
potential of the chemical elements. Caesium is the
least abundant of the five non-radioactive alkali
metals. (Francium is the least common alkali metal
but it has no stable isotopes.[4] ).
High purity caesium metal. Caesium, gallium, francium, rubidium, and mercury
are the only pure metals liquid at or near room
temperature. (Some sodium-potassium alloys are also liquid at room temperature.) Caesium
reacts explosively in cold water and also reacts with ice at temperatures above −116 °C
(−177 °F, 157 K).
Caesium hydroxide (CsOH) is a very strong base and will rapidly etch the surface of glass.
CsOH is often stated to be the "strongest base", but in fact many compounds such as
n-butyllithium and sodium amide are stronger but are not classic hydroxide bases and are
destroyed by water.
Applications
Probably the most widespread use of caesium today is in caesium formate-based drilling
fluids for the oil industry. The high density of the caesium formate brine (up to 2.3 sg),
coupled with the relatively benign nature of natural caesium (which has minimal
radioactivity because it is almost entirely composed of a stable istotope), reduces the
requirement for toxic high-density suspended solids in the drilling fluid, which is a
significant technological, engineering and environmental advantage.[5] [6]
Caesium is also used in atomic clocks, which are accurate to seconds over many thousands
of years. Since 1967, the International System of Measurements has based its unit of time,
the second, on the properties of caesium. The International System of Units (SI) defines the
second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation, which corresponds to the transition
between two hyperfine energy levels of the ground state of the 133Cs atom.
134
• Cs has been used in hydrology as a measure of caesium output by the nuclear power
industry. This isotope is used because, while it is less prevalent than either 133Cs or
137
Cs, 134Cs can be produced solely by nuclear reactions. 135Cs has also been used in
this function.
• Like other elements of group 1, caesium has a great affinity for oxygen and is used as a
"getter" in vacuum tubes.
• This metal is also used in photoelectric cells due to its ready emission of electrons.
• Caesium was used as a propellant in early ion engines. It used a method of ionization to
strip the outer electron from the propellant by simple contact with tungsten. Caesium use
as a propellant was discontinued when Hughes Research Laboratory conducted a study
finding xenon gas as a suitable replacement.
• Caesium is used as a catalyst in the hydrogenation of certain organic compounds.
Caesium 4
• Radioactive isotopes of caesium are used in the medical field to treat certain types of
cancer.
• Caesium fluoride is widely used in organic chemistry as a base and as a source of
anhydrous fluoride ion.
• Caesium vapor is used in many common magnetometers.
• Because of their high density, caesium chloride solutions are commonly used in
molecular biology for density gradient ultracentrifugation, primarily for the isolation of
viral particles, subcellular organelles and fractions, and nucleic acids from biological
samples.
• Caesium nitrate is used as an oxidizer and pyrotechnic colorant to burn silicon in infrared
flares[7] such as the LUU-19 flare,[8] because it emits much of its light in the near
infrared spectrum.
• Caesium-137 is an extremely common radioisotope used as a gamma-emitter in industrial
applications such as:
• moisture/density gauges
• leveling gauges
• thickness gauges
• well logging devices which are used to measure the electron density, which is
analogous to the bulk density, of the rock formations.
• Caesium is also used as an internal standard in spectrophotometry.
• Caesium has been used to reduce the radar signature of exhaust plumes in military
aircraft.
History
Caesium (Latin caesius meaning "blueish grey")[9] [10] was spectroscopically discovered by
Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860 in mineral water from Dürkheim, Germany.
The residues of 44,000 liters of mineral water yielded several grams of caesium salt for
further analysis. Its identification was based upon the bright blue lines in its spectrum and
it was the first element discovered by spectrum analysis.[11] The first caesium metal was
produced in 1882 by electrolysis of caesium chloride by Carl Setterberg. Setterberg
received his PhD from Kekule and Bunsen for this work. Historically, the most important
use for caesium has been in research and development, primarily in chemical and electrical
applications.
Caesium 5
Occurrence
An alkali metal, caesium occurs in lepidolite,
pollucite (hydrated silicate of aluminium and
caesium) and within other sources. One of the
world's most significant and rich sources of this
metal is at Bernic Lake in Manitoba. The deposits
there are estimated to contain 300,000 metric tons
of pollucite ore at an average of composition of 20%
caesium by weight.
It can be isolated by electrolysis of fused caesium

Pollucite, a caesium mineral. cyanide and in a number of other ways.
Exceptionally pure and gas-free caesium can be
made by the thermal decomposition of caesium azide. The primary compounds of caesium
are caesium chloride and its nitrate. The price of caesium metal in 1997 was about US$30
per gram, but its compounds are much cheaper.
Isotopes
Caesium has at least 39 known isotopes, which is more than any other element except
francium. The atomic masses of these isotopes range from 112 to 151. Even though this
element has a large number of isotopes, it has only one naturally occurring stable isotope,
133
Cs. Most of the other isotopes have half-lives from a few days to fractions of a second.
The radiogenic isotope 137Cs has been used in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of
3
H. 137Cs is produced from the detonation of nuclear weapons and is produced in nuclear
power plants, and was released to the atmosphere most notably from the 1986 Chernobyl
meltdown. This isotope (137Cs) is one of the numerous products of fission, directly issued
from the fission of uranium.
Beginning in 1945 with the
commencement of nuclear weapons
testing, 137Cs was released into the
atmosphere where it is not absorbed
readily into solution and is returned to
the surface of the earth as a
component of radioactive fallout.
Once 137Cs enters the ground water,
it is deposited on soil surfaces and
removed from the landscape primarily
by particle transport. As a result, the
input function of these isotopes
High purity caesium-133 (preserved under argon)
cannot be estimated as a function of
time. Caesium-137 has a half-life of
30.17 years. It decomposes to barium-137m (a short-lived product of decay) then to a form
of nonradioactive barium.
Caesium 6
Precautions
All alkali metals are highly reactive. Caesium, being one of the heavier alkali metals, is also
one of the most reactive and is highly explosive when it comes in contact with water. The
hydrogen gas produced by the reaction is heated by the thermal energy released at the
same time, causing ignition and a violent explosion (the same as all alkali metals) - but
caesium is so reactive that this explosive reaction can even be triggered by cold water or
ice at temperatures down to -116°C.
Caesium is highly pyrophoric and ignites spontaneously in air to form caesium hydroxide
and various oxides. Caesium hydroxide is an extremely strong base, and can rapidly corrode
glass.
Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most persons. All caesium compounds
should be regarded as mildly toxic because of its chemical similarity to potassium. Large
amounts cause hyperirritability and spasms, but such amounts would not ordinarily be
encountered in natural sources, so Cs is not a major chemical environmental pollutant. Rats
fed caesium in place of potassium in their diet die, so this element cannot replace
potassium in function in rats.
The isotopes 134Cs and 137Cs (present in the biosphere in small amounts as a result of
radiation leaks) represent a radioactivity burden which varies depending on location.
Radiocaesium does not accumulate in the body as effectively as many other fission products
(such as radioiodine and radiostrontium), which are actively accumulated by the body; as
with other alkali metals, it washes out of the body relatively quickly in the sweat and urine,
unlike strontium which accumulates in the bone.
See also
• Caesium-137
• Goiânia accident, a major radioactive contamination incident involving a rod of caesium
chloride.
• Caesium compounds
• Dirty bomb
References
[2] Along with rubidium (39 °C [102 °F]), francium (27 °C [81 °F]), mercury (−39 °C [−38 °F]), and gallium (30 °C
[86 °F]).
Bromine is also liquid at room temperature (-7.2 °C, 19 °F) but it is not a metal, but a halogen.
[3] IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements (http:/ / old. iupac. org/ reports/ periodic_table/ index. html)
[4] Adloff, Jean-Pierre; George B. Kauffman (09/23 2005). " Francium (Atomic Number 87), the Last Discovered
Natural Element (http:/ / chemeducator. org/ sbibs/ s0010005/ spapers/ 1050387gk. htm)". The Chemical
Educator 10 (5). doi: 10.1333/s00897050956a (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1333/ s00897050956a). . Retrieved
2006-05-16.
[5] Drilling and Completing Difficult HP/HT Wells With the Aid of Cesium Formate Brines-A Performance Review
(http:/ / www. spe. org/ elibinfo/ eLibrary_Papers/ spe/ 2006/ 06DC/ SPE-99068-MS/ SPE-99068-MS. htm)
[6] Overview: Cesium Formate Fluids (http:/ / w1. cabot-corp. com/ controller. jsp?N=23+ 4294966885+ 1000&
entry=product)
[7] United States Patent 6230628: Infrared illumination compositions and articles containing the same (http:/ /
www. freepatentsonline. com/ 6230628. html)
[8] LUU-19 Flare (http:/ / www. fas. org/ man/ dod-101/ sys/ dumb/ luu19. htm)
Caesium 7
[9] Bunsen quotes Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae II, 26 by Nigidius Figulus: Nostris autem veteribus caesia dicts est
quae Graecis, ut Nigidus ait, de colore coeli quasi coelia.
[10] Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Edition
• Los Alamos National Laboratory - Cesium (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 55. html)
• Daniel A. Steck. " Cesium D Line Data (http:/ / george. ph. utexas. edu/ ~dsteck/
alkalidata/ cesiumnumbers. pdf)". Los Alamos National Laboratory (technical report
LA-UR-03-7943). http:/ / george. ph. utexas. edu/ ~dsteck/ alkalidata/ cesiumnumbers.
pdf.
External links
• WebElements.com – Caesium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/
text/ Cs/ index. html)
• Humor site dedicated to caesium (http:/ / www. cs. rochester. edu/ users/ faculty/ nelson/
cesium/ cesium_faq. html)
pnb:‫میزیس‬

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Barium 1
Barium
caesium ← barium → lanthanumSr
↑
Ba
↓
Ra

56Ba
Periodic table

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 911 1038 1185 1388 1686 2170

Barium 2
Atomic properties Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energies 2nd: 965.2 kJ·mol−1

3rd: 3600 kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radius Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic
orderingElectrical resistivityThermal conductivityThermal expansionSpeed of sound (thin
rod) Young's modulusShear modulusBulk modulusMohs hardnessCAS registry number Most
stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of barium
130 0.106% 130

Ba Ba is stable with 74 neutron
132 0.101% 132

133 syn 10.51 y ε 0.517 133

Ba Cs
134 2.417% 134

135 6.592% 135

136 7.854% 136

137 11.23% 137

138 71.7% 138

barium, Ba, 56 alkaline earth metals2, 6, s137.33 g·mol−1 [Xe] 6s2 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2 (Image)
kJ·mol−1 140.3 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 28.07 J·mol−1·K−1 2
(strongly basic oxide) 0.89 (Pauling scale) 1st: 502.9 kJ·mol−1222 pm215±11 pm
body-centered cubic paramagnetic (20 °C) 332 nΩ·m (300 K) 18.4 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 20.6
µm·m−1·K−1 (20 °C) 1620 m/s 13 GPa 4.9 GPa 9.6 GPa 1.25 7440-39-3
Barium (pronounced /ˈbæriəm/) is a chemical element. It has the symbol Ba, and atomic
number 56. Barium is a soft silvery metallic alkaline earth metal. It is never found in nature
in its pure form due to its reactivity with air. Its oxide is historically known as baryta but it
reacts with water and carbon dioxide and is not found as a mineral. The most common
naturally occurring minerals are the very insoluble barium sulfate, BaSO4 (barite), and
barium carbonate, BaCO3 (witherite). Benitoite is a rare gem containing barium.
Metallic barium has few industrial uses, but has been historically used to scavenge air in
vacuum tubes. Barium compounds impart a green color to flames and have been used in
fireworks. Barium sulfate is used for its heaviness, insolubility, and X-ray opacity. It is used
as an insoluble heavy mud-like paste when drilling oil wells, and in purer form, as an X-ray
radiocontrast agent for imaging the human gastrointestinal tract. Soluble barium
compounds are poisonous due to release of the soluble barium ion, and have been used as
rodenticides. New uses for barium continue to be found: it is an essential ingredient in
"high temperature" YBCO superconductors.
Barium 3
Characteristics
Physical
Barium is a soft and ductile metal. Its simple compounds are notable for their relatively
high (for an alkaline earth element) specific gravity. This is true of the most common
barium-bearing mineral, its sulfate barite BaSO4, also called 'heavy spar' due to the high
density (4.5 g/cm³).
Chemical
Barium reacts exothermically with oxygen at room temperature to form barium oxide and
peroxide. The reaction is violent if barium is powdered. It also reacts violently with dilute
acids, alcohol and water
Ba + 2 H2O → Ba(OH)2 + H2 (g)
At elevated temperatures, barium combines with chlorine, nitrogen and hydrogen to
produce BaCl2, Ba3N2 and BaH2, respectively. Barium reduces oxides, chlorides and
sulfides of less reactive metals. For example:
Ba + CdO → BaO + Cd
Ba + ZnCl2 → BaCl2 + Zn
3 Ba + Al2S3 → 3 BaS + 2 Al
When heated with nitrogen and carbon, it forms the cyanide:
Ba + N2 + 2 C → Ba(CN)2
Barium combines with several metals, including aluminium, zinc, led and tin, forming
intermetallic compounds and alloys.[1]
Isotopes
Naturally occurring barium is a mix of seven stable isotopes, the most abundant being
138
Ba (71.7 %). There are twenty-two isotopes known, but most of these are highly
radioactive and have half-lives in the several millisecond to several day range. The only
notable exceptions are 133Ba which has a half-life of 10.51 years, and 137mBa (2.55
minutes).[2]
History
Name barium originates from Greek bary, meaning "heavy". Alchemists in the early Middle
Ages knew about some barium minerals. Smooth pebble-like stones of mineral barite found
in Bologna, Italy were known as "Bologna stones". After exposed to light they would glow
for years that attracted them to witches and alchemists.[3]
Carl Scheele identified barite in 1774, but did not isolate barium. Barium was isolated, as
ions in solution, in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy in England. The oxidized barium was at first
called barote, by Guyton de Morveau, which was changed by Antoine Lavoisier to baryta,
from which "barium" was derived to describe the metal.[3]
Barium 4

The abundance of barium is 0.0425 % in the Earth's
crust and 13 µg/L in sea water. It occurs in the minerals
barite (as the sulfate) and witherite (as the
carbonate).[1] Large deposits of barite are found in
China, Germany, India, Morocco, and in the US.[4]
Because barium quickly becomes oxidized in air, it is
difficult to obtain this metal in its pure form. It is
primarily found in and extracted from barite. Because
barite is so insoluble, it cannot be used directly for the
preparation of other barium compounds. Instead, the
Barite ore is heated with carbon to reduce it to barium
sulfide:[5]
BaSO4 + 2 C → BaS + 2 CO2

The barium sulfide is then hydrolyzed or treated with
acids to form other barium compounds, such as the
chloride, nitrate, and carbonate.
Barium is commercially produced through the
electrolysis of molten barium chloride (BaCl2):
(cathode) Ba2+ + 2 e− → Ba
Trend in world production of barite (anode) 2 Cl− → Cl2 (g) + 2 e−
Barium metal is also obtained by the reduction of
barium oxide with finely divided aluminum at temperatures between 1100 and 1200 °C:
4 BaO + 2 Al → BaO·Al2O3 + 3 Ba (g)
The barium vapor is cooled by means of a water jacket and condensed into the solid metal.
The solid block may be cast into rods or extruded into wires. Being a flammable solid, it is
packaged under argon in steel containers or plastic bags. [1]
Applications
The most important use of elemental barium is as a
scavenger removing last traces of oxygen and other
gases in television and other electronic tubes. Besides,
an isotope of barium, 133Ba, is routinely used as a
standard source in the calibration of gamma-ray
detectors in nuclear physics studies.[1]
Barium is an important component of YBCO

superconductors. An alloy of barium with nickel is used
Amoebiasis as seen in radiograph of
in spark plug wire. Barium oxide is used in a coating for
barium-filled colon
the electrodes of fluorescent lamps, which facilitates
the release of electrons.
Barium compounds, and especially barite (BaSO4), are extremely important to the
petroleum industry. Besides,
Barium 5
• Barite is used in rubber production and in drilling

mud, a weighting agent in drilling new oil wells.[4]
• Barium sulfate is used as a radiocontrast agent for
X-ray imaging of the digestive system ("barium
meals" and "barium enemas").[4] Lithopone, a
pigment that contains barium sulfate and zinc sulfide,
is a permanent white that has good covering power,
and does not darken in when exposed to sulfides.[6]
• Barium carbonate is a rat poison and can also be
used in making bricks. Unlike the sulfate, the
carbonate dissolves in stomach acid, allowing it to be
poisonous. Barium carbonate is also used in
Green barium fireworks
glassmaking. Being a heavy element, barium
increases the refractive index and luster of the
glass.[4]
• Barium nitrate and chlorate give green colors in fireworks.[7]
• Barium peroxide can be used as a catalyst to start an aluminothermic reaction when
welding rail tracks together. It can also be used in green tracer ammunition and as a
bleaching agent.[8]
• Barium titanate was proposed in 2007 to be used in next generation battery technology
for electric cars.[9]
• Barium fluoride is used for optics in infrared applications, since it is transparent from
about 0.15 to 12 microns.[10]
• Barium strontium niobate is used in large scale outdoors Holgraphic displays as a
"screen". When projected with blue laser light images are 3-D and very realistic.
Precautions
Barium powder is pyrophoric - it can explode in contact with air or oxidizing gases. it is
likely to explode when combined with halogenated hydrocarbon solvents. It reacts violently
with water. All water or acid soluble barium compounds are extremely poisonous. At low
doses, barium acts as a muscle stimulant, while higher doses affect the nervous system,
causing cardiac irregularities, tremors, weakness, anxiety, dyspnea and paralysis. This may
be due to its ability to block potassium ion channels which are critical to the proper
function of the nervous system.[1]
Barium sulfate can be taken orally because it is highly insoluble in water, and is eliminated
completely from the digestive tract.[1] Unlike other heavy metals, barium does not
bioaccumulate.[11] [12] However, inhaled dust containing barium compounds can
accumulate in the lungs, causing a benign condition called baritosis.[13]
Oxidation occurs very easily and, to remain pure, barium should be kept under a
petroleum-based fluid (such as kerosene) or other suitable oxygen-free liquids that exclude
air.
Barium acetate could lead to death in high doses. Marie Robards poisoned her father with
the substance in Texas in 1993. She was tried and convicted in 1996.[14]
Barium 6
External links
• WebElements.com – Barium [15]
[16]
• Elementymology & Elements Multidict
pnb:‫میریب‬
References
[1] Patnaik, Pradyot (2003). Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Xqj-TTzkvTEC& pg=PA243). McGraw-Hill. pp. 77–78. ISBN 0070494398. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[2] David R. Lide, Norman E. Holden (2005). "Section 11, Table of the Isotopes". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics, 85th Edition. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
[3] Robert E. Krebs (2006). The history and use of our earth's chemical elements: a reference guide (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=yb9xTj72vNAC& ). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 80. ISBN 0313334382. .
0849304814.
[5] " Toxicological Profile for Barium and Barium Compounds. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
(http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ toxprofiles/ tp24. pdf)". CDC. 2007.. .
[6] Chris J. Jones, John Thornback (2007). Medicinal applications of coordination chemistry (http:/ / books. google.
co. jp/ books?id=uEJHsZWyO-EC& ). Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 102. ISBN 0854045961. .
[7] Michael S. Russell, Kurt Svrcula (2008). Chemistry of Fireworks (http:/ / books. google. co. jp/
books?id=yxRyOf8jFeQC& ). Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 110. ISBN 0854041273. .
[8] Brent, G. F. (1995). "Surfactant coatings for the stabilization of barium peroxide and lead dioxide in
pyrotechnic compositions". Propellants Explosives Pyrotechnics 20: 300. doi: 10.1002/prep.19950200604 (http:/
/ dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ prep. 19950200604).
[9] " Battery Breakthrough? (http:/ / www. technologyreview. com/ Biztech/ 18086/ )". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[10] " Crystran Ltd. Optical Component Materials (http:/ / www. crystran. co. uk/ products. asp?productid=75)". .
[11] " Toxicity Profiles, Ecological Risk Assessment (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ region5/ superfund/ ecology/ html/
toxprofiles. htm#ba)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[12] Moore, J. W. (1991). Inorganic Contaminants of Surface Waters, Research and Monitoring Priorities. New
York: Springer-Verlag.
[13] Doig AT (February 1976). " Baritosis: a benign pneumoconiosis (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/
articlerender. fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=470358)". Thorax 31 (1): 30–9. doi: 10.1136/thx.31.1.30 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1136/ thx. 31. 1. 30). PMID 1257935.
[14] " Boyfriend fight preceded Roanoke mom's slaying (http:/ / www. buffalo. edu/ news/ pdf/ October08/
DallanMorningNewsEwingSlaying. pdf)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[15] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Ba/ index. html
[16] http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ elem/ ba. html

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Lanthanum 1
Lanthanum
57 barium ← lanthanum → cerium

-
↑
La
↓
Ac

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number lanthanum, La, 57
Element category lanthanides
Group, Period, Block 3, 6, f

−1
Electron configuration [Xe] 5d 6s

1 2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(920 °C, 1688 °F)

(3464 °C, 6267 °F)
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2005 2208 2458 2772 3178 3726
Atomic properties
Lanthanum 2

(more)
2nd: 1067 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 1850.3 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

12.1 µm/(m·K)
Young's modulus (α form) 36.6 GPa
Shear modulus (α form) 14.3 GPa
Bulk modulus (α form) 27.9 GPa
Poisson ratio (α form) 0.280
Mohs hardness 2.5
Main article: Isotopes of lanthanum
137
La syn 60,000 yrs ε 0.600 137
Ba
138
La 0.09% 1.05×1011yrs ε 1.737 138
Ba
β− 1.044 138
Ce
139
La 99.91% 139
La is stable with 82 neutron
References
Lanthanum (pronounced /ˈlænθənəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol La and

atomic number 57. Lanthanum is a silvery white metallic element that belongs to group 3 of
the periodic table and is a lanthanoid. It is found in some rare-earth minerals, usually in
combination with cerium and other rare earth elements. Lanthanum is malleable, ductile,
and soft metal, which oxidizes rapidly when exposed to air. It is produced from minerals
Lanthanum 3
monazite and bastnäsite using a complex multistage extraction process. Lanthanum

compounds have numerous applications such as catalyst, additives in glass, carbon lighting
for studio lighting and projection, ignition element in lighters and torches, electron
cathode, scintillator, and others. Lanthanum carbonate was approved as a medication
against renal failure.
Properties
Physical
Lanthanum is soft, malleable, silvery white metal which has hexagonal crystal structure at
room temperature. At 310 °C, lanthanum changes to a face-centered cubic structure, and at
865°C into a body-centered cubic structure.[2] Lanthanum easily oxidizes and therefore
used as element only for research purpose. For example, single La atoms have been
isolated by implanting them into fullerene molecules.[3] If carbon nanotubes are filled with
those lanthanum-encapsulated fullerenes and annealed, metallic nanochains of lanthanum
are produced inside carbon nanotubes.[4]
Chemical
Lanthanum exhibits two oxidation states, +3 and +2, the former being much more stable.
For example, LaH3 is more stable than LaH2.[5] Lanthanum burns readily at 150 °C to form
lanthanum(III) oxide:
4 La + 3 O2 → 2 La2O3
However, when exposed to moistured air at room temperature, it forms a hydrated oxide
with a large volume increase.[5]
Lanthanum is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with
hot water to form lanthanum hydroxide:
2 La (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 La(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Lanthanum metal reacts with all the halogens. The reaction is vigorous if conducted at
above 200 °C:
2 La (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 LaF3 (s)
2 La (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 LaCl3 (s)
2 La (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 LaBr3 (s)
2 La (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 LaI3 (s)
Lanthanum dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the La(III)
ions, which exist as a [La(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[6]
2 La(s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 La3+(aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Lanthanum combines with nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, boron, selenium, silicon
and arsenic at elevated temperatures, forming binary compounds.[5]
Lanthanum 4
Isotopes
Naturally occurring lanthanum is composed of one stable (139La) and one radioactive
(138La) isotope, with the stable isotope, 139La, being the most abundant (99.91% natural
abundance). 38 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 138La
with a half-life of 1.05×1011 years, and 137La with a half-life of 60,000 years. Most of the
remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 24 hours and the majority
of these have half lives that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 3 meta states.
The isotopes of lanthanum range in atomic weight from 117 u (117La) to 155 u (155La).
History
The word lanthanum comes from the Greek λανθανω [lanthanō] = to lie hidden. Lanthanum
was discovered in 1839 by Swedish chemist Carl Gustav Mosander, when he partially
decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by heating and treating the resulting salt with
dilute nitric acid. From the resulting solution, he isolated a new rare earth he called
lantana. Lanthanum was isolated in relatively pure form in 1923.[5]
Lanthanum is the most strongly basic of all the trivalent lanthanoids, and this property is
what allowed Mosander to isolate and purify the salts of this element. Basicity separation as
operated commercially involved the fractional precipitation of the weaker bases (such as
didymium) from nitrate solution by the addition of magnesium oxide or dilute ammonia gas.
Purified lanthanum remained in solution. (The basicity methods were only suitable for
lanthanum purification; didymium could not be efficiently further separated in this
manner.) The alternative technique of fractional crystallization was invented by Dmitri
Mendeleev, in the form of the double ammonium nitrate tetrahydrate, which he used to
separate the less-soluble lanthanum from the more-soluble didymium in the 1870s. This
system would be used commercially in lanthanum purification until the development of
practical solvent extraction methods that started in the late 1950s. (A detailed process
using the double ammonium nitrates to provide 99.99% pure lanthanum, neodymium
concentrates and praseodymium concentrates is presented in Callow 1967, at a time when
the process was just becoming obsolete.) As operated for lanthanum purification, the
double ammonium nitrates were recrystallized from water. When later adapted by Carl
Auer von Welsbach for the splitting of didymium, nitric acid was used as solvent to lower
the solubility of the system. Lanthanum is relatively easy to purify, since it has only one
adjacent lanthanoid, cerium, which itself is very readily removed due to its potential
tetravalency.
The fractional crystallization purification of lanthanum as the double ammonium nitrate
was sufficiently rapid and efficient, that lanthanum purified in this manner was not
expensive. The Lindsay Chemical Division of American Potash and Chemical Corporation,
for a while the largest producer of rare earths in the world, in a price list dated October 1,
1958 priced 99.9% lanthanum ammonium nitrate (oxide content of 29%) at $3.15 per
pound, or $1.93 per pound in 50-pound quantities. The corresponding oxide (slightly purer
at 99.99%) was priced at $11.70 or $7.15 per pound for the two quantity ranges. The price
for their purest grade of oxide (99.997%) was $21.60 and $13.20, respectively.
Lanthanum 5
Occurrence
Although lanthanum belongs to chemical elements
group called rare earth metals, it is not rare at all.
Lanthanum is available in relatively large quantities (32
ppm in Earth’s crust). "Rare earths" got their name
since they were indeed rare as compared to the
"common" earths such as lime or magnesia, and
historically only a few deposits were known.[5]
Monazite (Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO4, and bastnäsite (Ce,

La, Y)CO3F, are the principal ores in which lanthanum
occurs, in percentages of up to 25 to 38 percent of the Monazite
total lanthanoid content. In general, there is more
lanthanum in bastnäsite than in monazite. Until 1949, bastnäsite was a rare and obscure
mineral, not even remotely contemplated as a potential commercial source for lanthanoids.
In that year, the vast deposit at Mountain Pass, California was discovered. This discovery
alerted geologists as to the existence of a whole new class of rare earth deposit, the
rare-earth bearing carbonatite, other examples of which soon surfaced, particularly in
Africa and China.
Production
Lanthanum is most commonly obtained from monazite and bastnäsite. The mineral mixtures
are crushed and ground. Monazite, because of its magnetic properties can be separated by
repeated electromagnetic separation. After separation, it is treated with hot concentrated
sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. The acidic filtrates are
partially neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 3-4. Thorium precipitates out of solution
as hydroxide and is removed. After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to
convert rare earths in to their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by
annealing. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components,
cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3. Lanthanum is separated as a double salt with
ammonium nitrate by crystallization. This salt is relatively less soluble than other rare earth
double salts and therefore stays in the residue.[5]
The most efficient separation routine for lanthanum salt from the rare-earth salt solution is
however ion exchange. In this process, rare-earth ions are adsorbed onto suitable
ion-exchange resin by exchange with hydrogen, ammonium or cupric ions present in the
Lanthanum 6
resin. The rare earth ions are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent,
such as ammonium citrate or nitrilotracetate. Lanthanum can also be separated from
solution of rare earth nitrates by liquid-liquid extraction with a suitable organic liquid, such
as tributyl phosphalate.[5] Currently, the most widely used extractant for the purification of
lanthanum and the other lanthanoids is the 2-ethylhexyl ester of 2-ethylhexylphosphonic
acid; this has better handling characteristics than the previously used bis-2-ethylhexyl
phosphate.
Lanthanum metal is obtained from its oxide by heating it with ammonium chloride or
fluoride and hydrofluoric acid at 300-400 °C to produce the chloride or fluoride:
La2O3 + 6 NH4Cl → 2 LaCl3 + 6 NH3 + 3 H2O
This is followed by reduction with alkali or alkaline earth metals in vacuum or argon
atmosphere:
LaCl3 + 3 Li → La + 3 LiCl
Also pure lanthanum can be produced by electrolysis of molten mixture of anhydrous LaCl3
and NaCl or KCl at elevated temperatures.[5]
Applications
The first historical application of lanthanum was in gas
lantern mantles. Carl Auer von Welsbach used a
mixture of 60% magnesium oxide, 20% lanthanum oxide
and 20% yttrium oxide which he called Actinophor, and
patented in 1885. The original mantles gave a
green-tinted light and were not very successful, and his
first company, which established a factory in
Atzgersdorf in 1887, failed in 1889.[7]
Modern uses of lanthanum include:
A Coleman white gas lantern mantle

burning at full brightness.
Lanthanum 7
• Lanthanum oxide and the boride are used in

electronic vacuum tubes as hot cathode materials
with strong emissivity of electrons. Crystals of LaB6
are used in high brightness, extended life, thermionic
electron emission sources for scanning electron
microscopes and Hall effect thrusters.[8]
• Lanthanum fluoride (LaF3) is an essential component
of a heavy fluoride glass named ZBLAN. This glass
has superior transmittance in the infrared range and
is therefore used for fiber-optical communication
systems.[9]
• Cerium doped lanthanum bromide and lanthanum
chloride are the recent inorganic scintillators which
have a combination of high light yield, best energy
resolution and fast response. Their high yield
converts into superior energy resolution; moreover,
the light output is very stable and quite high over a
LaB6 hot cathode
very wide range of temperatures, making it
particularly attractive for high temperature
applications. These scintillators are already widely
used commercially in detectors of neutrons or
gamma rays.[10]
• Carbon lighting applications, especially by the motion
picture industry for studio lighting and projection.
These applications consume about 25% of the
rare-earth compounds produced.[2]
• La O improves the alkali resistance of glass, and is Comparison of infrared transmittance
2 3
of ZBLAN glass and silica
used in making special optical glasses, such as
infrared-absorbing glass, as well as camera and
telescope lenses, because of the high refractive index and low dispersion of rare-earth
glasses.[2] Lanthanum oxide is also used as a grain growth additive during the liquid
phase sintering of silicon nitride and zirconium diboride.[11]
• Small amounts of lanthanum added to steel improves its malleability, resistance to
impact and ductility. Whereas addition of lanthanum to molybdenum decreases its
hardness and sensitivity to temperature variations.[2]
• Small amounts of lanthanum are present in many pool products to remove the
phosphates that feed algae.[12]
• Mischmetal, a pyrophoric alloy used in lighter flints, contains 25% to 45% lanthanum.[2]
• Lanthanum oxide additive to tungsten is used in gas tungsten arc welding electrodes, as
a substitute for radioactive thorium.[13] [14]
• Hydrogen sponge alloys can contain lanthanum. These alloys are capable of storing up to
400 times their own volume of hydrogen gas in a reversible adsorption process. Heat
energy is released every time they do so; therefore these alloys have possibilities in
energy conservation systems.[2]
• Various compounds of lanthanum and other rare-earth elements (oxides, chlorides, etc.)
are components of various catalysis, such as petroleum cracking catalysts.[15]
Lanthanum 8
• Lanthanum-barium radiometric dating is used to estimate age of rocks and ores, though
the technique has limited popularity.[16]
• Lanthanum carbonate was approved as a medication (Fosrenol, Shire Pharmaceuticals)
to absorb excess phosphate in cases of end-stage renal failure.[17]
• Lanthanum fluoride is used in phosphor lamp coatings. Mixed with europium fluoride, it
is also applied in the crystal membrane of fluoride ion-selective electrodes.[5]
• Like horseradish peroxidase, lanthanum is used as an electron-dense tracer in molecular
biology.[18]
• Lanthanum is an intermetallic component of nickel-metal hydride batteries.[19]
Biological role
Lanthanum has no known biological role. The element is not absorbed orally, and when
injected its elimination is very slow. Lanthanum carbonate was approved as a medication
Fosrenol to absorb excess phosphate in cases of end-stage renal failure.[17]
While lanthanum has pharmacological effects on several receptors and ion channels, its
specificity for the GABA receptor is unique among divalent cations. Lanthanum acts at the
same modulatory site on the GABA receptor as zinc- a known negative allosteric modulator.
The Lanthanum cation La3+ is a positive allosteric modulator at native and recombinant
GABA receptors, increasing open channel time and decreasing desensitization in a subunit
configuration dependent manner.[20]
Precautions
Lanthanum has a low to moderate level of toxicity, and should be handled with care. In
animals, the injection of lanthanum solutions produces glycaemia, low blood pressure,
degeneration of the spleen and hepatic alterations.
See also
• Lanthanum compounds
Books
• The Industrial Chemistry of the Lanthanons, Yttrium, Thorium and Uranium, by R.J.
Callow, Pergamon Press 1967
• Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths, by C.K. Gupta and N. Krishnamurthy, CRC Press
2005
• Nouveau Traite de Chimie Minerale, Vol. VII. Scandium, Yttrium, Elements des Terres
Rares, Actinium, P. Pascal, Editor, Masson & Cie 1959
• Chemistry of the Lanthanons, by R.C. Vickery, Butterworths 1953
Lanthanum 9
External links
[21]
• WebElements.com – Lanthanum
pnb:‫مناھتنیل‬
References
0849304814. .
0849304814.
[3] Tsuchiya, T; Kumashiro, R; Tanigaki, K; Matsunaga, Y; Ishitsuka, Mo; Wakahara, T; Maeda, Y; Takano, Y;
Aoyagi, M; Akasaka, T; Liu, Mt; Kato, T; Suenaga, K; Jeong, Js; Iijima, S; Kimura, F; Kimura, T; Nagase, S (Jan
2008). "Nanorods of endohedral metallofullerene derivative.". Journal of the American Chemical Society 130
(2): 450–1. doi: 10.1021/ja710396n (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ja710396n). ISSN 0002-7863 (http:/ /
worldcat. org/ issn/ 0002-7863). PMID 18095695.
[4] Guan, L; Suenaga, K; Okubo, S; Okazaki, T; Iijima, S (Feb 2008). "Metallic wires of lanthanum atoms inside
carbon nanotubes". Journal of the American Chemical Society 130 (7): 2162–3. doi: 10.1021/ja7103069 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ja7103069). ISSN 0002-7863 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 0002-7863). PMID 18225905.
edit (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ 10. 1021. 2fja7103069)
[6] " Chemical reactions of Lanthanum (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ lanthanum/ chemistry. html)".
Webelements. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[7] " Lighting (http:/ / www. 1911encyclopedia. org/ Lighting)". 11th edition of Encyclopedia Britannica (1911). .
[8] Jason D. Sommerville and Lyon B. King. " Effect of Cathode Position on Hall-Effect Thruster Performance and
Cathode Coupling Voltage (http:/ / www. me. mtu. edu/ researchAreas/ isp/ AIAA-2007-5174-907. pdf)". 43rd
AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit, 8 - 11 July 2007, Cincinnati, OH. . Retrieved
2009-06-06.
[9] Harrington, James A.. " Infrared Fiber Optics (http:/ / irfibers. rutgers. edu/ pdf_files/ ir_fiber_review. pdf)"
(PDF). Rutgers University. .
[10] " BrilLanCeTM Scintillators Performance Summary: Scintillation Products Technical Note (http:/ / www.
detectors. saint-gobain. com/ Media/ Documents/ S0000000000000001004/
SGC_BrilLance_Scintillators_Performance_Summary. pdf)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[11] Kim, K (2003). "The effect of lanthanum on the fabrication of ZrB2–ZrC composites by spark plasma
sintering". Materials Characterization 50: 31. doi: 10.1016/S1044-5803(03)00055-X (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1016/ S1044-5803(03)00055-X).
[12] " Phosphate in swimming pools - the real cause of algae (http:/ / www. articlesbase. com/
home-and-family-articles/ phosphate-in-swimming-pools-the-real-cause-of-algae-860236. html)". . Retrieved
2009-06-06.
[13] Howard B. Cary (1995). Arc welding automation (http:/ / books. google. co. jp/ books?id=H3BgQGdTP_0C& ).
CRC Press. p. 139. ISBN 0824796454. .
[14] Larry Jeffus. (2003). " Types of Tungsten (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=zeRiW7en7HAC&
pg=RA1-PA750)". Welding : principles and applications. Clifton Park, N.Y.: Thomson/Delmar Learning. p. 350.
ISBN 9781401810467. .
[15] C. K. Gupta, Nagaiyar Krishnamurthy (2004). Extractive metallurgy of rare earths (http:/ / books. google. co.
jp/ books?id=F0Bte_XhzoAC& pg=PA441). CRC Press. p. 441. ISBN 0415333407. .
[16] S. Nakai, A. Masuda, B. Lehmann (1988). " La-Ba dating of bastnaesite (http:/ / www. minsocam. org/ ammin/
AM73/ AM73_1111. pdf)". American Mineralogist 7: 1111. .
[17] " FDA approves Fosrenol(R) in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients (http:/ / www. medicalnewstoday.
com/ articles/ 15538. php)". 28 October 2004. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[18] Chau YP, Lu KS (1995). "Investigation of the blood-ganglion barrier properties in rat sympathetic ganglia by
using lanthanum ion and horseradish peroxidase as tracers". Acta Anatomica (Basel) 153 (2): 135–144. PMID
8560966.
[19] " Inside the Nickel Metal Hydride Battery (http:/ / www. cobasys. com/ pdf/ tutorial/
inside_nimh_battery_technology. pdf)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
Lanthanum 10
[20] Boldyreva, A. A. (2005). "Lanthanum Potentiates GABA-Activated Currents in Rat Pyramidal Neurons of CA1
Hippocampal Field". Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine 140: 403. doi: 10.1007/s10517-005-0503-z
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s10517-005-0503-z).
[21] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ La/ index. html

Lanthanum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308710611 Contributors: 65.68.87.xxx, Ahoerstemeier, Ale jrb, Alex.muller, Anclation,
Archimerged, Arkuat, Beetstra, Belizefan, Benbest, Bobo192, Borislav Dopudja, Bowlhover, Bryan Derksen, CanisRufus, Capricorn42, Carnildo,
Chowbok, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Cryptic C62, Darrien, David Latapie, DocWatson42, Donarreiskoffer, Download, Dv82matt, Dwmyers,
Edgar181, Eleland, Emperorbma, Femto, Fireice, Greatpatton, Grendelkhan, GuelphGryphon98, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Hallpriest9, Hannibal, Helge Skjeveland,
Heron, Hugh2414, IanOsgood, Icairns, Ideyal, J.delanoy, Jaan513, Janke, Jaraalbe, Joanjoc, John, Jose77, Kostisl, Kwamikagami, LeaveSleaves, Looxix,
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WereSpielChequers, Wrenchelle, Yekrats, Yyy, 141 anonymous edits

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License
Cerium 1
Cerium
58 lanthanum ← cerium → praseodymium

-
↑
Ce
↓
Th

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number cerium, Ce, 58
Group, Period, Block n/a, 6, f

−1
[Xe] 4f 5d 6s
1 2
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3

(795 °C, 1463 °F)

(3443 °C, 6229 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1992 2194 2442 2754 3159 3705
Atomic properties
Crystal structure face-centered cubic

Cerium 2

(more)
2nd: 1050 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 1949 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius 181.8 pm
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (r.t.) (β, poly) 828 nΩ·m

−1
·K
−1
Thermal expansion (r.t.) (γ, poly)

6.3 µm/(m·K)
Young's modulus (γ form) 33.6 GPa
Shear modulus (γ form) 13.5 GPa
Bulk modulus (γ form) 21.5 GPa
Poisson ratio (γ form) 0.24
Mohs hardness 2.5
Main article: Isotopes of cerium
134
Ce syn 3.16 days ε 0.500 134
La
136
Ce 0.185% 136
Ce is stable with 78 neutron
138
Ce 0.251% 138
139
Ce syn 137.640 days ε 0.278 139
La
140
Ce 88.450% 140
141
Ce syn 32.501 days β− 0.581 141
Pr
142
Ce 11.114% > 5×1016 years β−β− 1.417 142
Nd
144
Ce syn 284.893 days β− 0.319 144
Pr
References
Cerium 3
Cerium (pronounced /ˈsɪəriəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Ce and atomic
number 58. It is a soft, silvery, ductile metal which easily oxidizes in air. Cerium was named
after the dwarf planet Ceres. Cerium is the most abundant of the rare earth elements,
making up about 0.0046% of the Earth's crust by weight. It is found in a number of
minerals, the most important being monazite and bastnasite. Commercial applications of
cerium are numerous. They include catalysts, additives to fuel to reduce emissions and to
glass and enamels to change their color. Cerium oxide is an important component of glass
polishing powders and phosphors used in screens and fluorescent lamps.
Characteristics
Physical
Cerium is a silvery metal, belonging to the lanthanoid group. It resembles iron in color and
luster, but is soft, and both malleable and ductile. Cerium has the longest liquid range of
any non-radioactive element: 2648 C° (795 °C to 3443 °C) or 4766 F° (1463 °F to 6229 °F).
(Thorium has a longer liquid range, but is radioactive)
Cerium is especially interesting
because of its variable electronic
structure. The energy of the inner
4f level is nearly the same as that
of the outer or valence electrons,
and only small energy is required
to change the relative occupancy
of these electronic levels. This
gives rise to dual valency states.
For example, a volume change of
about 10% occurs when cerium is
subjected to high pressures or low
temperatures. It appears that the
Phase diagram of cerium valence changes from about 3 to 4
when it is cooled or compressed.
The low temperature behavior of cerium is complex. Four allotropic modifications are
thought to exist: cerium at room temperature and at atmospheric pressure is known as γ
cerium. Upon cooling to –16°C, γ cerium changes to ß cerium. The remaining γ cerium
starts to change to α cerium when cooled to –172°C, and the transformation is complete at
–269 °C. α Cerium has a density of 8.16; δ cerium exists above 726 °C. At atmospheric
pressure, liquid cerium is more dense than its solid form at the melting point.[2] [3] [4]
Cerium 4
Chemical
Cerium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily at 150 °C to form cerium(IV) oxide:
Ce + O2 → CeO2
Cerium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot
water to form cerium hydroxide:
2 Ce (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Ce(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Cerium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Ce (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 CeF3 (s) [white]
2 Ce (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 CeCl3 (s) [white]
2 Ce (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 CeBr3 (s) [white]
2 Ce (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 CeI3 (s) [yellow]
Cerium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless
Ce(III) ions, which exist as a [Ce(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[5]
2 Ce (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Ce3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Compounds
Cerium(IV) (ceric) salts are orange red or yellowish,
whereas cerium(III) (cerous) salts are usually white
or colorless. Both oxidation states absorb ultraviolet
light strongly. Cerium(III) can be used to make
glasses that are colorless, yet absorb ultraviolet
light almost completely. Cerium can be readily
detected in rare earth mixtures by a very sensitive
qualitative test: addition of ammonia and hydrogen
peroxide to an aqueous solution of lanthanides
produces a characteristic dark brown color if cerium
Cerium(IV) sulfate
is present.
Cerium exhibits three oxidation states, +2, +3 and +4. The +2 state is rare and is observed
in CeH2, CeI2 and CeS.[4] The most common compound of cerium is cerium(IV) oxide
(CeO2), which is used as "jeweller's rouge" as well as in the walls of some self-cleaning
ovens. Two common oxidizing agents used in titrations are ammonium cerium(IV) sulfate
(ceric ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2Ce(SO4)3) and ammonium cerium(IV) nitrate (ceric
ammonium nitrate or CAN, (NH4)2Ce(NO3)6). Cerium also forms a chloride, CeCl3 or
cerium(III) chloride, used to facilitate reactions at carbonyl groups in organic chemistry.
Other compounds include cerium(III) carbonate (Ce2(CO3)3), cerium(III) fluoride (CeF3),
cerium(III) oxide (Ce2O3), as well as cerium(IV) sulfate (ceric sulfate, Ce(SO4)2) and
cerium(III) triflate (Ce(OSO2CF3)3).
The two oxidation states of cerium differ enormously in basicity: cerium(III) is a strong
base, comparable to the other trivalent lanthanides, but cerium(IV) is weak. This difference
has always allowed cerium to be by far the most readily isolated and purified of all the
lanthanides, otherwise a notoriously difficult group of elements to separate. A wide range of
procedures have been devised over the years to exploit the difference. Among the better
ones:
Cerium 5
1. Leaching the mixed hydroxides with dilute nitric acid: the trivalent lanthanides dissolve
in cerium-free condition, and tetravalent cerium remains in the insoluble residue as a
concentrate to be further purified by other means. A variation on this uses hydrochloric
acid and the calcined oxides from bastnasite, but the separation is less sharp.
2. Precipitating cerium from a nitrate or chloride solution using potassium permanganate
and sodium carbonate in a 1:4 molar ratio.
3. Boiling rare-earth nitrate solutions with potassium bromate and marble chips.
Formerly used commercially was a method whereby a solution of cerium(IV) in nitric acid
would be added to dilute sulfuric acid. This caused cerium(IV) to largely precipitate as a
basic salt, leaving trivalent lanthanide in solution. However, the finely divided precipitate
was difficult to filter from the highly corrosive medium. Using the classical methods of
rare-earth separation, there was a considerable advantage to a strategy of removing cerium
from the mixture at the beginning. Cerium typically comprised 45% of the cerite or
monazite rare earths, and removing it early greatly reduced the bulk of what needed to be
further processed (or the cost of reagents to be associated with such processing). However,
not all cerium purification methods relied on basicity. Ceric ammonium nitrate [ammonium
hexanitratocerate(IV)] crystallization from nitric acid was one purification method.
Cerium(IV) nitrate (hexanitratoceric acid) was more readily extractable into certain
solvents (e.g. tri-n-butyl phosphate) than the trivalent lanthanides. However, modern
practice in China seems to be to do purification of cerium by counter-current solvent
extraction, in its trivalent form, just like the other lanthanides.
Cerium(IV) is a strong oxidant under acidic conditions, but stable under alkaline conditions,
when it is cerium(III) that becomes a strong reductant, easily oxidized by atmospheric
oxygen (O2). This ease of oxidation under alkaline conditions leads to the occasional
geochemical parting of the ways between cerium and the trivalent light lanthanides under
supergene weathering conditions, leading variously to the "negative cerium anomaly" or to
the formation of the mineral cerianite. Air-oxidation of alkaline cerium(III) is the most
economical way to get to cerium(IV), which can then be handled in acid solution.
Isotopes
Naturally-occurring cerium is composed of 4 stable isotopes; 136Ce, 138Ce, 140Ce, and 142Ce
with 140Ce being the most abundant (88.48% natural abundance). 136Ce and 142Ce are
predicted to be double beta active but no signs of activity were ever observed (for 142Ce,
the lower limit on half-life is 5×1016 years). 26 radioisotopes have been characterized with
the most long-lived being 144Ce with a half-life of 284.893 days, 139Ce with a half-life of
137.640 days, and 141Ce with a half-life of 32.501 days. All of the remaining radioactive
isotopes have half-lives that are less than 4 days and the majority of these have half-lives
that are less than 10 minutes. This element also has 2 meta states.
The known isotopes of cerium range in atomic weight from 123 u (123Ce) to 152 u (152Ce).
Cerium 144 is a high-yield product of nuclear fission; the ORNL Fission Product Pilot Plant
separated substantial quantities of cerium-144 from reactor waste, and it was used in the
Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion and SNAP programs.
Cerium 6
History
Cerium was discovered in Bastnäs in Sweden by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger,
and independently in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, both in 1803. Cerium was so
named by Berzelius after the dwarf planet Ceres, discovered two years earlier (1801). As
originally isolated, cerium was in the form of its oxide, and was named ceria, a term that is
still used. The metal itself was too electropositive to be isolated by then-current smelting
technology, a characteristic of rare earth metals in general. However, the development of
electrochemistry by Humphry Davy was only five years into the future, and then the earths
were soon to yield the metals they contained. Ceria, as isolated in 1803, contained all of the
lanthanides present in the cerite ore from Bastnäs, Sweden, and thus only contained about
45% of what is now known to be pure ceria. It was not until Carl Gustaf Mosander
succeeded in removing lanthana and "didymia" in the late 1830s, that ceria was obtained
pure. As a historical aside: Wilhelm Hisinger was a wealthy mine owner and amateur
scientist, and sponsor of Berzelius. He owned or controlled the mine at Bastnäs, and had
been trying for years to find out the composition of the abundant heavy gangue rock (the
"Tungstein of Bastnäs"), now known as cerite, that he had in his mine. Mosander and his
family lived for many years in the same house as Berzelius, and the former was undoubtedly
persuaded by the latter to investigate ceria further.
When the rare earths were first discovered, since they were strong bases like the oxides of
calcium or magnesium, they were thought to be divalent. Thus, "ceric" cerium was thought
to be trivalent, and the oxidation state ratio was therefore thought to be 1.5. Berzelius was
extremely annoyed to keep on getting the ratio 1.33. He was after all one of the finest
analytical chemists in Europe. But he was a better analyst than he thought, since 1.33 was
the correct answer! In the late 1950s, the Lindsay Chemical Division of American Potash
and Chemical Corporation of West Chicago, Illinois, then the largest producer of rare
earths in the world, was offering cerium compounds in two purity ranges, "commercial" at
94-97% purity, and "purified", at a reported 99.9+% purity. In their October 1, 1958
pricelist, one-pound quantities of the oxides were priced at $3.30 or $8.10 respectively for
the two purities; the per-pound price for 50-pound quantities were respectively $1.95 or
$4.95 for the two grades. Cerium salts were proportionately cheaper, reflecting their lower
net content of oxide.
Cerium 7
Occurrence
Cerium is the most abundant of the rare earth
elements, making up about 0.0046% of the Earth's
crust by weight. It is found in a number of minerals
including allanite (also known as orthite)—(Ca, Ce, La,
Y)2(Al, Fe)3(SiO4)3(OH), monazite (Ce, La, Th, Nd,
Y)PO4, bastnasite (Ce, La, Y)CO3F, hydroxylbastnasite
(Ce, La, Nd)CO3(OH, F), rhabdophane (Ce, La,
Nd)PO4-H2O, zircon (ZrSiO4), and synchysite Ca(Ce, La,
Nd, Y)(CO3)2F. Monazite and bastnasite are presently
the two most important sources of cerium. Large
deposits of monazite, allanite, and bastnasite will
supply cerium, thorium, and other rare-earth metals for Allanite
many years to come.[3]
Production
The mineral mixtures are crushed, ground and treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid
to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. The acidic filtrates are partially
neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 3-4. Thorium precipitates out of solution as
hydroxide and is removed. After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to
convert rare earths in to their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by
annealing. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components,
cerium, whose salts is insoluble in HNO3. Metallic cerium is prepared by metallothermic
reduction techniques, such as by reducing cerium fluoride or chloride with calcium, or by
electrolysis of molten cerous chloride or other cerous halides. The metallothermic
technique is used to produce high-purity cerium. [4]
Applications
A major technological application for Cerium(III) oxide is a catalytic converter for the
reduction of CO emissions in the exhaust gases from motor vehicles. In particular, cerium
oxide is added into Diesel fuels. Another important use of the cerium oxide is a hydrocarbon
catalyst in self cleaning ovens, incorporated into oven walls and as a petroleum cracking
catalyst in petroleum refining. [6]
Cerium(IV) oxide is considered one of the most efficient agents for precision polishing of
optical components. Cerium compounds are also used in the manufacture of glass, both as a
component and as a decolorizer. For example, cerium(IV) oxide in combination with
titanium(IV) oxide gives a golden yellow color to glass; it also allows for selective
absorption of ultraviolet light in glass. Cerium oxide has high refractive index and is added
to enamel to make it more opaque. [6]
Cerium(IV) oxide is used in incandescent gas mantles, such as the Welsbach mantle, where
it was combined with thorium, lanthanum, magnesium or yttrium oxides. Doped with other
rare earth oxides, it has been investigated as a solid electrolyte in intermediate
temperature solid oxide fuel cells: The cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle or
CeO2/Ce2O3 cycle is a two step thermochemical process based on cerium(IV) oxide and
Cerium 8
cerium(III) oxide for hydrogen production[7] .

The photostability of pigments can be enhanced by addition of cerium. It provides pigments
with light fastness and prevents clear polymers from darkening in sunlight. Television glass
plates are subject to electron bombardment, which tends to darken them by creation of
F-center color centers. This effect is suppressed by addition of cerium oxide. Cerium is also
an essential component of phosphors used in TV screens and fluorescent lamps.[6]
A traditional use of cerium was in the pyrophoric mischmetal alloy used for light flints.
Because of the high affinity of cerium to sulfur and oxygen, it is used in various aluminium
alloys, and iron alloys. In steels, cerium degasifies and can help reduce sulfides and oxides,
and it is a precipitation hardening agent in stainless steel. Adding cerium to cast irons
opposes graphitization and produces a malleable iron. Addition of 3-4% of cerium to
magnesium alloys, along with 0.2 to 0.6% zirconium, helps refine the grain and give sound
casting of complex shapes. It also adds heat resistance to magnesium castings.[6]
Cerium alloys are used in permanent magnets and in tungsten electrodes for gas tungsten
arc welding. Cerium is used in carbon-arc lighting, especially in the motion picture
industry. Cerium oxalate is an anti-emetic drug. Cerium(IV) sulfate is used extensively as a
volumetric oxidizing agent in quantitative analysis. Ceric ammonium nitrate is a useful
one-electron oxidant in organic chemistry, used to oxidatively etch electronic components,
and as a primary standard for quantitative analysis.[3] [8]
Precautions
Cerium, like all rare-earth metals, is of low to moderate toxicity. Cerium is a strong
reducing agent and ignites spontaneously in air at 65 to 80 °C. Fumes from cerium fires are
toxic. Water should not be used to stop cerium fires, as cerium reacts with water to produce
hydrogen gas. Workers exposed to cerium have experienced itching, sensitivity to heat, and
skin lesions. Animals injected with large doses of cerium have died due to cardiovascular
collapse. Cerium(IV) oxide is a powerful oxidizing agent at high temperatures and will react
with combustible organic materials. While cerium is not radioactive, the impure commercial
grade may contain traces of thorium, which is radioactive. Cerium serves no known
biological function.[6]
External links
• WebElements.com – Cerium [9]
• It's Elemental – The Element Cerium [10]
• Cerium Properties and Applications [11]
pnb:‫میریس‬
References
[2] Stassis, C. (1979). "Lattice and spin dynamics of γ-Ce". Physical Review B 19: 5746. doi:
10.1103/PhysRevB.19.5746 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevB. 19. 5746).
0849304814.
Cerium 9
[5] " Chemical reactions of Cerium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ cerium/ chemistry. html)". Webelements. .
[6] Alessandro (2002). Catalysis by ceria and related materials (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=X2z9WdN3-WgC). Imperial College Press. pp. 6–11. ISBN 1860942997. .
[7] " Hydrogen production from solar thermochemical water splitting cycles (http:/ / www. solarpaces. org/ Tasks/
Task2/ HPST. HTM)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[9] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Ce/ index. html
[11] http:/ / www. azom. com/ details. asp?ArticleID=592

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Praseodymium 1
Praseodymium
59 cerium ← praseodymium → neodymium

-
↑
Pr
↓
Pa

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number praseodymium, Pr, 59

−1
[Xe] 4f 6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(935 °C, 1715 °F)

(3520 °C, 6368 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1771 1973 (2227) (2571) (3054) (3779)
Atomic properties
Praseodymium 2

(more)
2nd: 1020 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2086 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (r.t.) (α, poly)

0.700 µΩ·m

−1
·K
−1

6.7 µm/(m·K)
Main article: Isotopes of praseodymium
141
Pr 100% 141
Pr is stable with 82 neutron
142
Pr syn 19.12 h β− 2.162 142
Nd
ε 0.745 142
Ce
143
Pr syn 13.57 d β− 0.934 143
Nd
References
Praseodymium (pronounced /ˌpreɪzi.ɵˈdɪmiəm/ or /ˌpreɪsioʊˈdɪmiəm/) is a chemical element

that has the symbol Pr and atomic number 59.
Praseodymium 3
Characteristics
Physical
Praseodymium is a soft, silvery, malleable and ductile metal in the lanthanoid group. It is
somewhat more resistant to corrosion in air than europium, lanthanum, cerium, or
neodymium, but it does develop a green oxide coating that spalls off when exposed to air,
exposing more metal to oxidation. For this reason, praseodymium should be stored under a
light mineral oil or sealed in glass.
Contrary to other rare-earth metals, which show antiferromagnetic or/and ferromagnetic
ordering at low temperatures, Pr is paramagnetic at any temperatures above 1 K.[1]
Chemical
Praseodymium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily at 150 °C to form
praseodymium(III,IV) oxide:
12 Pr + 11 O2 → 2 Pr6O11
Praseodymium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly
with hot water to form praseodymium hydroxide:
2 Pr (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Pr(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Praseodymium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Pr (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 PrF3 (s) [green]
2 Pr (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 PrCl3 (s) [green]
2 Pr (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 PrBr3 (s) [green]
2 Pr (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 PrI3 (s)
Praseodymium dissolves readily in dilute sulphuric acid to form solutions containing green
Pr(III) ions, which exist as a [Pr(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[2]
2 Pr (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Pr3+(aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Compounds
In its compounds, praseodymium occurs in oxidation states +2, +3 and/or +4.
Praseodymium(IV) is a strong oxidant, instantly oxidizing water to elemental oxygen (O2),
or hydrochloric acid to elemental chlorine. Thus, in aqueous solution, only the +3 oxidation
state is encountered. Praseodymium(III) salts are yellow-green and, in solution, present a
fairly simple absorption spectrum in the visible region, with a band in the yellow-orange at
589-590 nm (which coincides with the sodium emission doublet), and three bands in the
blue/violet region, at 444, 468, and 482 nm, approximately. These positions vary slightly
with the counter-ion. Praseodymium oxide, as obtained by the ignition of salts such as the
oxalate or carbonate in air, is essentially black in color (with a hint of brown or green) and
contains +3 and +4 praseodymium in a somewhat variable ratio, depending upon the
conditions of formation. Its formula is conventionally rendered as Pr6O11.
Other praseodymium compounds include:
• Fluorides: PrF2, PrF3, PrF4
• Chlorides: PrCl3
• Bromides: PrBr3, Pr2Br5
• Iodides: PrI2, PrI3, Pr2I5
Praseodymium 4
• Oxides: PrO2, Pr2O3, Pr6O11

• Sulfides: PrS, Pr2S3
• Sulfates: Pr2(SO4)3
• Selenides: PrSe
• Tellurides: PrTe, Pr2Te3
• Nitrides: PrN
Isotopes
Naturally occurring praseodymium is composed of one stable isotope, 141Pr. Thirty-eight
radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 143Pr with a half-life of
13.57 days and 142Pr with a half-life of 19.12 hours. All of the remaining radioactive
isotopes have half-lives that are less than 5.985 hours and the majority of these have
half-lives that are less than 33 seconds. This element also has six meta states with the most
stable being 138mPr (t½ 2.12 hours), 142mPr (t½ 14.6 minutes) and 134mPr (t½ 11 minutes).
The isotopes of praseodymium range in atomic weight from 120.955 u (121Pr) to 158.955 u
(159Pr). The primary decay mode before the stable isotope, 141Pr, is electron capture and
the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay products before 141Pr are
element 58 (cerium) isotopes and the primary products after are element 60 (neodymium)
isotopes.
History
The name praseodymium comes from the Greek prasios, meaning green, and didymos, twin.
Praseodymium is frequently misspelled as praseodynium.
In 1841, Mosander extracted the rare earth didymium from lanthana. In 1874, Per Teodor
Cleve concluded that didymium was in fact two elements, and in 1879, Lecoq de
Boisbaudran isolated a new earth, samarium, from didymium obtained from the mineral
samarskite. In 1885, the Austrian chemist baron Carl Auer von Welsbach separated
didymium into two elements, praseodymium and neodymium, which gave salts of different
colors.
Leo Moser (son of Ludwig Moser, founder of the Moser Glassworks in what is now Karlovy
Vary, Bohemia, in the Czech Republic, not to be confused with Leo Moser, a mathematician)
investigated the use of praseodymium in glass coloration in the late 1920s. The result was a
yellow-green glass given the name "Prasemit". However, a similar color could be achieved
with colorants costing only a minute fraction of what praseodymium cost in the late 1920s,
such that the color was not popular, few pieces were made, and examples are now
extremely rare. Moser also blended praseodymium with neodymium to produce "Heliolite"
glass ("Heliolit" in German), which was more widely accepted. The first enduring
commercial use of purified praseodymium, which continues today, is in the form of a
yellow-orange stain for ceramics, "Praseodymium Yellow", which is a solid-solution of
praseodymium in the zirconium silicate (zircon) lattice. This stain has no hint of green in it.
By contrast, at sufficiently high loadings, praseodymium glass is distinctly green, rather
than pure yellow.
Using classical separation methods, praseodymium was always difficult to purify. Much less
abundant than the lanthanum and neodymium from which it was being separated (cerium
having long since been removed by redox chemistry), praseodymium ended up being
dispersed among a large number of fractions, and the resulting yields of purified material
Praseodymium 5
were low. Praseodymium has historically been a rare earth whose supply has exceeded
demand. This has occasionally led to its being offered more cheaply than the far more
abundant neodymium. Unwanted as such, much praseodymium has been marketed as a
mixture with lanthanum and cerium, or "LCP" for the first letters of each of the
constituents, for use in replacing the traditional lanthanide mixtures that were
inexpensively made from monazite or bastnaesite. LCP is what remains of such mixtures,
after the desirable neodymium, and all the heavier, rarer and more valuable lanthanides
have been removed, by solvent extraction. However, as technology progresses,
praseodymium has been found possible to incorporate into neodymium-iron-boron magnets,
thereby extending the supply of the much in demand neodymium. So LC is starting to
replace LCP as a result.
Occurrence
Praseodymium is available in small quantities in Earth’s
crust (9.5 ppm). It is found in the rare earth minerals
monazite and bastnasite, typically comprising about 5%
of the lanthanides contained therein, and can be
recovered from bastnasite or monazite by an ion
exchange process, or by counter-current solvent
extraction. Misch metal, used in making cigarette
lighters, contains about 5% praseodymium metal.[3]
Monazite
Applications
Uses of praseodymium:
• As an alloying agent with magnesium to create high-strength metals that are used in
aircraft engines.[4]
• Praseodymium forms the core of carbon arc lights which are used in the motion picture
industry for studio lighting and projector lights.
• Praseodymium compounds give glasses and enamels a yellow color.[5]
• Praseodymium is used to color cubic zirconia yellow-green, to simulate mineral peridot.
• Praseodymium is a component of didymium glass, which is used to make certain types of
welder's and glass blower's goggles.[5]
• Silicate glass doped with praseodymium ions has been used to slow a light pulse down to
a few hundred meters per second.[6]
• Praseodymium alloyed with nickel (PrNi5) has such a strong magnetocaloric effect that it
has allowed scientists to approach within one thousandth of a degree of absolute zero.[7]
• Doping praseodymium in fluoride glass allows it to be used as a single mode fiber optical
amplifier.[8]
• Praseodymium oxide in solid solution with ceria, or with ceria-zirconia, have been used as
oxidation catalysts.[9]
• Modern ferrocerium firesteel products, commonly referred to as "flint," used in lighters,
torch strikers, "flint and steel" fire starters, etc., contain around 4% praseodymium.[5]
Praseodymium 6
Precautions
Like all rare earths, praseodymium is of low to moderate toxicity. Praseodymium has no
known biological role.
Books
• R.J. Callow, "The Industrial Chemistry of the Lanthanons, Yttrium, Thorium and
Uranium", Pergamon Press, 1967.
External links
• WebElements.com – Praseodymium [10]
[11]
• It's Elemental – The Element Praseodymium
pnb:‫میموڈیزیرپ‬
References
[1] M. Jackson "Magnetism of Rare Earth" The IRM quaterly col. 10, No. 3, p. 1, 2000 (http:/ / www. irm. umn.
edu/ quarterly/ irmq10-3. pdf)
[2] " Chemical reactions of Praseodymium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ praseodymium/ chemistry. html)".
[3] Gschneidner, K.A., and Eyring, L., Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, North Holland
Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1978.
[4] L. L. Rokhlin (2003). Magnesium alloys containing rare earth metals: structure and properties. CRC Press.
ISBN 0415284147.
0849304814.
[6] " ANU team stops light in quantum leap (http:/ / info. anu. edu. au/ ovc/ Media/ Media_Releases/ 2005/ August/
290805_stop_light)". . Retrieved 18 May 2009.
[7] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's building blocks. Oxford University Press. pp. 342. ISBN 0-1985-0341-5.
[8] Jha, A; Naftaly, M; Jordery, S; Samson, B N; Taylor, E R; Hewak, D; Payne, D N; Poulain, M; Zhang, G (1995).
Pure and Applied Optics: Journal of the European Optical Society Part A 4: 417. doi: 10.1088/0963-9659/4/4/019
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1088/ 0963-9659/ 4/ 4/ 019).
[9] Borchert, Y.; Sonstrom, P.; Wilhelm, M.; Borchert, H.; Baumer, M. (2008). "Nanostructured Praseodymium
Oxide: Preparation, Structure, and Catalytic Properties". Journal of Physical Chemistry C 112: 3054. doi:
10.1021/jp0768524 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ jp0768524).
[10] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Pr/ index. html

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Neodymium 1
Neodymium
60 praseodymium ← neodymium → promethium

-
↑
Nd
↓
U

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number neodymium, Nd, 60
Appearance silvery white,

yellowish tinge

−1
[Xe] 4f 6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1024 °C, 1875 °F)

(3074 °C, 5565 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1595 1774 1998 (2296) (2715) (3336)
Atomic properties
Neodymium 2

(more)
2nd: 1040 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2130 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic, antiferromagnetic below 20K

−1
·K
−1

9.6 µm/(m·K)
Main article: Isotopes of neodymium
142
Nd 27.2% 142
Nd is stable with 82 neutron
143
Nd 12.2% 143
144
Nd 23.8% 2.29×1015y α 1.905 140
Ce
145
Nd 8.3% 145
146
Nd 17.2% 146
148
Nd 5.7% 148
150
Nd 5.6% 6.7×1018y β−β− 3.367 150
Sm
References
Neodymium 3
Neodymium (pronounced /ˌniː.ɵˈdɪmiəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Nd and

atomic number 60. It is a soft silvery metal which tarnishes in air. Neodymium was
discovered in 1885. It is not found in nature in pure form; its various compounds are
present in trace amounts in minerals monazite and bastnäsite. Neodymium has several
important applications: it is a constituent of neodymium magnets, which are widely used in
motors, loudspeakers and numerous appliances. Neodymium is a popular additive in glass,
giving it a characteristic reddish-purple color; this glass is used in lasers emitting infrared
light with the wavelength of 1.064 micrometers.
Characteristics
Physical
Neodymium, a rare earth metal, is present in mischmetal to the extent of about 18%. The
metal has a bright, silvery metallic luster; however, as one of the more reactive rare earth
(lanthanide) metals, it quickly oxidizes in air. The oxide layer then falls off, which exposes
the metal to further oxidation.
Neodymium exists in two allotropic forms, with a transformation from a double hexagonal
to a body-centered cubic structure taking place at 863 °C.[2]
Chemical
Neodymium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily at 150 °C to form
neodymium(III) oxide:
4 Nd + 3 O2 → 2 Nd2O3
Neodymium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly
with hot water to form neodymium hydroxide:
2 Nd (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Nd(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Neodymium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Nd (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 NdF3 (s) [violet]
2 Nd (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 NdCl3 (s) [mauve]
2 Nd (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 NdBr3 (s) [violet]
2 Nd (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 NdI3 (s) [green]
Neodymium dissolves readily in dilute sulphuric acid to form solutions containing the lilac
Nd(III) ions, which exist as a [Nd(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[3]
2 Nd (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Nd3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Neodymium 4
Compounds
Neodymium compounds include
• Halides: NdF3, NdCl3, NdBr3, NdI3
• Oxides: Nd2O3
• Sulfides: NdS, Nd2S3
• Nitrides: NdN
Isotopes
Naturally occurring neodymium is composed of 5 stable isotopes, 142Nd, 143Nd, 145Nd,
146
Nd and 148Nd, with 142Nd being the most abundant (27.2% natural abundance), and 2
radioisotopes, 144Nd and 150Nd. In all, 31 radioisotopes of Neodymium have been
characterized up to now, with the most stable being naturally occurring isotopes 144Nd
(alpha decay, a half-life (T½) of 2.29×1015 years) and 150Nd (double beta decay, T½ of
7×1018 years). All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 11
days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 70 seconds. This element
also has 13 known meta states with the most stable being 139mNd (T½ 5.5 hours), 135mNd
(T½ 5.5 minutes) and 133m1Nd (T½ ~70 seconds).
The primary decay modes before the most abundant stable isotope, 142Nd, are electron
capture and positron decay, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary
decay products before 142Nd are element Pr (praseodymium) isotopes and the primary
products after are element Pm (promethium) isotopes.
History
Neodymium was discovered by Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach, an Austrian chemist, in
Vienna in 1885. He separated neodymium, as well as the element praseodymium, from a
material known as didymium by means of fractional crystallization of the double ammonium
nitrate tetrahydrates from nitric acid, while following the separation by spectroscopic
analysis; however, it was not isolated in relatively pure form until 1925. The name
neodymium is derived from the Greek words neos, new, and didymos, twin. Neodymium is
frequently misspelled as neodynium.[4]
Double nitrate crystallization was the means of commercial neodymium purification until
the 1950s. Lindsay Chemical Division was the first to commercialize large-scale
ion-exchange purification of neodymium. Starting in the 1950s, high purity (e.g. 99+%)
neodymium was primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from monazite, a
mineral rich in rare earth elements. The metal itself is obtained through electrolysis of its
halide salts. Currently, most neodymium is extracted from bastnaesite, (Ce,La,Nd,Pr)CO3F,
and purified by solvent extraction. Ion-exchange purification is reserved for preparing the
highest purities (typically >99.99 %). The evolving technology, and improved purity of
commercially available neodymium oxide, was reflected in the appearance of neodymium
glass made therefrom that resides in collections today. Early neodymium glass made in the
1930s, have a more reddish or orange tinge than modern versions, which are more cleanly
purple, due to the difficulties in removing the last traces of praseodymium when the
fractional crystallization technology had to be relied on.
Neodymium 5

Neodymium is never found in nature as the free
element; rather, it occurs in ores such as monazite and
bastnäsite that contain small amounts of all the rare
earth metals. The main mining areas are China, United
States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka and Australia; and
reserves of neodymium are estimated as about 8 million
tonnes. Although it belongs to "rare earth metals,"
neodymium is not rare at all - its abundance in the Bastnäsite
Earth crust is about 38 mg/kg, which is the second
among rare-earth elements after cerium. The world production of neodymium is about
7,000 tonnes per year.[4]
Applications
• Neodymium magnets are the strongest permanent
magnets known - Nd2Fe14B. These magnets are
cheaper, lighter, and stronger than samarium-cobalt
magnets. Neodymium magnets appear in products
such as microphones, professional loudspeakers,
in-ear headphones, guitar and bass guitar pick-ups
Neodymium magnet on a bracket from and computer hard disks where low mass, small
a hard drive.
volume, or strong magnetic fields are required.
Neodymium magnet electric motors have also been
responsible for the development of purely electrical model aircraft within the first decade
of the 21st century, to the point that these are displacing internal combustion powered
models internationally.
• Neodymium is a component of didymium used for coloring glass to make welder's and
glass-blower's goggles. The sharp absorption bands obliterate the strong sodium
emission at 589 nm.
• Neodymium has an unusually large specific heat capacity at liquid-helium temperatures,
so is useful in cryocoolers
• Neodymium lamps are incandescent lamps containing neodymium in the glass to filter
out yellow light, resulting in a whiter light more like sunlight
• Neodymium colors glass in delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red
and warm grey. Light transmitted through such glass shows unusually sharp absorption
bands; the glass is used in astronomical work to produce sharp bands by which spectral
lines may be calibrated. Neodymium is also used to remove the green colour caused by
iron contaminants from glass.
• Neodymium salts are used as a colourant for enamels.
• Probably because of similarities to Ca2+, Nd3+ has been reported[5] to promote plant
growth. Rare earth element compounds are frequently used in China as fertilizer.
• Samarium-neodymium dating is useful for determining the age relationships of rocks[6]
and meteorites.
• Size and strength of volcanic eruption can be predicted by scanning for neodymium
isotopes. Small and large volcanic eruptions produce lava with different neodymium
Neodymium 6
isotope composition. From the composition of isotopes, scientists predict how big the
coming eruption will be, and use this information to warn residents of the intensity of the
eruption.
• Certain transparent materials with a small concentration of neodymium ions can be used
in lasers as gain media for infrared wavelengths (1054-1064 nm), e.g. Nd:YAG (yttrium
aluminium garnet), Nd:YLF (yttrium lithium fluoride), Nd:YVO4 (yttrium orthovanadate),
and Nd:glass. The current laser at the UK Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE), the
HELEN (High Energy Laser Embodying Neodymium) 1-terawatt neodymium-glass laser,
can access the midpoints of pressure and temperature regions and is used to acquire
data for modeling on how density, temperature and pressure interact inside warheads.
HELEN can create plasmas of around 106 K, from which opacity and transmission of
radiation are measured.[7]
Neodymium glass
Neodymium glass (Nd:glass) is
produced by the inclusion of
neodymium oxide (Nd2O3) in the
glass melt. In daylight or
incandescent light neodymium
glass appears lavender, but it
appears pale blue under
fluorescent lighting.
Neodymium glass solid-state lasers

are used in extremely high power
(terawatt scale), high energy
(megajoules) multiple beam
systems for inertial confinement
Neodymium doped glass slabs used in extremely powerful lasers
fusion. Nd:glass lasers are usually
for inertial confinement fusion.
frequency tripled to the third
harmonic at 351 nm in laser fusion
devices.
Neodymium glass is becoming widely used in incandescent light bulbs, to provide a more
"natural" light. It has been patented for use in automobile rear-view mirrors, to reduce the
glare at night.
The first commercial use of purified neodymium was in glass coloration, starting with
experiments by Leo Moser in November 1927. The resulting "Alexandrite" glass remains a
signature color of the Moser glassworks to this day. Neodymium glass was widely emulated
in the early 1930s by American glasshouses, most notably Heisey, Fostoria ("wisteria"),
Cambridge ("heatherbloom"), and Steuben ("wisteria"), and elsewhere (e.g. Lalique, in
France, or Murano). Tiffin's "twilight" remained in production from about 1950 to about
1980.[8] Current sources include glassmakers in the Czech Republic, the United States, and
China.
The sharp absorption bands of neodymium cause the glass color to change under different
lighting conditions, being reddish-purple under daylight or yellow incandescent light, but
blue under white fluorescent lighting, or greenish under trichromatic lighting. This
Neodymium 7
color-change phenomenon is highly prized by collectors. In combination with gold or

selenium, beautiful red colors result. Since neodymium coloration depends upon
"forbidden" f-f transitions deep within the atom, there is relatively little influence on the
color from the chemical environment, so the color is impervious to the thermal history of
the glass. However, for the best color, iron-containing impurities need to be minimized in
the silica used to make the glass. The same "forbiddenness" of the f-f transitions makes
rare-earth colorants less intense than those provided by most d-transition elements, so
more has to be used in a glass to achieve the desired color intensity. The original Moser
recipe used about 5% of neodymium oxide in the glass melt, a sufficient quantity such that
Moser referred to these as being "rare earth doped" glasses. Being a strong base, that level
of neodymium would have affected the melting properties of the glass, and the lime content
of the glass might have had to be adjusted accordingly.[9]
Precautions
Neodymium metal dust is a combustion and explosion hazard.
Neodymium compounds, like all rare earth metals, are of low to moderate toxicity; however
its toxicity has not been thoroughly investigated. Neodymium dust and salts are very
irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes, and moderately irritating to skin. Breathing
the dust can cause lung embolisms, and accumulated exposure damages the liver.
Neodymium also acts as an anticoagulant, especially when given intravenously.[4]
Neodymium magnets have been tested for medical uses such as magnetic braces and bone
repair, but biocompatibility issues have prevented widespread application. Commercially
available magnets made from Neodymium are exceptionally strong, and can attract each
other from large distances. If not handled carefully, they could come together very quickly
and forcefully, causing injuries. For example, a person lost part of his finger when two
magnets he was using snapped together from 50 cm away.[10] Another danger is when two
such magnets snap together, the force of the hit often causes them to shatter, sending
sharp pieces flying around, potentially causing serious injuries.[4]
See also
• Neodymium magnet (NIB or Nd2Fe14B)
Books
• "The Industrial Chemistry of the Lanthanons, Yttrium, Thorium and Uranium", by R.J.
Callow, Pergamon Press 1967.
• Lindsay Chemical Division, American Potash and Chemical Corporation, Price List, 1960.
• "Chemistry of the Lanthanons", by R.C. Vickery, Butterworths 1953.
Neodymium 8
External links
[11]
• USGS Rare Earth Commodity Summary 2006
• WebElements.com – Neodymium [12]
• It's Elemental – Neodymium [13]
pnb:‫میمئاڈوین‬
References
[1] Gschneidner, K.A., and Eyring, L., Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, North Holland
Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1978.
0849304814.
[3] " Chemical reactions of Neodymium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ neodymium/ chemistry. html)".
[4] John Emsley (2003). Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements (http:/ / books. google. co. jp/
books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC). Oxford University Press. pp. 268–270. ISBN 0198503407. .
[5] Y. Wei et al. "The Effect of Neodymium (Nd3+) on Some Physiological Activities in Oilseed Rape during
Calcium (Ca2+) Starvation" 10th International Rapeceed Congress (http:/ / www. regional. org. au/ au/ gcirc/ 2/
399. htm)
[6] " Team finds Earth's 'oldest rocks' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7639024. stm)". BBC news.
. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[7] Norman, Michael J.; Andrew, James E.; Bett, Thomas H.; Clifford, Roger K.; England, John E.; Hopps, Nicholas
W.; Parker, Kenneth W.; Porter, Kenneth; Stevenson, Mark (2002). "Multipass Reconfiguration of the HELEN
Nd:Glass Laser at the Atomic Weapons Establishment". Applied Optics 41: 3497. doi: 10.1364/AO.41.003497
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1364/ AO. 41. 003497).
[8] " Chameleon Glass Changes Color (http:/ / coloradosprings. yourhub. com/ CrippleCreekTellerCounty/ Stories/
Arts/ Story~443258. aspx)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[9] Charles Bray (2001). Dictionary of glass: materials and techniques (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=KbZkxDyeG18C& pg=PA102). University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 102. ISBN 081223619X. .
[10] Swain, Frank (March 6, 2009). " How to remove a finger with two super magnets (http:/ / scienceblogs. com/
sciencepunk/ 2009/ 03/ how_to_remove_a_finger_with_tw. php)". Seed Media Group LLC. . Retrieved
2009-06-28.
[11] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ rare_earths/
[12] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Nd/ index. html

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Hadal, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Hankwang, Hannibal, Hellno2, Hibernian, HoodedMan, Icairns, Irdepesca572, Iridescent, Jaan513, Jacobst, Jaraalbe, JesseW,
Joanjoc, John, Jose77, Kimse, Kwamikagami, LA2, LAMARCTRASK, LMB, LarryMorseDCOhio, Lenilucho, Looxix, Maniwar, Marc Venot, Materialscientist,
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Leeds, Stephenb, Stevey7788, Stifynsemons, Stone, Suisui, Tagishsimon, Tetracube, Thrc, Thricecube, V1adis1av, Vsmith, Walkerma, Warut,
WereSpielChequers, Yekrats, Yyy, Zanudaaa, Zoicon5, 155 anonymous edits

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Contributors: User:Ra'ike
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Science and Technology Review, LLNLameee
License
Promethium 1
Promethium
61 neodymium ← promethium → samarium

-
↑
Pm
↓
Np

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number promethium, Pm, 61
Element category lanthanoids
Appearance metallic
Standard atomic weight [145](0) g·mol

−1
[Xe] 4f 6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3

(1042 °C, 1908 °F)

(3000 °C, 5432 °F)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 3
Electronegativity ? 1.13 (Pauling scale)

(more)
2nd: 1050 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2150 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous
Promethium 2

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (r.t.) est. 0.75 µΩ·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 17.9 W·m−1·K−1

est. 11 µm/(m·K)
Young's modulus (α form) est. 46 GPa
Shear modulus (α form) est. 18 GPa
Bulk modulus (α form) est. 33 GPa
Poisson ratio (α form) est. 0.28
Main article: Isotopes of promethium

145
Pm trace 17.7 y ε 0.163 145
Nd
146
Pm syn 5.53 y ε 1.472 146
Nd
β
− 1.542 146
Sm
147
Pm syn 2.6234 y β
− 0.224 147
Sm
References
Promethium (pronounced /prɵˈmiːθiəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Pm and

atomic number 61. It is notable for being the only other exclusively radioactive element
besides technetium which is followed by chemical elements that have stable isotopes.
Characteristics
Physical
Promethium's longest lived isotope 145Pm is a soft beta emitter with a half-life of 17.7
years. It does not emit gamma rays, but beta particles impinging on elements of high
atomic numbers can generate X-rays, and a sample of 145Pm does produce some such soft
X-ray radiation in addition to beta particles.
Pure promethium exists in two allotropic forms, and its chemistry is similar to other
lanthanides. Promethium salts luminesce in the dark with a pale blue or greenish glow, due
to their high radioactivity. Promethium can be found in traces in some uranium ores, as a
fission product. Newly made promethium is also seen in the spectra of some stars.
Promethium 3
Chemical
Promethium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily at 150 °C to form
promethium(III) oxide:
4 Pm + 3 O2 → 2 Pm2O3
Promethium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly
with hot water to form promethium hydroxide:
2 Pm (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Pm(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Promethium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Pm (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 PmF3 (s)
2 Pm (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 PmCl3 (s)
2 Pm (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 PmBr3 (s)
2 Pm (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 PmI3 (s)
Promethium dissolves readily in dilute sulphuric acid to form solutions containing the pink
Pm(III) ions, which exist as a [Pm(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[2]
2 Pm(s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Pm3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Compounds
Promethium compounds include:
• Chlorides
• PmCl3
• Bromides
• PmBr3
• Oxides
• Pm2O3
Isotopes
Thirty-six radioisotopes of promethium have been characterized, with the most stable being
145
Pm with a half-life of 17.7 years, 146Pm with a half-life of 5.53 years, and 147Pm with a
half-life of 2.6234 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are
less than 364 days, and the majority of these have half lives that are less than 27 seconds.
This element also has 11 meta states with the most stable being 148Pmm (T½ 41.29 days),
152
Pmm2 (T½ 13.8 minutes) and 152Pmm (T½ 7.52 minutes).
The isotopes of promethium range in atomic weight from 127.9482600 u (128Pm) to
162.9535200 u (163Pm). The primary decay mode before the longest-lived isotope, 145Pm, is
electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay
products before 145Pm are neodymium (Nd) isotopes and the primary products after are
samarium (Sm) isotopes.
Along with technetium, promethium is one of only two elements with atomic number less
than 83 that have only unstable isotopes, which is a rarely occurring effect of the liquid
drop model and stabilities of neighbor element isotopes.
Promethium 4
History
The existence of promethium was first predicted by Bohuslav Brauner in 1902; this
prediction was supported in 1914 by Henry Moseley who, having discovered that atomic
number was an experimentally measurable property of elements, found that no known
element had atomic number 61. Several groups claimed to have produced the element, but
they could not confirm their discoveries because of the difficulty of separating promethium
from other elements. Promethium was first produced and proved to exist at Oak Ridge
National Laboratory (ORNL) in 1945 by Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin and
Charles D. Coryell by separation and analysis of the fission products of uranium fuel
irradiated in the Graphite Reactor; however, being too busy with defense-related research
during World War II, they did not announce their discovery until 1947.[3] The name
promethium is derived from Prometheus, the Titan, in Greek mythology, who stole the fire
from Mount Olympus and brought it down to mankind. The name was suggested by Grace
Mary Coryell, Charles Coryell's wife, who felt that they were stealing fire from the gods.
In 1963, ion-exchange methods were used at ORNL to prepare about ten grams of
promethium from nuclear reactor fuel processing wastes.
Today, promethium is still recovered from the byproducts of uranium fission; it can also be
produced by bombarding 146Nd with neutrons, turning it into 147Nd which decays into
147
Pm through beta decay with a half-life of 11 days.
Occurrence
Promethium can be formed in nature as a product of
spontaneous fission of uranium-238 and alpha decay of
europium-151. Only trace amounts can be found in
naturally occurring ores: a sample of pitchblende has
been found to contain promethium at a concentration of
four parts per quintillion (1018) by mass.[4] It was
calculated that the equilibrium mass of promethium in
the earth's crust is about 560 g due to uranium fission
and about 12 g due to the recently observed alpha
Pitchblende
decay of europium-151.[5]
Promethium has also been identified in the spectrum of the star HR 465 in Andromeda, and
possibly HD 101065 (Przybylski's star) and HD 965.[6]
Applications
Uses for promethium include:
• As a beta radiation source for thickness gauges.
• As a light source for signals that require reliable, independent operation (using phosphor
to absorb the beta radiation and produce light).
• In a nuclear battery in which cells convert the beta emissions into electric current,
yielding a useful life of about five years, using Pm-147.
• Promethium(III) chloride (PmCl3) mixed with zinc sulfide (ZnS) was used for a time as a
major luminous paint for watches after radium was discontinued. This mixture is still
occasionally used for some luminous paint applications (though most such uses with
Promethium 5
radioactive materials have switched to tritium for safety reasons).

• Promethium has possible future uses in portable X-ray sources, and as auxiliary heat or
power sources for space probes and satellites (although the alpha emitter plutonium-238
has become standard for most space-exploration related uses – see Radioisotope
thermoelectric generators).
Precautions
Promethium must be handled with great care because of its high radioactivity. In
particular, promethium can emit X-rays during its beta decay. Its half-life is less than that of
plutonium-239 by a factor of about 1350, and its biological toxicity is correspondingly
higher. Promethium has no biological role.
External links
[7]
• WebElements.com – Promethium
• It's Elemental – Promethium [8]
pnb:‫میھتمورپ‬
References
[2] " Chemical reactions of Promethium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ promethium/ chemistry. html)".
[3] " Discovery of Promethium (http:/ / www. ornl. gov/ info/ ornlreview/ v36_1_03/ article_02. shtml)". ORNL
Review 36 (1). 2003. . Retrieved 2006-09-17.
[4] Attrep, Moses, Jr.; and P. K. Kuroda (May 1968). "Promethium in pitchblende". Journal of Inorganic and
Nuclear Chemistry 30 (3): 699–703. doi: 10.1016/0022-1902(68)80427-0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/
0022-1902(68)80427-0).
[5] P. Belli, R. Bernabei, F. Cappella, R. Cerulli, C.J. Dai, F.A. Danevich, A. d’Angelo, A. Incicchitti, V.V. Kobychev,
S.S. Nagorny, S. Nisi, F. Nozzoli, D. Prosperi, V.I. Tretyak, S.S. Yurchenko (2007). "Search for α decay of
natural Europium". Nuclear Physics A 789: 15–29. doi: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2007.03.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2007. 03. 001).
[6] C. R. Cowley, W. P. Bidelman, S. Hubrig, G. Mathys, and D. J. Bord (2004). "On the possible presence of
promethium in the spectra of HD 101065 (Przybylski's star) and HD 965". Astronomy & Astrophysics 419:
1087–1093. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20035726 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1051/ 0004-6361:20035726).
[7] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Pm/ index. html

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Samarium 1
Samarium
62 promethium ← samarium → europium

-
↑
Sm
↓
Pu

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number samarium, Sm, 62

−1
[Xe] 6s 4f
6
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3

(1072 °C, 1962 °F)

(1794 °C, 3261 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1001 1106 1240 (1421) (1675) (2061)
Atomic properties
Crystal structure rhombohedral

Samarium 2

(more)
2nd: 1070 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2260 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (r.t.) (α, poly) 0.940 µΩ·m

−1
·K
−1

12.7 µm/(m·K)
Main article: Isotopes of samarium
144
Sm 3.07% 144
Sm is stable with 82 neutron
146
Sm syn 1.03×108y α 2.529 142
Nd
147
Sm 14.99% 1.06×1011y α 2.310 143
Nd
148
Sm 11.24% 7×1015y α 1.986 144
Nd
149
Sm 13.82% >2×1015 y α 1.870 145
Nd
150
Sm 7.38% 150
152
Sm 26.75% 152
154
Sm 22.75% 154
References
Samarium 3
Samarium (pronounced /səˈmɛəriəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Sm and

atomic number 62.
Characteristics
Physical
Samarium is a rare earth metal, with a bright silver luster. Three crystal modifications of
the metal also exist, with transformations at 734 and 922 °C, making it polymorphic.
Individual samarium atoms can be isolated by encaspulating them into fullerene
molecules.[2]
Chemical
Samarium oxidizes in air and ignites at 150 °C. Even with long-term storage under mineral
oil, samarium is gradually oxidized, with a grayish-yellow powder of the oxide-hydroxide
being formed. The metallic appearance of a sample can be preserved by sealing it under an
inert gas such as argon.
Samarium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with
hot water to form samarium hydroxide:
2 Sm (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Sm(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Samarium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Sm (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 SmF3 (s) [white]
2 Sm (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 SmCl3 (s) [yellow]
2 Sm (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 SmBr3 (s) [yellow]
2 Sm (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 SmI3 (s) [orange]
Samarium dissolves readily in dilute sulphuric acid to form solutions containing the pale
green Sm(III) ions, which exist as a [Sm(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[3]
2 Sm (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Sm3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Compounds
Compounds of Samarium include:
• Fluorides: SmF2, SmF3
• Chlorides: SmCl2, SmCl3
• Bromides: SmBr2, SmBr3
• Iodides: SmI2, SmI3
• Oxides: Sm2O3
• Sulfides: Sm2S3
• Selenides: Sm2Se3
• Tellurides: Sm2Te3
The most common oxidation state of samarium is +3, but +2 compounds are known too,
such as SmI2.
Samarium 4
Isotopes
Naturally occurring samarium is composed of four stable isotopes, 144Sm, 150Sm, 152Sm
and 154Sm, and three extremely long-lived radioisotopes, 147Sm (1.06 × 1011y), 148Sm
(7 × 1015y) and 149Sm (>2 × 1015y), with 152Sm being the most abundant (26.75% natural
abundance).
151
Sm has a halflife of 90 years, and 145Sm has a halflife of 340 days. All of the remaining
radioisotopes have half-lives that are less than 2 days, and the majority of these have
half-lives that are less than 48 seconds. This element also has 5 meta states with the most
stable being 141mSm (t½ 22.6 minutes), 143m1Sm (t½ 66 seconds) and 139mSm (t½ 10.7
seconds).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 152Sm, is electron
capture, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay products
before 152Sm are element Pm (promethium) isotopes, and the primary products after are
element Eu (europium) isotopes.
Natural Samarium has an activity of 128 Bq/g.
History
Samarium was first discovered spectroscopically in 1853 by Swiss chemist Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac by its sharp absorption lines in didymium, and isolated in Paris in
1879 by French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran from the mineral samarskite
((Y,Ce,U,Fe)3(Nb,Ta,Ti)5O16). Although samarskite was first found in the Urals, by the late
1870s a new deposit had been located in North Carolina, and it was from that source that
the samarium-bearing didymium had originated.
The samarskite mineral was named after Vasili Samarsky-Bykhovets, the Chief of Staff
(Colonel) of the Russian Corps of Mining Engineers in 1845–1861. The name of the element
is derived from the name of the mineral, and thus traces back to the name
Samarsky-Bykhovets. In this sense samarium was the first chemical element to be named
after a living person.
Prior to the advent of ion-exchange separation technology in the 1950s, samarium had no
commercial uses in pure form. However, a by-product of the fractional crystallization
purification of neodymium was a mixture of samarium and gadolinium that acquired the
name of "Lindsay Mix" after the company that made it. This material is thought to have
been used for nuclear control rods in some of the early nuclear reactors. Nowadays, a
similar commodity product goes under the name of "Samarium-Europium-Gadolinium"
concentrate (or SEG concentrate). This is prepared by solvent extraction from the mixed
lanthanides extracted from bastnäsite (or monazite). Since the heavier lanthanides have the
greater affinity for the solvent used, they are easily extracted from the bulk using relatively
small proportions of solvent. Not all rare earth producers who process bastnäsite do so on
large enough scale to continue onward with the separation of the components of SEG,
which typically makes up only one or two percent of the original ore. Such producers will
therefore be making SEG with a view to marketing it to the specialized processors. In this
manner, the valuable europium content of the ore is rescued for use in phosphor
manufacture. Samarium purification follows the removal of the europium. Currently, being
in oversupply, samarium oxide is less expensive on a commercial scale than its relative
abundance in the ore might suggest.
Samarium 5
Occurrence
Samarium is never found free in nature, but, like other
rare earth elements, is contained in many minerals,
including monazite, bastnäsite and samarskite;
monazite (in which it occurs up to an extent of 2.8%)
and bastnäsite are also used as commercial sources.
Misch metal containing about 1% of samarium has long
been used, but it was not until recent years that
relatively pure samarium has been isolated through ion
exchange processes, solvent extraction techniques, and
electrochemical deposition. The metal is often prepared Samarskite
by electrolysis of a molten mixture of samarium(III)

[1]
chloride with sodium chloride or calcium chloride . Samarium can also be obtained by
reducing its oxide with lanthanum.
Applications
Uses of Samarium include:
• Carbon-arc lighting for the motion picture industry (together with other rare earth
metals).
• CaF2 crystals for use in lasers.
• As a neutron absorber in nuclear reactors.
• For alloys.
• For headphone magnets.
• Samarium-cobalt magnets; SmCo5 and Sm2Co17 are used in making permanent magnet
materials that have high resistance to demagnetization when compared to other
permanent magnet materials. These materials have high coercivities and intrinsic
coercivities. Samarium-cobalt combinations have recently found use in high-end
magnetic pickups for guitars and related musical instruments.
• Samarium(II) iodide is used as a reducing agent and coupling agent chemical reagent in
organic synthesis, for example in the Barbier reaction.[4]
• Samarium oxide is used in optical glass to absorb infrared light.
• Samarium compounds act as sensitizers for phosphors excited in the infrared.
• Samarium oxide is a catalyst for the dehydration and dehydrogenation of ethanol.
• Samarium-neodymium dating is useful for determining the age relationships of rocks and
meteorites.
• Radioactive Samarium-153 is used in medicine to treat the severe pain associated with
cancers that have spread to bone. The drug is called "Quadramet".[5]
Samarium 6
Precautions
As with the other lanthanides, samarium compounds are of low to moderate toxicity,
although their toxicity has not been investigated in detail.
Books
• N. N. Greenwood, A. Earnshaw, Chemistry of the Elements, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK,
1984.
External links
• WebElements.com – Samarium [6]
• It's Elemental – Samarium [7]
[8]
• Reducing Agents > Samarium low valent
pnb:‫میراماس‬
References
[2] Okazaki , T (2002). "Electronic and geometric structures of metallofullerene peapods". Physica B: Condensed
Matter 323: 97. doi: 10.1016/S0921-4526(02)00991-2 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0921-4526(02)00991-2).
[3] " Chemical reactions of Samarium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ samarium/ chemistry. html)".
[4] Cotton (2007). Advanced inorganic chemistry, 6th ed (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=U3MWRONWAmMC& pg=PA1128). Wiley-India. p. 1128. ISBN 8126513381. .
[5] " Centerwatch About drug Quadramet (http:/ / www. centerwatch. com/ patient/ drugs/ dru267. html)". .
[6] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Sm/ index. html
[8] http:/ / www. organic-chemistry. org/ chemicals/ reductions/ samariumlowvalent. shtm

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License
Europium 1
Europium
63 samarium ← europium → gadolinium

-
↑
Eu
↓
Am

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number europium, Eu, 63

−1
[Xe] 4f 6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3
Liquid density at m.p. 5.13 g·cm

−3

(826 °C, 1519 °F)

(1529 °C, 2784 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 863 957 1072 1234 1452 1796
Atomic properties
Crystal structure simple cubic (body centered)

Europium 2

(more)
2nd: 1085 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2404 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (r.t.) (poly) 0.900 µΩ·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) est. 13.9 W·m

−1
·K
−1
Thermal expansion (r.t.) (poly)

35.0 µm/(m·K)
Poisson ratio 0.152
Main article: Isotopes of europium

150
Eu syn 36.9 y ε 2.261 150
Sm
151
Eu 47.8% 5×1018 y α 147
Pm
152
Eu syn 13.516 y ε 1.874 152
Sm
β− 1.819 152
Gd
153
Eu 52.2% 153
Eu is stable with 90 neutron
References
Europium (pronounced /jʊˈroʊpiəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Eu and atomic
number 63. It was named after the continent Europe.
Europium 3
Characteristics
Physical
It is about as hard as lead and quite ductile. Europium
is a metal and becomes a superconductor under
pressure 80 GPa at temperature 1.8 K.[2]
Chemical
Europium is one of the most reactive of the rare earth
elements; it rapidly oxidizes in air, and resembles
calcium in its reaction with water; samples of the metal
Dendritic sublimated Eu (~300 g;
purity 99,998%) element in solid form, even when coated with a
protective layer of mineral oil, are rarely shiny.
Europium ignites in air at 150 °C to 180 °C to form europium(III) oxide:
4 Eu + 3 O2 → 2 Eu2O3
Europium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with
hot water to form europium hydroxide:
2 Eu (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Eu(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Europium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Eu (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 EuF3 (s) [white]
2 Eu (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 EuCl3 (s) [yellow]
2 Eu (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 EuBr3 (s) [gray]
2 Eu (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 EuI3 (s)
Europium dissolves readily in dilute sulphuric acid to form solutions containing very pale
pink Eu(III) ions, which exist as a [Eu(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[3]
2 Eu (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Eu3+ (aq) + 3 SO (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Compounds
Europium compounds include:
• Fluorides: EuF2, EuF3
• Chlorides: EuCl2, EuCl3
• Bromides: EuBr2, EuBr3
• Iodides: EuI2, EuI3
• Oxides: EuO, Eu2O3, Eu3O4
• Sulfides: EuS
• Selenides: EuSe
• Tellurides: EuTe
• Nitrides: EuN
Europium(II) compounds tend to predominate, in contrast to most lanthanides: (which
generally form compounds with an oxidation state of +3). Europium(II) chemistry is very
similar to barium(II) chemistry, as they have similar ionic radii. Divalent europium is a mild
reducing agent, such that under atmospheric conditions, it is the trivalent form that
predominates. Under anaerobic, and particularly under geothermal conditions, the divalent
Europium 4
form is sufficiently stable such that it tends to be incorporated into minerals of calcium and
the other alkaline earths. This is the cause of the "negative europium anomaly", that
depletes europium from being incorporated into the most usual light lanthanide minerals
such as monazite, relative to the chondritic abundance. Bastnäsite tends to show less of a
negative europium anomaly than monazite does, and hence is the major source of europium
today. The accessible divalency of europium has always made it one of the easiest
lanthanides to extract and purify, even when present, as it usually is, in low concentration.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring europium is composed of 2 isotopes, 151Eu and 153Eu, with 153Eu being
the most abundant (52.2% natural abundance). While 153Eu is stable, 151Eu was recently
found to be unstable to alpha decay with half-life of yr[4] (in reasonable
agreement with theoretical predictions), giving about 1 alpha decay per two minutes in
every kilogram of natural europium. Besides natural radioisotope 151Eu, 35 artificial
radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 150Eu with a half-life of
36.9 years, 152Eu with a half-life of 13.516 years, and 154Eu with a half-life of 8.593 years.
All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 4.7612 years, and
the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 12.2 seconds. This element also has 8
meta states, with the most stable being 150mEu (T½=12.8 hours), 152m1Eu (T½=9.3116
hours) and 152m2Eu (T½=96 minutes).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 153Eu, is electron
before 153Eu are isotopes of samarium (Sm) and the primary products after are isotopes of
gadolinium (Gd).
Europium as a nuclear fission product
Thermal neutron capture cross sections

Isotope 151 152 153 154 155
Eu Eu Eu Eu Eu
Yield ~10 low 1580 >2.5 330
Barns 5900 12800 312 1340 3950
Medium-lived
fission products
Prop: Yield Q* βγ
t½
Unit: % KeV *
a
155 4.76 .0803 252 βγ

Eu
Kr 10.76
85 .2180 687 βγ
Cd 14.1
113m .0008 316 β
Sr 28.9
90 4.505 2826 β
Cs 30.23
137 6.337 1176 βγ
Sn 43.9
121m .00005 390 βγ
Europium 5
Sm 90
151 .5314 77 β
Europium is produced by nuclear fission, but the fission product yields of europium isotopes
are low near the top of the mass range for fission products.
Like other lanthanides, many isotopes, especially isotopes with odd mass numbers and
neutron-poor isotopes like 152Eu, have high cross sections for neutron capture, often high
enough to be neutron poisons.
151
Eu is the beta decay product of Sm-151, but since this has a long decay half-life and
short mean time to neutron absorption, most 151Sm instead winds up as 152Sm.
152
Eu (half-life 13.516 years) and 154Eu (halflife 8.593 years) cannot be beta decay products
because 152Sm and 154Sm are nonradioactive, but 154Eu is the only long-lived "shielded"
nuclide, other than 134Cs, to have a fission yield of more than 2.5 parts per million
fissions.[5] A larger amount of 154Eu will be produced by neutron activation of a significant
portion of the nonradioactive153Eu; however, much of this will be further converted to
155
Eu.
155
Eu (halflife 4.7612 years) has a fission yield of 330 ppm for U-235 and thermal neutrons.
Most will be transmuted to nonradioactive and nonabsorptive Gadolinium-156 by the end of
fuel burnup.
Overall, europium is overshadowed by Cs-137 and Sr-90 as a radiation hazard, and by
samarium and others as a neutron poison.
History
Europium was first found by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1890, who obtained basic
fraction from samarium-gadolinium concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for
by samarium or gadolinium; however, the discovery of europium is generally credited to
French chemist Eugène-Anatole Demarçay, who suspected samples of the recently
discovered element samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and
who was able to isolate europium in 1901. When the europium-doped yttrium
orthovanadate red phosphor was discovered in the early 1960s, and understood to be about
to cause a revolution in the color television industry, there was a mad scramble for the
limited supply of europium on hand among the monazite processors. (Typical europium
content in monazite was about 0.05%.) Luckily, Molycorp, with its bastnäsite deposit at
Mountain Pass, California, whose lanthanides had an unusually "rich" europium content of
0.1%, was about to come on-line and provide sufficient europium to sustain the industry.
Prior to europium, the color-TV red phosphor was very weak, and the other phosphor colors
had to be muted, to maintain color balance. With the brilliant red europium phosphor, it
was no longer necessary to mute the other colors, and a much brighter color TV picture was
the result. Europium has continued in use in the TV industry ever since, and, of course, also
in computer monitors. Californian bastnäsite now faces stiff competition from Bayan Obo,
China, with an even "richer" europium content of 0.2%. Frank Spedding, celebrated for his
development of the ion-exchange technology that revolutionized the rare earth industry in
the mid-1950s once related the story of how, in the 1930s, he was lecturing on the rare
earths when an elderly gentleman approached him with an offer of a gift of several pounds
of europium oxide. This was an unheard-of quantity at the time, and Spedding did not take
the man seriously. However, a package duly arrived in the mail, containing several pounds
of genuine europium oxide. The elderly gentleman had turned out to be Dr. McCoy who had
Europium 6
developed a famous method of europium purification involving redox chemistry.
Occurrence
Europium is never found in nature as a free element;
however, there are many minerals containing europium,
with the most important sources being bastnäsite and
monazite. Europium has also been identified in the
spectra of the sun and certain stars. Depletion or
enrichment of europium in minerals relative to other
rare earth elements is known as the europium anomaly.
Divalent europium in small amounts happens to be the

activator of the bright blue fluorescence of some
samples of the mineral fluorite (calcium difluoride). The
Monazite
most outstanding examples of this originated around
Weardale, and adjacent parts of northern England, and
indeed it was this fluorite that gave its name to the phenomenon of fluorescence, although
it was not until much later that europium was discovered or determined to be the cause.
Production
Europium is found in minerals xenotime, monazite, and bastnäsite. The first two are
orthophosphate minerals LnPO4 (Ln denotes a mixture of all the lanthanoids except
promethium which is vanishingly rare due to being radioactive) and the third is a fluoride
carbonate LnCO3F. Lanthanoids with even atomic numbers are more common. The most
common lanthanoids in these minerals are, in order, cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, and
praseodymium. Monazite also contains thorium and yttrium, which makes handling difficult
since thorium and its decomposition products are radioactive.
For many purposes it is not particularly necessary to separate the metals, but if separation
into individual metals is required, the process is complex. Initially, the metals are extracted
as salts from the ores by extraction with sulfuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl), and
sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Modern purification techniques for these lanthanoid salt
mixtures are ingenious and involve selective complexation techniques, solvent extractions,
and ion exchange chromatography.[6]
Pure europium is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl3 and NaCl
(or CaCl2) in a graphite cell which acts as cathode, using graphite as anode. The other
product is chlorine gas.
Europium 7
Applications
There are many commercial applications for europium
metal: it has been used to dope some types of glass to
make lasers, as well as for screening for Down
syndrome and some other genetic diseases. Due to its
amazing ability to absorb neutrons, it is also being
studied for use in nuclear reactors. Europium oxide
(Eu2O3) is widely used as a red phosphor in television
sets and fluorescent lamps, and as an activator for
yttrium-based phosphors. Whereas trivalent europium
gives red phosphors, the luminescence of divalent
europium depends on the host lattice, but tends to be
Europium is one of the elements used
on the blue side. The two europium phosphor classes
to make the red color in CRT (red and blue), combined with the yellow/green terbium
televisions. phosphors give "white" light, the color temperature of
which can be varied by altering the proportion or
specific composition of the individual phosphors. This is the phosphor system typically
encountered in the helical fluorescent lightbulbs. Combining the same three classes is one
way to make trichromatic systems in TV and computer screens. It is also being used as an
agent for the manufacture of fluorescent glass. Europium fluorescence is used to
interrogate biomolecular interactions in drug-discovery screens. It is also used in the
anti-counterfeiting phosphors in Euro banknotes. [7]
Europium is commonly included in trace element studies in geochemistry and petrology to

understand the processes that form igneous rocks (rocks that cooled from magma or lava).
The nature of the europium anomaly found is used to help reconstruct the relationships
within a suite of igneous rocks.
Precautions
The toxicity of europium compounds has not been fully investigated, but there are no clear
indications that europium is highly toxic compared to other heavy metals. The metal dust
presents a fire and explosion hazard. Europium has no known biological role.
See also
• Europium anomaly
External links
[8]
• WebElements.com – Europium
• It's Elemental – Europium [9]
Europium 8
References
[2] M. Debessai et al. (2009). "Pressure-Induced Superconducting State of Europium Metal at Low Temperatures".
Phys. Rev. lett. 102: 197002. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.197002 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevLett.
102. 197002).
[3] " Chemical reactions of Europium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ europium/ chemistry. html)".
[4] Search for α decay of natural Europium, P. Belli, R. Bernabei, F. Cappell, R. Cerulli, C.J. Dai, F.A. Danevich, A.
d'Angelo, A. Incicchitti, V.V. Kobychev, S.S. Nagorny, S. Nisi, F. Nozzoli, D. Prosperi, V.I. Tretyak, and S.S.
Yurchenko, Nucl. Phys. A 789, 15 (2007) doi: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2007.03.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j.
nuclphysa. 2007. 03. 001)
[5] ORNL Table of the Nuclides
books?id=Xqj-TTzkvTEC& pg=PA243). McGraw-Hill. pp. 294-295. ISBN 0070494398. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[7] " Europium and the Euro (http:/ / www. smarterscience. com/ eurosandeuropium. html)". . Retrieved
2009-06-06.
[8] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Eu/ index. html

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Gadolinium 1
Gadolinium
64 europium ← gadolinium → terbium

-
↑
Gd
↓
Cm

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number gadolinium, Gd, 64

−1
[Xe] 4f 5d 6s
1 2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1312 °C, 2394 °F)

(3273 °C, 5923 °F)
Vapor pressure (calculated)
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1836 2028 2267 2573 2976 3535
Atomic properties
Gadolinium 2

(more)
2nd: 1170 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 1990 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering ferromagnetic/paramagnetic

[1]
transition at 292 K

1.310 µΩ·m

−1
·K
−1
Thermal expansion (100 °C) (α, poly)

9.4 µm/(m·K)
Main article: Isotopes of gadolinium
152
Gd 0.20% 1.08×1014 y α 2.205 148
Sm
154
Gd 2.18% 154
Gd is stable with 90 neutron
155
Gd 14.80% 155
156
Gd 20.47% 156
157
Gd 15.65% 157
158
Gd 24.84% 158
160
Gd 21.86% >1.3×1021y β−β− 1.7 160
Dy
References
Gadolinium 3
Gadolinium (pronounced /ˌɡædəˈlɪniəm/) is a chemical element that has the symbol Gd and
atomic number 64. It is a silvery-white, malleable and ductile rare-earth metal. Gadolinium
has exceptionally high absorption of neutrons and therefore is used for shielding in neutron
radiography and in nuclear reactors. Because of its paramagnetic properties, solutions of
organic gadolinium complexes and gadolinium compounds are the most popular
intravenous MRI contrast agents in medical magnetic resonance imaging.
Characteristics
Physical
Gadolinium is a silvery-white, malleable and ductile
rare-earth metal. It crystallizes in hexagonal,
close-packed alpha form at room temperature, but,
when heated to temperatures above 1235 °C, it
transforms into its beta form, which has a
body-centered cubic structure.[2]
Gadolinium-157 has the highest thermal neutron

capture cross-section of any known nuclide with the
exception of xenon-135, 49,000 barns, but it also has a
fast burn-out rate, limiting its usefulness as a nuclear
A yellower sample of gadolinium
control rod material.[3]
Gadolinium is strongly paramagnetic at room temperature, and exhibits ferromagnetic
properties below room temperature. Gadolinium demonstrates a magnetocaloric effect
whereby its temperature increases when it enters a magnetic field and decreases when it
leaves the magnetic field. The effect is considerably stronger for the gadolinium alloy
Gd5(Si2Ge2) [4] .
Individual gadolinium atoms have been isolated by encapsulating them into fullerene
molecules and visualized with transmission electron microscope.[5] . Individual Gd atoms
and small Gd clusters have also been incorporated into carbon nanotubes.[6]
Chemical
Unlike other rare earth elements, gadolinium is relatively stable in dry air. However, it
tarnishes quickly in moist air, forming a loosely-adhering oxide which spalls off, exposing
more surface to oxidation.
4 Gd + 3 O2 → 2 Gd2O3
Gadolinium is a strong reducing agent, which reduces oxides of several metals, such as Fe,
Cr, Sn, Pb, Mn and Zr, into their elements.[2] Gadolinium is quite electropositive and reacts
slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form gadolinium hydroxide:
2 Gd (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Gd(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Gadolinium metal reacts with all the halogens at temperature about 200 °C:
2 Gd (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 GdF3 (s) [white]
2 Gd (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 GdCl3 (s) [white]
2 Gd (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 GdBr3 (s) [white]
Gadolinium 4
2 Gd (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 GdI3 (s) [yellow]

Gadolinium dissolves readily in dilute sulphuric acid to form solutions containing the
colorless Gd(III) ions, which exist as a [Gd(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[7]
2 Gd (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Gd3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Gadolinium combines with nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, boron, selenium, silicon
and arsenic at elevated temperatures, forming binary compounds.[2] In those compounds,
Gd mostly exhibit oxidation state +3. Gadolinium(II) halogenides are obtained by annealing
Gd(III) halogenides in presence of metallic Gd in tantalum containers. Gadolinium also form
sesquichloride Gd2Cl3, which can be further reduced to GdCl by annealing at 800 °C. This
gadolinium(I) chloride forms platelets with layered graphite-like structure.[8]
Compounds
Compounds of gadolinium include:
• Fluorides: GdF3
• Chlorides: GdCl3
• Bromides: GdBr3
• Nitrates: Gd(NO3)3
• Iodides: GdI3
• Oxides: Gd2O3
• Sulfides: Gd2S3
• Nitrides: GdN
• Organics: gadodiamide
Isotopes
Naturally occurring gadolinium is composed of 6 stable isotopes, 154Gd, 155Gd, 156Gd,
157
Gd, 158Gd and 160Gd, and 1 radioisotope, 152Gd, with 158Gd being the most abundant
(24.84% natural abundance). The predicted double beta decay of 160Gd has never been
observed (only lower limit on its half-life of more than 1.3×1021 years has been set
experimentally [9] ).
Twenty nine radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being
alpha-decaying 152Gd (naturally occurring) with a half-life of 1.08×1014 years, and 150Gd
with a half-life of 1.79×106 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives
less than 74.7 years. The majority of these have half-lives less than 24.6 seconds.
Gadolinium isotopes have 4 metastable isomers, with the most stable being 143mGd
(T½=110 seconds), 145mGd (T½=85 seconds) and 141mGd (T½=24.5 seconds).
The primary decay mode at atomic masses lower than the most abundant stable isotope,
158
Gd, is electron capture, and the primary mode at higher atomic masses is beta decay.
The primary decay products for isotopes of weights lower than 158Gd are the element Eu
(europium) isotopes and the primary products at higher weights are the element Tb
(terbium) isotopes.
Gadolinium 5
History
In 1880, Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac observed spectroscopic lines
due to gadolinium in samples of didymium and gadolinite; French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq
de Boisbaudran separated gadolinia, the oxide of Gadolinium, from Mosander's yttria in
1886. The element itself was isolated only recently. Gadolinium, like the mineral gadolinite,
is named after Finnish chemist and geologist Johan Gadolin. In older literature, the natural
form of the element is often called an earth, meaning that the element came from Earth.[2]
Occurrence
Gadolinium is never found in nature as the free
element, but is contained in many rare minerals such as
monazite and bastnäsite. It occurs only in trace
amounts in the mineral gadolinite, which was also
named after Johan Gadolin. The abundance in the earth
crust is about 6.2 mg/kg.[2]
Production
Gadolinite
Gadolinium is produced both from monazite and
bastnäsite. Crushed minerals are attacked by
hydrochloric or sulfuric acid that transforms insoluble rare-earth oxides into soluble
chlorides or sulfates. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with caustic soda to pH
3-4. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed. After that the
solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths in to their insoluble
oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in
nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in
HNO3. The solution is treated with magnesium nitrate to produce a crystallized mixture of
double salts of gadolinium, samarium and europium. The salts are separated by ion
exchange. In this process, rare-earth ions are sorbed onto suitable ion-exchange resin by
exchange with hydrogen, ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin. The rare earth ions
are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent.[2]
Gadolinium metal is obtained from its oxide or salts by heating with calcium at 1450 °C
under argon atmosphere. Sponge gadolinium can be produced by reducing molten GdCl3
with an appropriate metal oxide at temperatures below 1312 °C (melting point of Gd) in a
reduced pressure.[2]
Applications
Because of extremely high neutron cross-section of gadolinium, this element is very
effective for use with neutron radiography and in shielding of nuclear reactors. It is used as
a secondary, emergency shut-down measure in some nuclear reactors, particularly of the
CANDU type.[2] Gadolinium is also used in nuclear marine propulsion systems as a burnable
poison.
Gadolinium is an efficient catalyst used for decarboxylation of oxaloacetic acid, convertion
of orto- to para-hydrogen and polymerization of ethylene.[2]
Gadolinium 6
Gadolinium also possesses unusual metallurgic properties, with as little as 1% of

gadolinium improving the workability and resistance of iron, chromium, and related alloys
to high temperatures and oxidation.
Because of their paramagnetic properties, solutions of organic gadolinium complexes and
gadolinium compounds are used as intravenous MRI contrast agent to enhance images in
medical magnetic resonance imaging. Magnevist is the most widespread example.[10]
Beside MRI, gadolinium (Gd) is also
used in other imaging. In X-ray,
gadolinium is contained in the
phosphor layer, suspending in a
polymer matrix at the detector.
Terbium-doped gadolinium oxysulfide
(Gd2O2S: Tb) at the phosphor layer is
to convert the X-rays releasing from Gadolinium-153 helps calibrate positron emission
the source into light. This material tomography (PET) systems that are used in nuclear medicine
for functional imaging. This PET image of the human brain
emits green light at 540 nm due to the
3+ shows the difference between a normal brain and the
presence of Tb , which is very useful clinically depressed patient. The blue color indicates less
for enhancing the imaging quality of glucose metabolism in a normal brain. The green, yellow,
the X-ray that is exposed to the and red colors indicate areas of higher glucose metabolism
[11]
characteristic of a depressed patient.
photographic film. The energy
conversion of Gd is up to 20%, which
means, one-fifth of the X-ray striking on the phosphor layer can be converted into light
photons. Gadolinium oxyorthosilicate (Gd2SiO5, GSO; usually doped by 0.1-1% of Ce) is a
single crystal that is used as a scintillator in medical imaging such as positron emission
tomography or for detecting neutrons.[12]
Gadolinium-153 is produced in a nuclear reactor from elemental europium or enriched

gadolinium targets. It has a half-life of 240±10 days and emits gamma radiation with strong
peaks at 41 keV and 102 keV. It is used in many quality assurance applications, such as line
sources and calibration phantoms, to ensure that nuclear medicine imaging systems
operate correctly and produce useful images of radioisotope distribution inside the
patient.[11] It is also used as a gamma ray source in X-ray absorption measurements or in
bone density gauges for osteoporosis screening, as well as in the Lixiscope portable X-ray
imaging system.[13]
Gadolinium is used for making gadolinium yttrium garnet (Gd3Ga5O12); it has microwave
applications and is used in fabrication of various optical components and as substrate
material for magneto–optical films. Gadolinium compounds are also used for making
phosphors for colour TV tubes, compact discs and computer memory.[14]
Biological role
Gadolinium has no known native biological role, but in research on biological systems it has
a few roles. It is used as a component of MRI contrast agents, as, in the 3+ oxidation state,
the metal has 7 unpaired f electrons. This causes water around the contrast agent to relax
quickly, enhancing the quality of the MRI scan. Second, as a member of the lanthanides, it
is used in various ion channel electrophysiology experiments, where it is used to block
sodium leak channels, as well as to stretch activated ion channels.[15]
Gadolinium 7
Safety
As a free ion, gadolinium is highly toxic but is generally regarded as safe when
administered as a chelated compound. The compounds can be classified by whether they
are macro-cyclic or linear geometry and whether they are ionic or not. Cyclical ionic Gd
compounds being considered the least likely to release the Gd ion and hence the most
safe[16] . US Food and Drug Administration approved Gd chelated contrast agents include:
Omniscan, Multihance, Magnevist, ProHance, Vasovist and OptiMARK.[17]
Gadolinium MRI contrast agents have proved safer than the iodinated contrast agents used
in X-ray radiography or computed tomography. Anaphylactoid reactions are rare, occurring
in approx. 0.03-0.1%.[18]
Although gadolinium agents have proved useful for patients with renal impairment, in
patients with severe renal failure requiring dialysis there is a risk of a rare but serious
illnesses, such as nephrogenic systemic fibrosis[19] and nephrogenic fibrosing
dermopathy[20] , that may be linked to the use of certain gadolinium-containing agents.
Although a causal link has not been definitively established, current guidelines in the
United States are that dialysis patients should only receive gadolinium agents where
essential, and that dialysis should be performed as soon as possible after the scan is
complete, in order to remove the agent from the body promptly.[21]
External links
• WebElements.com – Gadolinium [22]
• Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis – Complication of Gadolinium MR Contrast [23]
• MRI Side Effects and Gadolinium Lawsuits [24]
• It's Elemental – Gadolinium [25]
[26]
• refrigerator uses gadolinium metal that heats up when exposed to magnetic field
• FDA Advisory on Gadolinium-Based Contrast [27]
References
[1] Charles Kittel (1996). Introduction to Solid State Physics. New York: Wiley. p. 449.
[3] " Gadolinium (http:/ / www. ncnr. nist. gov/ resources/ n-lengths/ elements/ gd. html)". Neutron News (NIST) 3
(3): 29. 1992. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[4] Karl Gschneidner, Jr. and Kerry Gibson (2001-12-07). " Magnetic refrigerator successfully tested (http:/ / www.
external. ameslab. gov/ news/ release/ 01magneticrefrig. htm)". Ames Laboratory. . Retrieved 2006-12-17.
[5] Suenaga, Kazu (2003). "Evidence for the Intramolecular Motion of Gd Atoms in a Gd2@C92 Nanopeapod". Nano
Letters 3: 1395. doi: 10.1021/nl034621c (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ nl034621c).
[6] Hashimoto, A; Yorimitsu, H; Ajima, K; Suenaga, K; Isobe, H; Miyawaki, J; Yudasaka, M; Iijima, S; Nakamura, E
(Jun 2004). " Selective deposition of a gadolinium(III) cluster in a hole opening of single-wall carbon nanohorn
(http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=15163794)" (Free full text). Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101 (23): 8527–30. doi:
10.1073/pnas.0400596101 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1073/ pnas. 0400596101). ISSN 0027-8424 (http:/ /
worldcat. org/ issn/ 0027-8424). PMID 15163794. PMC: 423227 (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/
articlerender. fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=423227). . edit (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/
10. 1073. 2fpnas. 0400596101)
[7] " Chemical reactions of Gadolinium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ gadolinium/ chemistry. html)".
160
[9] F. A. Danevich et al., Quest for double beta decay of Gd and Ce isotopes. Nucl. Phys. A 694(2001)375.
Gadolinium 8
[10] Gary Liney (2006). MRI in clinical practice (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xpCffxNrCXYC& pg=PA13).
Springer. pp. 13;30. ISBN 184628161X. .
[11] " Gadolinium-153 (http:/ / radioisotopes. pnl. gov/ gadolinium. stm)". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. .
[12] <Ryzhikov, V. D. (2005). "Use of gadolinium oxyorthosilicate scintillators in x-ray radiometers". Optical
Engineering 44: 016403. doi: 10.1117/1.1829713 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1117/ 1. 1829713).
[13] " Lixi, Inc. (http:/ / www. ndt. net/ news/ lixi. htm)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
0849304814.
[15] Yeung, Ew; Allen, Dg (Aug 2004). "Stretch-activated channels in stretch-induced muscle damage: role in
muscular dystrophy.". Clinical and experimental pharmacology & physiology 31 (8): 551–6. doi:
10.1111/j.1440-1681.2004.04027.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1111/ j. 1440-1681. 2004. 04027. x). ISSN
0305-1870 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 0305-1870). PMID 15298550.
[16] " Questions and Answers on Magnetic resonance imaging (http:/ / www. ismrm. org/ special/ EMEA2. pdf)". .
[17] " Information on Gadolinium-Containing Contrast Agents (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ cder/ drug/ infopage/ gcca/
default. htm)". .
[18] Murphy KJ, Brunberg JA, Cohan RH (01 October 1996). " Adverse reactions to gadolinium contrast media: A
review of 36 cases (http:/ / www. ajronline. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=8819369)". AJR Am J
Roentgenol 167 (4): 847–9. PMID 8819369. .
[19] H.S. Thomsen, S.K. Morcos and P. Dawson (November 2006). "Is there a causal relation between the
administration of gadolinium-based contrast media and the development of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis
(NSF)?". Clinical Radiology 61 (11): 905–6. doi: 10.1016/j.crad.2006.09.003 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j.
crad. 2006. 09. 003).
[20] Grobner T. (2006-01-23). "Gadolinium — a specific trigger for the development of nephrogenic fibrosing
dermopathy and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis?". Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 21 (4): 1104–8. doi:
10.1093/ndt/gfk062 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ ndt/ gfk062). PMID 16431890.
[21] " FDA Public Health Advisory: Gadolinium-containing Contrast Agents for Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(http:/ / www. fda. gov/ cder/ drug/ advisory/ gadolinium_agents. htm)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[22] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Gd/ index. html
[23] http:/ / rad. usuhs. edu/ medpix/ master. php3?mode=slide_sorter& pt_id=10978& quiz=#top
[24] http:/ / gadoliniumsideeffects. com/ index-gadolinium. html
[26] http:/ / www. external. ameslab. gov/ news/ release/ 01magneticrefrig. htm
[27] http:/ / www. fda. gov/ cder/ drug/ infopage/ gcca/ qa_200705. htm

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License
Terbium 1
Terbium
65 gadolinium ← terbium → dysprosium

-
↑
Tb
↓
Bk

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number terbium, Tb, 65

−1
[Xe] 4f 6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1356 °C, 2473 °F)

(3230 °C, 5846 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1789 1979 (2201) (2505) (2913) (3491)
Atomic properties
Terbium 2
Oxidation states 4, 3, 2, 1
(weakly basic oxide)

(more)
2nd: 1110 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2114 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering paramagnetic at 300 K

1.150 µΩ·m

−1
·K
−1

10.3 µm/(m·K)
Main article: Isotopes of terbium
157
Tb syn 71 y ε 0.060 157
Gd
158
Tb syn 180 y ε 1.220 158
Gd
β− 0.937 158
Dy
159
Tb 100% 159
Tb is stable with 94 neutron
References
Terbium (pronounced /ˈtɜrbiəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Tb and atomic
number 65. It is a silvery-white rare earth metal that is malleable, ductile and soft enough
to be cut with a knife. Terbium is never found in nature as a free element, but it is
contained in many minerals, including cerite, gadolinite, monazite, xenotime and euxenite.
Terbium 3
Terbium is used to dope calcium fluoride, calcium tungstate and strontium molybdate,
materials that are used in solid-state devices, and as a crystal stabilizer of fuel cells which
operate at elevated temperatures. As a component of Terfenol-D (an alloy which expands
and contracts in magnetic field more than any other alloy), terbium is of use in actuators, in
naval sonar systems and sensors. Terbium oxide is used in green phosphors in fluorescent
lamps and color TV tubes. Terbium "green" phosphors (which fluoresce a brilliant
lemon-yellow) are combined with divalent Europium blue phosphors and trivalent europium
red phosphors to provide the "trichromatic" lighting technology, which is by far the largest
consumer of the world's terbium supply.
Characteristics
Physical
Terbium is a silvery-white rare earth metal that is malleable, ductile and soft enough to be
cut with a knife. It is reasonably stable in air (it does not tarnish after nineteen months at
room temperature),[1] and two crystal allotropes exist, with a transformation temperature of
1289 °C.[2]
The terbium(III) cation is brilliantly fluorescent, in a bright lemon-yellow color that is the
result of a strong green emission line in combination with other lines in the orange and red.
The yttrofluorite variety of the mineral fluorite owes its creamy-yellow fluorescence in part
to terbium. Terbium easily oxidizes and therefore used as element only for research
purpose. For example, single Tb atoms have been isolated by implanting them into fullerene
molecules.[3]
Terbium has a simple ferromagnetic ordering at temperatures below 219 K. Above 219 K, it
turns into an helical antiferromagnetic state in which all of the atomic moments in a
particular basal plane layer are parallel, and oriented at a fixed angle to the moments of
adjacent layers. This unusual antiferromagnetism transforms into a disordered
(paramagnetic) state at 230 K.[4]
Chemical
The most common valence state of terbium is +3, as in Tb2O3. The +4 state is known in
TbO2 and TbF4.[5] [6] Terbium burns readily to form a mixed terbium(III,IV) oxide:
8 Tb + 7 O2 → 2 Tb4O7
In solution, terbium forms only trivalent ions. Terbium is quite electropositive and reacts
slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form terbium hydroxide:
2 Tb (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Tb(OH)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
Terbium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Tb (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 TbF3 (s) [white]
2 Tb (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 TbCl3 (s) [white]
2 Tb (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 TbBr3 (s) [white]
2 Tb (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 TbI3 (s)
Terbium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the pale pink
Tb(III) ions, which exist as a [Tb(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[7]
2 Tb (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Tb3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Terbium 4
Compounds
Terbium combines with nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, boron, selenium, silicon and
arsenic at elevated temperatures, forming various binary compounds such as TbH2, TBH3,
TbB2, Tb2S3, TbSe, TbTe and TbN.[6] In those compounds, Tb mostly exhibit oxidation
states +3 and sometimes +2. Terbium(II) halogenides are obtained by annealing Tb(III)
halogenides in presence of metallic Tb in tantalum containers. Terbium also form
sesquichloride Tb2Cl3, which can be further reduced to TbCl by annealing at 800 °C. This
terbium(I) chloride forms platelets with layered graphite-like structure.[8]
Other compounds include
• Chlorides: TbCl3
• Bromides: TbBr3
• Iodides: TbI3
• Fluorides: TbF3, TbF4
Terbium(IV) fluoride is a strong fluorinating agent, emitting relatively pure atomic fluorine
when heated[9] rather than the mixture of fluoride vapors emitted from CoF3 or CeF4.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring terbium is composed of 1 stable isotope, 159Tb. 33 radioisotopes have
been characterized, with the most stable being 158Tb with a half-life of 180 years, 157Tb
with a half-life of 71 years, and 160Tb with a half-life of 72.3 days. All of the remaining
radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 6.907 days, and the majority of these
have half-lives that are less than 24 seconds. This element also has 18 meta states, with the
most stable being 156m1Tb (t½ 24.4 hours), 154m2Tb (t½ 22.7 hours) and 154m1Tb (t½ 9.4
hours).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 159Tb, is electron
before 159Tb are element Gd (gadolinium) isotopes, and the primary products after are
element Dy (dysprosium) isotopes.
History
Terbium was discovered in 1843 by Swedish chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, who detected it
as an impurity in Yttrium oxide, Y2O3, and named after the village Ytterby in Sweden. It was
not isolated in pure form until the recent advent of ion exchange techniques.[10]
When Mosander first partitioned "yttria" into three fractions, "terbia" was the fraction that
contained the pink color (due to what is now known as erbium), and "erbia" was the
fraction that was essentially colorless in solution, but gave a brown-tinged oxide. Later
workers had difficulty in observing the latter, but the pink fraction was impossible to miss.
Arguments went back and forth as to whether "erbia" even existed. In the confusion, the
original names got reversed, and the exchange of names stuck. It is now thought that those
workers who used the double sodium or potassium sulfates to remove "ceria" from "yttria"
inadvertently lost the terbium content of the system into the ceria-containing precipitate. In
any case, what is now known as terbium was only about 1% of the original yttria, but that
was sufficient to impart a yellowish color to the oxide. Thus, terbium was a minor
component in the original terbium fraction, dominated by its immediate neighbors,
gadolinium and dysprosium. Thereafter, whenever other rare earths were teased apart from
Terbium 5
this mixture, whichever fraction gave the brown oxide retained the terbium name, until at
last it was pure. The 19th century investigators did not have the benefit of fluorescence
technology, wherewith to observe the brilliant fluorescence that would have made this
element much easier to track in mixtures.[10]
Occurrence
Terbium is never found in nature as a free element, but
it is contained in many minerals, including cerite,
gadolinite, monazite ((Ce,La,Th,Nd,Y)PO4, which
contains up to 0.03% of terbium), xenotime (YPO4) and
euxenite ((Y,Ca,Er,La,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6, which
contains 1% or more of terbium). The crust abundance
of terbium is estimated as 1.2 mg/kg.[6]
The richest current commercial sources of terbium are

the ion-adsorption clays of southern China. The
high-yttrium concentrate versions of these are about Xenotime
two-thirds yttrium oxide by weight, and about 1%
terbia. However, small amounts occur in bastnäsite and monazite, and when these are
processed by solvent-extraction to recover the valuable heavy lanthanides in the form of
"samarium-europium-gadolinium concentrate" (SEG concentrate), the terbium content of
the ore ends up therein. Due to the large volumes of bastnäsite processed, relative to the
richer ion-adsorption clays, a significant proportion of the world's terbium supply comes
from bastnäsite.[2]
Production
Crushed terbium-containing minerals are treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to
produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized
with caustic soda to pH 3-4. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is
removed. After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths in
to their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides
are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide
is insoluble in HNO3. Terbium is separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by
crystallization. [6]
The most efficient separation routine for terbium salt from the rare-earth salt solution is ion
are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent. As with other rare earths,
terbium metal is produced by reducing the anhydrous chloride or fluoride with calcium
metal. Calcium and tantalum impurities can be removed by vacuum remelting, distillation,
amalgam formation or zone melting.[6]
Terbium 6
Applications
Terbium is used to dope calcium fluoride, calcium tungstate and strontium molybdate,
materials that are used in solid-state devices, and as a crystal stabilizer of fuel cells which
operate at elevated temperatures, together with ZrO2.[2]
Terbium is also used in alloys and in the production of electronic devices. As a component
of Terfenol-D, terbium is of use in actuators, in naval sonar systems, sensors, in the
SoundBug device (its first commercial application), and other magnetomechanical devices.
Terfenol-D is an alloy that expands or contracts in the presence of a magnetic field. It has
the highest magnetostriction of any alloy.[11]
Terbium oxide is used in green phosphors in fluorescent lamps and color TV tubes. Sodium
terbium borate is used in solid state devices. The brilliant fluorescence allows terbium to be
used as a probe in biochemistry, where it somewhat resembles calcium in its behavior.
Terbium "green" phosphors (which fluoresce a brilliant lemon-yellow) are combined with
divalent Europium blue phosphors and trivalent europium red phosphors to provide the
"trichromatic" lighting technology, which is by far the largest consumer of the world's
terbium supply. Trichromatic lighting provides much higher light output for a given amount
of electrical energy than does incandescent lighting.[2]
Precautions
As with the other lanthanides, terbium compounds are of low to moderate toxicity, although
their toxicity has not been investigated in detail. Terbium has no known biological role.[2]
See also
External links
[12]
• WebElements.com – Terbium
• It's Elemental – Terbium [13]
pnb:‫میبرٹ‬
References
[1] " Rare-Earth Metal Long Term Air Exposure Test (http:/ / www. elementsales. com/ re_exp/ index. htm)". .
[2] C. R. Hammond, "The Elements", in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81th edition, CRC press.
[3] Shimada, T (2004). "Transport properties of C78, C90 and Dy@C82 fullerenes-nanopeapods by field effect
transistors". Physica E Low-dimensional Systems and Nanostructures 21: 1089. doi:
10.1016/j.physe.2003.11.197 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. physe. 2003. 11. 197). edit (http:/ / en. wikipedia.
org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ 10. 1016. 2fj. physe. 2003. 11. 197)
[4] M. Jackson (2000). " Magnetism of Rare Earth (http:/ / www. irm. umn. edu/ quarterly/ irmq10-3. pdf)". The
IRM quarterly 10 (3): 1. .
[5] D.M. Gruen, W.C. Koehler, and J.J. Katz (April 1951). " Higher Oxides of the Lanthanide Elements: Terbium
Dioxide (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cgi-bin/ abstract. cgi/ jacsat/ 1951/ 73/ i04/ f-pdf/ f_ja01148a020. pdf)" (PDF).
Journal of the American Chemical Society: 1475. .
[7] " Chemical reactions of Terbium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ terbium/ chemistry. html)". Webelements. .
Terbium 7
[9] J.V.Rau; N.S. Chilingarov, M.S. Leskiv, V.F. Sukhoverkhov', V. Rossi Albertini, L.N. Sidorov (2001). Transition
and rare earth metal fluorides as thermal sources of atomic and molecular fluorine.
[10] C. K. Gupta, Nagaiyar Krishnamurthy (2004). Extractive metallurgy of rare earths (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=E1npz8pwmYwC& pg=PA5). CRC Press. p. 5. ISBN 0415333407. .
[11] Rodriguez, C (2009). "New elastomer–Terfenol-D magnetostrictive composites". Sensors and Actuators a
Physical 149: 251. doi: 10.1016/j.sna.2008.11.026 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. sna. 2008. 11. 026).
[12] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Tb/ index. html

Terbium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308846010 Contributors: 2help, Addshore, Ahoerstemeier, AlimanRuna, Anastrophe,
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script, Crystal whacker, Darrien, David Latapie, Dead3y3, DocKrin, Donarreiskoffer, Dycedarg, DÅ‚ugosz, Edgar181, Emperorbma, Evil saltine, Fastily,
FelisSchrödingeris, Femto, Fivemack, Grendelkhan, Grunt, Hankwang, Helge Skjeveland, Heron, Icairns, InfoCan, Iridescent, IvanLanin, Jaan513,
Jaraalbe, Joanjoc, Jose77, Karl-Henner, Keilana, Kelovy, Korath, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, LA2, Laurinavicius, Lexicon, Looxix, Marc Venot,
Materialscientist, Mav, Minesweeper, Mistercow, NCurse, Nergaal, Nlu, PeepP, Plexust, Polyparadigm, Poolkris, Pras, RTC, Remember, Roberta F.,
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License
Dysprosium 1
Dysprosium
66 terbium ← dysprosium → holmium

-
↑
Dy
↓
Cf

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number dysprosium, Dy, 66

−1
Electron configuration [Xe] 4f

10
6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1407 °C, 2565 °F)

(2562 °C, 4653 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1378 1523 (1704) (1954) (2304) (2831)
Atomic properties
Dysprosium 2

(more)
2nd: 1130 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2200 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

−1
·K
−1

9.9 µm/(m·K)
Main article: Isotopes of dysprosium
154
Dy syn 3.0×106y α 2.947 150
Gd
156
Dy 0.06% 1×1018y α ? 152
Gd
158
Dy 0.10% 158
Dy is stable with 92 neutron
160
Dy 2.34% 160
161
Dy 18.91% 161
162
Dy 25.51% 162
163
Dy 24.90% 163
164
Dy 28.18% 164
References
Dysprosium 3
Dysprosium (pronounced /dɪsˈproʊziəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Dy and

atomic number 66. It is a rare earth element with a metallic silver luster. Dysprosium is
never found in nature as a free element, though it is found in various minerals, such as
xenotime. Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of 7 isotopes, the most abundant of
164
which is Dy.
Dysprosium was first identified in 1886 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, but was not
isolated in pure form until the development of ion exchange techniques in the 1950s.
Dysprosium is used for its high thermal neutron absorption cross-section in making control
rods in nuclear reactors, for its high magnetic susceptibility to magnetization in data
storage devices and as a component of Terfenol-D. Soluble dysprosium salts are mildly
toxic, while the insoluble salts are considered non-toxic.
Characteristics
Physical
Dysprosium is a rare earth element that has a metallic, bright silver
luster. It is soft enough to be cut with a knife, and can be machined
without sparking if overheating is avoided. Dysprosium's physical
characteristics can be greatly affected even by small amounts of
impurities. [1] Dysprosium easily oxidizes and therefore used as element
only for research purpose. For example, single Dy atoms have been
isolated by implanting them into fullerene molecules.[2]
Dysprosium and holmium have the highest magnetic strengths of the

Dysprosium sample elements,[3] especially at low temperatures.[4] Dysprosium has a simple
ferromagnetic ordering at temperatures below 85 K. Above 85 K, it
turns into an helical antiferromagnetic state in which all of the atomic moments in a
particular basal plane layer are parallel, and oriented at a fixed angle to the moments of
adjacent layers. This unusual antiferromagnetism transforms into a disordered
(paramagnetic) state at 179 K.[5]
Chemical
Dysprosium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily to form dysprosium(III) oxide:
4 Dy + 3 O2 → 2 Dy2O3
Dysprosium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with
hot water to form dysprosium hydroxide:
2 Dy (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Dy(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Dysprosium metal vigorously reacts with all the halogens at above 200 °C:
2 Dy (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 DyF3 (s) [green]
2 Dy (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 DyCl3 (s) [white]
2 Dy (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 DyBr3 (s) [white]
2 Dy (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 DyI3 (s) [green]
Dysprosium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow
Dy(III) ions, which exist as a [Dy(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[6]
2 Dy (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Dy3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Dysprosium 4
Compounds
Dysprosium halides, such as DyF3 and DyBr3, tend to take on a yellow color. Dysprosium
oxide, also known as dysprosia, is a white powder that is highly magnetic, more so than iron
oxide.[4]
Dysprosium combines with various non-metals at high temperatures to form binary
compounds with varying composition and oxidation states +3 and sometimes +2, such as
DyN, DyP, DyH2 and DyH3; DyS, DyS2, Dy2S3 and Dy5S7; DyB2, DyB4, DyB6 and DyB12, as
well as Dy3C and Dy2C3.[7]
Dysprosium carbonate, Dy2(CO3)3, and dysprosium sulfate, Dy2(SO4)3, result from similar
reactions.[8] Most dysprosium compounds are soluble in water, though dysprosium
carbonate tetrahydrate (Dy2(CO3)3•4H2O) and dysprosium oxalate decahydrate
(Dy2(C2O4)3•10H2O) are both insoluble in water.[9] [10]
Isotopes
Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of 7 isotopes: 156Dy, 158Dy, 160Dy, 161Dy,
162
Dy, 163Dy, and 164Dy. These are all considered stable, although 156Dy decays by alpha
decay with a half-life of over 1×1018 years. Of the naturally occurring isotopes, 164Dy is the
most abundant at 28%, followed by 162Dy at 26%. The least abundant is 156Dy at .06%.[11]
Twenty-nine radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 138 to
173. The most stable of these is 154Dy with a half-life of approximately 3 × 106 years,
followed by 159Dy with a half-life of 144.4 days. The least stable is 138Dy with a half-life of
200 ms. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable isotopes tend to decay primarily by β+
decay, while those that are heavier tend to decay by β- decay, with some exceptions. 154Dy
decays primarily by alpha decay, and 152Dy and 159Dy decay primarily by electron
capture.[11] Dysprosium also has at least 11 metastable isomers, ranging in atomic mass
from 140 to 165. The most stable of these is 165mDy, which has a half-life of 1.257 minutes.
149
Dy has two excitation states, the second of which, 149m2Dy, has a half-life of 28 ns.[11]
History
In 1878, erbium ores were found to contain the oxides of two other rare earths: holmium
and thulium. French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, while working with
holmium oxide, separated dysprosium oxide from it in Paris in 1886.[12] His procedure for
isolating the dysprosium involved dissolving dysprosium oxide in acid, then adding
ammonia to precipitate the hydroxide. He was only able to isolate dysprosium from its oxide
after more than 30 attempts at his procedure. Upon succeeding, he named the element
dysprosium from the Greek dysprositos, meaning "hard to get". However, the element was
not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of ion exchange techniques
by Frank Spedding at Iowa State University in the early 1950s.[3]
In 1950, Glenn T. Seaborg, Albert Ghiorso, and Stanley G. Thompson bombarded 241Am
with helium ions, which produced atoms with an atomic number of 97 and which closely
resembled the neighboring lanthanide terbium. Because terbium was named after Ytterby,
the city in which it and several other elements were discovered, this new element was
named berkelium for the city in which it was synthesized. However, when the research
team synthesized element 98, they could not think of a good analogy for dysprosium, and
instead named the element californium in honor of the state in which it was synthesized.
Dysprosium 5
The research team went on to "point out that, in recognition of the fact that dysprosium is
named on the basis of a Greek word meaning 'difficult to get at,' that the searchers for
another element a century ago found it difficult to get to California."[13]
Occurrence
Dysprosium is never encountered as a free element, but
is found in many minerals, including xenotime,
fergusonite, gadolinite, euxenite, polycrase,
blomstrandine, monazite and bastnäsite; often with
erbium and holmium or other rare earth elements.
Currently, most dysprosium is being obtained from the
ion-adsorption clay ores of southern China. In the
high-yttrium version of these, dysprosium happens to
be the most abundant of the heavy lanthanides,
comprising up to 7–8% of the concentrate (as compared
to about 65% for yttrium).[14] [15] The concentration of
Dy in the Earth crust is about 5.2 mg/kg and in sea
Xenotime
water 0.9 ng/L.[7]
Production
Dysprosium is obtained primarily from monazite sand, a mixture of various phosphates. The
metal is obtained as a by-product in the commercial extraction of yttrium. In isolating
dysprosium, most of the unwanted metals can be removed magnetically or by a flotation
process. Dysprosium can then be separated from other rare earth metals by an ion
exchange displacement process. The resulting dysprosium ions can then react with either
fluorine or chlorine to form dysprosium fluoride, DyF3, or dysprosium chloride, DyCl3.
These compounds can be reduced using either calcium or lithium metals in the following
reactions:[8]
3 Ca + 2 DyF3 → 2 Dy + 3 CaF2
3 Li + DyCl3 → Dy + 3 LiCl
The components are placed in a tantalum crucible and fired in a helium atmosphere. As the
reaction progresses, the resulting halide compounds and molten dysprosium separate due
to differences in density. When the mixture cools, the dysprosium can be cut away from the
impurities.[8]
About 100 tonnes of dysprosium are produced worldwide each year.[16]
Applications
Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with vanadium and other elements, in making laser
materials. Because of dysprosium's high thermal neutron absorption cross-section,
dysprosium oxide-nickel cermets are used in neutron-absorbing control rods in nuclear
reactors.[17] Dysprosium-cadmium chalcogenides are sources of infrared radiation which is
useful for studying chemical reactions.[1] Because dysprosium and its compounds are highly
susceptible to magnetization, they are employed in various data storage applications, such
as in compact discs.[18]
Dysprosium 6
Neodymium-iron-boron magnets can have up to 6% of the neodymium substituted with

dysprosium[19] to raise the coercivity for demanding applications such as drive motors for
hybrid electric vehicles. This substitution would require up to 100 grams of dysprosium per
hybrid car produced. Based on Toyota's projected 2 million units per year, the use of
dysprosium in applications such as this would quickly exhaust the available supply of the
metal.[20] The dysprosium substitution may also be useful in other applications, as it
improves the corrosion resistance of the magnets.[21]
Dysprosium is one of the components of Terfenol-D, along with iron and terbium. Terfenol-D
has the highest room-temperature magnetoresistance of any known material;[22] this
property is employed in transducers, wide-band mechanical resonators,[23] and
high-precision liquid fuel injectors.[24]
Dysprosium is used in dosimeters for measuring
ionizing radiation. Crystals of calcium sulfate or
calcium fluoride are doped with dysprosium. When
these crystals are exposed to radiation, the dysprosium
atoms become excited and luminescent. The
luminescence can be measured to determine the degree
of exposure to which the dosimeter has been
subjected.[3]
Nanofibers of dysprosium compounds have high Nanofibers of dysprosium oxide

strength and large surface area; therefore, they can be fluoride
used for reinforcement of other materials and as a

catalyst. Fibers of dysprosium oxide fluoride can be produced by heating an aqueous
solution of DyBr and NaF to 450 °C at 450 bar pressure for 17 hours. This material is
remarkably robust, surviving over 100 hours in various aqueous solutions at temperatures
exceeding 400 °C without re-dissolving or aggregating.[25] [26] [27]
Precautions
Like many powders, dysprosium powder may present an explosion hazard when mixed with
air and when an ignition source is present. Thin foils of the substance can also be ignited by
sparks or by static electricity. Dysprosium fires cannot be put out by water. It can react
with water to produce flammable hydrogen gas.[28] Dysprosium chloride fires, however, can
be extinguished with water,[29] while dysprosium fluoride and dysprosium oxide are
non-flammable.[30] [31] Dysprosium nitrate, Dy(NO3)3, is a strong oxidizing agent and will
readily ignite upon contact with organic substances.[4]
Soluble dysprosium salts, such as dysprosium chloride and dysprosium nitrate, are mildly
toxic when ingested. The insoluble salts, however, are non-toxic. Based on the toxicity of
dysprosium chloride to mice, it is estimated that the ingestion of 500 grams or more could
be fatal to a human.[3]
Dysprosium 7
See also
• Lanthanoid
External links
[32]
• WebElements.com – Dysprosium
• It's Elemental – Dysprosium [33]
References
[1] Lide, David R., ed (2007–2008). "Dysprosium". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 4. New York: CRC
Press. pp. 11. ISBN 978-0-8493-0488-0.
[2] Shimada, T (2004). "Transport properties of C78, C90 and Dy@C82 fullerenes-nanopeapods by field effect
transistors". Physica E Low-dimensional Systems and Nanostructures 21: 1089. doi:
10.1016/j.physe.2003.11.197 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. physe. 2003. 11. 197). edit (http:/ / en. wikipedia.
org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ 10. 1016. 2fj. physe. 2003. 11. 197)
0-19-850341-5.
[4] Krebs, Robert E. (1998). "Dysprosium". The History and Use of our Earth's Chemical Elements. Greenwood
Press. pp. 234–235. ISBN 0-313-30123-9.
[5] Jackson, Mike (2000). (PDF)IRM Quarterly (Institute for Rock Magnetism) 10 (3): 6. http:/ / www. irm. umn.
edu/ quarterly/ irmq10-3. pdf.
[6] " Chemical reactions of Dysprosium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ dysprosium/ chemistry. html)".
[8] Heiserman, David L. (1992). Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds. TAB Books. pp. 236–238.
ISBN 0-8306-3018-X.
[9] Perry, D. L. (1995). Handbook of Inorganic Compounds. CRC Press. pp. 152–154. ISBN 0-8492-8671-3.
[10] Jantsch, G.; Ohl, A. (1911). "Zur Kenntnis der Verbindungen des Dysprosiums". Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 44 (2): 1274–1280. doi: 10.1002/cber.19110440215 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/
cber. 19110440215).
[11] Audi, G. (2003). "Nubase2003 Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass
2003. 11. 001).
[12] Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran (1886). " L'holmine (ou terre X de M Soret) contient au moins deux
radicaux métallique (Holminia contains at least two metal) (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3058f/
f1001. chemindefer)" (in French). Comptes Rendus 143: 1003–1006. .
[13] Weeks, M. E. (1968). Discovery of the Elements (7 ed.). Journal of Chemical Education. pp. 848–849. ISBN
0848685792. OCLC 23991202 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 23991202).
[14] Naumov, A. V. (2008). " Review of the World Market of Rare-Earth Metals (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/
content/ y8925j378w4u4175/ )". Russian Journal of Non-Ferrous Metals 49 (1): 14–22. .
[15] Gupta, C. K.; Krishnamurthy N. (2005). Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=F0Bte_XhzoAC). CRC Press. ISBN 9780415333405. .
[16] " Dysprosium (Dy) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects (http:/ / www. lenntech. com/
Periodic-chart-elements/ Dy-en. htm)". Lenntech Water treatment & air purification Holding B.V.. 2008. .
[17] Amit, Sinha; Beant Prakash, Sharma (2005). "Development of Dysprosium Titanate Based Ceramics". Journal
of the American Ceramic Society 88 (4): 1064–1066. doi: 10.1111/j.1551-2916.2005.00211.x (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1111/ j. 1551-2916. 2005. 00211. x).
[18] Lagowski, J. J., ed (2004). Chemistry Foundations and Applications. 2. Thomson Gale. pp. 267–268. ISBN
0-02-865724-1.
[19] Shi, Fang, X.; Jiles, Y. (1998). "Modeling of magnetic properties of heat treated Dy-doped NdFeBparticles
bonded in isotropic and anisotropic arrangements". IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 34 (4): 1291–1293. doi:
10.1109/20.706525 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ 20. 706525).
[20] Campbell, Peter (February 2008). " Supply and Demand, Part 2 (http:/ / www. magnetweb. com/ Col05. htm)".
Princeton Electro-Technology, Inc.. .
Dysprosium 8
[21] Yu, L. Q.; Wen, Y. H.; Yan, M. (2004). "Effects of Dy and Nb on the magnetic properties and corrosion
resistance of sintered NdFeB". Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 283 (2-3): 353–356. doi:
10.1016/j.jmmm.2004.06.006 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. jmmm. 2004. 06. 006).
[22] " What is Terfenol-D? (http:/ / etrema-usa. com/ core/ terfenold/ )". ETREMA Products, Inc.. 2003. . Retrieved
2008-11-06.
[23] Kellogg, Rick; Flatau, Alison (May 2004). "Wide Band Tunable Mechanical Resonator Employing the ΔE Effect
of Terfenol-D". Journal of Intelligent Material Systems & Structures (Sage Publications, Ltd) 15 (5): 355–368.
doi: 10.1177/1045389X04040649 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 1045389X04040649).
[24] Leavitt, Wendy (February 2000). " Take Terfenol-D and call me (http:/ / 0-search. ebscohost. com. ilsprod. lib.
neu. edu/ login. aspx?direct=true& db=buh& AN=2869368& site=ehost-live)". Fleet Owner (RODI Power
Systems Inc) 95 (2): 97. . Retrieved 2008-11-06.
[25] " Supercritical Water Oxidation/Synthesis (http:/ / www. pnl. gov/ supercriticalfluid/ tech_oxidation. stm)".
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[26] " Rare Earth Oxide Fluoride: Ceramic Nano-particles via a Hydrothermal Method (http:/ /
availabletechnologies. pnl. gov/ technology. asp?id=152)". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. . Retrieved
2009-06-06.
[27] M.M. Hoffman, J.S. Young, J.L. Fulton (2000). "Unusual dysprosium ceramic nano-fiber growth in a
supercritical aqueous solution". J Mat. Sci. 35: 4177. doi: 10.1023/A:1004875413406 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1023/ A:1004875413406).
[28] Dierks, Steve (January 2003). " Dysprosium (http:/ / www. espi-metals. com/ msds's/ Dysprosium. htm)".
Material Safety Data Sheets. Electronic Space Products International. . Retrieved 2008-10-20.
[29] Dierks, Steve (January 1995). " Dysprosium Chloride (http:/ / www. espi-metals. com/ msds's/ Dysprosium
Chloride. htm)". Material Safety Data Sheets. Electronic Space Products International. . Retrieved 2008-11-07.
[30] Dierks, Steve (December 1995). " Dysprosium Fluoride (http:/ / www. espi-metals. com/ msds's/ Dysprosium
Fluoride. htm)". Material Safety Data Sheets. Electronic Space Products International. . Retrieved 2008-11-07.
[31] Dierks, Steve (November 1988). " Dysprosium Oxide (http:/ / www. espi-metals. com/ msds's/ Dysprosium
Oxide. htm)". Material Safety Data Sheets. Electronic Space Products International. . Retrieved 2008-11-07.
[32] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Dy/ key. html

Dysprosium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308883418 Contributors: 2over0, AWeishaupt, Ahoerstemeier, AlimanRuna, AndonicO,
Andre Engels, Archimerged, Arkuat, Atjesse, Beetstra, Benbest, Betacommand, Bkell, BlueEarth, Borislav Dopudja, BrotherFlounder, Bryan Derksen,
Burntsauce, Carnildo, Chasingsol, Chem-awb, Conversion script, Corbon, Corpx, Cryptic C62, Crystal whacker, Darrien, David Latapie, Decadencecavy,
Donarreiskoffer, Doonhamer, Dysprosia, DÅ‚ugosz, Edgar181, El C, Emperorbma, Everyguy, Evil saltine, Femto, Fivemack, Grendelkhan, Gurch,
Hankwang, Helge Skjeveland, Herbee, Icairns, Ivan05, IvanLanin, J.delanoy, Jaan513, Jaraalbe, Joanjoc, Jose77, Karl-Henner, Kelovy, KnightLago,
Kurykh, Kwamikagami, LA2, LarryMorseDCOhio, Lloydpick, Looxix, Mac, Marc Venot, Materialscientist, Mav, Mbruck, Melchoir, Michael Devore,
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License
Holmium 1
Holmium
67 dysprosium ← holmium → erbium

-
↑
Ho
↓
Es

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number holmium, Ho, 67

−1

11
6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1461 °C, 2662 °F)

(2720 °C, 4928 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1432 1584 (1775) (2040) (2410) (2964)
Atomic properties
Holmium 2
Oxidation states 3
(basic oxide)

(more)
2nd: 1140 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2204 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous
Electrical resistivity (r.t.) (poly) 814 nΩ·m

−1
·K
−1

11.2 µm/(m·K)
Poisson ratio 0.231
Main article: Isotopes of holmium
163
Ho syn 4570 yr ε 0.003 163
Dy
164
Ho syn 29 min ε 0.987 164
Dy
165
Ho 100% 165
Ho is stable with 98 neutron
166
Ho syn 26.763 h β− 1.855 166
Er
167
Ho syn 3.1 h β− 1.007 167
Er
References
Holmium (pronounced /ˈhoʊlmiəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Ho and atomic
number 67. Part of the lanthanide series, holmium is a relatively soft and malleable
silvery-white metallic element, which is stable in dry air at room temperature. A rare earth
metal, it is found in the minerals monazite and gadolinite. Holmium has the highest
magnetic strength of any element and therefore is used for the polepieces of the strongest
Holmium 3
static magnets. Because holmium can absorb nuclear fission-bred neutrons, it is also used
in nuclear control rods.
Characteristics
Physical
Holmium is a relatively soft and malleable element that
is fairly corrosion-resistant and stable in dry air at
standard temperature and pressure. In moist air and at
higher temperatures, however, it quickly oxidizes,
forming a yellowish oxide. In pure form, holmium
possesses a metallic, bright silvery luster.
Holmium oxide has some fairly dramatic color changes

depending on the lighting conditions. In daylight, it is a
tannish yellow color. Under trichromatic light, it is a
fiery orange red, almost indistinguishable from the way
Ho2O3, left: natural light, right: erbium oxide looks under this same lighting. This is
fluorescent lamp light related to the sharp emission bands of the phosphors.[1]
A trivalent metallic rare earth element, holmium has the highest magnetic moment (10.6
µB) of any naturally-occurring element and possesses other unusual magnetic properties.
When combined with yttrium, it forms highly magnetic compounds.[2]
Chemical
Holmium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily to form holmium(III) oxide:
4 Ho + 3 O2 → 2 Ho2O3
Holmium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with
hot water to form holmium hydroxide:
2 Ho (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Ho(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Holmium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Ho (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 HoF3 (s) [pink]
2 Ho (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 HoCl3 (s) [yellow]
2 Ho (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 HoBr3 (s) [yellow]
2 Ho (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 HoI3 (s) [yellow]
Holmium dissolves readily in dilute sulphuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow
Ho(III) ions, which exist as a [Ho(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[3]
2 Ho (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Ho3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Holmium 4
Isotopes
Natural holmium contains one stable isotope, holmium-165. Some synthetic radioactive
isotopes are known, the most stable one is holmium-163, with a half life of 4570 years. All
other radioisotopes have ground-state half lives not greater than 1.117 days, and most have
half lives under 3 hours. However, the metastable 166m1Ho has a half life of around 1200
years because of its high spin. This fact, combined with a high excitation energy resulting in
a particularly rich spectrum of decay gamma rays produced when the metastable state
de-excites, makes this isotope useful in nuclear physics experiments as a means for
calibrating energy responses and intrinsic efficiencies of gamma ray spectrometers.
History
Holmium (Holmia, Latin name for Stockholm) was discovered by Marc Delafontaine and
Jacques-Louis Soret in 1878 who noticed the aberrant spectrographic absorption bands of
the then-unknown element (they called it "Element X").[4] [5] Later in 1878, Per Teodor
Cleve independently discovered the element while he was working on erbia earth (erbium
oxide).[6] [7]
Using the method developed by Carl Gustaf Mosander, Cleve first removed all of the known
contaminants from erbia. The result of that effort was two new materials, one brown and
one green. He named the brown substance holmia (after the Latin name for Cleve's home
town, Stockholm) and the green one thulia. Holmia was later found to be the holmium oxide
and thulia was thulium oxide.[8]

Like all other rare earths, holmium is not naturally
found as a free element. It does occur combined with
other elements in the minerals gadolinite, monazite,
and in other rare-earth minerals. The main mining
areas are China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka
and Australia with reserves of holmium estimated as
400,000 tonnes.[8]
It is commercially extracted via ion-exchange from

monazite sand (0.05% holmium) but is still difficult to Gadolinite
separate from other rare earths. The element has been
isolated through the reduction of its anhydrous chloride or fluoride with metallic calcium.[9]
Its estimated abundance in the Earth's crust is 1.3 mg/kg. Holmium obeys the
Oddo-Harkins rule: as an odd-numbered element, it is less abundant than its immediate
even numbered neighbors, dysprosium and erbium. However, it is the most abundant of the
odd-numbered heavy lanthanides. The principal current source are some of the
ion-adsorption clays of southern China. Some of these have a rare-earth composition similar
to that found in xenotime or gadolinite. Yttrium makes up about two-thirds of the total by
weight; holmium is around 1.5%. The original ores themselves are very lean, maybe only
0.1% total lanthanide, but are easily extracted.[10] Holmium is relatively inexpensive for a
rare-earth metal with the price about US$ 1000 per kg.[11]
Holmium 5
Applications
Holmium has the highest magnetic strength of any
element and therefore is used to create the strongest
artificially-generated magnetic fields, when placed
within high-strength magnets as a magnetic pole piece
(also called a magnetic flux concentrator). Since it can
absorb nuclear fission-bred neutrons, it is also used in
nuclear control rods.[8]
Holmium is used in yttrium-iron-garnet (YIG) and A solution of 4% holmium oxide in 10%

perchloric acid, permanently fused into
yttrium-lanthanum-fluoride (YLF) solid state lasers
a quartz cuvette as an optical
found in microwave equipment (which are in turn found calibration standard
in a variety of medical and dental settings). Holmium
lasers emit at 2.08 microns and therefore are safe to eyes. They are used in medical, dental
and fiber-optical applications.[2]
Holmium is one of the colorants used for cubic zirconia and glass, providing yellow or red
coloring.[12] Glass containing holmium oxide and holmium oxide solutions (usually in
perchloric acid) have sharp optical absorption peaks in the spectral range 200-900 nm.
They are therefore used as a calibration standard for optical spectrophotometers[13] and
are available commercially.[14]
The radioactive but long-lived Ho-166m1 (see "Isotopes" above) is used in calibration of
gamma ray spectrometers.[15]
Precautions
The element, as with other rare earths, appears to have a low degree of acute toxicity.
Holmium plays no biological role in humans but may be able to stimulate metabolism.[9]
See also
• Holmium compounds
References
[1] Su, Yiguo (2008). "Hydrothermal Synthesis of GdVO4:Ho3+ Nanorods with a Novel White-light Emission".
Chemistry Letters 37: 762. doi: 10.1246/cl.2008.762 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1246/ cl. 2008. 762).
[3] " Chemical reactions of Holmium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ holmium/ chemistry. html)".
[4] Jacques-Louis Soret (1878). " Sur les spectres d'absorption ultra-violets des terres de la gadolinite (http:/ /
gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3043m/ f1124. table)". Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences 87: 1062. .
[5] Jacques-Louis Soret (1879). " Sur le spectre des terres faisant partie du groupe de l'yttria (http:/ / gallica. bnf.
fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3046j/ f550. table)". Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences 89: 521. .
[6] Per Teodor Cleve (1879). " Sur deux nouveaux éléments dans l'erbine (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/
bpt6k3046j/ f432. table)". Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences 89: 478. .
[7] Per Teodor Cleve (1879). " Sur l'erbine (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3046j/ f759. table)". Comptes
rendus de l'Académie des sciences 89: 708. .
[8] John Emsley (2001). Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Yhi5X7OwuGkC& pg=PA181). US: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182. ISBN 0198503415. .
0849304814.
Holmium 6
[11] James B. Hedrick. " Rare-Earth Metals (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ rare_earths/
740798. pdf)". USGS. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[12] " Cubic zirconia (http:/ / www. geologyrocks. co. uk/ tutorials/ cubic_zirconia)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[13] R. P. MacDonald (1964). " Uses for a Holmium Oxide Filter in Spectrophotometry (http:/ / www. clinchem.
org/ cgi/ reprint/ 10/ 12/ 1117. pdf)". Clinical Chemistry 10: 1117. .
[14] " Holmium Glass Filter for Spectrophotometer Calibration (http:/ / www. labshoponline. com/
holmium-glass-filter-spectrophotometer-calibration-p-88. html)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[15] Ming-Chen Yuan, Jeng-Hung Lee and Wen-Song Hwang (2002). "The absolute counting of 166mHo, 58Co and
88
Y". Applied Radiation and Isotopes 56: 424. doi: 10.1016/S0969-8043(01)00226-3 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1016/ S0969-8043(01)00226-3).
• Guide to the Elements – Revised Edition, Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press;
1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
External links
• WebElements.com – Holmium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/
text/ Ho/ index. html) (also used as a reference)
• American Elements – Holmium (http:/ / www. americanelements. com/ hoinfo3. htm) (also
used as a reference)

Holmium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=307225762 Contributors: ABF, AWeishaupt, Abu-Fool Danyal ibn Amir al-Makhiri,
Addshore, Ahoerstemeier, AlimanRuna, Archimerged, Arkuat, AzaToth, Bananamanttm69, Beetstra, Bill-on-the-Hill, Bimston, BlueEarth, Borislav
Dopudja, Bryan Derksen, CanisRufus, Century0, Conversion script, Cool3, Cygfrydd Llewellyn, Cyp, Darrien, David Latapie, Dbenbenn, Donarreiskoffer,
DrBob, Drmies, Dysprosia, Edgar181, Emperorbma, FaerieInGrey, Femto, Geneb1955, Grendelkhan, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Helge Skjeveland, HexaChord,
IWhisky, Icairns, Ideyal, IvanLanin, J.delanoy, Jaan513, Jaraalbe, Jdrewitt, Joanjoc, Karl-Henner, Kwamikagami, LA2, LilHelpa, Looxix, Loren.wilton,
Marc Venot, Marsa Lahminal, Materialscientist, Mav, MichaelMaggs, Minesweeper, Nergaal, Nihiltres, Pedant, Plexust, Poolkris, Quadell, RTC,
Remember, Riana, Roberta F., Romanm, Rursus, Saperaud, Sbharris, Schneelocke, Sengkang, Sl, Smallweed, Steve Hart, Stifynsemons, Stone, THEN
WHO WAS PHONE?, Tagishsimon, Tetracube, Tevildo, The Firewall, Versus22, Vsmith, Wrenchelle, Yekrats, Yyy, 134 anonymous edits

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License
Erbium 1
Erbium
68 holmium ← erbium → thulium

-
↑
Er
↓
Fm

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number erbium, Er, 68

−1

12
6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1529 °C, 2784 °F)

(2868 °C, 5194 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1504 1663 (1885) (2163) (2552) (3132)

Erbium 2
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 3
(basic oxide)

(more)
2nd: 1150 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2194 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous
Electrical resistivity (r.t.) (poly) 0.860 µΩ·m

−1
·K
−1

12.2 µm/(m·K)
Poisson ratio 0.237
Erbium 3
Main article: Isotopes of erbium

160
Er syn 28.58 h ε 0.330 160
Ho
162
Er 0.139% 162
Er is stable with 94 neutron
164
Er 1.601% 164
165
Er syn 10.36 h ε 0.376 165
Ho
166
Er 33.503% 166
167
Er 22.869% 167
168
Er 26.978% 168
169
Er syn 9.4 d β
− 0.351 169
Tm
170
Er 14.910% 170
171
Er syn 7.516 h β
− 1.490 171
Tm
172
Er syn 49.3 h β
− 0.891 172
Tm
References
Erbium (pronounced /ˈɜrbiəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Er and atomic
number 68. A rare, silvery, white metallic lanthanide, erbium is solid in its normal state. It
is a rare earth element associated with several other rare elements in the mineral
gadolinite from Ytterby in Sweden.
Characteristics
Physical
A trivalent element, pure erbium metal is malleable (or easily shaped), soft yet stable in air,
and does not oxidize as quickly as some other rare-earth metals. Its salts are rose-colored,
and the element has characteristic sharp absorption spectra bands in visible light,
ultraviolet, and near infrared. Otherwise it looks much like the other rare earths. Its
sesquioxide is called erbia. Erbium's properties are to a degree dictated by the kind and
amount of impurities present. Erbium does not play any known biological role, but is
thought to be able to stimulate metabolism.[1] Erbium-doped glasses or crystals can be used
as optical amplification media, where erbium ions are optically pumped at around 980 nm
or 1480 nm and then radiate light at 1550 nm. This process can be used to create lasers
and optical amplifiers. The 1550 nm wavelength is especially important for optical
communications because standard single mode optical fibers have minimal loss at this
particular wavelength. A large variety of medical applications can be found (i.e.
dermatology, dentistry) by utilizing the 2940 nm emission (see Er:YAG laser) which is
highly absorbed in water (absorption coefficient about 12000/cm).
Erbium is ferromagnetic below 19 K, antiferromagnetic between 19 and 80 K and
paramagnetic above 80 K [2] .
Erbium 4
Erbium can form propeller-shaped atomic clusters Er3N, where the distance between the
erbium atoms is 0.35 nm. Those clusters can be isolated by encapsulating them into
fullerene molecules, as confirmed by transmission electron microscopy.[3]
Chemical
Erbium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily to form erbium(III) oxide:
4 Er + 3 O2 → 2 Er2O3
Erbium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot
water to form erbium hydroxide:
2 Er (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Er(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Erbium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Er (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 ErF3 (s) [pink]
2 Er (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 ErCl3 (s) [violet]
2 Er (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 ErBr3 (s) [violet]
2 Er (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 ErI3 (s) [violet]
Erbium dissolves readily in dilute sulphuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow
Er(III) ions, which exist as a [Er(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[4]
2 Er (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Er3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Isotopes
Naturally occurring erbium is composed of 6 stable isotopes, Er-162, Er-164, Er-166,
Er-167, Er-168, and Er-170 with Er-166 being the most abundant (33.503% natural
abundance). 29 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Er-169
with a half-life of 9.4 days, Er-172 with a half-life of 49.3 hours, Er-160 with a half-life of
28.58 hours, Er-165 with a half-life of 10.36 hours, and Er-171 with a half-life of 7.516
hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 3.5 hours,
and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 4 minutes. This element also has
13 meta states, with the most stable being Er-167m (t½ 2.269 seconds).[5]
The isotopes of erbium range in atomic weight from 142.9663 u (Er-143) to 176.9541 u
(Er-177). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Er-166, is
electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products
before Er-166 are element 67 (holmium) isotopes, and the primary products after are
element 69 (thulium) isotopes.[5]
History
Erbium (for Ytterby, a town in Sweden) was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1843.
Mosander separated "yttria" from the mineral gadolinite into three fractions which he
called yttria, erbia, and terbia. He named the new element after the town of Ytterby where
large concentrations of yttria and erbium are located. Erbia and terbia, however, were
confused at this time. After 1860, terbia was renamed erbia and after 1877 what had been
known as erbia was renamed terbia. Fairly pure Er2O3 was independently isolated in 1905
by Georges Urbain and Charles James. Reasonably pure metal wasn't produced until 1934
when Klemm and Bommer reduced the anhydrous chloride with potassium vapor. It was
only in the 1990s that the price for Chinese-derived erbium oxide became low enough for
Erbium 5
erbium to be considered for use as a colorant in art glass.[6]
Occurrence
Like other rare earths, this element is never found as a
free element in nature but is found bound in monazite
sand ores. It has historically been very difficult and
expensive to separate rare earths from each other in
their ores but ion-exchange production techniques
developed in the late 20th century have greatly brought
down the cost of production of all rare-earth metals and
their chemical compounds. The principal commercial
sources of erbium are from the minerals xenotime and
Monazite sand
euxenite, and most recently, the ion adsorption clays of
southern China. In the high-yttrium versions of these
ore concentrates, yttrium is about two-thirds of the total by weight, and erbia is about
4-5%. This is enough erbium to impart a distinct pink color to the solution when the
concentrate is dissolved in acid. This color behavior is highly similar to what Mosander and
the other early workers in the lanthanides would have seen, in their extracts from Ytterby
gadolinite. The concentration of erbium in the Earth crust is about 2.8 mg/kg and in the sea
water 0.9 ng/L.[7]
Production
Crushed minerals are attacked by hydrochloric or sulfuric acid that transforms insoluble
rare-earth oxides into soluble chlorides or sulfates. The acidic filtrates are partially
neutralized with caustic soda to pH 3-4. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide
and is removed. After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare
earths in to their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The
oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose
oxide is insoluble in HNO3. The solution is treated with magnesium nitrate to produce a
crystallized mixture of double salts of rare-earth metals. The salts are separated by ion
are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent.[7] Erbium metal is obtained
from its oxide or salts by heating with calcium at 1450 °C under argon atmosphere.[7]
Erbium 6
Applications
Erbium's everyday uses are varied. It is commonly used as a photographic filter, and
because of its resilience it is useful as a metallurgical additive. Other uses:
• Used in nuclear technology as a nuclear poison, as in neutron-absorbing control rods.[1]
[8]
• When added to vanadium as an alloy, erbium lowers hardness and improves

workability.[9]
• Erbium oxide has a pink color, and is sometimes used as a colorant for glass, cubic
zirconia and porcelain. The glass is then often used in sunglasses and cheap jewelry.[9]
• Erbium-doped optical silica-glass fibers are the active element in erbium-doped fiber
amplifiers (EDFAs), which are widely used in optical communications.[10] The same fibers
can be used to create fiber lasers. Co-doping of optical fiber with Er and Yb is used in
high-power Er/Yb fiber lasers, which gradually replace CO2 lasers for metal welding and
cutting applications. Erbium can also be used in erbium-doped waveguide amplifiers.[1]
• An erbium-nickel alloy Er3Ni has an unusually high specific heat capacity at liquid-helium
temperatures and is used in cryocoolers; a mixture of 65% Er3Co and 35% Er0.9Yb0.1Ni
by volume improves the specific heat capacity even more.[11] [12]
Precautions
As with the other lanthanides, erbium compounds are of low to moderate toxicity, although
their toxicity has not been investigated in detail. Metallic erbium in dust form presents a
fire and explosion hazard.
See also
• Erbium compounds
• Terbium
• Ytterbium
• Yttrium
Further reading
1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
External links
• WebElements.com – Erbium [13] (also used as a reference)
• It's Elemental – Erbium [14]
• Chemical Elements: Erbium http:/ / www. chemicalelements. com/ elements/ er. html
pnb:‫میبرا‬
Erbium 7
References
[1] Emsley, John (2001). " Erbium (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC)". Nature's Building
Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 136–139. ISBN
0-19-850340-7. .
[3] Yuta Sato,; Kazu Suenaga,; Shingo Okubo; Toshiya Okazaki,; Sumio Iijima (2007). "Structures of D5d-C80 and
Ih-Er3N@C80 Fullerenes and Their Rotation Inside Carbon Nanotubes Demonstrated by Aberration-Corrected
Electron Microscopy". Nano Letters 7: 3704. doi: 10.1021/nl0720152 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/
nl0720152).
[4] " Chemical reactions of Erbium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ erbium/ chemistry. html)". Webelements. .
nuclphysa. 2003. 11. 001).
[6] Aaron John Ihde (1984). The development of modern chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=34KwmkU4LG0C& pg=PA377& ). Courier Dover Publications. p. 378-379. ISBN 0486642356. .
[8] edited by Theodore A. Parish, Vyacheslav V. Khromov, Igor Carron. (1999). " Use of UraniumErbium and
PlutoniumErbium Fuel in RBMK Reactors (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=aamn7uifb3gC)". Safety issues
associated with Plutonium involvement in the nuclear fuel cycle. CBoston: Kluwer. pp. 121–125. ISBN
9780792355939. .
0849304814.
[10] P.C. Becker, N.A. Olsson, J.R. Simpson ; (1999). Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers fundamentals and technology
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=de& lr=& id=uAOq75yt5CcC). San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN
9780120845903. .
[11] Peter Kittel, ed. Advances in Cryogenic Engineering volume 39a.
[12] Ackermann, Robert A. (1997). Cryogenic Regenerative Heat Exchangers (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=nIzviZ_-_NsC). Springer. p. 58. ISBN 9780306454493. .
[13] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Er/ index. html

Erbium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308121748 Contributors: 2over0, A new name 2008, AWeishaupt, Agateller, Ahoerstemeier,
AlimanRuna, Archimerged, Arkuat, Beetstra, Bergsten, Betacommand, Bettia, BillC, BlueEarth, Bobo192, Bryan Derksen, Californium-256,
Cmdrjameson, Conversion script, Coppertwig, DMacks, Darrien, David Latapie, Donarreiskoffer, DrBob, Easwarno1, Eddideigel, Edgar181, El C, Elf,
Emperorbma, Encyclopedia77, Femto, Fivemack, Flava flav snap it, Flowanda, Geni, Goatasaur, Grendelkhan, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Hankwang, Heron, Icairns,
Ideyal, IvanLanin, J.delanoy, Jaan513, Jaraalbe, Jerry teps, Jessesaurus, Karelj, Karl-Henner, Kristaga, Kwamikagami, LA2, Leafyplant, Lexicon,
Lightmouse, Lukay 79, Magnus Manske, Marc Venot, Materialscientist, Mav, Mentifisto, Minesweeper, MxM, Nergaal, Nick Y., Nihiltres, Pharaoh of the
Wizards, Plexust, Poolkris, Quadell, QueenCake, RTC, Remember, Res2216firestar, Reza kalani, Roberta F., Romanm, Saga City, Saperaud, Schneelocke,
Sl, Srleffler, Steve Hart, Stifynsemons, Stone, Suisui, Tagishsimon, Tetracube, The Anome, Turk oğlan, UnHoly, Versus22, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vsmith,
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Thulium 1
Thulium
69 erbium ← thulium → ytterbium

-
↑
Tm
↓
Md

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number thulium, Tm, 69
Appearance silvery gray

−1

13
6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1545 °C, 2813 °F)

(1950 °C, 3542 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1117 1235 1381 1570 (1821) (2217)
Atomic properties

Thulium 2
(basic oxide)

(more)
2nd: 1160 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2285 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

−1
·K
−1

13.3 µm/(m·K)
Poisson ratio 0.213
Main article: Isotopes of thulium

167
Tm syn 9.25 d ε 0.748 167
Er
168
Tm syn 93.1 d ε 1.679 168
Er
169
Tm 100% 169
Tm is stable with 100 neutron
170
Tm syn 128.6 d β− 0.968 170
Yb
171
Tm syn 1.92 y β− 0.096 171
Yb
References
Thulium (pronounced /ˈθjuːliəm/) is a chemical element that has the symbol Tm and atomic
number 69. Thulium is the least abundant of the lanthanides (promethium is less abundant
than thulium, but it is not found naturally on Earth). It is an easily workable metal with a
bright silvery-gray luster and can be cut by a knife. Despite its high price and rarity,
thulium is used as radiation source in portable X-ray devices and in solid-state lasers.
Thulium 3
Properties
Physical
Pure thulium metal has a bright, silvery luster. It is reasonably stable in air, but should be
protected from moisture. The metal is soft, malleable, and ductile, and can be cut with a
knife.[1] Thulium is ferromagnetic below 32 K, antiferromagnetic between 32 and 56 K and
paramagnetic above 56 K [2] .
Chemical
Thulium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily at 150 °C to form thulium(III) oxide:
4 Tm + 3 O2 → 2 Tm2O3
Thulium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with
hot water to form thulium hydroxide:
2 Tm (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Tm(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Thulium reacts with all the halogens at temperatures. Reactions are slow at room
temperature, but are vigorous above 200 °C:
2 Tm (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 TmF3 (s) [white]
2 Tm (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 TmCl3 (s) [yellow]
2 Tm (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 TmBr3 (s) [white]
2 Tm (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 TmI3 (s) [yellow]
Thulium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the pale green
Tm(III) ions, which exist as a [Tm(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[3]
2 Tm (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Tm3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Thulium reacts with various metallic and non-metallic elements forming a range of binary
compounds, including TmN, TmS, TmC2, Tm2C3, TmH2, TmH3, TmSi2, TmGe3, TmB4, TmB6
and TmB12. In those compounds, thulium exhibits valence states +2, +3 and +4, however,
the +3 state is most common and only this state has been observed in Tm solutions.[4]
Isotopes
Naturally occurring thulium is composed of one stable isotope, Tm-169 (100% natural
abundance). Thirty one radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being
Tm-171 with a half-life of 1.92 years, Tm-170 with a half-life of 128.6 days, Tm-168 with a
half-life of 93.1 days, and Tm-167 with a half-life of 9.25 days. All of the remaining
radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 64 hours, and the majority of these
have half-lives that are less than 2 minutes. This element also has 14 meta states, with the
most stable being Tm-164m (t½ 5.1 minutes), Tm-160m (t½ 74.5 seconds) and Tm-155m (t½
45 seconds).
The isotopes of thulium range in atomic weight from 145.966 u (Tm-146) to 176.949 u
(Tm-177). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Tm-169, is
electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay products
before Tm-169 are element 68 (erbium) isotopes, and the primary products after are
element 70 (ytterbium) isotopes.[5]
Thulium 4
History
Thulium was discovered by Swedish chemist Per Teodor Cleve in 1879 by looking for
impurities in the oxides of other rare earth elements (this was the same method Carl Gustaf
Mosander earlier used to discover some other rare earth elements). Cleve started by
removing all of the known contaminants of erbia (Er2O3). Upon additional processing, he
obtained two new substances; one brown and one green. The brown substance turned out
to be the oxide of the element holmium and was named holmia by Cleve, and the green
substance was the oxide of an unknown element. Cleve named the oxide thulia and its
element thulium after Thule, Scandinavia. In 1911, Theodore William Richards performed
15,000 recrystallizations of thulium bromate to obtain pure sample of the element and so to
accurately determine its atomic weight.[6]
Thulium was so rare that none of the early workers had enough of it to purify sufficiently to
actually see the green color; they had to be content with spectroscopically observing the
strengthening of the two characteristic absorption bands, as erbium was progressively
removed. The first researcher to obtain nearly pure thulium was Charles James, a British
expatriate working on a large scale at New Hampshire College in Durham NH. In 1911 he
reported his results, having used his discovered method of bromate fractional
crystallization to do the purification. He famously needed 15,000 "operations" to establish
that the material was homogeneous.[7]
High-purity thulium oxide was first offered commercially in the late 1950s, as a result of the
adoption of ion-exchange separation technology. Lindsay Chemical Division of American
Potash & Chemical Corporation offered it in grades of 99% and 99.9% purity. The price has
oscillated between US$ 4,600 and 13,300 in the period from 1959 to 1998 for 99.9% purity,
and it was second highest for lanthanides behind lutetium.[8] [9]

The element is never found in nature in pure form, but
it is found in small quantities in minerals with other
rare earths. Its abundance in the Earth crust is
0.5 mg/kg.[6] Thulium is principally extracted from
monazite (~0.007% thulium) ores found in river sands,
through ion-exchange. Newer ion-exchange and
solvent-extraction techniques have led to easier
separation of the rare earths, which has yielded much
lower costs for thulium production. The principal
sources today are the ion adsorption clays of southern
China. In these, where about two-thirds of the total
rare-earth content is yttrium, thulium is about 0.5% (or about tied with lutetium for rarity).
The metal can be isolated through reduction of its oxide with lanthanum metal or by
calcium reduction in a closed container. None of thulium's natural compounds are
commercially important.[1]
Thulium 5
Applications
Rare and expensive, thulium has few applications:
Laser
Holmium-chromium-thulium triple-doped YAG (Ho:Cr:Tm:YAG, or Ho,Cr,Tm:YAG) is an
active laser medium material with high efficiency. It lases at 2097 nm and is widely used in
military, medicine, and meteorology. Single-element thulium-doped YAG (Tm:YAG) lasers
operate between 1930 and 2040 nm.[10] The wavelength of thulium-based lasers is very
efficient for superficial ablation of tissue, with minimal coagulation depth in air or in water.
This makes thulium lasers attractive for laser-based surgery.[11]
X-ray source
Despite its high cost, portable X-ray devices use thulium that has been bombarded in a
nuclear reactor as a radiation source. These sources are available for about one year, as
tools in medical and dental diagnosis, as well as to detect defects in inaccessible
mechanical and electronic components. Such sources do not need extensive radiation
protection - only a small cup of lead. [12]
Others
Thulium has been used in high temperature superconductors similarly to yttrium. Thulium
potentially has use in ferrites, ceramic magnetic materials that are used in microwave
equipment.[12]
Biological role and precautions

Thulium has no known biological role, although it has been noted that it stimulates
metabolism. Soluble thulium salts are regarded as slightly toxic if taken in large amounts,
but the insoluble salts are non-toxic. Thulium is not taken up by plant roots to any extend
and thus does not get into the human food chain. Vegetables typically contain only one
milligram of thulium per tonne (dry weight).[6]
See also
• Thulium compounds
External links
[13]
• WebElements.com – Thulium (also used as a reference)
• It's Elemental – Thulium [14]
pnb:‫میلھت‬
References
0849304814.
[3] " Chemical reactions of Thulium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ thulium/ chemistry. html)". Webelements. .
Thulium 6
books?id=Xqj-TTzkvTEC& pg=PA934). McGraw-Hill. p. 934. ISBN 0070494398. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[5] Lide, David R. (1998). "Section 11, Table of the Isotopes". Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87 ed.). Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 0849305942.
books?id=Yhi5X7OwuGkC& pg=PA442). US: Oxford University Press. pp. 442-443. ISBN 0198503415. .
[7] James, Charles (1911). "Thulium I". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 33 (8): 1332–1344. doi: 10.1021/ja02221a007 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ja02221a007).
[9] Stephen B. Castor and James B. Hedrick. " Rare Earth Elements (http:/ / www. rareelementresources. com/ i/
pdf/ RareEarths-CastorHedrickIMAR7. pdf)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[10] Walter Koechner (2006). Solid-state laser engineering (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=RK3jK0XWjdMC& pg=PA49& ). Springer. p. 49. ISBN 038729094X. .
[11] Frank J. Duarte (2008). Tunable laser applications (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FCDPZ7e0PEgC&
pg=PA214& ). CRC Press. p. 214. ISBN 1420060090. .
[13] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Tm/ index. html

Thulium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308396809 Contributors: A2Kafir, AWeishaupt, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, AlimanRuna,
Archimerged, Arex, Baccyak4H, Bryan Derksen, CDN99, Conversion script, Cryptic C62, Darrien, David Latapie, DerHexer, Donarreiskoffer, Dysprosia,
Edgar181, El C, Emperorbma, Femto, Flauto Dolce, Greatpatton, Grendelkhan, Gurch, Guyseni, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Heron, Icairns, Icelight, Ideyal, Ilikeverin,
IvanLanin, J.delanoy, Jaan513, Jaraalbe, Jcw69, Jediknil, Jimfbleak, Joanjoc, Karelj, Kelovy, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, LA2, LarryMorseDCOhio, Levil,
LilHelpa, Lradrama, Marc Venot, Materialscientist, Mav, Michaelbarreto, Midgley, Minesweeper, Nergaal, Netkinetic, Nihiltres, Oosh, Oxymoron83,
PeepP, Picapica, Plexust, Poolkris, Quiddity, RTC, Rallette, Remember, RexNL, Reyk, Riana, Rjwilmsi, Roberta F., Romanm, Saperaud, Schneelocke,
Shen, Silverhill, Skyramp, Sl, Steve Hart, Stifynsemons, Stone, Svante, Tagishsimon, Tanada, Tetracube, Tonybaloney867, Ugochukwu14, Vsmith, Warut,
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License
Ytterbium 1
Ytterbium
70 thulium ← ytterbium → lutetium

-
↑
Yb
↓
No

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number ytterbium, Yb, 70

−1

14
6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(824 °C, 1515 °F)

(1196 °C, 2185 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 736 813 910 1047 (1266) (1465)
Atomic properties

Ytterbium 2
(basic oxide)

(more)
2nd: 1174.8 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2417 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (r.t.) (β, poly)

0.250 µΩ·m

−1
·K
−1
Thermal expansion (r.t.) (β, poly)

26.3 µm/(m·K)
Young's modulus (β form) 23.9 GPa
Shear modulus (β form) 9.9 GPa
Bulk modulus (β form) 30.5 GPa
Poisson ratio (β form) 0.207
Ytterbium 3
Main article: Isotopes of ytterbium

166
Yb syn 56.7 h ε 0.304 166
Tm
168
Yb 0.13% 168
Yb is stable with 98 neutron
169
Yb syn 32.026 d ε 0.909 169
Tm
170
Yb 3.04% 170
171
Yb 14.28% 171
172
Yb 21.83% 172
173
Yb 16.13% 173
174
Yb 31.83% 174
175
Yb syn 4.185 d β
− 0.470 175
Lu
176
Yb 12.76% 176
177
Yb syn 1.911 h β
− 1.399 177
Lu
References
Ytterbium (pronounced /ɨˈtɝːbiəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Yb and atomic
number 70. A soft silvery metallic element, ytterbium is a rare earth of the lanthanide
series and is found in the minerals gadolinite, monazite, and xenotime. The element is
sometimes associated with yttrium or other related elements and is used in certain steels.
Natural ytterbium is a mix of seven stable isotopes. Ytterbium-169, an artificially produced
isotope, is used as a gamma ray source.
Characteristics
Physical
Ytterbium is a soft, malleable and rather ductile element that exhibits a bright silvery
luster. A rare earth element, it is easily attacked and dissolved by mineral acids, slowly
reacts with water, and oxidizes in air.[2]
Ytterbium has three allotropes which are called alpha, beta and gamma and whose
transformation points are at −13 °C and 795 °C. The beta form exists at room temperature
and has a face-centered crystal structure while the high-temperature gamma form has a
body-centered crystal structure.[2]
Normally, the beta form has a metallic-like electrical conductivity, but becomes a
semiconductor when exposed to around 16,000 atm (1.6 GPa). Its electrical resistivity is
tenfold larger at about 39,000 atm (3.9 GPa) but then drops dramatically, to around 10% of
its room temperature resistivity value, at 40,000 atm (4 GPa).[2] [3]
Contrary to other rare-earth metals, which show antiferromagnetic or/and ferromagnetic
ordering at low temperatures, Yb is paramagnetic at any temperatures above 1 K.[4]
Ytterbium 4
Chemical
Ytterbium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily at 200 °C to form ytterbium(III)
oxide (Yb2O3) or less stable ytterbium monoxide (YbO).
Ytterbium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with
hot water to form ytterbium hydroxide:
2 Yb (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Yb(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Ytterbium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Yb (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 YbF3 (s) [white]
2 Yb (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 YbCl3 (s) [white]
2 Yb (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 YbBr3 (s) [white]
2 Yb (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 YbI3 (s) [white]
Ytterbium(III) ion absorbs light in the near infrared spectral range, but not in the visible
region, so that ytterbia is white, and ytterbium salts of colorless anions are also colorless.
Ytterbium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless
Yb(III) ions, which exist as a [Yb(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[5]
2 Yb (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Yb3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Compounds
Ytterbium shows similar chemical behavior to the rest of the lanthanoid group. Most of the
compounds are found in the oxidation state +3, the salts in that oxidation state are nearly
colorless. Like europium, samarium or thulium trihalogenes can be reduced by hydrogen or
by addition of the metal reduced to the dihalogens, in this case the for example YbCl2. The
oxidation state +2 reacts in some behalves similar to the alkaline earth metal compounds,
for example the Ytterbium(II) oxide (YbO) shows the same structure than calcium oxide
(CaO).[6]
• Halides: YbCl2, YbBr3, YbCl3, YbF3
• Oxides: Yb2O3
Isotopes
Naturally occurring ytterbium is composed of 7 stable isotopes, Yb-168, Yb-170, Yb-171,
Yb-172, Yb-173, Yb-174, and Yb-176, with Yb-174 being the most abundant (31.83% natural
abundance). 27 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Yb-169
with a half-life of 32.026 days, Yb-175 with a half-life of 4.185 days, and Yb-166 with a
half-life of 56.7 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less
than 2 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 20 minutes. This
element also has 12 meta states, with the most stable being Yb-169m (t½ 46 seconds).
The isotopes of ytterbium range in atomic weight from 147.9674 u (Yb-148) to 180.9562 u
(Yb-181). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Yb-174 is
electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay products
before Yb-174 are element 69 (thulium) isotopes, and the primary products after are
element 71 (lutetium) isotopes. Of interest to modern quantum optics, the different
ytterbium isotopes follow either Bose-Einstein statistics or Fermi-Dirac statistics, leading to
interesting behavior in optical lattices.
Ytterbium 5
History
Ytterbium was discovered by the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in the
year 1878. Marignac found a new component in the earth then known as erbia and named it
ytterbia (after Ytterby, the Swedish town where he found the new erbia component). He
suspected that ytterbia was a compound of a new element he called ytterbium.[3]
In 1907, the French chemist Georges Urbain separated Marignac's ytterbia into two
components, neoytterbia and lutecia. Neoytterbia would later become known as the
element ytterbium and lutecia would later be known as the element lutetium. Auer von
Welsbach independently isolated these elements from ytterbia at about the same time but
called them aldebaranium and cassiopeium.[3]
The chemical and physical properties of ytterbium could not be determined until 1953 when
the first nearly pure ytterbium was produced.[3] The price of ytterbium was relatively stable
between 1953 and 1998 at about US$ 1,000/kg.[7]
Occurrence
Ytterbium is found with other rare earth elements in
several rare minerals. It is most often recovered
commercially from monazite sand (0.03% ytterbium).
The element is also found in euxenite and xenotime.
The main mining areas are China, United States, Brazil,
India, Sri Lanka and Australia; and reserves of
ytterbium are estimated as about one million tonnes.
Ytterbium is normally difficult to separate from other
rare earths, but ion-exchange and solvent extraction
Euxenite
techniques developed in the mid to late 20th century
have simplified separation. Known compounds of
ytterbium are rare—they haven't been well characterized yet. The abundance of ytterbium
in the Earth crust is about 3 mg/kg.[3]
The most important current (2008) sources of ytterbium are the ionic adsorption clays of
southern China. The "High Yttrium" concentrate derived from some versions of these
comprise about two thirds yttria by weight, and 3-4% ytterbia. As an even-numbered
lanthanide, in accordance with the Oddo-Harkins rule, ytterbium is significantly more
abundant than its immediate neighbors, thulium and lutetium, which occur in the same
concentrate at levels of about 0.5% each. The world production of ytterbium is only about
50 tonnes per year, reflecting the fact that it finds little commercial application.[3]
Production
Recovery of ytterbium from ores involves several processes which are common to most
rare-earth elements: 1) processing, 2) separation of Yb from other rare earths, 3)
preparation of the metal. If the starting ore is gadolinite, it is digested with hydrochloric or
nitric acid which dissolves the rare-earth metals. The solution is treated with sodium
oxalate or oxalic acid to precipitate rare earths as oxalates. For euxenite, or is processed
either by fusion with potassium bisulfate or with hydrofluoric acid. Monazite or xenotime
are heated either with sulfuric acid or with caustic soda.
Ytterbium 6
Ytterbium is separated from other rare earths either by ion exchange or by reduction with
sodium amalgam. In the latter method, a buffered acidic solution of trivalent rare earths is
treated with molten sodium mercury alloy, which reduces and dissolves Yb3+. The alloy is
treated with hydrochloric acid. The metal is extracted from the solution as oxalate and
converted to oxide by heating. The oxide is reduced to metal by heating with lanthanum,
aluminium, cerium or zirconium in high vacuum. The metal is purified by sublimation and
collected over a condensed plate.[8]
Applications
Source of gamma rays

The 169Yb isotope has been used as a radiation source substitute for a portable X-ray
machine when electricity was not available. Like X-rays, gamma rays pass through soft
tissues of the body, but are blocked by bones and other dense materials. Thus, small 169Yb
samples (which emit gamma rays) act like tiny X-ray machines useful for radiography of
small objects. Experiment shows that radiographs taken with 169Yb source are roughly
equivalent to those taken with X-rays having energies between 250 and 350 keV.[9]
Doping of stainless steel

Ytterbium could also be used to help improve the grain refinement, strength, and other
mechanical properties of stainless steel. Some ytterbium alloys have been used in
dentistry.[2] [3]
Yb as dopant of active media

Yb is used as dopant in optical materials, usually in the form of ions in active laser media.
Several powerful double-clad fiber lasers and disk lasers use Yb3+ ions as dopant at
concentration of several atomic percent. Glasses (optical fibers), crystals and ceramics with
Yb3+ are used.[10]
Ytterbium is often used as a doping material (as Yb3+) for high power and
wavelength-tunable solid state lasers. Yb lasers commonly radiate in the 1.06–1.12 µm band
being optically pumped at wavelength 900 nm–1 µm, dependently on the host and
application. Small quantum defect makes Yb prospective dopant for efficient lasers and
power scaling.[11]
The kinetic of excitations in Yb-doped materials is simple and can be described within
concept of effective cross-sections; for the most of Yb-doped laser materials (as for many
other optically-pumped gain media), the McCumber relation holds,[12] [10] [13] although the
application to the Yb-doped composite materials was under discussion.[14] [15]
Usually, low concentrations of Yb are used. At high concentration of excitations, the
Yb-doped materials show photodarkening[16] (glass fibers) or ever switch to the broadband
emission [17] (crystals and ceramics) instead of the efficient laser action. This effect may be
related with not only overheating, but also conditions of the charge compensation at high
concentration of Yb ions.[18]
Ytterbium 7
Others
Ytterbium metal increases its electrical resistivity when subjected to high stresses. This
property is used in stress gauges to monitor ground deformations from earthquakes and
explosions.[19]
Precautions
Although ytterbium is fairly stable, it nevertheless should be stored in closed containers to
protect it from air and moisture. All compounds of ytterbium should be treated as highly
toxic although initial studies appear to indicate that the danger is limited. Ytterbium
compounds are, however, known to cause skin and eye irritation and may be
teratogenic.[20] Metallic ytterbium dust poses a fire and explosion hazard.[21]
See also
• Erbium
• Terbium
• Yttrium
Further reading
1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
• It's Elemental – Ytterbium [22]
External links
[23]
• WebElements.com – Ytterbium (also used as a reference)
References
[1] M. Jackson "Magnetism of Rare Earth" The IRM quaterly col. 10, No. 3, p. 1, 2000 (http:/ / www. irm. umn.
0849304814.
[3] John Emsley (2003). Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements (http:/ / books. google. co. jp/
books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC). Oxford University Press. pp. 492–494. ISBN 0198503407. .
[4] M. Jackson "Magnetism of Rare Earth" The IRM quarterly col. 10, No. 3, p. 1, 2000 (http:/ / www. irm. umn.
[5] " Chemical reactions of Ytterbium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ ytterbium/ chemistry. html)".
[6] Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; (1985). "Die Lanthanoide" (in German). Lehrbuch der
Anorganischen Chemie (91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1265–1279. ISBN 3-11-007511-3.
[9] R. Halmshaw (1995). Industrial radiology: theory and practice (http:/ / books. google. co. jp/
books?id=wJqBSA1exqoC& ). Springer. pp. 168–169. ISBN 0412627809. .
[10] D. Kouznetsov; J.-F. Bisson, K. Takaichi, K. Ueda (2005). " Single-mode solid-state laser with short wide
unstable cavity (http:/ / josab. osa. org/ abstract. cfm?id=84730)". JOSAB 22 (8): 1605–1619. doi:
10.1364/JOSAB.22.001605 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1364/ JOSAB. 22. 001605). .
[11] Grukh, Dmitrii A (2004). "Broadband radiation source based on an ytterbium-doped fibre with
fibre-length-distributed pumping". Quantum Electronics 34: 247. doi: 10.1070/QE2004v034n03ABEH002621
Ytterbium 8
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1070/ QE2004v034n03ABEH002621).

[12] D. E. McCumber (1964). "Einstein relations connecting broadband emission and absorption spectra". Physical
Review B 136 (4A): 954–957. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.136.A954 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 136.
A954).
[13] P. C. Becker, N. A. Olson, J. R. Simpson. (1999). Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers: fundamentals and theory.
Academic press.
[14] D. Kouznetsov (2007). "Comment on Efficient diode-pumped Yb:Gd2SiO5 laser". Applied Physics Letters 90:
066101. doi: 10.1063/1.2435309 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 2435309).
[15] Guangjun Zhao; Liangbi Su, Jun Xu, Heping Zeng (2007). "Response to Comment on Efficient diode-pumped
Yb:Gd2SiO5 laser". Applied Physics Letters 90: 066103. doi: 10.1063/1.2435314 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/
1. 2435314).
[16] Joona J. Koponen; Mikko J. Söderlund, Hanna J. Hoffman, and Simo K. T. Tammela (2006). "Measuring
photodarkening from single-mode ytterbium doped silica fibers". Optics Express 14 (24): 11539–11544. doi:
10.1364/OE.14.011539 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1364/ OE. 14. 011539).
[17] J.-F. Bisson; D. Kouznetsov, K. Ueda, S. T. Fredrich-Thornton, K. Petermann, G. Huber (2007). "Switching of
emissivity and photoconductivity in highly doped Yb3+:Y2O3 and Lu2O3 ceramics". Applied Physics Letters 90:
[18] N. V. Sochinskii; M. Abellan, J. Rodriguez-Fernandez, E. Saucedo, C. M. Ruiz, V. Bermudez (2007). "Effect of
Yb concentration on the resistivity and lifetime of CdTe:Ge:Yb codoped crystals". Applied Physics Letters 91
(20): 202112. doi: 10.1063/1.2815644 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 2815644).
[20] Gale, Tf (Jun 1975). "The embryotoxicity of ytterbium chloride in golden hamsters.". Teratology 11 (3):
289–95. doi: 10.1002/tera.1420110308 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ tera. 1420110308). ISSN 0040-3709
(http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 0040-3709). PMID 807987.
[21] " Material safety data sheet (http:/ / www. espi-metals. com/ msds's/ ytterbium. pdf)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[23] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Yb/ index. html

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Lutetium 1
Lutetium
71 ytterbium ← lutetium → hafnium

Y
↑
Lu
↓
Lr

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number lutetium, Lu, 71
Group, Period, Block n/a, 6, d

−1
[Xe] 6s 4f
14
5d
1
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1652 °C, 3006 °F)

(3402 °C, 6156 °F)
Heat of fusion ca. 22 kJ·mol−1
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1906 2103 2346 (2653) (3072) (3663)
Atomic properties
Lutetium 2
Oxidation states 3

(more)
2nd: 1340 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2022.3 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1
Thermal expansion (r.t.) (poly) 9.9 µm/(m·K)
Poisson ratio 0.261
Main article: Isotopes of lutetium
173
Lu syn 1.37 y ε 0.671 173
Yb
174
Lu syn 3.31 y ε 1.374 174
Yb
175
Lu 97.41% 175
Lu is stable with 104 neutron
176
Lu 2.59% 3.78×1010y β− 1.193 176
Hf
References
Lutetium (pronounced /ljuːˈtiːʃiəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Lu and atomic
number 71. A silvery-white rare metal, lutetium has the smallest atomic radius and is the
heaviest and hardest member of the rare-earth group. One of its radioactive isotopes
(176Lu) is used in nuclear technology to determine the age of meteorites. Lutetium usually
occurs in association with yttrium and is sometimes used in metal alloys and as a catalyst in
various chemical reactions. A strict correlation between periodic table blocks and chemical
series for neutral atoms would describe lutetium as a transition metal because it is in the
d-block, but it is a lanthanide according to IUPAC.[2] Lutetium is one of the rarest and is the
Lutetium 3
most expensive rare-earth element.
Characteristics
Physical
Lutetium is a silvery white corrosion-resistant trivalent metal. It has the smallest atomic
radius and is the heaviest and hardest of the rare earth elements.[3] Lutetium has the
highest melting point of any lanthanide, probably related to the lanthanide contraction.
Chemical
Lutetium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily at 150 °C to form lutetium(III)
oxide:
4 Lu + 3 O2 → 2 Lu2O3
Lutetium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with
hot water to form lutetium hydroxide:
2 Lu (s) + 6 H2O (g) → 2 Lu(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Lutetium metal reacts with all the halogens to form halides:
2 Lu (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 LuF3 (s)
2 Lu (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 LuCl3 (s)
2 Lu (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 LuBr3 (s)
2 Lu (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 LuI3 (s)
The fluoride, chloride, and bromide are white, whereas the iodide is brown.
Lutetium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless
lutetium(III) ions, which exist as a [Lu(OH2)9]3+ complex:[4]
2 Lu (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Lu3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Compounds
In all its compounds, lutetium occurs in +3 valence state. Aqueous solutions of most Lu
salts are colorless and form white crystalline solids upon drying. The soluble salts, such as
chloride (LuCl3), bromide (LuBr3), iodide (LuI3), nitrate, sulfate and acetate form hydrates
upon crystallization. The oxide (Lu2O3), hydroxide, fluoride (LuF3), carbonate, phosphate
and oxalate are insoluble in water.[5]
Lutetium tantalate (LuTaO4) is the densest known stable white material (density 9.81
g/cm3)[6] and therefore is an ideal host for X-ray phosphors.[7] [8] Thoria is more dense (10
g/cm3) and is also white, but radioactive.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring lutetium is composed of 1 stable isotope 175Lu (97.41% natural
abundance) and 1 long-lived beta-radioactive isotope 176Lu with a half-life of 3.78×1010
years (2.59% natural abundance). The last one is used in radiometric dating (see
Lutetium-hafnium dating). 33 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable
being naturally occurring 176Lu, and artificial isotopes 174Lu with a half-life of 3.31 years,
and 173Lu with a half-life of 1.37 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have
half-lives that are less than 9 days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less
Lutetium 4
177m
than half an hour. This element also has 18 meta states, with the most stable being Lu
(T½=160.4 days), 174mLu (T½=142 days) and 178mLu (T½=23.1 minutes).
The known isotopes of lutetium range in atomic weight from 149.973 (150Lu) to 183.961
(184Lu). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 175Lu, is
electron capture (with some alpha and positron emission), and the primary mode after is
beta emission. The primary decay products before 175Lu are element 70 (ytterbium)
isotopes and the primary products after are element 72 (hafnium) isotopes.
History
Lutetium (Latin Lutetia meaning Paris) was independently discovered in 1907 by French
scientist Georges Urbain,[9] Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach, and
American chemist Charles James. [10] All of these men found lutetium as an impurity in the
mineral ytterbia which was thought by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac
(and most others) to consist entirely of the element ytterbium.
The separation of lutetium from Marignac's ytterbium was first described by Urbain and the
naming honor therefore went to him. He chose the names neoytterbium (new ytterbium)
and lutecium for the new element but neoytterbium was eventually reverted back to
ytterbium and in 1949 the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium.
The dispute on the priority of the discovery is documented in two articles in which Urbain
and von Welsbach accuse each other of publishing results influenced by the published
research of the other.[11] [12]
The Commission on Atomic Mass, which was responsible for the attribution of the names
for the new elements, settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and
adopting his names as official ones. An obvious problem with this decision was that Urbain
was one of the four members of the commission.[13]
Welsbach proposed the names cassiopium for element 71 (after the constellation
Cassiopeia) and aldebaranium for the new name of ytterbium but these naming proposals
were rejected (although many German scientists in the 1950s called the element 71
cassiopium). The irony of all this is that Charles James, who had modestly stayed out of the
argument as to priority, worked on a much larger scale than the others, and undoubtedly
possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time.[14]

Lutetium 5
Found with almost all other rare-earth metals but never

by itself, lutetium is very difficult to separate from
other elements. The principal commercially viable ore
of lutetium is the rare earth phosphate mineral
monazite: (Ce, La, etc.) PO4 which contains 0.003% of
the element. The abundance of lutetium in the Earth
crust is only about 0.5 mg/kg. The main mining areas
are China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka and
Australia. The world production of lutetium (in the form
of oxide) is about 10 tonnes per year.[14] Pure lutetium
metal has only relatively recently been isolated and is Monazite
very difficult to prepare. It is one of the rarest and most
expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US$ 10,000 per kg.[15] [16]
Crushed minerals are treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble
sulfates of rare earths. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed.
After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths in to their
insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are
dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is
insoluble in HNO3. Several rare earth metals, including Lu, are separated as a double salt
with ammonium nitrate by crystallization. Lutetium is separated by ion exchange. In this
process, rare-earth ions are sorbed onto suitable ion-exchange resin by exchange with
hydrogen, ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin. Lutetium salts are then selectively
washed out by suitable complexing agent. Lutetium metal is then obtained by reduction of
anhydrous LuCl3 or LuF3 by either an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal.[5]
2 LuCl3 → 2 Lu + 3 CaCl2
Applications
Because of the rarity and high price, lutetium has very few commercial uses. However,
stable lutetium can be used as catalysts in petroleum cracking in refineries and can also be
used in alkylation, hydrogenation, and polymerization applications.
Some other applications include:
• Lutetium-176 (176Lu) has been used to date the age of meteorites.[17]
• Lutetium aluminium garnet (Al5Lu3O12) has been proposed for use as a lens material in
high refractive index immersion lithography.[18]
• Lutetium-177 (177Lu), when bound to Octreotate (a somatostatin analogue), is used
experimentally in targeted radionuclide therapy for neuroendocrine tumours.[19]
• Cerium-doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) is currently the preferred compound for
detectors in positron emission tomography (PET.) [20] [21]
• Use as a pure beta emitter, using lutetium which has been exposed to neutron activation.
A tiny amount of lutetium is added as a dopant to gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG),
which is used in magnetic bubble memory devices.[22]
Lutetium 6
Precautions
Like other rare-earth metals, lutetium is regarded as having a low degree of toxicity but it
and especially its compounds should be handled with care nonetheless. Metal dust of this
element is a fire and explosion hazard. Lutetium plays no biological role in the human body.
References
0849304814. .
[2] " IUPAC Provisional Recommendations for the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (online draft of an
updated version of the "Red Book" IR 3-6) (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ reports/ provisional/ abstract04/
connelly_310804. html)". 2004. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[3] Parker, Sybil P. (1984). Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
[4] " Chemical reactions of Lutetium (https:/ / www. webelements. com/ lutetium/ chemistry. html)". Webelements.
. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[6] Blasse, G (1994). "Luminescence of materials based on LuTaO4". Journal of Alloys and Compounds 209: 1. doi:
10.1016/0925-8388(94)91069-3 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0925-8388(94)91069-3). edit (http:/ / en.
wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ 10. 1016. 2f0925-8388. 2894. 2991069-3)
[7] Shigeo Shionoya (1998). Phosphor handbook (http:/ / books. google. co. jp/ books?id=lWlcJEDukRIC&
pg=PA846). CRC Press. p. 846. ISBN 0849375606. .
[9] M. G. Urbain (1908). " Un nouvel élément, le lutécium, résultant du dédoublement de l'ytterbium de Marignac
(http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3099v/ f759. table)". Comptes rendus 145: 759–762. .
[10] " Separation of Rare Earth Elements (http:/ / acswebcontent. acs. org/ landmarks/ landmarks/ rareearth/
discovery. html)". .
[11] C. Auer v. Welsbach (1908). "Die Zerlegung des Ytterbiums in seine Elemente". Monatshefte für Chemie 29
(2): 181–225. doi: 10.1007/BF01558944 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF01558944).
[12] G. Urbain (1909). "Lutetium und Neoytterbium oder Cassiopeium und Aldebaranium -- Erwiderung auf den
Artikel des Herrn Auer v. Welsbach". Monatshefte für Chemie 31 (10): I. doi: 10.1007/BF01530262 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF01530262).
[13] F. W. Clarke, W. Ostwald, T. E. Thorpe, G. Urbain (1909). "Bericht des Internationalen
Atomgewichts-Ausschusses für 1909". Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 42 (1): 11–17. doi:
books?id=Yhi5X7OwuGkC& pg=PA241). US: Oxford University Press. pp. 240–242. ISBN 0198503415. .
[16] Stephen B. Castor and James B. Hedrick. " Rare Earth Elements (http:/ / www. rareelementresources. com/ i/
pdf/ RareEarths-CastorHedrickIMAR7. pdf)". . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[17] Muriel Gargaud, Hervé Martin, Philippe Claeys (2007). Lectures in Astrobiology (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=3uYmP0K5PXEC& pg=PA52). Springer. p. 51. ISBN 3540336923. .
[18] Yayi Wei, Robert L. Brainard (2009). Advanced Processes for 193-NM Immersion Lithography (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=Sx39H8XR1FcC& pg=PA12). SPIE Press. p. 12. ISBN 0819475572. .
[19] Helmut Sigel (2004). Metal complexes in tumor diagnosis and as anticancer agents (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=ZtRdbUNbPn8C& pg=PA98). CRC Press. p. 98. ISBN 0824754948. .
[20] Wahl RL (2002). "Instrumentation". Principles and Practice of Positron Emission Tomography. Philadelphia:
Lippincott: Williams and Wilkins. p. 51.
[21] Daghighian, F. Shenderov, P. Pentlow, K.S. Graham, M.C. Eshaghian, B. Melcher, C.L. Schweitzer, J.S.
(1993). "Evaluation of cerium doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO)scintillation crystals for PET". Nuclear
Science 40 (4): 1045–1047. doi: 10.1109/23.256710 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ 23. 256710).
[22] J. W. Nielsen, S. L. Blank, D. H. Smith, G. P. Vella-Coleiro, F. B. Hagedorn, R. L. Barns and W. A. Biolsi
(1974). "Three garnet compositions for bubble domain memories". Journal of Electronic Materials 3 (3):
Lutetium 7
• Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition, Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998)
ISBN 0-19-508083-1
External links
• WebElements.com - Lutetium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/
text/ Lu/ index. html) (also used as a reference)
• It's Elemental - Lutetium (http:/ / education. jlab. org/ itselemental/ ele071. html)
• pure Lutetium >99,9% picture in the element collection from Heinrich Pniok (http:/ /
www. pse-mendelejew. de/ bilder/ lu. jpg)
• Lutetium (http:/ / www. mrteverett. com/ Chemistry/ pdictable/ q_elements.
asp?Symbol=Lu)
pnb:‫میتیتل‬

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Hafnium 1
Hafnium
72 lutetium ← hafnium → tantalum

Zr
↑
Hf
↓
Rf

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number hafnium, Hf, 72
Appearance steel grey

−1

14 2
5d 6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid
Liquid density at m.p. 12 g·cm−3

(2233 °C, 4051 °F)

(4603 °C, 8317 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2689 2954 3277 3679 4194 4876
Atomic properties
Hafnium 2
(amphoteric oxide)

(more)
2nd: 1440 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2250 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Poisson ratio 0.37
Mohs hardness 5.5
Main article: Isotopes of hafnium
172
Hf syn 1.87 y ε 0.350 172
Lu
174
Hf 0.162% 2×1015 y α 2.495 170
Yb
176
Hf 5.206% 176
Hf is stable with 104 neutron
177
Hf 18.606% 177
178
Hf 27.297% 178
178m2
Hf syn 31 y IT 2.446 178
Hf
179
Hf 13.629% 179
180
Hf 35.1% 180
182
Hf syn 9×106 y β− 0.373 182
Ta
Hafnium 3
References
Hafnium (pronounced /ˈhæfniəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Hf and atomic
number 72. A lustrous, silvery gray, tetravalent transition metal, hafnium chemically
resembles zirconium and is found in zirconium minerals. Its existence was predicted by
Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. Hafnium was the second-to-last element of those with stable
isotopes to be discovered. It was found by Dirk Coster and Georg von Hevesy in 1923 in
Copenhagen, Denmark, and named Hafnia after the Latin name for "Copenhagen".
Hafnium is used in filaments, electrodes, and some semiconductor fabrication processes for
integrated circuits at 45 nm and smaller feature lengths. Its large neutron capture
cross-section makes hafnium a good material for neutron absorption in control rods in
nuclear power plants. Some superalloys used for special applications contain hafnium in
combination with niobium, titanium, or tungsten.
History
In his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical
Elements, in 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev had implicitly
predicted the existence of a heavier analog of titanium
and zirconium. At the time of his formulation in 1871,
Mendeleev believed that the elements were ordered by
their atomic masses and placed lanthanum (element 57)
in the spot below zirconium. The exact placement of the
elements and the location of missing elements was done
by determining the specific weight of the elements and
comparing the chemical and physical properties.[2]
The X-ray spectroscopy done by Henry Moseley in 1914

The hafnium seal of the Faculty of
showed a direct dependency between spectral line and
Science of the University of
effective nuclear charge. This led to the nuclear charge,
Copenhagen
or atomic number of an element, being used to
ascertain its place within the periodic table. With this
method, Moseley determined the number of lanthanoids and showed the gaps in the atomic
number sequence at numbers 43, 61, 72, and 75.[3]
The discovery of the gaps led to an extensive search for the missing elements. In 1914,
several people claimed the discovery after Henry Moseley predicted the gap in the periodic
table for the then-undiscovered element 72.[4] Georges Urbain asserted that he found
element 72 in the rare earth elements in 1907 and published his results on celtium in
1911.[5] Neither the spectra nor the chemical behavior matched with the element found
later, and therefore his claim was turned down after a long standing controversy.[6] The
controversy was partly due to the fact that the chemists favored the chemical techniques
which lead to the discovery of celtium, while the physicists relied on the use of the new
X-ray spectroscopy method that proved that the substances discovered by Urbain did not
contain element 72.[6] By early 1923, several physicists and chemists such as Niels Bohr[7]
and Charles R. Bury[8] suggested that element 72 should resemble zirconium and therefore
was not part of the rare earth elements group. These suggestions were based on Bohr's
theories of the atom, the X-ray spectroscopy of Mosley, and the chemical arguments of
Friedrich Paneth.[9]
Hafnium 4
Encouraged by these suggestions and by the reappearance in 1922 of Urbain's claims that
element 72 was a rare earth element discovered in 1911, Dirk Coster and Georg von
Hevesy were motivated to search for the new element in zirconium ores.[10] Hafnium was
discovered by the two in 1923 in Copenhagen, Denmark, validating the original 1869
prediction of Mendeleev.[11] [12] It was ultimately found in zircon in Norway through X-ray
spectroscopy analysis.[13] The place where the discovery took place led to the element
being named for the Latin name for "Copenhagen", Hafnia, the home town of Niels Bohr.
[14]
Today, the Faculty of Science of the University of Copenhagen uses in its seal a stylized
image of hafnium.[15]
Hafnium was separated from zirconium through repeated recrystallization of the double
ammonium or potassium fluorides by Valdemar Thal Jantzen and von Hevesey.[16] Anton
Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer were the first prepare metallic hafnium by
passing hafnium tetra-iodide vapor over a heated tungsten filament in 1924.[17] [18] This
process for differential purification of zirconium and hafnium is still in use today.[19]
In 1923, four predicted elements were still missing from the periodic table: 43 (technetium)
and 61 (promethium) are radioactive elements and are only present in trace amounts in the
environment,[20] thus making elements 75 (rhenium) and 72 (hafnium) the last two
unknown non-radioactive elements. Since rhenium was discovered in 1925,[21] hafnium was
the next to last element with stable isotopes to be discovered.
Characteristics
Hafnium is a shiny, silvery, ductile metal that is
corrosion-resistant and chemically similar to
[19]
zirconium. The physical properties of hafnium metal
samples are markedly affected by zirconium impurities,
as these two elements are among the most difficult
A hafnium crystal bar, made using the ones to separate because of their chemical
crystal bar process similarity.[19] A notable physical difference between
them is their density (zirconium being about half as
dense as hafnium). The most notable physical property of hafnium is its high thermal
neutron-capture cross-section, and the nuclei of several hafnium isotopes can each absorb
multiple neutrons.[19] Hafnium does react in air to form a protective film that prevents any
further reaction.
Isotopes
At least 34 isotopes of hafnium have been observed, ranging in mass number from 153 to
186.[22] [23] The five stable isotopes are in the range of 176 to 180. The radioactive isotopes'
half-lifes range from only 400 ms for 153Hf,[23] to 2.0 petayears (1015 years) for the most
stable one, 174Hf.[22]
The nuclear isomer 178m2Hf is also a source of cascades of gamma rays whose energies
total 2.45 MeV per decay.[24] It is notable because it has the highest excitation energy of
any comparably long-lived isomer of any element. One gram of this pure isotope could
release approximately 1330 megajoules of energy, the equivalent of exploding about
317 kilograms (700 pounds) of TNT. Possible applications requiring such highly
concentrated energy storage are of interest. For example, it has been studied as a possible
Hafnium 5
power source for gamma ray lasers.[25]
Chemistry
As a tetravalent transition metal, hafnium forms various
inorganic compounds, generally in the oxidation state of
+4. The metal is resistant to concentrated alkalis, but
halogens react with it to form hafnium tetrahalides.[26]
At higher temperatures, hafnium reacts with oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon, boron, sulfur, and silicon.[26] Due to
the lanthanide contraction of the elements in the fifth
period, zirconium and hafnium have nearly identical
ionic radii. The ionic radius of Zr4+ is 0.79 Ångström
and that of Hf4+ is 0.78 Ångström.[26]
This similarity results in nearly identical chemical

Hafnium dioxide
behavior and in the formation of similar chemical
compounds.[26] The chemistry of hafnium is so similar
to that of zirconium that a separation on chemical reactions was not possible, only the
physical properties of the compounds differ. The melting points and boiling points of the
compounds and the solubility in solvents are the major differences in the chemistry of these
twin elements.[27]
Like zirconium, hafnium reacts with halogens forming the tetrahalogen compound with the
oxidation state of +4 for hafnium. Hafnium(IV) chloride and hafnium(IV) iodide have some
applications in the production and purification of hafnium.[27] The white hafnium oxide
(HfO2), with a melting point of 2812 °C and a boiling point of roughly 5100 °C, is very
similar to zirconia, but slightly basic.[27] Hafnium carbide is the most refractory binary
compound known, with a melting point over 3890 °C, and hafnium nitride is the most
refractory of all known metal nitrides, with a melting point of 3310 °C.[26] This has led to
proposals that hafnium or its carbides might be useful as construction materials that are
subjected to very high temperatures. The mixed carbide tantalum hafnium carbide
(Ta4HfC5) possesses the highest melting point of any currently known compound,
4215 °C.[28]
Occurrence
Hafnium is estimated to make up about 5.8 ppm of the
Earth's upper crust by weight. It does not exist as a free
element in nature, but is found combined in solid
solution for zirconium in natural zirconium compounds
such as zircon, ZrSiO4, which usually has a about 1 - 4
% of the Zr replaced by Hf. Rarely, the Hf/Zr ratio
increases during crystallization to give the isostructural
mineral 'hafnon' (Hf,Zr)SiO4, with atomic Hf > Zr.[29]
An old (obsolete) name for a variety of zircon containing
Zircon crystal from Tocantins, Brazil
unusually high Hf content is alvite [30] (unknown scale)
Hafnium 6
A major source of zircon (and hence hafnium) ores are heavy mineral sands ore deposits,
pegmatites particularly in Brazil and Malawi, and carbonatite intrusions particularly the
Crown Polymetallic Deposit at Mount Weld, Western Australia. A potential source of
hafnium is trachyte tuffs containing rare zircon-hafnium silicates eudialyte or armstrongite,
[31]
at Dubbo in New South Wales, Australia.
Production
The heavy mineral sands ore deposits of the titanium ores ilmenite and rutile yield most of
the mined zirconium and therefore also most the hafnium.[32]
Zirconium is a good fuel-rod cladding metal, with the desirable properties of a very low
neutron capture cross-section and good chemical stability at high temperatures. However,
because of hafnium's neutron-absorbing properties, hafnium impurities in zirconium would
cause it to be far less useful for nuclear reactor applications. Thus a nearly complete
separation of zirconium and hafnium is necessary for their use in nuclear power. The
production of hafnium free zirconium is the main source for hafnium.[19]
Several details contribute to fact that there are only a
few technical uses for hafnium. First, the close
similarity between hafnium and zirconium makes it
possible to use zirconium for most of the applications.
Second, hafnium was first available as pure metal after
the use in the nuclear industry for hafnium-free
zirconium in the late 1950s. Furthermore, the low
abundance and the difficult separation techniques
necessary make it a scarce commodity.[19]
Hafnium and zirconium have nearly identical chemistry, A lump of hafnium which has been
which makes the two difficult to separate.[33] The first oxidized on one side and exhibits thin
used methods of fractionated crystallization of film optical effects.
[16]
ammonium fluoride salts or the fractionated
[17]
distillation of the chloride were not suitable for an industrial scale production. After
zirconium was chosen as material for the nuclear reactor program in the 1940s, a
separation method had to be developed. Liquid-liquid extraction processes with a wide
variety of solvents were developed and are still used for the production of hafnium.[34]
About half of all hafnium metal manufactured is produced as a by-product of zirconium
refinement. The end product of the separation is hafnium(IV) chloride.[35] The conversion to
the metal is done through reducing hafnium(IV) chloride with magnesium or sodium in the
Kroll process.[36]
HfCl4 + 2 Mg (1100 °C) → 2 MgCl2 + Hf

Further purification is done by a chemical transport reaction developed by Arkel and de
Boer. In a closed vessel, hafnium reacts with iodine at temperatures of 500 °C forming
hafnium(IV) iodide; at a tungsten filament of 1700 °C the reverse reaction happens and the
iodine and hafnium are set free. The hafnium forms a solid coating at the tungsten filament
and the iodine can react with additional hafnium resulting in a steady turn over.[18] [27]
Hf + 2 I2 (500 °C) → HfI4
HfI4 (1700 °C) → Hf + 2 I2
Hafnium 7
Applications
Most of the hafnium produced is used in the production of control rod for nuclear
reactors.[34]
Nuclear reactors
The nuclei of several hafnium isotopes can each absorb multiple neutrons. This makes
hafnium a good material for use in the control rods for nuclear reactors. Its neutron-capture
cross-section is about 600 times that of zirconium. (Other elements that are good
neutron-absorbers for control rods are cadmium and boron.) Excellent mechanical
properties and exceptional corrosion-resistance properties allow its use in the harsh
environment of a pressurized water reactors.[34] The German research reactor FRM II uses
hafnium as a neutron absorber.[37]
Alloys
Hafnium is used in iron, titanium, niobium, tantalum,
and other metal alloys. An alloy used for liquid rocket
thruster nozzles, for example the main engine of the
Apollo Lunar Modules is C103, which consists of 89%
niobium, 10% hafnium and 1% titanium.[38]
Small additions of hafnium increase the adherence of
protective oxide scales on nickel based alloys. It
improves thereby the corrosion resistance especially
under cyclic temperature conditions that tend to break
oxide scales by inducing thermal stresses between the
bulk material and the oxide layer.[39] [40] [41]
Hafnium containing rocket nozzle of
the Apollo Lunar Module in the lower
right corner
Microprocessors
The electronics industry discovered that hafnium-based compound can be employed in gate
insulators in the 45 nm generation of integrated circuits from Intel, IBM and others.[42] [43]
Hafnium oxide-based compounds are practical high-k dielectrics, allowing reduction of the
gate leakage current which improves performance at such scales.[44] [45]
Other uses
Due to its heat resistance and its affinity to oxygen and nitrogen, hafnium is a good
scavenger for oxygen and nitrogen in gas-filled and incandescent lamps. Hafnium is also
used as the electrode in plasma cutting because of its ability to shed electrons into air,[46]
The high energy content of 178m2Hf is the concern of a DARPA funded program in the US.
This program should determine the possibility of using a nuclear isomer of hafnium (the
above mentioned 178m2Hf) to construct high yield weapons with X-ray triggering
mechanisms—an application of induced gamma emission. That work follows over two
decades of basic research by an international community[47] into the means for releasing
Hafnium 8
the stored energy upon demand. There is considerable opposition to this program[48]
because uninvolved countries might perceive an "isomer weapon gap" that would justify
their further development and stockpiling of nuclear weapons. A related proposal is to use
the same isomer to power Unmanned Aerial Vehicles,[49] which could remain airborne for
months at a time.
Precautions
Care needs to be taken when machining hafnium
because, like its sister metal zirconium, when
hafnium is divided into fine particles, it is
pyrophoric and can ignite spontaneously in
air—similar to that obtained in Dragon's Breath.
Compounds that contain this metal are rarely
encountered by most people. The pure metal is not
considered toxic, but hafnium compounds should be
handled as if they were toxic because the ionic
forms of metals are normally at greatest risk for
Dragon's Breath at night
toxicity, and limited animal testing has been done
for hafnium compounds.[50]
See also
• Nuclear isomer
• Induced gamma emission
• Zircon
External links
• Hafnium [51] at Los Alamos National Laboratory's periodic table of the elements [52]
• Hafnium Technical & Safety Data [53]

[54]
• NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Hafnium, elemental
• Intel Shifts from Silicon to Lift Chip Performance [55]
• Hafnium-based Intel 45nm Process Technology [56]
References
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Hafnium 9
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of nickel alloys". Metal Science and Heat Treatment 22: 283. doi: 10.1007/BF00779883 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1007/ BF00779883).
[40] Beglov, V. M.; Pisarev, B. K.; Reznikova, G. G. (1992). "Effect of boron and hafnium on the corrosion
resistance of high-temperature nickel alloys". Metal Science and Heat Treatment 34: 251. doi:
[41] Voitovich, R. F.; Golovko, É. I. (1975). "Oxidation of hafnium alloys with nickel". Metal Science and Heat
Treatment 17: 207. doi: 10.1007/BF00663680 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF00663680).
[42] US patent 6013553 (http:/ / v3. espacenet. com/ textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=US6013553)
[43] Markoff, John (2007-01-27). " Intel Says Chips Will Run Faster, Using Less Power (http:/ / www. nytimes.
com/ 2007/ 01/ 27/ technology/ 27chip. html)". New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-09-10.
[44] Fulton, III, Scott M. (January 27, 2007). " Intel Reinvents the Transistor (http:/ / www. betanews. com/ article/
Intel_Reinvents_the_Transistor/ 1169872301)". BetaNews. . Retrieved 2007-01-27.
[45] Robertson, Jordan (January 27, 2007). " Intel, IBM reveal transistor overhaul (http:/ / www. washingtonpost.
com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 01/ 27/ AR2007012700152. html)". The Associated Press. . Retrieved
2008-09-10.
[46] Ramakrishnany, S.; Rogozinski, M. W. (1997). " Properties of electric arc plasma for metal cutting (http:/ /
www. iop. org/ EJ/ article/ 0022-3727/ 30/ 4/ 019/ d70419. pdf)" (pdf). Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 30:
636. doi: 10.1088/0022-3727/30/4/019 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1088/ 0022-3727/ 30/ 4/ 019). .
[47] " Isomer Triggering History, (http:/ / www. hafniumisomer. org/ isomer/ IGEhistory. htm)". The Center for
Quantum Electronics, The University of Texas at Dallas. . Retrieved 2008-09-10.
[48] Schwarzschild, Bertram (May 2004). "Conflicting Results on a Long-Lived Nuclear Isomer of Hafnium Have
Wider Implications". Physics Today 57: 21. doi: 10.1063/1.1768663 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 1768663).
[49] Graham-Rowe, Duncan (2003-02-19). " Nuclear-powered drone aircraft on drawing board (http:/ / www.
newscientist. com/ article/ dn3406-nuclearpowered-drone-aircraft-on-drawing-board. html)". New Scientist. .
[50] " Occupational Safety & Health Administration: Hafnium (http:/ / www. osha. gov/ SLTC/ healthguidelines/
hafnium/ index. html)". U.S. Department of Labor. . Retrieved 2008-09-10.
[52] http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ default. htm
[53] http:/ / www. americanelements. com/ hf. htm
[54] http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+ @na+ @rel+ hafnium,+ elemental
[55] http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB119481053795589302. html
[56] http:/ / www. intel. com/ technology/ 45nm/ index. htm?iid=homepage+ marquee_45nm

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License
Tantalum 1
Tantalum
73 hafnium ← tantalum → tungsten

Nb
↑
Ta
↓
Db

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number tantalum, Ta, 73
Appearance gray blue

−1

14 3
5d 6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(3017 °C, 5463 °F)

(5458 °C, 9856 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 3297 3597 3957 4395 4939 5634
Atomic properties
Tantalum 2
Oxidation states 5, 4, 3, 2, -1 (mildly acidic oxide)
2nd: 1500 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Poisson ratio 0.34
Mohs hardness 6.5
Tantalum 3
Main article: Isotopes of tantalum

177
Ta syn 56.56 h ε 1.166 177
Hf
178
Ta syn 2.36 h ε 1.910 178
Hf
179
Ta syn 1.82 a ε 0.110 179
Hf
180
Ta syn 8.125 h ε 0.854 180
Hf
β− 0.708 180
W
180m
Ta 0.012% >1.2×1015 y ε 0.929 180
Hf
(not observed)
β
− 0.783 180
W
IT 0.075 180
Ta
181
Ta 99.988% 181
Ta is stable with 108 neutron
182
Ta syn 114.43 d β
− 1.814 182
W
183
Ta syn 5.1 d β
− 1.070 183
W
References
Tantalum (pronounced /ˈtæntələm/) (formerly tantalium /tænˈtæliəm/) is a chemical

element with the symbol Ta and atomic number 73. A rare, hard, blue-gray, lustrous
transition metal, tantalum is highly corrosion resistant and occurs naturally in the mineral
tantalite, always together with the chemically similar niobium. It is part of the refractory
metals group, which are widely used as minor component in alloys. The chemical inertness
of tantalum makes it a valuable substance for laboratory equipment and a substitute for
platinum, but its main use today is in tantalum capacitors.
History
Tantalum was discovered in Sweden in 1802 by Anders Ekeberg. One year earlier, Charles
Hatchett had discovered the element columbium.[2] In 1809, the English chemist William
Hyde Wollaston compared the oxides derived from both columbium—columbite, with a
density 5.918 g/cm3, and tantalum—tantalite, with a density 7.935 g/cm3, and concluded
that the two oxides, despite the significant difference in density, were identical; thus he
kept the name tantalum.[3] After Friedrich Wöhler confirmed these results it was believed
that columbium and tantalum were the same element. This conclusion was disputed in 1846
by the German chemist Heinrich Rose, who argued that there were two additional elements
in the tantalite sample, and named them after children of Tantalus: niobium (from Niobe,
the goddess of tears), and pelopium (from Pelops).[4] [5] The element pelopium later was
identified as a mixture of tantalum and niobium, while the niobium was identical to the
columbium already discovered in 1801 by Hattchet.
The differences between tantalum and niobium were unequivocally demonstrated in 1864
by Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand,[6] and Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville, as well as
Louis J. Troost, who determined the formulas of some of the compounds in 1865[6] [7] and
Tantalum 4
finally by the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac,[8] in 1866, who all proved
that there were only two elements. These discoveries did not stop scientists from publishing
articles about ilmenium until 1871.[9] De Marignac was the first to prepare the metal in
1864, when he reduced tantalum chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen.[10]
Early investigators were only able to isolate impure metal and the first relatively pure
ductile metal was produced by Werner von Bolton in 1903. Wires made with tantalum metal
were used for light bulbs until tungsten replaced it.[11]
Its name is derived from the character Tantalus, father of Niobe in Greek mythology, who
was punished after death by being condemned to stand knee-deep in water with perfect
fruit growing above his head, both of which eternally tantalized him - if he bent to drink the
water, it drained below the level he could reach, and if he reached for the fruit, the
branches moved out of his grasp.[12] Ekeberg wrote "This metal I call tantalum … partly in
allusion to its incapacity, when immersed in acid, to absorb any and be saturated."[13]
For many years, the commercial technology for separating tantalum from niobium involved
the fractional crystallization of potassium heptafluorotantalate away from potassium
oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate, a process discovered by Jean Charles Galissard de
Marignac in 1866. The method has been supplanted by solvent extraction from
fluoride-containing solutions.[7]
The mining of coltan, a tantalum ore, in the conflict regions of Democratic Republic of the
Congo raised ethical questions and human rights issues, and endangered wildlife.[14] [15]
[16]
Characteristics
Physical
Tantalum is dark, dense, ductile, very hard, easily fabricated, and highly conductive of heat
and electricity. The metal is renowned for its resistance to corrosion by acids; in fact, at
temperatures below 150 °C tantalum is almost completely immune to attack by the
normally aggressive aqua regia. It can be dissolved with hydrofluoric acid or acidic
solutions containing the fluoride ion and sulfur trioxide, as well as with a solution of
potassium hydroxide. Tantalum's high melting point of 3017 °C (boiling point 5458 °C) is
exceeded only by tungsten and rhenium for metals, and carbon.
Chemical
It is able to form oxides with the oxidation states +5 (Ta2O5) and +4 (TaO2),[17] The most
stable oxidation state is +5, tantalum pentoxide.[17] Tantalum pentoxide is the starting
material for several tantalum compounds. The compounds are created by dissolving the
pentoxide in basic hydroxide solutions or by melting it in another metal oxide. Such
examples are lithium tantalate (LiTaO3) and lanthanum tantalate (LaTaO4). In the lithium
tantalate, the tantalate ion TaO3 is not alone, but part of a perovskite-like structure; while
the lanthanum niobate contains lone TaO4 ions.[17]
The fluorides of tantalum can be used for its separation from niobium.[18] Tantalum forms
halogen compounds in the oxidation states of +5, +4, and +3 of the type TaX5, TaX4, and
TaX3, although multi core complexes and substoichiometric compounds are also known.[17]
[19]
Tantalum pentafluoride (TaF5) is a white solid with a melting point of 97.0 °C and
tantalum pentachloride (TaCl5) is a white solid with a melting point of 247.4 °C. Tantalum
Tantalum 5
pentachloride is hydrolyzed by water and reacts with additional tantalum at elevated

temperatures by forming the black and highly hygroscopic tantalum tetrachloride (TaCl4).
While the trihalogen compounds can be obtained by reduction of the pentahalogenes with
hydrogen, the dihalogen compounds do not exist.[17] A tantalum-tellurium alloy forms
[17]
quasicrystals. Tantalum compounds with oxidation states as low as -1 have been
[20]
reported in 2008.
Like most of the other refractory metals, the hard forms are stable nitrides and carbides.
Tantalum carbide, like the more commonly used tungsten carbide, is a very hard ceramic
used in cutting tools. Tantalum (III) nitride is used as a thin film insulator in some
microelectronic fabrication processes.[21] Los Alamos National Laboratory scientists have
developed a tantalum carbide-graphite composite material that is one of the hardest
materials ever synthesized. Korean researchers have developed an amorphous
tantalum-tungsten-copper alloy which is more flexible and two to three times stronger than
traditional steel alloys.[22] There are two tantalum aluminides, TaAl3 and Ta3Al; they are
stable, refractory and reflective, and have been proposed[23] as mirror coatings for use in
the IR.
Isotopes
Natural tantalum consists of two isotopes: 180mTa (0.012%) and 181Ta (99.988%). 181Ta is a
stable isotope. 180mTa (m denotes a metastable state) is predicted to decay in three ways:
isomeric transition to the ground state of 180Ta, beta decay to 180W, or electron capture to
180
Hf. However, any radioactivity of this nuclear isomer was never observed. Only a lower
limit on its half life of over 1015 years has been set. The ground state of 180Ta has a half life
of only 8 hours. 180mTa is the only naturally occurring nuclear isomer (excluding radiogenic
and cosmogenic short-living nuclides). It is also the rarest isotope in the Universe, taking
into account the elemental abundance of tantalum and isotopic abundance of 180mTa in the
natural mixture of isotopes (and again excluding radiogenic and cosmogenic short-living
nuclides).[24]
Tantalum has been proposed as a "salting" material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is another,
better-known salting material). A jacket of 181Ta, irradiated by the intense high-energy
neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, would transmute into the
radioactive isotope 182Ta with a half-life of 114.43 days and produce approximately 1.12
MeV of gamma radiation, significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's fallout
for several months. Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.[25]
Tantalum 6
Occurrence
Tantalum is estimated to make up about 1 ppm[26] or
2 ppm[19] of the Earth's crust by weight. There are
many species of tantalum minerals, only some of which
are so far being used by industry as raw materials:
tantalite, microlite, wodginite, euxenite, polycrase.
Tantalite (Fe,Mn) Ta2O6 is the most important mineral
for tantalum extraction. Tantalite has the same mineral
structure as columbite (Fe,Mn) (Ta,Nb)2O6; when there
is more Ta than Nb it is called tantalite and when there
is more Nb than Ta is it called columbite (or niobite).
Tantalite, Pilbarra district, Australia
The high density of tantalite and other tantalum
containing minerals makes the use of gravitational
separation the best method. Other minerals include samarskite and fergusonite.
The main production of tantalum occurs in Australia, where the largest producer, Talison
Minerals (formerly part of the Sons of Gwalia company), operates the Wodgina mine. The
mine produces tantalum oxide from tantalite.[27] While the large scale production of
niobium in Brazil and Canada, yields also a comparable small amount of tantalum, other
countries like China, Ethiopia and Mozambique mine the minerals with a higher rate of
tantalum and produce a significant amount of the world production. Tantalum is also
produced in Thailand and Malaysia as a by-product of tin mining and smelting. During
gravity separation of the ore from placer deposits not only yield Cassiterite (SnO2) but also
small amounts of tantalite are enriched in the final ore concentrated. The tin smelter slag
derived from ore of these deposits contains significant amounts of tantalum and is leached
from the slag.[7] [28] Future large sources of supply, in order of magnitude, are being
explored in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Greenland, China, Mozambique, Canada, Australia, the
United States, Finland and Brazil.[29] [30]
In central Africa the colloquial term coltan is used to refer to the two minerals equally, an
example being the Democratic Republic of the Congo which the United States Geological
Survey reports in its 2006 yearbook as having produced a little less than 1% of the world's
tantalum for the past four years.[28] Ethical questions have been raised about responsible
corporate behavior, human rights and endangered wildlife, due to the exploitation of
resources such as coltan in the conflict regions of the Congo.[31] According to United
Nations report[32] smuggling and exportation of coltan helped fuel the war in the Congo, a
crisis that has resulted in approximately 5.4 million[33] deaths since 1998 – making it the
world’s deadliest documented conflict since World War II.
Production
Several steps are involved in the extraction of tantalum from tantalite. First the mineral is
crushed and concentrated by gravity separation. This is generally carried out near the mine
site. Further processing by chemical separation is usually done by treating the ores with a
mixture of hydrofluoric acid and sulfuric acid at over 90°C. This causes the tantalum and
niobium to dissolve as complex fluorides and be separated from the impurities.
Ta2O5 + 14 HF → 2 H2[TaF7] + 5 H2O
Nb2O5 + 10 HF → 2 H2[NbOF5] + 3 H2O
Tantalum 7
The first industrial scale separation developed by de Marignac used the difference in
solubility between the complex niobium and tantalum fluorides K2[NbOF5]•H2O
(dipotassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate) and K2[TaF7] (dipotassium
heptafluorotantalate) in water. Newer processes use the liquid extraction of the fluorides
from aqueous solution by organic solvents such as cyclohexanone.[18] The complex niobium
and tantalum fluorides are extracted separately from the organic solvent with water and
either precipitated by the addition of potassium fluoride to produce a potassium fluoride
complex, or precipitated with ammonia as the pentoxide:[17]
H2[TaF7] + KF → K2[TaF7]↓ + HF
2 H2[TaF7] + 14 NH4OH → Ta2O5↓ + 14 NH4F + 9 H2O
The resulting potassium fluorotantalate salt is generally treated by reduction with molten
sodium to produce a coarse tantalum powder.[34]
Applications
Electronics
The major use for tantalum, as the metal powder, is in
the production of electronic components, mainly
capacitors and some high-power resistors[35] . Tantalum
electrolytic capacitors exploit the tendency of tantalum
to form a protective oxide surface layer, using tantalum
powder, pressed into a pellet shape, as one "plate" of
the capacitor, the oxide as the dielectric, and an
electrolytic solution or conductive solid as the other
"plate". Because the dielectric layer can be very thin
(thinner than the similar layer in, for instance, an
aluminium electrolytic capacitor), a high capacitance
can be achieved in a small volume. Because of the size
and weight advantages, tantalum capacitors are
attractive for portable telephones, personal computers,
and automotive electronics.[36]
Tantalum electrolytic capacitor
Alloys
Tantalum is also used to produce a variety of alloys that have high melting points, are
strong and have good ductility. Alloyed with other metals, it is also used in making carbide
tools for metalworking equipment and in the production of superalloys for jet engine
components, chemical process equipment, nuclear reactors, and missile parts.[36] [37]
Because of its ductility, tantalum can be drawn into fine wires or filaments, which are used
for evaporating metals such as aluminium. Due to the fact that it resists attack by body
fluids and is nonirritating, tantalum is widely used in making surgical instruments and
implants. For example, porous tantalum coatings are used in the construction of orthopedic
implants due to tantalum's ability to form a direct bond to hard tissue.[38]
Tantalum 8
Tantalum is inert against most acids except hydrofluoric acid and hot sulfuric acid, also hot
alkaline solutions cause tantalum to corrode. This property makes it an ideal metal for
chemical reaction vessels and pipes for corrosive liquids. Heat exchanging coils for the
steam heating of hydrochloric acid are made from tantalum.[39] Tantalum was extensively
used in the production of ultra high frequency electron tubes for radio transmitters. The
tantalum is capable of capturing oxygen and nitrogen by forming nitrides and oxides and
therefore helps to sustain the high vacuum needed for the tubes.[18] [39]
Other uses
The oxide is used to make special high refractive index glass for camera lenses.[40] The high
melting point and oxidation resistance lead to the use of the metal in the production of
vacuum furnace parts. Due to its high density, shaped charge and explosively formed
penetrator liners have been constructed from tantalum.[41] Tantalum greatly increases the
armor penetration capabilities of a shaped charge due to its high density and high melting
point.[42] [43] It is also occasionally used in precious watches e.g. from Hublot, Montblanc
and Panerai.
Precautions
Compounds containing tantalum are rarely encountered in the laboratory. The metal is
highly biocompatible and is used for body implants and coatings, therefore attention may
be focused on other elements or the physical nature of the chemical compound.[44] A single
study[45] is the only reference in literature ever linking tantalum to local sarcomas. It is
possible the result was due to other factors not considered in the study. The study was
quoted in IARC Monograph vol. 74 which includes the following "Note to the reader":
"Inclusion of an agent in the Monographs does not imply that it is a carcinogen, only that
the published data have been examined."[46]
External links
[47]
• WebElements.com: Tantalum
[48]
• Tantalum-Niobium International Study Center
pnb:‫ملاٹنیٹ‬
References
[2] Griffith, William P.; Morris, Peter J. T. (2003). " Charles Hatchett FRS (1765-1847), Chemist and Discoverer of
Niobium (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 3557720)". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 57 (3):
299. doi: 10.1098/rsnr.2003.0216 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rsnr. 2003. 0216). .
[3] Wollaston, William Hyde (1809). " On the Identity of Columbium and Tantalum (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/
107264)". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 99: 246–252. doi: 10.1098/rstl.1809.0017
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rstl. 1809. 0017). .
[4] Rose, Heinrich (1844). " Ueber die Zusammensetzung der Tantalite und ein im Tantalite von Baiern
enthaltenes neues Metall (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k15148n/ f327. table)" (in German). Annalen
der Physik 139 (10): 317–341. doi: 10.1002/andp.18441391006 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ andp.
18441391006). .
[5] Rose, Heinrich (1847). " Ueber die Säure im Columbit von Nordamérika (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/
bpt6k15155x/ f586. table)" (in German). Annalen der Physik 146 (4): 572–577. doi: 10.1002/andp.18471460410
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ andp. 18471460410). .
Tantalum 9
[6] Marignac, Blomstrand, H. Deville, L. Troost und R. Hermann (1866). "Tantalsäure, Niobsäure, (Ilmensäure)
und Titansäure". Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry 5 (1): 384–389. doi: 10.1007/BF01302537 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF01302537).
[7] Gupta, C. K.; Suri, A. K. (1994). Extractive Metallurgy of Niobium. CRC Press. ISBN 0849360714.
[8] Marignac, M. C. (1866). " Recherches sur les combinaisons du niobium (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/
bpt6k34818t/ f4. table)" (in French). Annales de chimie et de physique 4 (8): 7–75. .
[9] Hermann, R. (1871). "Fortgesetzte Untersuchungen über die Verbindungen von Ilmenium und Niobium, sowie
über die Zusammensetzung der Niobmineralien (Further research about the compounds of ilmenium and
niobium, as well as the composition of niobium minerals)" (in German). Journal für Praktische Chemie 3 (1):
373–427. doi: 10.1002/prac.18710030137 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ prac. 18710030137).
[10] " Niobium (http:/ / nautilus. fis. uc. pt/ st2. 5/ scenes-e/ elem/ e04100. html)". Universidade de Coimbra. .
[11] Bowers, B. (2001). "Scanning Our Past from London The Filament Lamp and New Materials". Proceedings of
the IEEE 89 (3): 413. doi: 10.1109/5.915382 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ 5. 915382).
[12] Aycan, Mugla, Sule (2005). "Chemistry Education and Mythology". Journal of Social Sciences 1 (4): 238–239.
Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 1138, ISBN 0-7506-3365-4
[14] " Congo's Bloody Coltan (http:/ / www. pulitzercenter. org/ openitem. cfm?id=177)". . Retrieved 2009-08-08.
[15] " Congo War and the Role of Coltan (http:/ / www1. american. edu/ ted/ ice/ congo-coltan. htm)". . Retrieved
2009-08-08.
[16] " Coltan mining in the Congo River Basin (http:/ / www. panda. org/ what_we_do/ where_we_work/
congo_basin_forests/ problems/ mining/ coltan_mining/ )". . Retrieved 2009-08-08.
[17] Holleman, A. F., Wiberg, E., Wiberg, N. (2007). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie, 102nd ed.. de Gruyter.
ISBN 978-3-11-017770-1.
[18] Soisson, Donald J.; McLafferty, J. J.; Pierret, James A. (1961). "Staff-Industry Collaborative Report: Tantalum
and Niobium". Ind. Eng. Chem. 53 (11): 861–868. doi: 10.1021/ie50623a016 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/
ie50623a016).
[19] Agulyansky, Anatoly (2004). The Chemistry of Tantalum and Niobium Fluoride Compounds (http:/ / books.
google. de/ books?id=Z-4QXNB5Hp8C). Elsevier. ISBN 9780444516046. . Retrieved 2008-09-02.
[20] doi: 10.1021/om701189e (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ om701189e)
[21] Tsukimoto, S.; Moriyama, M.; Murakami, Masanori (1961). "Microstructure of amorphous tantalum nitride
thin films". Thin Solid Films 460 (1-2): 222–226. doi: 10.1016/j.tsf.2004.01.073 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j.
tsf. 2004. 01. 073).
[22] Arirang, TV (2005-05-06). " Researchers Develop New Alloy (http:/ / english. chosun. com/ w21data/ html/
news/ 200505/ 200505060005. html)". Digital Chosunilbo (English Edition) : Daily News in English About Korea.
. Retrieved 2008-12-22.
[23] " US Patent 5923464 - Substance for front surface mirror (http:/ / www. patentstorm. us/ patents/ 5923464/
description. html)". . Retrieved 2008-12-22.
nuclphysa. 2003. 11. 001).
[25] Win, David Tin; Masum, Al (2003) (PDF). Weapons of Mass Destruction (http:/ / www. journal. au. edu/
au_techno/ 2003/ apr2003/ aujt6-4_article07. pdf). 6. pp. 199–219. .
[26] Emsley, John (2001). "Tantalum". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England,
UK: Oxford University Press. p. 420. ISBN 0198503407.
[27] " Wodgina Operations (http:/ / www. talison. com. au/ operations. html)". Talison Minerals. 2008. . Retrieved
2009-07-31.
[28] Papp, john F. (2006). " 2006 Minerals Yearbook Nb & Ta (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/
commodity/ niobium/ #pubs)". US Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-06-03.
[29] " Tantalum supplement (http:/ / www. noventa. net/ pdf/ presentations/ tanatalumSCR_presentation. pdf)"
(PDF). Mining Journal. 2007-November. . Retrieved 2008-06-03.
[30] " International tantalum resources — exploration and mining (http:/ / www. doir. wa. gov. au/ documents/
gswa/ gsdMRB_22_chap10. pdf)" (pdf). GSWA Mineral Resources Bulletin 22 (10). .
[31] Hayes, Karen; Burge, Richard. Coltan Mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo: How tantalum-using
industries can commit to the reconstruction of the DRC. 1–64. ISBN 1903703107.
[32] " S/2003/1027 (http:/ / www. un. org/ Docs/ journal/ asp/ ws. asp?m=S/ 2003/ 1027)". 2003-10-26. . Retrieved
2008-04-19.
[33] " Special Report: Congo (http:/ / www. theirc. org/ special-report/ congo-forgotten-crisis. html)". International
Rescue Committee. . Retrieved 2008-04-19.
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[34] " Extraction/refining (http:/ / tanb. org/ tantalum)". T.I.C.. . Retrieved 2009-07-07.
[35] " What is a resistor? (http:/ / www. wisegeek. com/ what-is-a-resistor. htm)". . Retrieved 2009-08-08.
[36] " Commodity Report 2008: Tantalum (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ niobium/
mcs-2008-tanta. pdf)" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-10-24.
[37] Buckman Jr., R. W. (2000). "New applications for tantalum and tantalum alloys". JOM Journal of the Minerals,
Metals and Materials Society 52 (3): 40. doi: 10.1007/s11837-000-0100-6 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/
s11837-000-0100-6).
[38] Cohen, R. (2006). "Applications of porous tantalum in total hip arthroplasty". Journal of the American
Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons 14: 646.
[39] Balke, Clarence W.. "Columbium and Tantalum". Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 20 (10): 1166.
[40] Musikant, Solomon (1985). " Optical Glas Composition (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=iJEXMF3JBtQC&
pg=PA28)". Optical Materials: An Introduction to Selection and Application. CRC Press. p. 28. ISBN
9780824773090. .
[41] Nemat-Nasser, Sia; Isaacs, Jon B.; Liu, Mingqi (1998). "Microstructure of high-strain, high-strain-rate
deformed tantalum". Acta Materialia 46: 1307. doi: 10.1016/S1359-6454(97)00746-5 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1016/ S1359-6454(97)00746-5).
[42] Walters, William; Cooch, William; Burkins, Matthew (2001). "The penetration resistance of a titanium alloy
against jets from tantalum shaped charge liners". International Journal of Impact Engineering 26: 823. doi:
10.1016/S0734-743X(01)00135-X (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0734-743X(01)00135-X).
[43] Russell, Alan M.; Lee, Kok Loong (2005). Structure-property relations in nonferrous metals (http:/ / books.
google. de/ books?id=fIu58uZTE-gC& pg=PA129& lpg=PP128#PPA218). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience.
p. 218. ISBN 9780471649526. .
[44] Matsuno H, Yokoyama A, Watari F, Uo M, Kawasaki T. (2001). " Biocompatibility and osteogenesis of
refractory metal implants, titanium, hafnium, niobium, tantalum and rhenium. Biocompatibility of tantalum
(http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 11336297)". Biomaterials 22: 1253. doi:
10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00275-1 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0142-9612(00)00275-1). .
[45] Oppenheimer, B.S.; Oppenheimer, E.T.; Danishefsky, I.; Stout, A.P. (1956). "Carcinogenic effects of metals in
rodent". Cancer Research 16: 439.
[46] " Surgical implants and other foreign bodies (http:/ / www. inchem. org/ documents/ iarc/ vol74/ implants.
html)". IARC. 1999. . Retrieved 2009-06-03.
[47] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ tantalum/
[48] http:/ / tanb. org/

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Tungsten 1
Tungsten
74 tantalum ← Tungsten → rhenium

Mo
↑
W
↓
Sg

Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number Tungsten, W, 74
Appearance grayish white, lustrous
Standard atomic weight 183.84 (1) g·mol

−1
Electron configuration 14 4 2[1]

[Xe] 4f 5d 6s
Physical properties
Phase solid

(3422 °C, 6192 °F)

(5555 °C, 10031 °F)
Critical point 13892 K, {{{mpa}}} MPa
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 3477 3773 4137 4579 5127 5823

Tungsten 2
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, −1, -2

2nd: 1700 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (annealed)

−1
4290 m·s
Poisson ratio 0.28
Mohs hardness 7.5
Main article: Isotopes of tungsten
180
W 0.12% 1.8×1018 y α 2.516 176
Hf
181
W syn 121.2 d ε 0.188 181
Ta
182
W 26.50% W is stable with 108 neutrons
183
184
185
W syn 75.1 d β− 0.433 185
Re
186
References
Tungsten 3
Tungsten (pronounced /ˈtʌŋstən/), also known as wolfram (/ˈwʊlfrəm/), is a chemical

element with the chemical symbol W and atomic number 74.
A steel-gray metal, tungsten is found in several ores, including wolframite and scheelite. It
is remarkable for its robust physical properties, especially the fact that it has the highest
melting point of all the non-alloyed metals and the second highest of all the elements after
carbon.[3] Tungsten is often brittle[4] and hard to work in its raw state; however, if pure, it
can be cut with a hacksaw.[5] The pure form is used mainly in electrical applications, but its
many compounds and alloys are used in many applications, most notably in incandescent
light bulb filaments, X-ray tubes (as both the filament and target), and superalloys.
Tungsten is also the only metal from the third transition series that is known to occur in
biomolecules, and is the heaviest element known to be used by living organisms.[6] [7]
History
In 1781, Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered that a new acid, tungstic acid, could be made
from scheelite (at the time named tungstenite). Scheele and Torbern Bergman suggested
that it might be possible to obtain a new metal by reducing this acid.[8] In 1783, José and
Fausto Elhuyar found an acid made from wolframite that was identical to tungstic acid.
Later that year, in Spain, the brothers succeeded in isolating tungsten by reduction of this
acid with charcoal, and they are credited with the discovery of the element.[9] [10]
In World War II, tungsten played a significant role in background political dealings.
Portugal, as the main European source of the element, was put under pressure from both
sides, because of its deposits of wolframite ore. Tungsten's resistance to high temperatures
and its strength in alloys made it an important raw material for the weaponry industry.[11]
Etymology
The name "tungsten" (from the Swedish, Norwegian and Danish tung sten, meaning "heavy
stone") is used in English, French, Italian and many other languages as the name of the
element. Tungsten was the old Swedish name for the mineral scheelite. The other name
"wolfram" (or "volfram"), used for example in German, Spanish, Russian and in both
Swedish and Danish, is derived from the mineral wolframite, and this is also the origin of its
chemical symbol, W.[5] The name "wolframite" is derived from German "wolf rahm" ("wolf
soot" or "wolf cream"), the name given to tungsten by Johan Gottschalk Wallerius in 1747.
This, in turn, derives from "Lupi spuma", the name Georg Agricola used for the element in
1546, which translates into English as "wolf's froth" or "cream" (the etymology is not
entirely certain), and is a reference to the large amounts of tin consumed by the mineral
during its extraction.[12]
Tungsten 4
Characteristics
Physical
In its raw form, tungsten is a steel-gray metal that is
often brittle and hard to work. But, if pure, it can be
worked easily.[5] It is worked by forging, drawing,
extruding, or sintering. Of all metals in pure form,
tungsten has the highest melting point (3,422 °C,
6,192 °F), lowest vapor pressure and (at temperatures
above 1,650 °C, 3,002 °F) the highest tensile
strength.[13] Tungsten has the lowest coefficient of
thermal expansion of any pure metal. Alloying small
quantities of tungsten with steel greatly increases its
Pure tungsten
toughness.[3]
Isotopes
Naturally occurring tungsten consists of five isotopes whose half-lives are so long that they
can be considered stable. Theoretically, all five can decay into isotopes of element 72
(hafnium) by alpha emission, but only 180W has been observed [14] to do so with a half-life of
(1.8 ± 0.2)·1018 yr; on average, this yields about two alpha decays of 180W in one gram of
natural tungsten per year.[15] The other naturally occurring isotopes have not been
observed to decay, constraining their half-lives to be:[15]
182
W, T1/2 > 8.3·1018 years
183
W, T1/2 > 29·1018 years
184
W, T1/2 > 13·1018 years
186
W, T1/2 > 27·1018 years
Another 30 artificial radioisotopes of tungsten have been characterized, the most stable of
which are 181W with a half-life of 121.2 days, 185W with a half-life of 75.1 days, 188W with a
half-life of 69.4 days, 178W with a half-life of 21.6 days, and 187W with a half-life of 23.72
h.[15] All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than 3 hours, and most
of these have half-lives below 8 minutes.[15] Tungsten also has 4 meta states, the most
stable being 179mW (T½ 6.4 minutes).
Chemical
References
[1] " Why does Tungsten not 'Kick' up an electron from the s sublevel ? (http:/ / www. madsci. org/ posts/ archives/
2000-02/ 951518136. Ch. r. html)". . Retrieved 2008-06-15.
[3] Daintith, John (2005). Facts on File Dictionary of Chemistry, 4th ed.. New York: Checkmark Books.
[4] Lassner, Erik; Schubert, Wolf-Dieter (1999). " low temperature brittleness (http:/ / books. google. de/
books?id=foLRISkt9gcC& pg=PA20)". Tungsten: properties, chemistry, technology of the element, alloys, and
chemical compounds. Springer. p. 256. ISBN 9780306450532. .
[5] Stwertka, Albert (2002). A Guide to the elements, 2nd ed.. New York: Oxford University Press.
Tungsten 5
[6] J McMaster and John H Enemark (1998). "The active sites of molybdenum- and tungsten-containing enzymes".
Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 2 (2): 201–207. doi: 10.1016/S1367-5931(98)80061-6 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1016/ S1367-5931(98)80061-6).
[7] Russ Hille (2002). "Molybdenum and tungsten in biology". Trends in Biochemical Sciences 27 (7): 360–367.
[8] Saunders, Nigel (February 2004). Tungsten and the Elements of Groups 3 to 7 (The Periodic Table). Chicago,
Illinois: Heinemann Library. ISBN 1403435189.
[9] " ITIA Newsletter (http:/ / www. itia. info/ FileLib/ ITIA_Newsletter_June05. pdf)" (PDF). International Tungsten
Industry Association. June 2005. . Retrieved 2008-06-18.
[10] " ITIA Newsletter (http:/ / www. itia. info/ FileLib/ ITIA_Newsletter_December05. pdf)" (PDF). International
Tungsten Industry Association. December 2005. . Retrieved 2008-06-18.
[11] Stevens, Donald G. (1999). " World War II Economic Warfare: The United States, Britain, and Portuguese
Wolfram (http:/ / www. questia. com/ googleScholar.
qst;jsessionid=LY1PyzmCc1D256Gvh5wpbhxKyTyvcm2FHpMwpcs2wW2XyytCh4pW!956463030?docId=5001286099)".
The Historian ( Questia (http:/ / www. questia. com)). .
[12] Peter van der Krogt. " Wolframium Wolfram Tungsten (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ elem/ w. html)".
0849304857.
[14] C. Cozzini et al. (2004). " Detection of the natural α decay of tungsten (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ nucl-ex/
0408006)". Phys. Rev. C 70: 064606. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.70.064606 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/
PhysRevC. 70. 064606). .
[15] Alejandro Sonzogni. " Interactive Chart of Nuclides (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ chart/ )". Brookhaven
[16] Emsley, John E. (1991). The elements, 2nd ed.. New York: Oxford University Press.
[17] Smith, Bradley J. (2000). " Quantitative Determination of Sodium Metatungstate Speciation by 183W N.M.R.
Spectroscopy (http:/ / www. publish. csiro. au/ paper/ CH00140. htm)". Australian Journal of Chemistry (CSIRO)
53 (12). . Retrieved 2008-06-17.
[18] Lassner, Erik (1999). Tungsten: Properties, Chemistry, Technology of the Element, Alloys and Chemical
Compounds (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=foLRISkt9gcC& pg=PA409& lpg=PA409& dq=tungsten+
nutrient+ organisms& source=web& ots=-rtHF9sWBY& sig=CoCD7Wp0HS-QRzQEoiPCisLaP04& hl=en&
sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=1& ct=result). Springer. pp. 409–411. ISBN 0306450534. .
[19] Mullen, Frank X. (April 27, 2006). " Mouse Study Findings key in Fallon Cancer Cases, Scientists Say (http:/ /
www. familiesagainstcancer. org/ ?id=344)". Reno Gazette-Journal. . Retrieved 2008-06-17.
[20] Shedd, Kim B. (2000). " Tungsten (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ tungsten/ 680400.
pdf)" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-06-18.
[21] Schey, John A. (1987). Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 2nd ed.. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
[22] " US Patent 6428904 - X-ray target (http:/ / www. patentstorm. us/ patents/ 6428904/ description. html)".
PatentStorm (http:/ / www. patentstorm. us/ ). August 6, 2002. . Retrieved 2008-06-18.
[23] " Tungsten Applications - Steel (http:/ / www. azom. com/ details. asp?ArticleID=1264)". azom.com (http:/ /
www. azom. com/ ). 2000-2008. . Retrieved 2008-06-18.
[24] Gray, Theo (March 14, 2008). " How to Make Convincing Fake-Gold Bars (http:/ / www. popsci. com/ diy/
article/ 2008-03/ how-make-convincing-fake-gold-bars)". Popular Science. . Retrieved 2008-06-18.

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Rhenium 1
Rhenium
tungsten ← rhenium → osmium

Tc
↑
Re
↓
Bh
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number rhenium, Re, 75

−1

14 5
5d 6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(3186 °C, 5767 °F)

(5596 °C, 10105 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 3303 3614 4009 4500 5127 5954
Atomic properties
Rhenium 2
Oxidation states 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -1

(more)
2nd: 1260 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2510 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Poisson ratio 0.30
Mohs hardness 7.0
Main article: Isotopes of rhenium
185
Re 37.4% 185
Re is stable with 110 neutron
187
Re 62.6% 4.35×1010 y α (not observed) 1.653 183
Ta
β- 0.0026 187
Os
References
Rhenium (pronounced /ˈriːniəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Re and atomic
number 75. It is a silvery-white, heavy, third-row transition metal in group 7 of the periodic
table. With an average concentration of 1 part per billion (ppb), rhenium is one of the rarest
elements in the Earth's crust. Rhenium resembles manganese chemically and is obtained as
a by-product of molybdenum and copper refinement. Rhenium shows in its compounds a
wide variety of oxidation states ranging from −1 to +7.
Rhenium 3
Minor amounts of rhenium are added into tungsten alloys and some rhenium compounds
are used as catalysts in the chemical industry. Nickel-based superalloys for the use in jet
engines contain up to 6% of rhenium, making it the largest use for rhenium. Because of the
low availability and the demand for jet engines, rhenium is among the most expensive
metals on Earth, whose price at times exceeds US$12,000 per kilogram. Rhenium,
discovered in 1925, was the last naturally occurring stable element to be discovered.
Francium was the last identified naturally-occurring element, but it is unstable. Rhenium
was named after the river Rhine.
History
Rhenium (Latin Rhenus meaning Rhine)[2] was the next-to-last naturally occurring element
to be discovered and the last element to be discovered having a stable isotope.[3] The
existence of a yet undiscovered element at this position in the periodic table had been
predicted by Henry Moseley in 1914.[4] It is generally considered to have been discovered
by Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, and Otto Berg in Germany. In 1925 they reported that they
detected the element in platinum ore and in the mineral columbite. They also found
rhenium in gadolinite and molybdenite.[5] In 1928 they were able to extract 1 g of the
element by processing 660 kg of molybdenite.[6] The process was so complicated and
expensive that production was discontinued until early 1950 when tungsten-rhenium and
molybdenum-rhenium alloys were prepared. These alloys found important applications in
industry that resulted in a great demand for the rhenium produced from the molybdenite
fraction of porphyry copper ores.
In 1908, Japanese chemist Masataka Ogawa announced that he discovered the 43rd
element and named it nipponium (Np) after Japan (which is Nippon in Japanese). However,
later analysis indicated the presence of rhenium (element 75), not element 43.[7] The
symbol Np was later used for the element neptunium.
Characteristics
Rhenium is a silvery-white metal with one of the highest melting points of all elements,
exceeded by only tungsten and carbon. It is also one of the densest, exceeded only by
platinum, iridium and osmium.
Its usual commercial form is a powder, but this element can be consolidated by pressing
and sintering in a vacuum or hydrogen atmosphere. This procedure yields a compact having
the density above 90% of the density of the metal. When annealed this metal is very ductile
and can be bent, coiled, or rolled.[8] Rhenium-molybdenum alloys are superconductive at 10
K; tungsten-rhenium alloys are also superconductive[9] around 4-8 K, depending on the
alloy. Rhenium metal superconducts at 2.4 K.[10] [11]
Isotopes
Naturally occurring rhenium is 37.4% 185Re, which is stable, and 62.6% 187Re, which is
unstable but has a very long half-life (~1010 years); that lifetime is affected by the charge
state of rhenium atom[12] [13] . The beta decay of 187Re is used for rhenium-osmium dating
of ores. The available energy for this beta decay (2.6 keV) is one of the lowest known among
all radionuclides. There are twenty-six other recognized radioactive isotopes of rhenium.[14]
Rhenium 4
Compounds
Rhenium has the widest range of oxidation states of any known element: −1, 0, +1, +2, +3,
+4, +5, +6 and +7.[15] The oxidation states +7, +6, +4, and +2 are the most common.[15]
The most common rhenium compounds are the oxides and the halides exhibiting a broad
oxidation number spectrum: Re2O7, ReO3, Re2O5, ReO2, and Re2O3 are the known oxides,
and ReF7, ReCl6, ReCl5, ReCl4 and ReCl3 are a few of the known halogen derivatives.[16]
Known sulfides are ReS2 and Re2S7.[16]
Rhenium is most available commercially as the sodium and ammonium perrhenates. It is
also readily available as dirhenium decacarbonyl; these three compounds are common entry
points to rhenium chemistry. Various perrhenate salts may be easily converted to
tetrathioperrhenate by the action of ammonium hydrosulfide.[17] It is possible to reduce the
dirhenium decacarbonyl Re2(CO)10 by reacting it with sodium amalgam to Na[Re(CO)5]
with rhenium in the formal oxidation state −1.[18] Dirhenium decacarbonyl may be
oxidatively cleaved with bromine to give bromopentacarbonylrhenium(I),[19] then reduced
with zinc and acetic acid to pentacarbonylhydridorhenium:[20]
Re2(CO)10 + Br2 → Re(CO)5Br
Re(CO)5Br + Zn + HOAc → Re(CO)5H + ZnBr(OAc)
Bromopentacarbonylrhenium(I) may be decarbonylated to give the rhenium tricarbonyl
fragment either by refluxing in water:[21]
Re(CO)5Br + 3 H2O → [Re(CO)3(H2O)3]Br + 2 CO
or by reacting with tetraethylammonium bromide:[22]
Re(CO)5Br + 2 (NEt4Br → [NEt4]2[Re(CO)3Br3]
Rhenium diboride (ReB2) is a hard compound having the hardness similar to that of
tungsten carbide, silicon carbide, titanium diboride or zirconium diboride.[23]
Rhenium was originally thought to form the rhenide anion, Re−, in which it has the −1
oxidation state. This was based on the product of the reduction of perrhenate salts, such as
the reduction of potassium perrhenate (KReO4) by potassium metal.[24] "Potassium rhenide"
was shown to exist as a tetrahydrated complex, with the postulated chemical formula
KRe·4H2O.[25] This compound exhibits strongly reducing properties, and slowly yields
hydrogen gas when dissolved in water. The lithium and thallous salts were also reported.
Later research, however, indicates that the "rhenide" ion is actually a hydridorhenate
complex. "Potassium rhenide" was shown to be in fact the nonahydridorhenate, K2ReH9,
containing the ReH2−9 anion in which the oxidation state of rhenium is actually +7.[26] [27]
Other methods of reduction of perrhenate salts yield compounds containing other hydrido-
complexes, including ReH3(OH)3(H2O)−.[28]
Rhenium 5
Occurrence
Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in Earth's crust
with a average concentration of 1 ppb;[16] other sources
quote the number of 0.5 ppb making it the 77th most
abundant element in Earth's crust.[29] Rhenium is
probably not found free in nature (its possible natural
occurrence is uncertain), but occurs in amounts up to
0.2%[16] in the mineral molybdenite, the major
commercial source, although single molybdenite
samples with up to 1.88% have been found.[30] Chile
Molybdenite
has the world's largest rhenium reserves, part of the
copper ore deposits, and was the leading producer as of
[31]
2005. It was only recently that the first rhenium mineral was found and described (in
1994), a rhenium sulfide mineral (ReS2) condensing from a fumarole on Russia's Kudriavy
volcano, in the Kurile Islands.[32] Named rheniite, this rare mineral commands high prices
among collectors,[33] but is not an economically viable source of the element.
Production
Commercial rhenium is extracted from molybdenum
roaster-flue gas obtained from copper-sulfide ores.
Some molybdenum ores contain 0.001% to 0.2%
rhenium.[16] [30] Rhenium(VII) oxide and perrhenic acid
readily dissolve in water; they are leached from flue
dusts and gasses and extracted by precipitating with
potassium or ammonium chloride as the perrhenate
salts, and purified by recrystallization.[34] Total world
production is between 40 and 50 tons/year; the main Ammonium perrhenate
producers are in Chile, the United States, and

Kazakhstan.[35] Recycling of used Pt-Re catalyst and special alloys allow the recovery of
another 10 tons per year. Prices for the metal rose rapidly in early 2008, from $1000–$2000
per kg in 2003-2006 to over $10,000 in February 2008.[36] [37] The metal form is prepared
by reducing ammonium perrhenate with hydrogen at high temperatures:[34]
2 NH4ReO4 + 7 H2 → 2 Re + 8 H2O + 2 NH3

Rhenium 6
Applications
Rhenium is added to high-temperature superalloys that
are used to make jet engine parts, making 70% of the
worldwide rhenium production.[38] Another major
application is in platinum-rhenium catalysts, which are
primarily used in making lead-free, high-octane
gasoline.[35] [39]
Alloys
The F-15 engine uses rhenium
The nickel-based superalloys have improved creep containing second-generation
superalloys
strength with the addition of rhenium. The alloys
normally contain 3% or 6% of rhenium.[40] The second
generation alloys contain 3%; these alloys were used in the engines of the F-16 and F-15,
while the new single-crystal third-generation alloys contain 6% of rhenium; they are used in
the F-22 and F-35 engines.[39] [41] For 2006 the consumption is given as 28% for General
Electric, 28% Rolls-Royce plc and 12% Pratt & Whitney, all for superalloys, while the use
for catalysts only accounts for 14% and the remaining applications use 18%.[38] In 2006,
77% of the rhenium consumption in the United States was in alloys.[39]
Rhenium improves the properties of tungsten and is therefore the most important alloying
material for tungsten. Tungsten-rhenium alloys are more ductile at low temperature making
them easier to machine, while the high-temperature stability is also improved. The effect
increases with the rhenium concentration, and therefore tungsten alloys are produced with
up to 27% of Re, which is the solubility limit.[42] One application for the tungsten-rhenium
alloys is x-ray sources. The high melting point of both compounds, together with the high
atomic mass, makes them stable against the prolonged electron impact.[43] Rhenium
tungsten alloys are also applied as thermocouples to measure temperatures up to 2200
°C.[44]
The high temperature stability, low vapor pressure, good wear resistance and ability to
withstand arc corrosion of rhenium are useful in self-cleaning electrical contacts. In
particular, the discharge occurring during the switching oxidizes the contacts. However,
rhenium oxide Re2O7 has poor stability (sublimates at ~360 °C) and therefore is removed
during the discharge.[38]
Rhenium has a high melting point and a low vapor pressure similar to tantalum and
tungsten, however, rhenium forms no volatile oxides. Therefore, rhenium filaments exhibit
a higher stability if the filament is operated not in vacuum, but in oxygen-containing
atmosphere.[45] Those filaments are widely used in mass spectrographs, in ion gauges.[46]
and in photoflash lamps in photography.[47]
Catalysts
Rhenium in the form of rhenium-platinum alloy is used as catalyst for catalytic reforming,
which is a chemical process to convert petroleum refinery naphthas with low octane ratings
into high-octane liquid products. Worldwide, 30% of catalysts used for this process contain
rhenium.[48] The olefin metathesis is the other reaction for which rhenium is used as
catalyst. Normally Re2O7 on alumina is used for this process.[49] Rhenium catalysts are very
resistant to chemical poisoning from nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus, and so are used in
Rhenium 7
certain kinds of hydrogenation reactions.[8] [50] [51]
Other uses
188
Rh and 186Rh isotopes are radioactive and are used for treatment of liver cancer. They
both have similar penetration depth in tissue (5 mm for 186Rh and 11 mm for 188Rh), but
186
Re has advantage of longer lifetime (90 hours vs. 17 hours).[52] [53]
Related by periodic trends, rhenium has a similar chemistry with technetium; work done to
label rhenium onto target compounds can often be translated to technetium. This is useful
for radiopharmacy, where it is difficult to work with technetium - especially the 99m isotope
used in medicine - due to its expense and short half-life.[52] [54]
Precaution
Very little is known about the toxicity of rhenium and its compounds because they are used
in very small amounts. Soluble salts, such as the rhenium halides or perrhenates, could be
hazardous due to elements other than rhenium or due to rhenium itself.[55] Only a few
compounds of rhenium have been tested for their toxicity; two examples are potassium
perrhenate and rhenium trichloride, which were injected as a solution into rats. The
perrhenate had an LD50 value of 2800 mg/kg after seven days and the rhenium trichloride
showed LD50 of 280 mg/kg.[56]
External links
• WebElements.com - Rhenium [57]
[58]
• pure Rhenium >99,99% picture in the element collection from Heinrich Pniok
pnb:‫مینیہر‬
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[52] Dilworth, Jonathan R.; Parrott, Suzanne J. (1998). "The biomedical chemistry of technetium and rhenium".
Chemical Society Reviews 27: 43–55. doi: 10.1039/a827043z (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ a827043z).
[53] " The Tungsten-188 and Rhenium-188 Generator Information (http:/ / www. ornl. gov/ sci/
nuclear_science_technology/ nu_med/ 188info. htm)". Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 2005. . Retrieved
2008-02-03.
[54] Colton, R.; Peacock R. D. (1962). "An outline of technetium chemistry". Quarterly Reviews Chemical Society
16: 299–315. doi: 10.1039/QR9621600299 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ QR9621600299).
[55] Emsley, J. (2003). "Rhenium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK:
[56] Haley, Thomas J.; Cartwright, Frank D. (1968). "Pharmacology and toxicology of potassium perrhenate and
rhenium trichloride". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 57 (2): 321–323. doi: 10.1002/jps.2600570218 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ jps. 2600570218).
[57] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Re/ index. html
[58] http:/ / www. pse-mendelejew. de/ bilder/ re. jpg

Rhenium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308575004 Contributors: Achim1999, Adashiel, Ahoerstemeier, Ahruman, Alexfusco5,
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License
Osmium 1
Osmium
rhenium ← osmium → iridium

Ru
↑
Os
↓
Hs
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number osmium, Os, 76
Appearance silvery, blue cast

−1
Electron configuration [Xe] 4f14 5d6 6s2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(3033 °C, 5491 °F)

(5012 °C, 9054 °F)

Osmium 2
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 3160 3423 3751 4148 4638 5256
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2

2nd: 1600 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Poisson ratio 0.25
Mohs hardness 7.0
Osmium 3
Main article: Isotopes of osmium

184
Os 0.02% >5.6×1013 y εε 1.452 184
W
(not observed)
185
Os syn 93.6 d ε 1.013 185
Re
186
Os 1.59% 2.0×1015 y α 2.822 182
W
187
Os 1.96% 187
Os is stable with 111 neutron
188
Os 13.24% 188
189
Os 16.15% 189
190
Os 26.26% 190
191
Os syn 15.4 d β
− 0.314 191
Ir
192
Os 40.78% >9.8×10 y
12
β β
− − 0.414 192
Pt
(not observed)
193
Os syn 30.11 d β
− 1.141 193
Ir
194
Os syn 6y β
− 0.097 194
Ir
References
Osmium (pronounced /ˈɒzmiəm/) is a chemical element that has the symbol Os and atomic
number 76. Osmium is a hard, brittle, blue-gray or blue-black transition metal in the
platinum family, and is the densest natural element. The density of osmium is , slightly
greater than that of iridium, the second densest element. Osmium is found in nature as an
alloy, mostly in platinum ores. Osmium is also used in alloys, with platinum, iridium and
other platinum group metals. Those alloys are employed in fountain pen tips, electrical
contacts and in other applications where extreme durability and hardness are needed.
Characteristics
Physical
Osmium is an extremely dense, blue-gray, hard but brittle metal that remains lustrous even
at high temperatures. Due to its hardness, brittleness, and very high melting point (the
tenth highest of all elements), solid osmium is difficult to machine, form, or work. Osmium
is generally considered to be the densest known element, narrowly defeating iridium.[2]
Calculations of density from the space lattice may produce the most reliable data for these
elements, giving a density of for iridium versus for osmium.[3] The extraordinary density of
osmium is a consequence of the lanthanide contraction.[3]
Osmium possesses quite remarkable chemical and physical properties. It has the highest
melting point and the lowest vapor pressure in the platinum family. Osmium has a very low
compressibility. Correspondingly, its bulk modulus is extremely high, reported between and
, which rivals that of diamond (). However, the hardness of osmium is low, only .[4] [5] [6]
Osmium 4
Chemical
Oxidation states of osmium
-2 Na2[Os(CO)4]
-1 Na2[Os4(CO)13]
0 Os3(CO)12
+1 OsI
+2 OsI2
+3 OsBr3
+4 OsO2, OsCl4
+5 OsF5
+6 OsF6
+7 OsOF5
+8 OsO4
Osmium forms compounds with the oxidation states ranging from -2 to +8. The most
common oxidation states are +2, +3, +4, and +8. The +8 oxidation state is notable for
being the highest attained by any chemical element, and aside from osmium, is encountered
only in xenon and ruthenium.[7] The oxidation state -1 and -2 represented by the two
reactive compounds Na2[Os4(CO)13] and Na2[Os(CO)4] are used in the synthesis of osmium
cluster compounds.[8] [9]
The most common compound exhibiting the +8 oxidation state is osmium tetroxide. This
toxic compound is formed when powdered osmium is exposed to air, and is a very volatile,
water-soluble, pale yellow, crystalline solid with a strong smell. Therefore, osmium powder
has a characteristic smell of osmium tetroxide.[10] Osmium tetroxide forms red osmates
[OsO4(OH)2]2− upon reaction with a base. With ammonia, it forms the nitrido-osmates
[OsO3N]−.[11] [12] [13] Osmium tetroxide boils at 130 °C and is a powerful oxidizing agent.
By contrast, osmium dioxide (OsO2) is black, non-volatile, and much less reactive and toxic.
Only two osmium compounds have major applications: osmium tetroxide — for staining
tissue in electron microscopy and the non-volatile osmates for organic oxidation
reactions.[14]
Osmium heptafluoride (OsF7) and osmium pentafluoride (OsF5) are known, but osmium
trifluoride (OsF3) has not been synthesized yet. The lower oxidation states are stabilized by
the larger halogens. Therefore, the trichloride, tribromide, triiodide and even osmium
diiodide are known. The oxidation state +1 is only known for the osmium iodide (OsI),
whereas several carbonyl complexes of osmium, such as triosmium dodecacarbonyl
(Os3(CO)12), represent the oxidation state 0.[11] [12] [15] [16]
In general, the lower oxidation states of osmium are stabilized by ligands that are good
σ-donors (such as amines) and π-acceptors (heterocycles containing nitrogen). The higher
oxidation states are stabilized by strong σ- and π-donors, such as O2− and N3−.[17]
Osmium 5
Isotopes
Osmium has seven naturally occurring isotopes, six of which are stable: 184Os, 187Os, 188Os,
189
Os, 190Os, and (most abundant) 192Os. 186Os undergoes alpha decay with such long
half-life ((2.0±1.1) × 1015 years) that for practical purposes it can be considered stable.
Alpha decay is predicted for all 7 naturally occurring isotopes, but due to very long
half-lives, it was observed only for 186Os. It is predicted that 184Os and 192Os can undergo
double beta decay but this radioactivity has not been observed yet.[18]
187
Os is the daughter of 187Re (half-life ) and is used extensively in dating terrestrial as well
as meteoric rocks (see rhenium-osmium dating). It has also been used to measure the
intensity of continental weathering over geologic time and to fix minimum ages for
stabilization of the mantle roots of continental cratons. This decay is a reason why
rhenium-rich minerals are abnormally rich in 187Os.[19] However, the most notable
application of Os in dating has been in conjunction with iridium, to analyze the layer of
shocked quartz along the K-T boundary that marks the extinction of the dinosaurs 65
million years ago.[20]
History
Osmium (from Greek osme meaning "smell") was discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant
and William Hyde Wollaston in London, England.[21] The discovery of osmium is intertwined
with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group. Platinum reached Europe
as platina ("small silver"), first encountered in the late 17th century in silver mines around
the Chocó Department, in Colombia.[22] The discovery that this metal was not an alloy, but
a distinct new element, was published in 1748.[23] Chemists who studied platinum dissolved
it in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) to create soluble salts. They
always observed a small amount of a dark, insoluble residue.[24] Joseph Louis Proust
thought that the residue was graphite.[24] Victor Collet-Descotils, Antoine François, comte
de Fourcroy, and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803, but did
not obtain enough material for further experiments.[24]
In 1803, Smithson Tennant analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must
contain a new metal. Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids[25] and
obtained a volatile new oxide, which he believed to be of this new metal—which he named
ptene, from the Greek word πτηνος (ptènos) for winged.[26] [27] However, Tennant, who had
the advantage of a much larger amount of residue, continued his research and identified
two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue, iridium and osmium.[24] [25] He
obtained a yellow solution (probably of cis–[Os(OH)2O4]2−) by reactions with sodium
hydroxide at red heat. After acidification he was able to distill the formed OsO4.[26] He
named osmium after Greek osme meaning "a smell", because of the smell of the volatile
osmium tetroxide.[28] Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the
Royal Society on June 21, 1804.[24] [29]
Uranium and osmium were early successful catalysts in the Haber process, the nitrogen
fixation reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to produce ammonia, giving enough yield to
make the process economically successful. However, in 1908 cheaper catalysts based on
iron and iron oxides were introduced for the first pilot plants.[30]
Nowadays, osmium is primarily obtained from the processing of platinum and nickel
ores.[31]
Osmium 6
Occurrence
Osmium is one of the least abundant elements in the Earth's crust with an average mass
fraction of 0.05 ppb in the continental crust.[32] Osmium is found in nature as an
uncombined element or in natural alloys; especially the iridium–osmium alloys, osmiridium
(osmium rich), and iridiosmium (iridium rich).[25] In the nickel and copper deposits, the
platinum group metals occur as sulfides (i.e. (Pt,Pd)S)), tellurides (e.g. PtBiTe), antimonides
(e.g. PdSb), and arsenides (e.g. PtAs2); in all these compounds platinum is exchanged by a
small amount of iridium and osmium. As with all of the platinum group metals, osmium can
be found naturally in alloys with nickel or copper.[33]
Within the Earth's crust, osmium, like iridium, is found
at highest concentrations in three types of geologic
structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from
below), impact craters, and deposits reworked from one
of the former structures. The largest known primary
reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South
Africa,[34] though the large copper–nickel deposits near
Native platinum containing traces of
Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are the other Platinum group metals
also significant sources of osmium. Smaller reserves
can be found in the United States.[34] The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in
the Chocó Department, Colombia are still a source for platinum group metals. The second
large alluvial deposit was found in the Ural Mountains, Russia, which is still mined.[31] [35]
Production
Osmium is obtained commercially as a by-product from
nickel and copper mining and processing. During
electrorefining of copper and nickel, noble metals such
as silver, gold and the platinum group metals, together
with non-metallic elements such as selenium and
tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud,
which forms the starting material for their
extraction.[36] [37] In order to separate the metals, they
must first be brought into solution. Several methods are
available depending on the separation process and the
composition of the mixture; two representative methods
are fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution Osmium bead
in aqua regia, and dissolution in a mixture of chlorine
with hydrochloric acid.[34] [38] Osmium, ruthenium, rhodium and iridium can be separated
from platinum, gold and base metals by their insolubility in aqua regia, leaving a solid
residue. Rhodium can be separated from the residue by treatment with molten sodium
bisulphate. The insoluble residue, containing Ru, Os and Ir, is treated with sodium oxide, in
which Ir is insoluble, producing water-soluble Ru and Os salts. After oxidation to the
volatile oxides, RuO4 is separated from OsO4 by precipitation of (NH4)3RuCl6 with
ammonium chloride.
After it is dissolved, osmium is separated from the other platinum group metals by
distillation or extraction with organic solvents of the volatile osmium tetroxide.[39] The first
Osmium 7
method is similar to the procedure used by Tennant and Wollastone. Both methods are
suitable for industrial scale production. In either case, the product is reduced using
hydrogen, yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be treated using powder
metallurgy techniques.[40]
Neither the producers nor the United States Geological Survey published any production
amounts for osmium. Estimations of the United States consumption date published from
1971,[41] which gives a consumption in the United States of 2000 troy ounces (62 kg),
would suggest that the production is still less than 1 ton per year.
Applications
Because of the volatility and extreme toxicity of its
oxide, osmium is rarely used in its pure state, and is
instead often alloyed with other metals. Those alloys
are utilized in high-wear applications. Osmium alloys
such as osmiridium are very hard and, along with other
platinum group metals, are used in the tips of fountain
pens, instrument pivots, and electrical contacts, as they
can resist wear from frequent operation. The stylus
(needle) in early phonograph designs was also made of
osmium, especially for 78-rpm records, until sapphire
and synthetic diamond replaced the metal in later
designs for 45-rpm and 33-rpm long-playing records.[42]
Electron micrograph of (organic) plant

tissue without (top) and with (bottom)
OsO4 staining
Osmium tetroxide has been used in

fingerprint detection[43] and in
staining fatty tissue for optical and
electron microscopy. As a strong
oxidant, it cross-links lipids mainly
by reacting with unsaturated
The Sharpless dihydroxylation: carbon-carbon bonds, and thereby
RL = Largest substituent; RM = Medium-sized substituent; RS = both fixes biological membranes in
Smallest substituent
Osmium 8
place in tissue samples and simultaneously stains them. Because osmium atoms are
extremely electron dense, osmium staining greatly enhances image contrast in transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) studies of biological materials. Those carbon materials have
otherwise very weak TEM contrast (see image).[14] Another osmium compound, osmium
[44]
ferricyanide (OsFeCN), exhibits similar fixing and staining action.
An alloy of 90% platinum and 10% osmium is used in surgical implants such as pacemakers
and replacement of pulmonary valves.[45]
The tetroxide and a related compound, potassium osmate, are important oxidants for
chemical synthesis, despite being very poisonous. For the Sharpless asymmetric
dihydroxylation, which uses osmate for the conversion of a double bond into a vicinal diol,
Karl Barry Sharpless won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2001.[46] [47]
In 1898 an Austrian chemist, Auer von Welsbach, developed
the Oslamp with a filament made of osmium, which he
introduced commercially in 1902. After only few years,
osmium was replaced by the more stable metal tungsten (also
known as wolfram). Tungsten has the highest melting point of
any metal, and using it in light bulbs increases the luminous
efficacy and life of incandescent lamps.[26]
The light bulb manufacturer OSRAM (founded in 1906 when

three German companies, Auer-Gesellschaft, AEG and Siemens
& Halske, combined their lamp production facilities) derived
its name from the elements of OSmium and wolfRAM.[50]
Like palladium, powdered osmium effectively absorbs
hydrogen atoms. This could make osmium a potential
candidate for a metal hydride battery electrode. However,
Post-flight appearance of Os,
Ag, and Au mirrors from the osmium is expensive and would react with potassium
front (left images) and rear hydroxide, the most common battery electrolyte.[51]
panels of Space Shuttle.
Blackening reveals oxidation
Osmium has high reflectivity in the ultraviolet range of the
due to irradiation by oxygenelectromagnetic spectrum; for example, at 600 Å osmium has a
[48] [49]
atoms. reflectivity two times that of gold.[52] This high reflectivity is
desirable in space-based UV spectrometers which have
reduced mirror sizes due to space limitations. Osmium-coated mirrors were flown in several
space missions aboard the Space Shuttle, but it soon became clear that the oxygen radicals
in the low earth orbit are abundant enough to significantly deteriorate the osmium layer.[53]
Precautions
Finely divided metallic osmium is pyrophoric.[41] Osmium reacts with oxygen at room
temperature forming volatile osmium tetroxide. Some osmium compounds are also
converted to the tetroxide if oxygen is present.[] This makes osmium tetroxide the main
source for the contact to the environment. Osmium tetroxide is highly volatile and
penetrates skin readily, and is very toxic by inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact.[54]
Airborne low concentrations of osmium tetroxide vapor can cause lung congestion and skin
or eye damage, and should therefore be used in a fume hood.[10] Osmium tetroxide is
rapidly reduced to relatively inert compounds by polyunsaturated vegetable oils, such as
corn oil.[55]
Osmium 9
External links
[56]
• WebElements.com: Osmium
pnb:‫میمسوا‬
References
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Osmium 10
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[32] Hans Wedepohl, K (1995). "The composition of the continental crust". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59:
1217–1232. doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(95)00038-2 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0016-7037(95)00038-2).
[33] Xiao, Z.; Laplante, A. R. (2004). "Characterizing and recovering the platinum group minerals—a review".
Minerals Engineering 17: 961–979. doi: 10.1016/j.mineng.2004.04.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. mineng.
2004. 04. 001).
0471238961. 1612012019052513. a01. pub2).
[35] " Comodity Report: Platinum-Group Metals (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ platinum/
mcs-2008-plati. pdf)". United States Geological Survey USGS. . Retrieved 2008-09-16.
[36] George, M. W. (2008). " Platinum-group metals (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
platinum/ mcs-2008-plati. pdf)" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries (USGS Mineral
Resources Program). .
[37] George, M. W.. 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Platinum-Group Metals (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/
commodity/ platinum/ myb1-2006-plati. pdf). United States Geological Survey USGS. .
10.1002/14356007.a21_075 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ 14356007. a21_075).
126–138. .
[41] Smith, Ivan C.; Carson, Bonnie L.; Ferguson, Thomas L. (1974). " Osmium: An Appraisal of Environmental
Exposure (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?artid=1474945)". Environmental Health
Perspectives 8: 201–213. doi: 10.2307/3428200 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2307/ 3428200). PMID 4470919. .
[42] Stephen D. Cramer and Bernard S. Covino, Jr. (2005). ASM Handbook Volume 13B. Corrosion: Materials
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QV0sWU2qF5oC& ). ASM International. ISBN 9780871707079. .
Osmium 11
[43] MacDonell, Herbert L. (1960). " The Use of Hydrogen Fluoride in the Development of Latent Fingerprints
Found on Glass Surfaces (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1140672)". The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology,
and Police Science 51 (4): 465–470. doi: 10.2307/1140672 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2307/ 1140672). .
[44] D. Chadwick (2002). Role of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in smooth muscle. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 259–264.
ISBN 0470844795.
[45] Chevalier, Patrick. " Mineral Yearbook: Platinum Group Metals (http:/ / nrcan. gc. ca/ mms/ cmy/ content/
2004/ 71. pdf)". Natural Resources Canada. . Retrieved 2008-10-17.
[46] Kolb, H. C.; Van Nieuwenhze, M. S.; Sharpless, K. B. (1994). "Catalytic Asymmetric Dihydroxylation".
Chemical Reviews 94: 2483–2547. doi: 10.1021/cr00032a009 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ cr00032a009).
[47] Colacot, T. J. (2002). " 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ pdf/
pmr-v46-i2-082-083. pdf)". Platinum Metals Review 46 (2): 82–83. .
[48] " Second LDEF post-retrieval symposium interim results of experiment A0034 (http:/ / ntrs. nasa. gov/
archive/ nasa/ casi. ntrs. nasa. gov/ 19930019094_1993019094. pdf)". NASA. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[49] " LDEF experiment A0034: Atomic oxygen stimulated outgassing (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1992ldef.
symp. . 763L)". NASA. . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[50] Bowers, B., B. (2001). "Scanning our past from London: the filament lamp and new materials". Proceedings of
the IEEE 89 (3): 413–415. doi: 10.1109/5.915382 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ 5. 915382).
[51] Antonov, V. E.; Belash, I. T.; Malyshev, V. Yu.; Ponyatovsky, E. G. (1984). " The Solubility of Hydrogen in the
Platinum Metals under High Pressure (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ pdf/ pmr-v28-i4-158-163.
pdf)". Platinum Metals Revie 28 (4): 158–163. .
[52] Torr, Marsha R. (1985). "Osmium coated diffraction grating in the Space Shuttle environment: performance".
Applied Optics 24: 2959. doi: 10.1364/AO.24.002959 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1364/ AO. 24. 002959).
[53] Gull, T. R. (1985). "Low earth orbit environmental effects on osmium and related optical thin-film coatings".
Applied Optics 24: 2660. doi: 10.1364/AO.24.002660 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1364/ AO. 24. 002660).
[54] Luttrell, William E.; Giles, Cory B. (2007). "Toxic tips: Osmium tetroxide". Journal of Chemical Health and
Safety 14 (5): 40–41. doi: 10.1016/j.jchas.2007.07.003 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. jchas. 2007. 07. 003).
[55] " How to Handle Osmium Tetroxide (http:/ / blink-prod. ucsd. edu/ Blink/ External/ Topics/ How_To/
0,1260,15753,00. html)". University of California, SanDiego. . Retrieved 2009-06-02.
[56] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Os/ index. html

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License
Iridium 1
Iridium
osmium ← iridium → platinum

Rh
↑
Ir
↓
Mt
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number iridium, Ir, 77

−1

14 7
5d 6s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(2466 °C, 4471 °F)

(4428 °C, 8002 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2713 2957 3252 3614 4069 4659

Iridium 2
Atomic properties
Crystal structure face centered cubic
Oxidation states −3,−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
2nd: 1600 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Poisson ratio 0.26
Mohs hardness 6.5
Iridium 3
Main article: Isotopes of iridium

188
Ir syn 1.73 d ε 1.64 188
Os
189
Ir syn 13.2 d ε 0.532 189
Os
190
Ir syn 11.8 d ε 2.000 190
Os
191
Ir 37.3% 191
Ir is stable with 114 neutron
192
Ir syn 73.827 d β- 1.460 192
Pt
ε 1.046 192
Os
192m2
Ir syn 241 y IT 0.161 192
Ir
193
Ir 62.7% 193
Ir is stable with 116 neutron
193m
Ir syn 10.5 d IT 0.080 193
Ir
194
Ir syn 19.3 h β
- 2.247 194
Pt
194m2
Ir syn 171 d IT ? 194
Ir
References
Iridium (pronounced /ɨˈrɪdiəm/) is the chemical element with atomic number 77, and is
represented by the symbol Ir. A very hard, brittle, silvery-white transition metal of the
platinum family, iridium is the second densest element (after osmium) and is the most
corrosion-resistant metal, even at temperatures as high as 2000 °C. Although only certain
molten salts and halogens are corrosive to solid iridium, finely divided iridium dust is much
more reactive and can even be flammable. The most important iridium compounds in terms
of use are the salts and acids it forms with chlorine, though iridium also forms a number of
191 193
organometallic compounds used in catalysis and in research. Ir and Ir are the only
two naturally occurring isotopes of iridium as well as the only stable isotopes; the latter is
the more abundant of the two.
Iridium was discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant in London, England, among insoluble
impurities in natural platinum from South America. Although it is one of the rarest elements
in the Earth's crust, with annual production and consumption of only three tonnes, it has a
number of specialized industrial and scientific applications. Iridium is employed when high
corrosion resistance and high temperatures are needed, as in spark plugs, crucibles for
recrystallization of semiconductors at high temperatures, electrodes for the production of
chlorine in the chloralkali process, and radioisotope thermoelectric generators used in
unmanned spacecraft. Iridium compounds also find applications as catalysts for the
production of acetic acid.
An unusually high abundance of iridium in a clay layer of the K–T geologic boundary was a
crucial clue that led to the theory that the extinction of dinosaurs and many other species
65 million years ago was caused by the impact of a massive extraterrestrial object—the
so-called Alvarez hypothesis. Iridium is found in meteorites with an abundance much higher
than its average abundance in the Earth's crust. It is thought that the amount of iridium in
Iridium 4
the planet Earth is much higher than what is observed in crustal rocks, but because of the
high density and tendency of iridium to bond with iron, most iridium descended below the
crust and into the Earth's core when the planet was young and still molten.
Characteristics
Physical
A member of the platinum group metals, iridium is
white, resembling platinum, but with a slight yellowish
cast. Due to its hardness, brittleness, and very high
melting point (the tenth highest of all elements), solid
iridium is difficult to machine, form, or work, and thus
powder metallurgy is commonly employed instead.[2] It
is the only metal to maintain good mechanical
properties in air at temperatures above 1600 °C.[3]
Iridium has a very high boiling point (11th among all
elements) and becomes a superconductor under
0.14 K.[4]
1 troy ounce (31 g) of arc-melted
iridium Iridium's modulus of elasticity is the second highest
among the metals, only being surpassed by osmium.[3]
This, together with a high modulus of rigidity and a very low figure for Poisson's ratio (the
relationship of longitudinal to lateral strain), indicate the high degree of stiffness and
resistance to deformation that have rendered its fabrication into useful components a
matter of great difficulty. Despite these limitations and iridium's high cost, a number of
applications have developed where mechanical strength is an essential factor in some of the
extremely severe conditions encountered in modern technology.[3]
The measured density of iridium is only slightly lower (by about 0.1%) than that of osmium,
the densest element known.[5] [6] There had been some ambiguity regarding which of the
two element was denser, due to the small size of the difference in density and difficulties in
measuring it accurately,[7] but, with increased accuracy in factors used for calculating
density X-ray crystallographic data yielded densities of 22.56 g/cm3 for iridium and
22.59 g/cm3 for osmium.[8]
Chemical
Iridium is the most corrosion-resistant metal known:[9] it is not attacked by any acid, by
aqua regia, by any molten metals, or by silicates at high temperatures. It can, however, be
attacked by some molten salts, such as sodium cyanide and potassium cyanide,[9] as well as
oxygen and the halogens (particularly fluorine)[10] at higher temperatures.[11]
Compounds
Oxidation states
[12]
of iridium
−3 [Ir(CO)3]3−
−1 [Ir(CO)3(PPh3)]−
Iridium 5
0 Ir4(CO)12
+1 [Ir(CO)Cl(PPh3)2]
+2 IrCl2
+3 IrCl3
+4 IrO2
+5 Ir4F20
+6 IrF6
Iridium forms compounds in oxidation states between −3 to +6; the most common oxidation
states are +3 and +4.[2] Well-characterized examples of the highest oxidation state are
rare, but include IrF6 and two mixed oxides Sr2MgIrO6 and Sr2CaIrO6.[2] [13]
Iridium dioxide, IrO2, a brown powder, is the only well-characterized oxide of iridium.[2] A
sesquioxide, Ir2O3, has been described as a blue-black powder which is oxidized to IrO2 by
HNO3.[10] The corresponding disulfides, diselenides, sesquisulfides and sesquiselenides are
known and IrS3 has also been reported.[2] Iridium also forms iridates with oxidation states
+4 and +5, such as K2IrO3 and KIrO3, which can be prepared from the reaction of
potassium oxide or potassium superoxide with iridium at high temperatures.[14]
While no binary hydrides of iridium, IrxHy are known, complexes are known that contain
IrH4−5 and IrH3−6, where iridium has the +1 and +3 oxidation states, respectively.[15] The
ternary hydride Mg6Ir2H11 is believed to contain both the IrH4−5 and the 18-electron
IrH5−4 anion.[16]
No monohalides or dihalides are known, whereas trihalides, IrX3, are known for all of the
halogens.[2] For oxidation states +4 and above, only the tetrafluoride, pentafluoride and
hexafluoride are known.[2] Iridium hexafluoride, IrF6, is a volatile and highly reactive yellow
solid, composed of octahedral molecules. It decomposes in water and is reduced to IrF4, a
crystalline solid, by iridium black.[2] Iridium pentafluoride has similar properties but it is
actually a tetramer, Ir4F20, formed by four corner-sharing octahedra.[2]
Hexachloroiridic(IV) acid, H IrCl , and its ammonium
2 6
salt are the most important iridium compounds from an
industrial perspective.[17] They are involved in the
purification of iridium and used as precursors for most
other iridium compounds, as well as in the preparation
of anode coatings. The IrCl2−6 ion has an intense dark
brown color, and can be readily reduced to the
Vaska's complex
lighter-colored IrCl3−6 and vice versa.[17] Iridium
trichloride, IrCl3, which can be obtained in anhydrous
form from direct oxidation of iridium powder by chlorine at 650 °C,[17] or in hydrated form
by dissolving Ir2O3 in hydrochloric acid, is often used as a starting material for the
synthesis of other Ir(III) compounds.[2] Another compound used as a starting material is
ammonium hexachloroiridate(III), (NH4)3IrCl6. Iridium(III) complexes are diamagnetic
(low-spin) and generally have an octahedral molecular geometry.[2]
Organoiridium compounds contain iridium–carbon bonds where the metal is usually in

lower oxidation states. For example, oxidation state zero is found in tetrairidium
dodecacarbonyl, Ir4(CO)12, which is the most common and stable binary carbonyl of
iridium.[2] In this compound, each of the iridium atoms is bonded to the other three,
Iridium 6
forming a tetrahedral cluster. Some organometallic Ir(I) compounds are notable enough to
be named after their discoverers. One is Vaska's complex, IrCl(CO)[P(C6H5)3]2, which has
the unusual property of binding to the dioxygen molecule, O2.[18] Another one is Crabtree's
catalyst, a homogeneous catalyst for hydrogenation reactions.[19] These compounds are
8
both square planar, d complexes, with a total of 16 valence electrons, which accounts for
their reactivity.[20]
Isotopes
Iridium has two naturally occurring, stable isotopes, 191Ir and 193Ir, with natural
abundances of 37.3% and 62.7%, respectively.[21] At least 34 radioisotopes have also been
synthesized, ranging in mass number from 164 to 199. Twenty-seven of these are lighter
than the stable isotopes, while six are heavier. 192Ir, which falls between the two stable
isotopes, is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of 73.827 days, and finds
application in brachytherapy.[22] Three other isotopes have half-lives of at least a
day—188Ir, 189Ir, 190Ir.[21] One of the least stable isotopes is 165Ir with a half-life of 1 µs.
Isotopes with masses below 191 decay by some combination of β+ decay, α decay, and
proton emission, with the exceptions of 189Ir, which decays by electron capture, and 190Ir,
which decays by positron emission. Synthetic isotopes heavier than 191 decay by β− decay,
although 192Ir also has a minor electron capture decay path.[21] All known isotopes of
iridium were discovered between 1934 and 2001; the most recent is 171Ir.[23]
At least 32 metastable isomers have been characterized, ranging in mass number from 164
to 197. The most stable of these is 192m2Ir, which decays by isomeric transition with a
half-life of 241 years,[21] making it more stable than any of iridium's synthetic isotopes in
their ground states. The least stable isomer is 190m3Ir with a half-life of only 2 µs.[21] The
isotope 191Ir was the first one of any element to be shown to present a Mössbauer effect.
This renders it useful for Mössbauer spectroscopy for research in physics, chemistry,
biochemistry, metallurgy, and mineralogy.[24]
History
The discovery of iridium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the
platinum group. Native platinum used by ancient Ethiopians[25] and by South American
cultures[26] always contained a small amount of the other platinum group metals, including
iridium. Platinum reached Europe as platina ("small silver"), found in the 17th century by
the Spanish conquerors in a region today known as the department of Chocó in
Colombia.[27] The discovery that this metal was not an alloy of known elements, but instead
a distinct new element, did not occur until 1748.[28]
Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and
nitric acids) to create soluble salts. They always observed a small amount of a dark,
insoluble residue.[3] Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite.[3] The
French chemists Victor Collet-Descotils, Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, and Louis
Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803, but did not obtain enough for
further experiments.[3]
In 1803, British scientist Smithson Tennant (1761–1815) analyzed the insoluble residue and
concluded that it must contain a new metal. Vauquelin treated the powder alternatively
with alkali and acids[9] and obtained a volatile new oxide, which he believed to be of this
new metal—which he named ptene, from the Greek word πτηνος (ptènos) for winged.[29]
Iridium 7
[30]
Tennant, who had the advantage of a much greater amount of residue, continued his
research and identified the two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue,
iridium and osmium.[3] [9] He obtained dark red crystals (probably of Na2[IrCl6]·nH2O) by a
sequence of reactions with sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.[30] He named iridium
after Iris (Ιρις), the Greek winged goddess of the rainbow and the messenger of the
Olympian gods, because many of the salts he obtained were strongly colored.[31] [32]
Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21,
1804.[3] [33]
British scientist John George Children was the first to melt a
sample of iridium in 1813 with the aid of "the greatest
galvanic battery that has ever been constructed" (at that
time).[3] The first to obtain high purity iridium was Robert
Hare in 1842. He found that it had a density of around
21.8 g/cm3 and noted that the metal is nearly unmalleable
and very hard. The first melting in appreciable quantity was
done by Henri Sainte-Claire Deville and Jules Henri Debray
in 1860. They required burning more than 300 L of pure O2
and H2 for each kilogram of iridium.[3]
These extreme difficulties in melting the metal limited the

possibilities for handling iridium. John Isaac Hawkins was
looking to obtain a fine and hard point for fountain pen nibs
and in 1834 managed to create an iridium-pointed gold pen. The Greek goddess Iris, after
whom Iridium was named.
In 1880 John Holland and William Lofland Dudley were able
to melt iridium by adding phosphorus and patented the
process in the United States; British company Johnson Matthey later stated that they had
been using a similar process since 1837 and had already presented fused iridium at a
number of World Fairs.[3] The first use of an alloy of iridium with ruthenium in
thermocouples was made by Otto Feussner in 1933. These allowed for the measurement of
high temperatures in air up to 2000 °C.[3]
In 1957 Rudolf Mössbauer, in what has been called one of the "landmark experiments in
twentieth century physics",[34] discovered the resonant and recoil-free emission and
absorption of gamma rays by atoms in a solid metal sample containing only 191Ir.[35] This
phenomenon, known as the Mössbauer effect (which has since been observed for other
nuclei, such as 57Fe), and developed as Mössbauer spectroscopy, has made important
contributions to research in physics, chemistry, biochemistry, metallurgy, and
mineralogy.[24] Mössbauer received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1961, just three years
after he published his discovery.[36]
Iridium 8
Occurrence
Iridium is one of the least abundant elements in the
Earth's crust, having an average mass fraction of
0.001 ppm in crustal rock; gold is 4 times more
abundant, platinum is 10 times more abundant, and
silver and mercury are 80 times more abundant.[2]
Tellurium is about as abundant as iridium, and only
three naturally occurring elements are less abundant:
rhenium, ruthenium, and rhodium, iridium being 10
times more abundant than the last two.[2] In contrast to
its low abundance in crustal rock, iridium is relatively
common in meteorites, with concentrations of 0.5 ppm
or more.[38] It is thought that the overall concentration
of iridium on Earth is much higher than what is
observed in crustal rocks, but because of the density
and siderophilic ("iron-loving") character of iridium, it
descended below the crust and into the Earth's core The Willamette Meteorite, the sixth
when the planet was still molten.[17] largest meteorite found in the world,
[37]
has 4.7 ppm iridium.
Iridium is found in nature as an uncombined element or

in natural alloys; especially the iridium–osmium alloys, osmiridium (osmium rich), and
iridiosmium (iridium rich).[9] In the nickel and copper deposits the platinum group metals
occur as sulfides (i.e. (Pt,Pd)S)), tellurides (i.e. PtBiTe), antimonides (PdSb), and arsenides
(i.e. PtAs2). In all of these compounds platinum is exchanged by a small amount of iridium
and osmium. As with all of the platinum group metals, iridium can be found naturally in
alloys with raw nickel or raw copper.[39]
Within the Earth's crust, iridium is found at highest concentrations in three types of
geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below), impact craters, and
deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves
[40]
are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa, though the large copper–nickel
deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant
sources of iridium. Smaller reserves are found in the United States.[40] Iridium is also found
in secondary deposits, combined with platinum and other platinum group metals in alluvial
deposits. The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the Chocó Department of
Colombia are still a source for platinum-group metals. As of 2003 the world reserves had
not been estimated.[9]
Iridium 9
K–T boundary presence

The K–T boundary of 65 million years ago, marking the
temporal border between the Cretaceous and Tertiary
periods of geological time, was identified by a thin
stratum of iridium-rich clay.[41] A team led by Luis
Alvarez proposed in 1980 an extraterrestrial origin for
this iridium, attributing it to an asteroid or comet
impact.[41] Their theory, known as the Alvarez
hypothesis, is now widely accepted to explain the
The red arrow points to the K–T
demise of the dinosaurs. A large buried impact crater boundary.
structure with an estimated age of about 65 million
years was later identified under what is now the Yucatán Peninsula (the Chicxulub
[42] [43]
crater). Dewey M. McLean and others argue that the iridium may have been of
volcanic origin instead, as the Earth's core is rich in iridium, and active volcanoes such as
Piton de la Fournaise, in the island of Réunion, are still releasing iridium.[44] [45]
Production
Year Price
[46] [47]
($/ozt)
2001 415.25
2002 294.62
2003 93.02
2004 185.33
2005 169.51
2006 349.45
2007 440.00
Iridium is obtained commercially as a by-product from nickel and copper mining and
processing. During electrorefining of copper and nickel, noble metals such as silver, gold
and the platinum group metals as well as selenium and tellurium settle to the bottom of the
cell as anode mud, which forms the starting point for their extraction.[46] [48] In order to
separate the metals, they must first be brought into solution. Several methods are available
depending on the separation process and the composition of the mixture; two
representative methods are fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua
regia, and dissolution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid.[17] [40]
After it is dissolved, iridium is separated from the other platinum group metals by
precipitating (NH4)2IrCl6 or by extracting IrCl2−6 with organic amines.[49] The first method
is similar to the procedure Tennant and Wollastone used for their separation. The second
method can be planned as continuous liquid–liquid extraction and is therefore more suitable
for industrial scale production. In either case, the product is reduced using hydrogen,
yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be treated using powder metallurgy
techniques.[50] [51]
Annual production of iridium circa 2000 was around 3 tonnes or about 100,000 troy ounces
(ozt).[52] [9] The price of iridium as of 2007 was $440 USD/ozt,[46] but the price fluctuates
Iridium 10
considerably, as shown in the table. The high volatility of the prices of the platinum group
metals has been attributed to supply, demand, speculation, and hoarding, amplified by the
small size of the market and instability in the producing countries.[53]
Applications
The global demand for iridium in 2007 was 119,000 troy ounces (3,700 kg), out of which
25,000 ozt (780 kg) were used for electrical applications such as spark plugs; 34,000 ozt
(1,100 kg) for electrochemical applications such as electrodes for the chloralkali process;
24,000 ozt (750 kg) for catalysis; and 36,000 ozt (1,100 kg) for other uses.[54]
Industrial and medical

The high melting point, hardness and corrosion resistance
of iridium and its alloys determine most of its applications.
Iridium and especially iridium–platinum alloys or
osmium–iridium alloys have a low wear and are used, for
example, for multi-pored spinnerets, through which a
plastic polymer melt is extruded to form fibers, such as
rayon.[55] Osmium–iridium is used for compass bearings
and for balances.[9]
Corrosion and heat resistance makes iridium an important

alloying agent. Certain long-life aircraft engine parts are
made of an iridium alloy and an iridium–titanium alloy is Molecular structure of Ir(mppy)3
used for deep-water pipes because of its corrosion
resistance.[9] Iridium is also used as a hardening agent in platinum alloys. The Vickers
hardness of pure platinum is 56 HV while platinum with 50% of iridium can reach over
500 HV.[56] [57]
Devices that must withstand extremely high temperatures are often made from iridium. For
example, high-temperature crucibles made of iridium are used in the Czochralski process to
produce oxide single-crystals (such as sapphires) for use in computer memory devices and
in solid state lasers.[58] [59] The crystals, such as gadolinium gallium garnet and yttrium
gallium garnet, are grown by melting pre-sintered charges of mixed oxides under oxidizing
conditions at temperatures up to 2100 °C.[3] Its resistance to arc erosion makes iridium
alloys ideal for electrical contacts for spark plugs.[59] [60]
Iridium compounds are used as catalysts in the Cativa process for carbonylation of
methanol to produce acetic acid.[61] Iridium itself is used as a catalyst in a type of
automobile engine introduced in 1996 called the direct-ignition engine.[9]
The radioisotope iridium-192 is one of the two most important sources of energy for use in
industrial γ-radiography for non-destructive testing of metals.[62] [63] Additionally, 192Ir is
used as a source of gamma radiation for the treatment of cancer using brachytherapy, a
form of radiotherapy where a sealed radioactive source is placed inside or next to the area
requiring treatment. Specific treatments include high dose rate prostate brachytherapy,
bilary duct brachytherapy, and intracavitary cervix brachytherapy.[9]
Iridium 11
Scientific
An alloy of 90% platinum and 10% iridium was used in
1889 to construct the International Prototype Meter
and kilogram mass, kept by the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures near Paris.[9] The meter bar was
replaced as the definition of the fundamental unit of
length in 1960 by a line in the atomic spectrum of
krypton,[64] [65] but the kilogram prototype is still the
international standard of mass.[66]
International Prototype Meter bar
Iridium has been used in the radioisotope
thermoelectric generators of unmanned spacecraft such as the Voyager, Viking, Pioneer,
Cassini, Galileo, and New Horizons. Iridium was chosen to encapsulate the plutonium-238
fuel in the generator because it can withstand the operating temperatures of up to 2000 °C
and for its great strength.[3]
Another use concerns X-ray optics, especially X-ray telescopes.[67] The mirrors of the
Chandra X-ray Observatory are coated with a layer of iridium 60 nm thick. Iridium proved
to be the best choice for reflecting X-rays after nickel, gold, and platinum were tested. The
iridium layer, which had to be smooth to within a few atoms, was applied by depositing
iridium vapor under high vacuum on a base layer of chromium.[68]
Iridium is used in particle physics for the production of antiprotons, a form of antimatter.
Antiprotons are made by shooting a high-intensity proton beam at a conversion target,
which needs to be made from a very high density material. Although tungsten may be used
instead, iridium has the advantage of better stability under the shock waves induced by the
temperature rise due to the incident beam.[69]
Carbon–hydrogen bond
activation (C–H activation) is
an area of research on
reactions that cleave
carbon–hydrogen bonds,
[70] which were traditionally
Oxidative addition to hydrocarbons in organoiridium chemistry.
[71]
regarded as unreactive. The
first reported successes at
activating C–H bonds in saturated hydrocarbons, published in 1982, used organometallic
iridium complexes that undergo an oxidative addition with the hydrocarbon.[70] [71]
Iridium complexes are being investigated as catalysts for asymmetric hydrogenation. These
catalysts have been used in the synthesis of natural products and able to hydrogenate
certain difficult substrates, such as unfunctionalized alkenes, enantioselectively (generating
only one of the two possible enantiomers).[72] [73]
Iridium forms a variety of complexes of fundamental interest in triplet harvesting.[74] [75]
[76]
Iridium 12
Historical
Iridium–osmium alloys were used to tip fountain pen nibs.
The first major use of iridium was in 1834 in nibs mounted
on gold.[3] Since 1944, the famous Parker 51 fountain pen
was fitted with a nib tipped by a ruthenium and iridium alloy
(with 3.8% iridium). The tip material in modern fountain
Fountain pen nib labeled
pens is still conventionally called "iridium," although there is
Iridium Point
seldom any iridium in it; other metals such as tungsten have
taken its place.[77]
An iridium–platinum alloy was used for the touch holes or vent pieces of cannons.
According to a report of the Paris Exhibition of 1867, one of the pieces being exhibited by
Johnson and Matthey "has been used in a Withworth gun for more than 3000 rounds, and
scarcely shows signs of wear yet. Those who know the constant trouble and expense which
are occasioned by the wearing of the vent-pieces of cannon when in active service, will
appreciate this important adaptation".[78]
The pigment iridium black, which consists of very finely divided iridium, is used for painting
porcelain an intense black; it was said that "all other porcelain black colors appear grey by
the side of it".[79]
Precautions
Iridium in bulk metallic form is not biologically important or hazardous to health due to its
lack of reactivity with tissues; there are only about 20 parts per trillion of iridium in human
tissue.[9] However, finely divided iridium powder can be hazardous to handle, as it is an
irritant and may ignite in air.[40] Very little is known about the toxicity of iridium
compounds because they are used in very small amounts, but soluble salts, such as the
iridium halides, could be hazardous due to elements other than iridium or due to iridium
itself.[22] However, most iridium compounds are insoluble, which makes absorption into the
body difficult.[9]
A radioisotope of iridium, 192Ir, is dangerous like other radioactive isotopes. The only
reported injuries related to iridium concern accidental exposure to radiation from 192Ir
used in brachytherapy.[22] High-energy gamma radiation from 192Ir can increase the risk of
cancer. External exposure can cause burns, radiation poisoning, and death. Ingestion of
192
Ir can burn the linings of the stomach and the intestines.[80] 192Ir, 192mIr, and 194mIr
tend to deposit in the liver, and can pose health hazards from both gamma and beta
radiation.[38]
Iridium 13
See also
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
References
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External links
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License
Platinum 1
Platinum
iridium ← platinum → gold

Pd
↑
Pt
↓
Ds
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number platinum, Pt, 78

−1

14 9
5d 6s
1
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1768.3 °C, 3214.9 °F)

(3825 °C, 6917 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2330 (2550) 2815 3143 3556 4094

Platinum 2
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 6, 5, 4, 3 , 2, 1, -1, -2

2nd: 1791 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) 2800 m·s

−1
Tensile strength 125-240 MPa
Poisson ratio 0.38
Mohs hardness 4–4.5
Platinum 3
Main article: Isotopes of platinum

190
Pt 0.014% 6.5×1011 y α 3.18 186
Os
191
Pt syn 2.76 d ε ? 191
Ir
192
Pt 0.782% 192
Pt is stable with 114 neutron
193
Pt syn 50 y ε ? 193
Ir
193m
Pt syn 4.33 d IT 0.1355e 193
Pt
194
Pt 32.967% 194
195
Pt 33.832% 195
195m
Pt syn 4.02 d IT 0.1297e 195
Pt
196
Pt 25.242% 196
197
Pt syn 19.8913 h β
− 0.719 197
Au
197m
Pt syn 1.59 h IT 0.3465 197
Pt
198
Pt 7.163% 198
References
Platinum (pronounced /ˈplætɨnəm/) is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Pt and
an atomic number of 78. Its name is derived from the Spanish term platina del Pinto, which
is literally translated into "little silver of the Pinto River."[1] It is in Group 10 of the periodic
table of elements. A dense, malleable, ductile, precious, gray-white transition metal,
platinum is resistant to corrosion and occurs in some nickel and copper ores along with
some native deposits. Platinum is used in jewelry, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts
and electrodes, platinum resistance thermometers, dentistry equipment, and catalytic
converters. Platinum bullion has the ISO currency code of XPT. Platinum is a commodity
with a value that fluctuates according to market forces. On June 5, 2009, Platinum was
worth $1263.00 per troy ounce (approximately $40.09 per gram).[2]
Characteristics
As a pure metal, platinum is silvery-white in appearance, lustrous, ductile, and malleable.[3]
It does not oxidize at any temperature, although it is corroded by halogens, cyanides,
sulfur, and caustic alkalis. Platinum is insoluble in hydrochloric and nitric acid, but
dissolves in aqua regia to form chloroplatinic acid, H2PtCl6.[4]
Platinum's wear- and tarnish-resistance characteristics are well suited for making fine
jewelry. Platinum is more precious than gold or silver. Platinum possesses high resistance
to chemical attack, excellent high-temperature characteristics, and stable electrical
properties. All of these properties have been exploited for industrial applications.
Platinum 4
Isotopes
Platinum has six naturally occurring isotopes: 190Pt, 192Pt, 194Pt, 195Pt, 196Pt, and 198Pt.
The most abundant of these is 195Pt, comprising 33.83% of all platinum. 190Pt is the least
abundant at only .01%. Of the naturally occurring isotopes, only 190Pt is unstable, though it
decays with a half-life of 650 × 109 years. 198Pt undergoes alpha decay, but because its
half-life is estimated as being greater than 320 × 1012 years, it is considered stable.
Platinum also has 31 synthetic isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 166 to 202, making
the total number of known isotopes 37. The least stable of these is 166Pt with a half-life of
300 µs, while the most stable is 193Pt with a half-life of 50 years. Most of platinum's
isotopes decay by some combination of beta decay and alpha decay. 188Pt, 191Pt, and 193Pt
decay primarily by electron capture. 190Pt and 198Pt have double beta decay paths.[5]

Platinum's most common oxidation states are +2, and +4. The +1 and +3 oxidation states
are less common, and are often stabilized by metal bonding in bimetallic (or polymetallic)
species. As is expected, tetracoordinate platinum(II) compounds tend to adopt a square
planar geometry. While elemental platinum is generally unreactive, it dissolves in aqua
regia to give soluble hexachloroplatinic acid ("H2PtCl6", formally (H3O)2PtCl6·nH2O ):[6]
Pt + 4 HNO3 + 6 HCl → H2PtCl6 + 4 NO2 + 4 H2O
This compound has various applications in photography, zinc etchings, indelible ink,
plating, mirrors, porcelain coloring, and as a catalyst.[7]
Treatment of hexachloroplatinic acid with an ammonium salt, such as ammonium chloride,
gives ammonium hexachloroplatinate,[8] which is very insoluble in ammonium solutions.
Heating the ammonium salt in the presence of hydrogen reduces it to elemental platinum.
Platinum is often isolated from ores and recycled thus.[9] Potassium hexachloroplatinate is
similarly insoluble, such that the acid has been used in the determination of potassium ions
by gravimetry.[10]
When hexachloroplatinic acid is heated, it decomposes through platinum(IV) chloride and
platinum(II) chloride to elemental platinum, although the reactions do not occur stepwise,
cleanly:[11]
(H3O)2PtCl6·n H2O PtCl4 + 2 HCl + (n + 2) H2O
PtCl4 PtCl2 + Cl2
PtCl2 Pt + Cl2
All three reactions are reversible. Platinum(II) and platinum(IV) bromides are known as
well. Platinum hexafluoride is a strong oxidizer.
Platinum(IV) oxide, PtO2, also known as Adams' Catalyst, is a black powder which is soluble
in KOH solutions and concentrated acids.[12] PtO2 and the less common PtO both
decompose upon heating.[3] Platinum(II,IV) oxide, Pt3O4, is formed in the following
reaction:
2 Pt2+ + Pt4+ + 4 O2− → Pt3O4
Platinum also forms a trioxide, which is actually in the +4 oxidation state.
Unlike palladium acetate, platinum(II) acetate is not commercially available. Where a base
is desired, the halides have been used in conjunction with sodium acetate.[13] The use of
platinum(II) acetylacetonate has also been reported.[14]
Platinum 5
Zeise's salt, containing an ethylene ligand, was one of the first organometallic compounds
discovered. Dichloro(cycloocta-1,5-diene)platinum(II) is a commercially available olefin
complex, which contains easily displaceable cod ligands ("cod" being an abbreviation of
1,5-cyclooctadiene). The cod complex and the halides are convenient starting points to
platinum chemistry. As a soft acid, platinum has a great affinity for sulfur, such as on
DMSO; numerous DMSO complexes have been reported and care should be taken in the
choice of reaction solvent.[13]
Cisplatin, or cis-diamminedichloroplatinum(II) is the first of a series of square planar
platinum(II)-containing chemotherapy drugs, including carboplatin and oxaliplatin. These
compounds are capable of crosslinking DNA and kill cells by similar pathways to alkylating
chemotherapeutic agents.[15]
The hexachloroplatinate
Cisplatin
ion
Dichloro(cycloocta-1,5-diene)platinum(II)
Several barium platinides have been synthesized, in which platinum exhibits negative
oxidation states ranging from −1 to −2. These include BaPt, Ba3Pt2, and Ba2Pt.[16] Caesium
platinide, Cs2Pt, has been shown to contain Pt2− anions.[17] Platinum is also shown to
exhibit negative oxidation states at surfaces reduced electrochemically.[18] The negative
oxidation states exhibited by platinum, which are unusual for metallic elements, are
believed to be due to the relativistic stabilization of the 6s orbitals.[17]
Occurrence
Platinum is an extremely rare metal, occurring as only
0.003 ppb in the Earth's crust. It is sometimes mistaken
for silver (Ag) but platinum is whiter in appearance.
Platinum is often found chemically uncombined as
native platinum and alloyed with iridium as
platiniridium. Most often the native platinum is found in
secondary deposits, platinum is combined with the
other platinum group metals in alluvial deposits. The
alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the
Platinum ore, US cent included for
scale Chocó Department, Colombia are still a source for
platinum group metals. Another large alluvial deposit
was found in the Ural mountains, Russia, which is still mined.
Platinum 6
In nickel and copper deposits platinum group metals

occur as sulfides (i.e. (Pt,Pd)S)), tellurides (i.e. PtBiTe),
antimonides (PdSb), and arsenides (i.e. PtAs2), and as
end alloys with nickel or copper. Platinum arsenide,
sperrylite (PtAs2), is a major source of platinum
associated with nickel ores in the Sudbury Basin Platinum output in 2005
deposit in Ontario, Canada. The rare sulfide mineral
cooperite, (Pt,Pd,Ni)S, contains platinum along with palladium and nickel. Cooperite occurs
in the Merensky Reef within the Bushveld complex, Gauteng, South Africa.[19]
The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld complex in South Africa.[20] The
large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin, Canada, are
the two other large deposits. In the Sudbury Basin the huge quantities of nickel ore
processed makes up for the fact that platinum is present as only 0.5 ppm in the ore. Smaller
reserves can be found in the United States,[20] for example in the Absaroka Range in
Montana.[21] This is also shown in the production of 2005. In 2005, South Africa was the top
producer of platinum with an almost 80% share followed by Russia and Canada.[22]
Platinum exists in higher abundances on the Moon and in meteorites. Correspondingly,
platinum is found in slightly higher abundances at sites of bolide impact on the Earth that
are associated with resulting post-impact volcanism, and can be mined economically; the
Sudbury Basin is one such example.
Production
Platinum together with the rest of the
platinum metals is obtained commercially
as a by-product from nickel and copper
mining and processing. During
electrorefining of copper, noble metals
such as silver, gold and the platinum group
metals as well as selenium and tellurium
settle to the bottom of the cell as anode
mud, which forms the starting point for the
extraction of the platinum group metals.[23]
[24]
If pure platinum is found in placer deposits 1000 cubic centimeters of 99.9% pure platinum
or other ores it is isolated from them by
various methods of subtracting impurities. Because platinum is significantly denser than
many of its impurities, the lighter impurities can be removed by simply floating them away
in a water bath. Platinum is also non-magnetic, while nickel and iron are both magnetic.
These two impurities are thus removed by running an electromagnet over the mixture.
Because platinum has a higher melting point than most other substances, many impurities
can be burned or melted away without melting the platinum. Finally, platinum is resistant
to hydrochloric and sulfuric acids, while other substances are readily attacked by them.
Metal impurities can be removed by stirring the mixture in either of the two acids and
recovering the remaining platinum.[25]
Platinum 7
One suitable method for purification for the raw platinum, which contains platinum, gold,
and the other platinum group metals, is to process it with aqua regia, in which palladium,
gold and platinum are dissolved, while osmium, iridium, ruthenium and rhodium stay
unreacted. The gold is precipitated by the addition of iron(III) chloride and after filtering of
the gold, the platinum is precipitated by the addition of ammonium chloride as ammonium
chloroplatinate. Ammonium chloroplatinate can be converted to the metal by heating.[26]
Applications
Of the 239 tonnes of platinum sold in 2006, 130 tonnes
were used for automobile emissions control devices,
49 tonnes were used for jewelry, 13.3 tonnes were used
in electronics, and 11.2 tonnes were used by the
chemical industry as a catalyst. The remaining
35.5 tonnes produced were used in various other minor
Cross section of a Metal-core
applications, such as electrodes, anticancer drugs,
Converter
oxygen sensors, spark plugs and turbine engines.[27]
Catalysis
The most common use of platinum is as catalyst in chemical reactions. It has been
employed in this application since the early 1800s, when platinum powder was used to
catalyze the ignition of hydrogen. The most important application of platinum is in
automobiles as a catalytic converter, which allows the complete combustion of low
concentrations of unburned hydrocarbon from the exhaust into carbon dioxide and water
vapor. Platinum is also used in the petroleum industry as a catalyst in a number of separate
processes, but especially in catalytic reforming of straight run naphthas into higher octane
gasoline which becomes rich in aromatic compounds. PtO2, also known as Adams' catalyst,
is used as a hydrogenation catalyst, specifically for vegetable oils.[7] Platinum metal also
strongly catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen gas.[28]
Standard
From 1889 to 1960, the meter was defined as the
length of a platinum-iridium (90:10) alloy bar, known as
the International Prototype Meter bar. The previous bar
was made of platinum in 1799. The International
Prototype Kilogram remains defined by a cylinder of the
same platinum-iridium alloy made in 1879.
The standard hydrogen electrode also utilizes a

platinized platinum electrode due to its corrosion International Prototype Meter bar
resistance, and other attributes.
Platinum 8
Precious metal
Platinum is a precious metal commodity; its bullion has the ISO
currency code of XPT. Coins, bars, and ingots are traded or collected.
Platinum finds use in jewelry, usually as a 90-95% alloy, due to its
inertness and shine. In watchmaking, Vacheron Constantin, Patek
Philippe, Rolex, Breitling and other companies use platinum for
producing their limited edition watch series. Watchmakers highly
appreciate the unique properties of platinum as it neither tarnishes
Platinum Eagle
nor wears out.[29]
Price
The price of platinum, like other industrial
commodities, is more volatile than that of
gold. In 2008 the price of platinum ranged
from $774 to $2,252 per oz.[31]
During periods of sustained economic
stability and growth, the price of platinum
tends to be as much as twice the price of
gold, whereas during periods of economic
uncertainty[32] , the price of platinum tends Average price of platinum from 1991 to 2007 in US$
[30]
to decrease due to reduced industrial per troy ounce (~$40/g).
demand, falling below the price of gold.

Gold prices are more stable in slow economic times, as gold is considered a safe haven and
gold demand is not driven by industrial uses. In the 18th century, platinum's rarity made
King Louis XV of France declare it the only metal fit for a king.[33]
Other uses
In the laboratory, platinum wire is used for electrodes; platinum pans are used in
thermogravimetric analysis. Platinum is used as an alloying agent for various metal
products, including fine wires, noncorrosive laboratory containers, medical instruments,
dental prostheses, electrical contacts, and thermocouples. Platinum-cobalt, an alloy
comprised of roughly 3 parts platinum and 1 part cobalt, is used to make extremely strong
permanent magnets.[7] Platinum-based anodes are used in ships, pipelines, and steel
piers.[4]
Platinum 9
Symbol of prestige
Platinum's rarity as a metal has caused advertisers to
associate it with exclusivity and wealth. "Platinum"
debit cards have greater privileges than do "gold" ones.
"Platinum awards" are the second highest possible,
ranking above "gold", "silver" and "bronze", but below
Diamond. For example, in the United States a musical
album that has sold more than 1,000,000 copies, will be
An assortment of native platinum
credited as "platinum", whereas an album that sold nuggets
more than 10,000,000 copies will be certified as
“diamond”. Some products, such as blenders and vehicles, with a silvery-white color are
identified as "platinum". Platinum is considered a precious metal, although its use is not as
common as the use of gold or silver. The frame of the Crown of Queen Elizabeth the Queen
Mother, manufactured for her Coronation as Consort of King George VI, is made of
platinum. It was the first British crown to be made of this particular metal.
History
Platinum occurs naturally in the alluvial sands of various rivers, though there is little
evidence of its use by ancient peoples. However, the metal was used by pre-Columbian
Americans near modern-day Esmeraldas, Ecuador to produce artifacts of a white
gold-platinum alloy. The first European reference to platinum appears in 1557 in the
writings of the Italian humanist Julius Caesar Scaliger as a description of an unknown noble
metal found between Darién and Mexico, "which no fire nor any Spanish artifice has yet
been able to liquefy."[34]
In 1741, Charles Wood, a British metallurgist, found various samples of
Columbian platinum in Jamaica, which he sent to William Brownrigg for
further investigation. Antonio de Ulloa, also credited with the discovery of
platinum, returned to Spain from the French Geodesic Mission in 1746
The alchemical after having been there for eight years. His historical account of the
symbol for
expedition included a description of platinum as being neither separable
platinum
(shown above)
nor calcinable. Ulloa also anticipated the discovery of platinum mines.
was made by After publishing the report in 1748, Ulloa did not continue to investigate
joining the the new metal. In 1758, he was sent to superintend mercury mining
symbols of
operations in Huancavelica.[34]
silver and gold.
In 1750, after studying the platinum sent to him by Wood, Brownrigg presented a detailed
account of the metal to the Royal Society, mentioning that he had seen no mention of it in
any previous accounts of known minerals. Brownrigg also made note of platinum's
extremely high melting point and refractoriness toward borax. Other chemists across
Europe soon began studying platinum, including Torbern Bergman, Jöns Jakob Berzelius,
William Lewis, and Pierre Macquer. In 1752, Henrik Scheffer published a detailed scientific
description of the metal, which he referred to as "white gold", including an account of how
he succeeded in fusing platinum ore with the aid of arsenic. Scheffer described platinum as
being less pliable than gold, but with similar resistance to corrosion.[34]
Platinum 10
Carl von Sickingen researched platinum extensively in 1772. He succeeded in making

malleable platinum by alloying it with gold, dissolving the alloy in aqua regia, precipitating
the platinum with ammonium chloride, igniting the ammonium chloroplatinate, and
hammering the resulting finely divided platinum to make it cohere. Franz Karl Achard made
the first platinum crucible in 1784. He worked with the platinum by fusing it with arsenic,
then later volatilizing the arsenic.[34]
In 1786, Charles III of Spain provided a library and laboratory to Pierre-François
Chabaneau to aid in his research of platinum. Chabaneau succeeded in removing various
impurities from the ore, including gold, mercury, lead, copper, and iron. This led him to
believe that he was working with a single metal, but in truth the ore still contained the
yet-undiscovered platinum group metals. This led to inconsistent results in his experiments.
At times the platinum seemed malleable, but when it was alloyed with iridium, it would be
much more brittle. Sometimes the metal was entirely incombustible, but when alloyed with
osmium, it would volatilize. After several months, Chabaneau succeeded in producing
23 kilograms of pure, malleable platinum by hammering and compressing the sponge form
while white-hot. Chabeneau realized that the infusibility of platinum would lend value to
objects made of it, and so started a business with Joaquín Cabezas producing platinum
ingots and utensils. This started what is known as the "platinum age" in Spain.[34]
From 1875 to 1960 the SI unit of length (the standard meter) was defined as the distance
between two lines on a standard bar of an alloy of ninety percent platinum and ten percent
iridium, measured at 0 degrees Celsius.
In 2007 Gerhard Ertl won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the detailed
molecular mechanisms of the catalytic oxidation of carbon monoxide over platinum
(catalytic converter).
Precautions
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, short-term exposure to
platinum salts "may cause irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat" and long-term exposure
"may cause both respiratory and skin allergies." The current OSHA standard is 0.002
milligram per cubic meter of air averaged over an 8-hour work shift.[35]
Certain platinum complexes are used in chemotherapy and show good anti-tumor activity
for some tumors. Cisplatin is particularly effective against testicular cancer; cure rate was
improved from 10% to 85%.[36] However, the side effects are severe. Cisplatin causes
cumulative, irreversible kidney damage and deafness.[37] As with other ototoxic agents,
deafness may be secondary to interactions with melanin in the stria vascularis.
As platinum is a catalyst in the manufacture of the silicone rubber and gel components of
several types of medical implants (breast implants, joint replacement prosthetics, artificial
lumbar discs, vascular access ports), the possibility that platinum free radicals could enter
the body and cause adverse effects has merited study. The FDA and other countries have
reviewed the issue and found no evidence to suggest toxicity in vivo.[38]
Platinum 11
See also
• Platinum black
• Platinum coin
• Platinum group
• Platinum in Africa
• Merensky Reef
• Precious metal
• Palladium
• Platinum nanoparticles
References
• Nuclides and Isotopes [39] Fourteenth Edition: Chart of the Nuclides, General Electric
Company, 1989.
• Jefferson Lab — The Element Platinum [40]
External links
• The Platinum Group Metals Database [41]
• A balanced historical account of the sequence of discoveries of platinum; illustrated. [42]
• WebElements.com — Platinum [43]
• Platinum Metals Review E-Journal [44]
• Platinum Guild International [45]
• United States Geological Survey Platinum-Group Metals Statistics and Information [46]
• picture of a 999.5 fine platinum ingot in the element collection from Heinrich Pniok [47]
pnb:‫منیٹالپ‬
References
[1] Woods, Ian (2004). The Elements: Platinum. Benchmark Books. ISBN 978-0761415503.
[2] " Live Market Quotes (http:/ / www. kitco. com/ market/ )". Kitco. . Retrieved 2009-04-03.
0-02-865724-1.
[4] CRC contributors (2007–2008). "Platinum". in Lide, David R.. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 4. New
York: CRC Press. pp. 26. ISBN 978-0-8493-0488-0.
2003. 11. 001).
[6] George B. Kauffman (1967). "Ammonium Hexachloroplatinate(IV)". Inorganic Syntheses 9: 182–185. doi:
10.1002/9780470132401.ch51 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ 9780470132401. ch51).
[7] Krebs, Robert E. (1998). "Platinum". The History and Use of our Earth's Chemical Elements. Greenwood Press.
pp. 124–127. ISBN 0-313-30123-9.
[8] George B. Kauffman (1967). "Ammonium Hexachloroplatinate(IV)". Inorganic Syntheses 9: 182–185. doi:
10.1002/9780470132401.ch51 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ 9780470132401. ch51).
[9] Cotton, S. A. Chemistry of Precious Metals, Chapman and Hall (London): 1997. ISBN 0-7514-0413-6.
[10] G. F. Smith, J. L. Gring (1933). "The Separation and Determination of the Alkali Metals Using Perchloric Acid.
V. Perchloric Acid and Chloroplatinic Acid in the Determination of Small Amounts of Potassium in the Presence
of Large Amounts of Sodium". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 55 (10): 3957–3961. doi: 10.1021/ja01337a007 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1021/ ja01337a007).
[11] A. E. Schweizer, G. T. Kerr (1978). "Thermal Decomposition of Hexachloroplatinic Acid". Inorg. Chem. 17 (8):
2326–2327. doi: 10.1021/ic50186a067 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ic50186a067).
Platinum 12
[13] Y. Han, H. V. Huynh, G. K. Tan (2007). "Mono- vs Bis(carbene) Complexes: A Detailed Study on
Platinum(II)−Benzimidazolin-2-ylidenes". Organometallics 26: 4612. doi: 10.1021/om700543p (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1021/ om700543p).
[14] Sebastian Ahrens and Thomas Strassner (2006). "Detour-free synthesis of platinum-bis-NHC chloride
complexes, their structure and catalytic activity in the CH activation of methane". Inorganica Chimica Acta
359: 4789. doi: 10.1016/j.ica.2006.05.042 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. ica. 2006. 05. 042).
[15] Richards, A.D.; Rodger, A. (2007). " Synthetic metallomolecules as agents for the control of DNA structure
(http:/ / www. rsc. org/ publishing/ journals/ CS/ article. asp?doi=b609495c)". Chem. Soc. Rev. 36: 471–483.
doi: 10.1039/b609495c (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ b609495c). .
[16] Karpov, Andrey; Konuma, M; Jansen, M (Feb 2006). "An experimental proof for negative oxidation states of
platinum: ESCA-measurements on barium platinides". Chemical communications (Cambridge, England) (8):
838–40. doi: 10.1039/b514631c (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ b514631c). ISSN 1359-7345 (http:/ / worldcat.
org/ issn/ 1359-7345). PMID 16479284. edit (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ 10. 1039.
2fb514631c)
[17] Jansen, Martin (June 2005). "Effects of relativistic motion of electrons on the chemistry of gold and platinum".
Solid State Sciences 7 (12): 1464–1474. doi: 10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2005.06.015 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1016/ j. solidstatesciences. 2005. 06. 015). edit (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ 10. 1016.
2fj. solidstatesciences. 2005. 06. 015)
[18] Ghilane, J.; C. Lagrost; M. Guilloux-Viry; J. Simonet; M. Delamar; C. Mangeney; P. Hapiot (March 2007).
"Spectroscopic Evidence of Platinum Negative Oxidation States at Electrochemically Reduced Surfaces". The
Journal of Physical Chemistry C 111 (15): 5701–5707. doi: 10.1021/jp068879d (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/
jp068879d). edit (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ 10. 1021. 2fjp068879d)
2004. 04. 001).
0471238961. 1612012019052513. a01. pub2).
[21] " Mining Platinum in Montana (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=9802E3D6153AF930A2575BC0A96E958260)". New York Times. 1998-08-13. . Retrieved 2008-09-09.
[22] " Platinum–Group Metals (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ platinum/ platimcs07. pdf)"
(PDF). U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries. January 2007. . Retrieved 2008-09-09.
platinum/ mcs-2008-plati. pdf)" (pdf). U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries (USGS Mineral
[24] George, M. W.. 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Platinum-Group Metals (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/
commodity/ platinum/ myb1-2006-plati. pdf). United States Geological Survey USGS. .
[25] Heiserman, David L. (1992). Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds. TAB Books. pp. 272–274.
ISBN 0-8306-3018-X.
126–138. . Retrieved 2009-10-02.
[27] George, Micheal W.. " Mineral Yearbook 2006: Platinum-Group Metals (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/
pubs/ commodity/ platinum/ myb1-2006-plati. pdf)". United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-09-25.
[28] Petrucci, Ralph H. (2007). General Chemistry: Principles & Modern Applications (9th ed.). Prentice Hall.
pp. 606. ISBN 0131493302.
[29] " Unknown Facts about Platinum (http:/ / watches. infoniac. com/ index. php?page=post& id=44)".
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[30] " London Platinum and Palladium Market (http:/ / www. lppm. org. uk/ statistics_cover. html)". The London
Platinum and Palladium Market. . Retrieved 2008-08-08.
[31] " One Year Platinum (http:/ / www. kitco. com/ charts/ popup/ pt0365nyb. html)". Kitco. . Retrieved
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[32] " Platinum versus Gold (http:/ / www. speculative-investor. com/ new/ article150402. html)". The Speculative
Invertor. .
[33] " Platinum (http:/ / www. mineralszone. com/ minerals/ platinum. html)". Minerals Zone. . Retrieved
2008-09-09.
Platinum 13
[35] " Occupational Health Guideline for Soluble Platinum Salts (as Platinum) (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ pdfs/
0520. pdf)" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. . Retrieved 2008-09-09.
[36] Einhorn LH. (01 Nov 1990). " Treatment of testicular cancer: a new and improved model (http:/ / jco.
ascopubs. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 8/ 11/ 1777)". J. Clin. Oncol. 8 (11): 1777–81. PMID 1700077. .
[37] Von Hoff DD, et al. (1979). " Toxic effects of cis-dichlorodiammineplatinum(II) in man (http:/ / www. ncbi.
nlm. nih. gov/ entrez/ query. fcgi?cmd=Retrieve& db=PubMed& list_uids=387223& dopt=Citation)". Cancer
Treat. Rep. 63 (9–10): 1527–31. .
[38] " FDA Backgrounder on Platinum in Silicone Breast Implants (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ cdrh/ breastimplants/
platinum. html)". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. . Retrieved 2008-09-09.
[41] http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ jmpgm/ index. jsp
[42] http:/ / www. vanderkrogt. net/ elements/ elem/ pt. html
[43] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Pt/ index. html
[44] http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/
[45] http:/ / www. platinumguild. com/
[46] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ platinum/
[47] http:/ / www. pse-mendelejew. de/ bilder/ pt. jpg

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License 15
License
Gold 1
Gold
platinum ← gold → mercury

Ag
↑
Au
↓
Rg
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number gold, Au, 79
Appearance metallic yellow

−1

14
5d
10
6s
1
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1064.18 °C, 1947.52 °F)

(2856 °C, 5173 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1646 1814 2021 2281 2620 3078
Atomic properties
Gold 2
Oxidation states -1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

(amphoteric oxide)
2nd: 1980 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (hard-drawn)

−1
2030 m·s
Tensile strain 0.00157
Poisson ratio 0.44
Mohs hardness 2.5
Brinell hardness ? 2450 MPa
Main article: Isotopes of gold
195
Au syn 186.10 d ε 0.227 195
Pt
196
Au syn 6.183 d ε 1.506 196
Pt
β− 0.686 196
Hg
197
Au 100% 197
Au is stable with 118 neutron
198
Au syn 2.69517 d β− 1.372 198
Hg
199
Au syn 3.169 d β− 0.453 199
Hg
References
Gold 3
Gold (pronounced /ˈɡoʊld/) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (Latin: aurum) and an
atomic number of 79. It has been a highly sought-after precious metal in jewelry, in
sculpture, and for ornamentation since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs
as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits. Gold is dense, soft, shiny and
the most malleable and ductile pure metal known. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and
luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or
water. It is one of the coinage metals and formed the basis for the gold standard used
before the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971.
At the end of 2006, it was estimated that all the gold ever mined totaled 158,000 tonnes. [1]
This can be represented by a cube with an edge length of just 20.2 meters. Modern
industrial uses include dentistry and electronics, where gold has traditionally found use
because of its good resistance to oxidative corrosion and excellent quality as a conductor of
electricity. Chemically, gold is a transition metal and can form trivalent and univalent
cations upon solvation. At STP it is attacked by aqua regia (a mixture of acids), forming
chloroauric acid and by alkaline solutions of cyanide but not by single acids such as
hydrochloric, nitric or sulfuric acids. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys,
but does not react with it. Since gold is insoluble in nitric acid which will dissolve silver and
base metals, this is exploited as the basis of the gold refining technique known as
"inquartation and parting". Nitric acid has long been used to confirm the presence of gold
in items, and this is the origin of the colloquial term "acid test", referring to a gold standard
test for genuine value.
Characteristics
Gold is the most malleable and ductile of all metals; a
single gram can be beaten into a sheet of one square
meter, or an ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can
be beaten thin enough to become translucent. The
transmitted light appears greenish blue, because gold
strongly reflects yellow and red.[2]
Gold readily creates alloys with many other metals.

These alloys can be produced to modify the hardness
and other metallurgical properties, to control melting
point or to create exotic colors (see below). Gold is a
good conductor of heat and electricity and reflects infra
red radiation strongly. Chemically, it is unaffected by
air, moisture and most corrosive reagents, and is
therefore well-suited for use in coins and jewelry and as
a protective coating on other, more reactive, metals.
However, it is not chemically inert. Free halogens will
native Gold nuggets
react with gold, and aqua regia dissolves it via
formation of chlorine gas which attacks gold to form the
chloraurate ion. Gold also dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium cyanide and in
mercury, forming a gold-mercury amalgam.
Gold 4
Common oxidation states of gold include +1 (gold(I) or

aurous compounds) and +3 (gold(III) or auric
compounds). Gold ions in solution are readily reduced
and precipitated out as gold metal by adding any other
metal as the reducing agent. The added metal is
oxidized and dissolves allowing the gold to be displaced
from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.
High quality pure metallic gold is tasteless; in keeping

with its resistance to corrosion (it is metal ions which
confer taste to metals).
In addition, gold is very dense, a cubic meter weighing
Gold nuggets found in Arizona 19300 kg. By comparison, the density of lead is
11340 kg/m³, and that of the densest element, osmium,
is 22610 kg/m³.
Color of gold
The color of pure gold is
metallic yellow. Gold, caesium
and copper are the only
metallic elements with a
natural color other than gray
or white. The usual gray color
of metals depends on their
"electron sea" that is capable
of absorbing and re-emitting
photons over a wide range of
frequencies. Gold reacts
differently, depending on
subtle relativistic effects that
affect the orbitals around gold
atoms. [3] [4]
Common colored gold alloys

such as rose gold can be
created by the addition of
various amounts of copper and
Different colors of Ag-Au-Cu alloys
silver, as indicated in the
diagram above. Alloys
containing palladium or nickel are also important in commercial jewelry as these produce
white gold alloys. Less commonly, addition of manganese, aluminium, iron, indium and
other elements can produce more unusual colors of gold for various applications.[5]
Gold 5
Applications
As the metal
Medium of monetary exchange
In various countries, gold was used as a standard for

monetary exchange, but this practice has been abandoned
with the rise of fiat currency. The last country to back their
money with gold was Switzerland, which backed 40% of its
value until it joined the International Monetary Fund in
1999. [6] Pure gold is too soft for ordinary use and is typically
hardened by alloying with copper or other base metals. The
gold content of gold alloys is measured in carats (k), pure
gold being designated as 24k.
Gold coins intended for circulation from 1526 into the 1930s
Special issue Canadian Gold
were typically a standard 22k alloy called crown gold, for
Maple Leaf coin with the highest
purity of any gold coin at a
hardness. Modern collector/investment bullion coins (which
guaranteed 99.999%
do not require good mechanical wear properties) are
typically 24k, although the American Gold Eagle, the British
gold sovereign and the South African Krugerrand continue to be made at 22k, on historical
tradition. The special issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin contains the highest purity gold
of any bullion coin, at 99.999% (.99999 fine). The popular issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf
coin has a purity of 99.99%. Several other 99.99% pure gold coins are currently available,
including Australia's Gold Kangaroos (first appearing in 1986 as the Australian Gold
Nugget, with the kangaroo theme appearing in 1989), the several coins of the Australian
Lunar Calendar series, and the Austrian Philharmonic. In 2006, the U.S. Mint began
production of the American Buffalo gold bullion coin also at 99.99% purity.
Gold was used as a medium of monetary exchange throughout history together with or
instead of other minerals, like silver, salt, and copper. At the beginning of World War I the
warring nations went onto a fractional gold standard, inflating their currencies to finance
the war effort. After World War II gold was replaced by a system of convertible currency
following the Bretton Woods system. Many holders of gold in storage (as bullion coin or
bullion) hold it as a hedge against inflation or other economic disruptions. The ISO currency
code of gold bullion is XAU.
Gold 6
Jewelry
Because of the softness of pure (24k) gold, it is usually

alloyed with base metals for use in jewelry, altering its
hardness and ductility, melting point, color and other
properties. Alloys with lower caratage, typically 22k,
18k, 14k or 10k, contain higher percentages of copper,
or other base metals or silver or palladium in the alloy.
Copper is the most commonly used base metal, yielding
a redder color. Eighteen carat gold containing 25%
copper is found in antique and Russian jewelry and has Moche gold necklace depicting feline
a distinct, though not dominant, copper cast, creating heads. Larco Museum Collection.
Lima-Peru
rose gold. Fourteen carat gold-copper alloy is nearly
identical in color to certain bronze alloys, and both may
be used to produce police, as well as other, badges. Blue gold can be made by alloying with
iron and purple gold can be made by alloying with aluminium, although rarely done except
in specialized jewelry. Blue gold is more brittle and therefore more difficult to work with
when making jewelry. Fourteen and eighteen carat gold alloys with silver alone appear
greenish-yellow and are referred to as green gold. White gold alloys can be made with
palladium or nickel. White 18 carat gold containing 17.3% nickel, 5.5% zinc and 2.2%
copper is silver in appearance. Nickel is toxic, however, and its release from nickel white
gold is controlled by legislation in Europe. Alternative white gold alloys are available based
on palladium, silver and other white metals (World Gold Council), but the palladium alloys
are more expensive than those using nickel. High-carat white gold alloys are far more
resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver. The Japanese craft of
Mokume-gane exploits the color contrasts between laminated colored gold alloys to
produce decorative wood-grain effects.
Medicine
• In medieval times, gold was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that
something that rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy. Even some modern
esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic gold a healing power.[7]
Some gold salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and are used as pharmaceuticals in
the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions. [8] However, only salts and
radioisotopes of gold are of pharmacological value, as elemental (metallic) gold is inert to
all chemicals it encounters inside the body.
• In modern times injectable gold has been proven to help to reduce the pain and swelling
of rheumatoid arthritis and tuberculosis.[8] [9]
• Dentistry. Gold alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations,
such as crowns and permanent bridges. The gold alloys' slight malleability facilitates the
creation of a superior molar mating surface with other teeth and produces results that
are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns.
The use of gold crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some
cultures and discouraged in others.
• Colloidal gold (colloidal sols of gold nanoparticles) in water are intensely red-colored, and
can be made with tightly-controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nm across by
reduction of gold chloride with citrate or ascorbate ions. Colloidal gold is used in
Gold 7
research applications in medicine, biology and materials science. The technique of

immunogold labeling exploits the ability of the gold particles to adsorb protein molecules
onto their surfaces. Colloidal gold particles coated with specific antibodies can be used
as probes for the presence and position of antigens on the surfaces of cells (Faulk and
Taylor 1979). In ultrathin sections of tissues viewed by electron microscopy, the
immunogold labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of the antigen
(Roth et al. 1980). Colloidal gold is also the form of gold used as gold paint on ceramics
prior to firing.
• Gold, or alloys of gold and palladium, are applied as conductive coating to biological
specimens and other non-conducting materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in
a scanning electron microscope. The coating, which is usually applied by sputtering with
an argon plasma, has a triple role in this application. Gold's very high electrical
conductivity drains electrical charge to earth, and its very high density provides stopping
power for electrons in the SEM's electron beam, helping to limit the depth to which the
electron beam penetrates the specimen. This improves definition of the position and
topography of the specimen surface and increases the spatial resolution of the image.
Gold also produces a high output of secondary electrons when irradiated by an electron
beam, and these low-energy electrons are the most commonly-used signal source used in
the scanning electron microscope.
• The isotope gold-198, (half-life: 2.7 days) is used in some cancer treatments and for
treating other diseases.[10]
Food and drink

• Gold can be used in food and has the E Number 175.[11]
• Gold leaf, flake or dust is used on and in some gourmet foods, notably sweets and drinks
as decorative ingredient.[12] Gold flake was used by the nobility in Medieval Europe as a
decoration in food and drinks, in the form of leaf, flakes or dust, either to demonstrate
the host's wealth or in the belief that something that valuable and rare must be beneficial
for one's health.
• Goldwasser (English: Goldwater) is a traditional herbal liqueur produced in Gdańsk,
Poland, and Schwabach, Germany, and contains flakes of gold leaf. There are also some
expensive (~$1000) cocktails which contain flakes of gold leaf[13] . However, since
metallic gold is inert to all body chemistry, it adds no taste nor has it any other
nutritional effect and leaves the body unaltered.[14]
Gold 8
Industry
• Gold solder is used for joining the components of
gold jewelry by high-temperature hard soldering or
brazing. If the work is to be of hallmarking quality,
gold solder must match the carat weight of the work,
and alloy formulas are manufactured in most
industry-standard carat weights to color match
yellow and white gold. Gold solder is usually made in
at least three melting-point ranges referred to as
Easy, Medium and Hard. By using the hard,
The 220 kg gold brick displayed in
high-melting point solder first, followed by solders
Chinkuashi Gold Museum, Taiwan,
with progressively lower melting points, goldsmiths Republic of China
can assemble complex items with several separate
soldered joints.
• Gold can be made into thread and used in
embroidery.
• Gold is ductile and malleable, meaning it can be
drawn into very thin wire and can be beaten into very
thin sheets known as gold leaf.
• Gold produces a deep, intense red color when used
as a coloring agent in cranberry glass.
• In photography, gold toners are used to shift the
color of silver bromide black and white prints
towards brown or blue tones, or to increase their
stability. Used on sepia-toned prints, gold toners
produce red tones. Kodak published formulas for
several types of gold toners, which use gold as the
chloride (Kodak, 2006).
The world's largest gold bar weighs
• As gold is a good reflector of electromagnetic
250 kg. Toi museum, Japan.
radiation such as infrared and visible light as well as
radio waves, it is used for the protective coatings on many artificial satellites, in infrared
protective faceplates in thermal protection suits and astronauts' helmets and in
electronic warfare planes like the EA-6B Prowler.
• Gold is used as the reflective layer on some high-end CDs.
• Automobiles may use gold for heat insulation. McLaren uses gold foil in the engine
compartment of its F1 model.[15]
• Gold can be manufactured so thin that it appears transparent. It is used in some aircraft
cockpit windows for de-icing or anti-icing by passing electricity through it. The heat
produced by the resistance of the gold is enough to deter ice from forming.[16]
Gold 9
Electronics
• The concentration of free electrons in gold metal is
5.90×1022 cm−3. Gold is highly conductive to
electricity, and has been used for electrical wiring in
some high energy applications (silver is even more
conductive per volume, but gold has the advantage of
corrosion resistance). For example, gold electrical
wires were used during some of the Manhattan
Project's atomic experiments, but large high current
silver wires were used in the calutron isotope
separator magnets in the project.
• Though gold is attacked by free chlorine, its good
conductivity and general resistance to oxidation and
corrosion in other environments (including resistance
to non-chlorinated acids) has led to its widespread A gold nugget of 5 mm in diameter
industrial use in the electronic era as a thin layer (bottom) can be expanded through
hammering into a gold foil of about 0.5
coating electrical connectors of all kinds, thereby
square meter. Toi museum, Japan.
ensuring good connection. For example, gold is used
in the connectors of the more expensive electronics cables, such as audio, video and USB
cables. The benefit of using gold over other connector metals such as tin in these
applications is highly debated. Gold connectors are often criticized by audio-visual
experts as unnecessary for most consumers and seen as simply a marketing ploy.
However, the use of gold in other applications in electronic sliding contacts in highly
humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost
(certain computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines) remains
very common, and is unlikely to be replaced in the near future by any other metal.
• Besides sliding electrical contacts, gold is also used in electrical contacts because of its
resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, ductility and lack of toxicity.[17] Switch
contacts are generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding
contacts.
• Fine gold wires are used to connect semiconductor devices to their packages through a
process known as wire bonding.
Other
• Many competitions, and honors, such as the Olympics and the Nobel Prize, award a gold
medal to the winner.
As gold chemical compounds

Gold is attacked by and dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide, and
gold cyanide is the electrolyte used in commercial electroplating of gold onto base metals
and electroforming. Gold chloride (chloroauric acid) solutions are used to make colloidal
gold by reduction with citrate or ascorbate ions. Gold chloride and gold oxide are used to
make highly-valued cranberry or red-colored glass, which, like colloidal gold sols, contains
evenly-sized spherical gold nanoparticles." Colored glass chemistry [18]". http:/ / chemistry.
about. com/ cs/ inorganic/ a/ aa032503a. htm. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
Gold 10
History
Gold has been known and highly valued since
prehistoric times. It may have been the first metal used
by humans and was valued for ornamentation and
rituals. Egyptian hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BC
describe gold, which king Tushratta of the Mitanni
claimed was "more plentiful than dirt" in Egypt.[19]
Egypt and especially Nubia had the resources to make
The Sun symbol has
them major gold-producing areas for much of history.
long represented
gold The earliest known map is known as the Turin Papyrus
Map and shows the plan of a gold mine in Nubia
together with indications of the local geology. The
primitive working methods are described by Strabo and
included fire-setting. Large mines also occurred across
the Red Sea in what is now Saudi Arabia.
The legend of the golden fleece may refer to the use of

The Turin Papyrus Map fleeces to trap gold dust from placer deposits in the
ancient world. Gold is mentioned frequently in the Old
Testament, starting with Genesis 2:11 (at Havilah) and
is included with the gifts of the magi in the first
chapters of Matthew New Testament. The Book of
Revelation 21:21 describes the city of New Jerusalem as
having streets "made of pure gold, clear as crystal". The
south-east corner of the Black Sea was famed for its
gold. Exploitation is said to date from the time of Midas,
and this gold was important in the establishment of
what is probably the world's earliest coinage in Lydia
around 610 BC.[20] From 6th or 5th century BC, Chu
(state) circulated Ying Yuan, one kind of square gold
coin.
Funerary mask of The Romans developed new methods for extracting gold
Tutankhamun on a large scale using hydraulic mining methods,
especially in Spain from 25 BC onwards and in Romania
from 150 AD onwards. One of their largest mines was at Las Medulas in León (Spain),
where seven long aqueducts enabled them to sluice most of a large alluvial deposit. The
mines at Roşia Montană in Transylvania were also very large, and until very recently, still
mined by opencast methods. They also exploited smaller deposits in Britain, such as placer
and hard-rock deposits at Dolaucothi. The various methods they used are well described by
Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia written towards the end of the first
century AD.
Gold 11
The Mali Empire in Africa was famed throughout the old world
for its large amounts of gold. Mansa Musa, ruler of the empire
(1312–1337) became famous throughout the old world for his
great hajj to Mecca in 1324. When he passed through Cairo in
July 1324, he was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that
included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels. He
gave away so much gold that it depressed the price in Egypt for
over a decade.[21] A contemporary Arab historian remarked:
Jason returns with the

golden fleece on an Apulian
red-figure calyx krater, ca.
340–330 BC.
“ Gold was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The mithqal did not ”
go below 25 dirhams and was generally above, but from that time its value fell and
it cheapened in price and has remained cheap till now. The mithqal does not exceed
22 dirhams or less. This has been the state of affairs for about twelve years until
this day by reason of the large amount of gold which they brought into Egypt and
spent there [...]
[22]
—Chihab Al-Umari
The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the gold
ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Central
America, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia.
Although the price of some platinum group metals can be much higher, gold has long been
considered the most desirable of precious metals, and its value has been used as the
standard for many currencies (known as the gold standard) in history. Gold has been used
as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties.
Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was made fun of by Thomas More in his treatise
Utopia. On that imaginary island, gold is so abundant that it is used to make chains for
slaves, tableware and lavatory-seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive,
dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial
servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly-dressed of their party.
There is an age-old tradition of biting gold in order to test its authenticity. Although this is
certainly not a professional way of examining gold, the bite test should score the gold
because gold is a soft metal, as indicated by its score on the Mohs' scale of mineral
hardness. The purer the gold the easier it should be to mark it. Painted lead can cheat this
test because lead is softer than gold (and may invite a small risk of lead poisoning if
sufficient lead is absorbed by the biting).
Gold in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically; however, 75% of all gold ever
produced has been extracted since 1910.[23] It has been estimated that all the gold in the
world that has ever been refined would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft) on a side (equivalent
to 8000 m³).[23]
Gold 12
One main goal of the alchemists was to produce gold from other substances, such as lead —
presumably by the interaction with a mythical substance called the philosopher's stone.
Although they never succeeded in this attempt, the alchemists promoted an interest in what
can be done with substances, and this laid a foundation for today's chemistry. Their symbol
for gold was the circle with a point at its center (☉), which was also the astrological symbol,
and the ancient Chinese character, for the Sun. For modern creation of artificial gold by
neutron capture, see gold synthesis.
During the 19th century, gold rushes occurred whenever large gold deposits were
discovered. The first documented discovery of gold in the United States was at the Reed
Gold Mine near Georgeville, North Carolina in 1803.[24] The first major gold strike in the
United States occurred in a small north Georgia town called Dahlonega.[25] Further gold
rushes occurred in California, Colorado, Otago, Australia, Witwatersrand, Black Hills, and
Klondike.
Because of its historically high value, much of the gold mined throughout history is still in
circulation in one form or another.
Occurrence
Gold's atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher
atomic number elements which occur naturally. Like all
elements with atomic numbers of six or higher (that is,
carbon and elements beyond it), gold is thought to have
been formed from a nucleogenesis process beginning
from hydrogen in stars which then became supernovas.
Their explosions scattered metal-containing dusts
(including heavy elements like gold) into the region of
space in which they later condensed into our solar
Gold ore
system and the Earth.
On Earth, whenever elemental gold occurs, it appears

most often as a metal solid solution of gold with silver,
i.e. a gold silver alloy. Such alloys usually have a silver
content of 8–10%. Electrum is elemental gold with more
than 20% silver. Electrum's color runs from golden
silvery to silvery, dependent upon the silver content.
The more silver, the lower the specific gravity.
This 156-ounce (4.85 kg) nugget was

found by an individual prospector in
the Southern California Desert using a
metal detector.
Gold 13
Gold is found in ores made up of rock with very small or

microscopic particles of gold. This gold ore is often
found together with quartz or sulfide minerals such as
Fool's Gold, which is a pyrite.[26] These are called
"lode" deposits. Native gold is also found in the form of
free flakes, grains or larger nuggets that have been
eroded from rocks and end up in alluvial deposits
(called placer deposits). Such free gold is always richer
at the surface of gold-bearing veins owing to the
Relative sizes of a an 860kg rock ore, oxidation of accompanying minerals followed by
and the 30g of gold that can be
weathering, and washing of the dust into streams and
extracted from it. Toi gold mine, Japan.
rivers, where it collects and can be welded by water
action to form nuggets.
Gold sometimes occurs combined with tellurium as the minerals calaverite, krennerite,
nagyagite, petzite and sylvanite, and as the rare bismuthide maldonite (Au2Bi) and
antimonide aurostibite (AuSb2). Gold also occurs in rare alloys with copper, lead, and
mercury: the minerals auricupride (Cu3Au), novodneprite (AuPb3) and weishanite
((Au,Ag)3Hg2).
Recent research suggests that microbes can sometimes play an important role in forming
gold deposits, transporting and precipitating gold to form grains and nuggets that collect in
alluvial deposits.[27]
Isotopes
Gold has only one stable isotope, 197Au, which is also its only naturally-occurring isotope.
36 radioisotopes have been synthesized ranging in atomic mass from 169 to 205. The most
stable of these is 195Au with a half-life of 186.1 days. 195Au is also the only isotope to decay
by electron capture. The least stable is 171Au, which decays by proton emission with a
half-life of 30 µs. Most of gold's radioisotopes with atomic masses below 197 decay by some
combination of proton emission, α decay, and β+ decay. The exceptions are 195Au, which
decays by electron capture, and 196Au, which has a minor β- decay path. All of gold's
radioisotopes with atomic masses above 197 decay by β- decay.[28]
At least 32 nuclear isomers have also been characterized, ranging in atomic mass from 170
to 200. Within that range, only 178Au, 180Au, 181Au, 182Au, and 188Au do not have isomers.
Gold's most stable isomer is 198 m2Au with a half-life of 2.27 days. Gold's least stable isomer
is 177 m2Au with a half-life of only 7 ns. 184 m1Au has three decay paths: β+ decay, isomeric
transition, and alpha decay. No other isomer or isotope of gold has three decay paths.[28]
Gold 14
Production
Gold extraction is most economical in large,
easily mined deposits. Ore grades as little
as 0.5 g/1000 kg (0.5 parts per million,
ppm) can be economical. Typical ore
grades in open-pit mines are 1–5 g/1000 kg
(1–5 ppm); ore grades in underground or
hard rock mines are usually at least 3
g/1000 kg (3 ppm). Because ore grades of
The entrance to an underground gold 30 g/1000 kg (30 ppm) are usually needed
mine in Victoria, Australia
before gold is visible to the naked eye, in
most gold mines the gold is invisible.
Since the 1880s, South Africa has been the

source for a large proportion of the world’s
gold supply, with about 50% of all gold ever
produced having come from South Africa.
Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of
the world supply, producing about 1,000
tonnes. However by 2007 production was
just 272 tonnes. This sharp decline was due
to the increasing difficulty of extraction,
changing economic factors affecting the
World gold production trend industry, and tightened safety auditing. In
2007 China (with 276 tonnes) overtook
South Africa as the world's largest gold
producer, the first time since 1905 that
South Africa has not been the largest.[29]
The city of Johannesburg located in South

Africa was founded as a result of the
Witwatersrand Gold Rush which resulted in
the discovery of some of the largest gold
Gold output in 2005 deposits the world has ever seen. Gold
fields located within the basin in the Free
State and Gauteng provinces are extensive in strike and dip requiring some of the world's
deepest mines, with the Savuka and TauTona mines being currently the world's deepest
gold mine at 3,777 m. The Second Boer War of 1899–1901 between the British Empire and
the Afrikaner Boers was at least partly over the rights of miners and possession of the gold
wealth in South Africa.
Other major producers are the United States, Australia, Russia and Peru. Mines in South
Dakota and Nevada supply two-thirds of gold used in the United States. In South America,
the controversial project Pascua Lama aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high
mountains of Atacama Desert, at the border between Chile and Argentina. Today about
one-quarter of the world gold output is estimated to originate from artisanal or small scale
mining.[30]
Gold 15
After initial production, gold is often subsequently refined industrially by the Wohlwill
process or the Miller process. Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of
gold include parting and inquartation as well as cuppelation, or refining methods based on
the dissolution of gold in aqua regia.
The world's oceans hold a vast amount of gold, but in very low concentrations (perhaps 1–2
parts per 10 billion, e.g. every cubic kilometer of water could contain 10 to 20 kg of gold). A
number of people have claimed to be able to economically recover gold from sea water, but
so far they have all been either mistaken or crooks. Reverend Prescott Jernegan ran a
gold-from-seawater swindle in the United States in the 1890s. A British fraudster ran the
same scam in England in the early 1900s.[31] Fritz Haber (the German inventor of the
Haber process) attempted commercial extraction of gold from sea water in an effort to help
pay Germany's reparations following World War I. Unfortunately, his assessment of the
concentration of gold in sea water was unduly high, probably due to sample contamination.
The effort produced little gold and cost the German government far more than the
commercial value of the gold recovered. No commercially viable mechanism for performing
gold extraction from sea water has yet been identified. Gold synthesis is not economically
viable and is unlikely to become so in the foreseeable future.
The average gold mining and extraction costs are $238 per troy ounce but these can vary
widely depending on mining type and ore quality. In 2001, global mine production
amounted to 2,604 tonnes, or 67% of total gold demand in that year. At the end of 2006, it
was estimated that all the gold ever mined totaled 158,000 tonnes.[1] This can be
represented by a cube with an edge length of just 20.2 meters.
Gold is so stable and so valuable that it is always recovered and recycled. There is no true
"consumption" of gold in the economic sense; the stock of gold remains essentially constant
while ownership shifts from one party to another.[32]
Gold 16
Consumption
India is the world’s largest consumer of gold. Indian consumers buy about 25 per cent of
the world’s gold.[33] Indians buy approximately 800 tonnes of gold every year. India is also
the largest importer of the yellow metal; in 2008 India imported around 400 tonnes of
gold.[34]
Price
Like other precious metals, gold is
measured by troy weight and by grams.
When it is alloyed with other metals the
term carat or karat is used to indicate the
amount of gold present, with 24 carats
being pure gold and lower ratings
proportionally less. The purity of a gold bar
can also be expressed as a decimal figure
ranging from 0 to 1, known as the
millesimal fineness, such as 0.995 being
very pure.
The price of gold is determined on the open LBMA USD morning price fixings ($US per troy
market, but a procedure known as the Gold ounce) from Jan 2001 to Apr 2006
Fixing in London, originating in September
1919, provides a daily benchmark figure to
the industry. The afternoon fixing appeared
in 1968 to fix a price when US markets are
open.
Historically gold coinage was widely used

as currency; When paper money was
introduced, it typically was a receipt
redeemable for gold coin or bullion. In an
economic system known as the gold
standard, a certain weight of gold was
given the name of a unit of currency. For a
long period, the United States government Gold price per ounce in USD since 1968, in actual
US$ and 2006 US$.
set the value of the US dollar so that one
troy ounce was equal to $20.67
($664.56/kg), but in 1934 the dollar was devalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($1125.27/kg).
By 1961 it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks
agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased
gold demand.
On March 17, 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse of the gold pool, and a
two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby gold was still used to settle
international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of gold on
the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was abandoned
in 1975 when the price of gold was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold
historical gold reserves as a store of value although the level has generally been declining.
Gold 17
The largest gold depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New
York, which holds about 3% of the gold ever mined, as does the similarly-laden U.S. Bullion
Depository at Fort Knox.
In 2005 the World Gold Council estimated total global gold supply to be 3,859 tonnes and
demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes.[35]
Price records
Since 1968 the price of gold on the open market has ranged widely, from a high of $850/oz
($27,300/kg) on January 21, 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on June 21, 1999
(London Gold Fixing).[36] The 1980 high was not overtaken until January 3, 2008 when a
new maximum of $865.35 per troy ounce was set (a.m. London Gold Fixing).[37] The current
record price was set on March 17, 2008 at $1023.50/oz ($32,900/kg)(am. London Gold
Fixing).[37]
Long term price trends

Since April 2001 the gold price has more than tripled in value against the US dollar,[38]
prompting speculation that this long secular bear market (or the Great Commodities
Depression) has ended and a bull market has returned.[39] In March 2008, the gold price
increased above $1000,[40] which in real terms is still well below the $850/oz. peak on
January 21, 1980. Indexed for inflation, the 1980 high would equate to a price of around
$2400 in 2007 US dollars.
In the last century, major economic crises (such as the Great Depression, World War II, the
first and second oil crisis) lowered the Dow/Gold ratio (which is inherently inflation
adjusted) substantially, in most cases to a value well below 4.[41] During these difficult
times, investors tried to preserve their assets by investing in precious metals, most notably
gold and silver.
Compounds
Although gold is a noble metal, it forms many and diverse compounds. The oxidation state
of gold in its compound ranges from −1 to +5 but Au(I) and Au(III) dominate. Gold(I),
referred to as the aurous ion, is the most common oxidation state with “soft” ligands such
as thioethers, thiolates, and tertiary phosphines. Au(I) compounds are typically linear. A
good example is Au(CN)2−, which is the soluble form of gold encountered in mining.
Curiously, aurous complexes of water are rare. The binary gold halides, such as AuCl, form
zig-zag polymeric chains, again featuring linear coordination at Au. Most drugs based on
gold are Au(I) derivatives.[42]
Gold(III) (“auric”) is a common oxidation state and is illustrated by gold(III) chloride, AuCl3.
Its derivative is chloroauric acid, HAuCl4, which forms when Au dissolves in aqua regia.
Au(III) complexes, like other d8 compounds, are typically square planar.
Gold 18
Less common oxidation states: Au(-I), Au(II), and Au(V)

Compounds containing the Au− anion are called aurides. Caesium auride, CsAu which
crystallizes in the caesium chloride motif.[43] Other aurides include those of Rb+, K+, and
tetramethylammonium (CH3)4N+.[44] Gold(II) compounds are usually diamagnetic with
Au-Au bonds such as [Au(CH2)2P(C6H5)2]2Cl2. A noteworthy, legitimate Au(II) complex is
the tetraxenonogold(II) cation, which contains xenon as a ligand, [AuXe4](Sb2F11)2.[45] Gold
pentafluoride is the sole example of Au(V), the highest verified oxidation state.[46]
Some gold compounds exhibit aurophilic bonding, which describes the tendency of gold
ions to interact at distances that are too long to be a conventional Au-Au bond but shorter
that van der Waals bonding. The interaction is estimated to be comparable in strength to
that of a hydrogen bond.
Mixed valence compounds

Well-defined cluster compounds are numerous.[44] In such cases, gold has a fractional
oxidation state. A representative example is the octahedral species {Au(P(C6H5)3)}62+.
Gold chalcogenides, e.g. "AuS" feature equal amounts of Au(I) and Au(III).
Symbolism
Gold has been associated with the extremities of utmost
evil and great sanctity throughout history. In the Book
of Exodus, the Golden Calf is a symbol of idolatry and
rebellion against God. In popular culture, the golden
pocket watch and its fastening golden chain were the
characteristic accessories of the capitalists, the rich
and the industrial tycoons. Credit card companies
associate their product with wealth by naming and
coloring their top-of-the-range cards “gold” although, in
Swiss-cast 1 kg gold bar an attempt to out-do each other, platinum has now
overtaken gold.
In the Book of Genesis, Abraham was said to be rich in

gold and silver, and Moses was instructed to cover the
Mercy Seat of the Ark of the Covenant with pure gold.
Eminent orators such as John Chrysostom were said to
have a “mouth of gold with a silver tongue.” Gold is
associated with notable anniversaries, particularly in a
50-year cycle, such as a golden wedding anniversary,
golden jubilee, etc.
Great human achievements are frequently rewarded

Gold bars at the Emperor Casino in
Macau with gold, in the form of medals and decorations.
Winners of races and prizes are usually awarded the
gold medal (such as the Olympic Games and the Nobel Prize), while many award statues
are depicted in gold (such as the Academy Awards, the Golden Globe Awards the Emmy
Awards, the Palme d'Or, and the British Academy Film Awards).
Medieval kings were inaugurated under the signs of sacred oil and a golden crown, the
latter symbolizing the eternal shining light of heaven and thus a Christian king's divinely
Gold 19
inspired authority. Wedding rings are traditionally made of gold; since it is long-lasting and
unaffected by the passage of time, it is considered a suitable material for everyday wear as
well as a metaphor for the relationship. In Orthodox Christianity, the wedded couple is
adorned with a golden crown during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites.
Toxicity
Pure gold is non-toxic and non-irritating when ingested[47] and is sometimes used as a food
decoration in the form of gold leaf. It is also a component of the alcoholic drinks
Goldschläger, Gold Strike, and Goldwasser. Gold is approved as a food additive in the EU
(E175 in the Codex Alimentarius).
Soluble compounds (gold salts) such as potassium gold cyanide, used in gold electroplating,
are toxic to the liver and kidneys. There are rare cases of lethal gold poisoning from
potassium gold cyanide.[48] [49] Gold toxicity can be ameliorated with chelation therapy with
an agent such as Dimercaprol.
It was voted Allergen of the Year in 2001 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.
See also
• Altai Mountains
• ChipGold
• Commodity fetishism
• Digital gold currency
• Gold fingerprinting
• Gold Prospectors Association of America
• Mining in Roman Britain
• Prospecting
• Roman engineering
Bibliography
• Faulk W, Taylor G (1979) An Immunocolloid Method for the Electron Microscope
Immunochemistry 8, 1081–1083.
• Kodak (2006) Toning black-and-white materials [50]. Technical Data/Reference sheet
G-23, May 2006.
• Roth J, Bendayan M, Orci L (1980) FITC-Protein A-Gold Complex for Light and Electron
Microscopic Immunocytochemistry. Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry 28,
55–57.
• World Gold Council, Jewellery Technology, Jewellery Alloys [51]
Gold 20
External links
• Getting Gold 1898 book [52]
• Technical Document on Extraction and Mining of Gold [53]
• Picture in the Element collection from Heinrich Pniok [54]
• WebElements.com — Gold [55]
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License
Mercury (element) 1
Mercury (element)
gold ← mercury → thallium

Cd
↑
Hg
↓
Uub
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number mercury, Hg, 80
Appearance silvery

−1

14
5d
10
6s
2
Physical properties
Phase liquid
Density (near r.t.) (liquid) 13.534 g·cm−3

(-38.83 °C, -37.89 °F)

(356.73 °C, 674.11 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 315 350 393 449 523 629

Mercury (element) 2
Atomic properties
Crystal structure rhombohedral
Oxidation states 4, 2 (mercuric), 1 (mercurous)

2nd: 1810 kJ/mol
3rd: 3300 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Speed of sound (liquid, 20 °C) 1451.4 m/s
Main article: Isotopes of mercury

194
Hg syn 444 y ε 0.040 194
Au
195
Hg syn 9.9 h ε 1.510 195
Au
196
Hg 0.15% 196
Hg is stable with 116 neutron
197
Hg syn 64.14 h ε 0.600 197
Au
198
Hg 9.97% 198
199
Hg 16.87% 199
200
Hg 23.1% 200
201
Hg 13.18% 201
202
Hg 29.86% 202
203
Hg syn 46.612 d β− 0.492 203
Tl
204
Hg 6.87% 204
References
Mercury (pronounced /ˈmɜrkjʊri/), also called quicksilver (/ˈkwɪksɪlvər/) or hydrargyrum

(/haɪˈdrɑrdʒɨrəm/), is a chemical element with the symbol Hg (Latinized Greek:
Mercury (element) 3
hydrargyrum, meaning watery or liquid silver) and atomic number 80. A heavy, silvery
d-block metal, mercury is one of six chemical elements that are liquid at or near room
temperature and pressure,[1] [2] the others being caesium, francium, gallium, bromine, and
rubidium. Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at standard conditions for temperature
and pressure. With a melting point of −38.83 °C and boiling point of 356.73 °C, mercury
has one of the widest ranges of its liquid state of any metal.
Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide),
which source of the red pigment vermilion, and is mostly obtained by reduction from
cinnabar. Cinnabar is highly toxic by ingestion or inhalation of the dust, and mercury
poisoning can also result from exposure to soluble forms (such as mercuric chloride or
methylmercury), inhalation of mercury vapor, or eating fish contaminated with mercury.
Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers, manometers, sphygmomanometers, float
valves, and other scientific apparatus, though concerns about the element's toxicity have
led to mercury thermometers and sphygmomanometers being largely phased out in clinical
environments in favor of alcohol-filled, digital, or thermistor-based instruments. It remains
in use in a number of other ways in scientific and scientific research applications, and in
amalgam material for dental restoration. It is used in lighting; electricity passed through
mercury vapor in a phosphor tube produces short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes
the phosphor to fluoresce, making visible light.
Properties
Physical
Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white metal. As compared to
other metals, it is a poor conductor of heat, but a fair
conductor of electricity. [3] Mercury has an
exceptionally low melting temperature for a d-block
metal. A complete explanation of this fact requires a
deep excurse into quantum physics, but it can be
summarized as follows: mercury has a unique electronic
configuration where electrons fill up all the available
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, 5s, 5p, 5d and 6s
Liquid mercury
shells. As such configuration strongly resists removal of
an electron, mercury behaves similarly to noble gas
elements, which form weakly bonded and thus easily melting solids. The stability of the 6s
shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell. An f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge
that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus (see
lanthanide contraction). The absence of a filled inner f shell is the reason for much higher
melting temperature of cadmium. Metals such as gold has atoms with one less 6s electron
than mercury. Those electrons are more easily removed and are shared between the gold
atoms forming relatively strong metallic bonds. [2] [4]
Mercury (element) 4
Reactivity and compounds

Mercury dissolves to form amalgams with gold, zinc and many other metals. Because iron is
an exception, iron flasks have been traditionally used to trade mercury. Other metals that
do not form amalgams with mercury include tantalum, tungsten and platinum. When
heated, mercury also reacts with oxygen in air to form mercury oxide, which then can be
decomposed by further heating to higher temperatures.[5]
Since it is below hydrogen in the reactivity series of metals, mercury does not react with
most acids, such as dilute sulfuric acid, though oxidizing acids such as concentrated
sulfuric acid and nitric acid or aqua regia dissolve it to give sulfate, nitrate, and chloride
salts. Like silver, mercury reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide. Mercury even reacts
with solid sulfur flakes, which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury vapors (spill
kits also use activated charcoal and powdered zinc).[5]
Some important mercury salts include:
• Mercury(I) chloride (calomel) is sometimes still used in medicine, acousto-optical filters
and as a standard in electrochemistry;[6]
• Mercury(II) chloride is a very corrosive, easily sublimating and poisonous substance;[3]
• Mercury fulminate, (a detonator widely used in explosives);[3]
• Mercury(II) oxide, the main oxide of mercury;
• Mercury(II) sulfide (found naturally as the ore cinnabar, or vermilion which is a
high-grade paint pigment);[3]
• Mercury(II) selenide, Mercury(II) telluride, Mercury cadmium telluride and mercury zinc
telluride are semiconductors and infrared detector materials.[7]
In these compounds, mercury displays two oxidation states: +1 and +2. The +1 state
oxidation involves the dimeric cation, Hg2+2. Solutions of Hg2+2 are in equilibrium with
Hg2+ and metallic mercury:
Hg2+ + Hg Hg2+2
This equilibrium causes solutions of Hg2+2 to have a small amount of Hg2+ present.
Consuming the Hg2+ by another reaction, such as complexation with strong ligands or
precipitation of an insoluble salt, will cause all the Hg2+2 to fully disproportionate to Hg2+
and elemental mercury.[8]
Higher oxidation states of mercury were confirmed in September 2007, with the synthesis
of mercury(IV) fluoride (HgF4) using matrix isolation techniques.[9]
Laboratory tests have found that an electrical discharge causes the noble gases to combine
with mercury vapor. These compounds are held together with van der Waals forces and
result in Hg·Ne, Hg·Ar, Hg·Kr, and Hg·Xe (see exciplex). Organic mercury compounds are
also important. Methylmercury is a dangerous compound that is widely found as a pollutant
in water bodies and streams.[10]
Mercury and aluminium

Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the
two pure metals come into contact. However, when the amalgam is exposed to air, the
aluminium oxidizes, leaving mercury behind. The oxide flakes away, exposing more mercury
amalgam, which repeats the process. This process continues until the supply of amalgam is
exhausted. Because this process releases mercury, a small amount of mercury can "eat
through" a large amount of aluminium over time, by progressively forming amalgam and
Mercury (element) 5
relinquishing the aluminium as oxide.[11]

Aluminium in air is ordinarily protected by a molecule-thin layer of its own oxide, which is
not porous to oxygen. Mercury coming into contact with this oxide does no harm. However,
if any elemental aluminium is exposed (even by a recent scratch), the mercury may combine
with it, starting the process described above, and potentially damaging a large part of the
aluminium before it finally ends.[11] [12] For this reason, restrictions are placed on the use
and handling of mercury in proximity with aluminium. In particular, mercury is not allowed
aboard aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam
with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft.[11]
Isotopes
There are seven stable isotopes of mercury with 202Hg being the most abundant (29.86%).
The longest-lived radioisotopes are 194Hg with a half-life of 444 years, and 203Hg with a
half-life of 46.612 days. Most of the remaining radioisotopes have half-lives that are less
than a day. 199Hg and 201Hg are the most often studied NMR-active nuclei, having spins of
1
⁄2 and 3⁄2 respectively.[3]
History
Mercury was known to the ancient Chinese[13] and was
found in Egyptian tombs that date from 1500 BCE.[14]
In China and Tibet, mercury use was thought to prolong
life, heal fractures, and maintain generally good health.
One of China's emperors, Qín Shǐ Huáng Dì — allegedly
buried in a tomb that contained rivers of flowing
mercury on a model of the land he ruled, representative
of the rivers of China — was killed by drinking a
mercury and powdered jade mixture (causing liver
failure, poisoning, and brain death) intended to give
him eternal life.[15] [16] The ancient Greeks used
The symbol for the planet Mercury (☿)
mercury in ointments; the ancient Egyptians and the
has been used since ancient times to Romans used it in cosmetics which sometimes
represent the element deformed the face. By 500 BC mercury was used to
make amalgams with other metals.[17] The Indian word
for alchemy is Rasavātam which means "the way of mercury".[18]
Alchemists thought of mercury as the First Matter from which all metals were formed. They
believed that different metals could be produced by varying the quality and quantity of
sulfur contained within the mercury. The purest of these was gold, and mercury was called
for in attempts at the transmutation of base (or impure) metals into gold was the goal of
many alchemists.[19]
Hg is the modern chemical symbol for mercury. It comes from hydrargyrum, a Latinized
form of the Greek word Ύδραργυρος (hydrargyros), which is a compound word meaning
"water" and "silver" — since it is liquid, like water, and yet has a silvery metallic sheen. The
element was named after the Roman god Mercury, known for speed and mobility. It is
associated with the planet Mercury; the astrological symbol for the planet is also one of the
alchemical symbols for the metal. Mercury is the only metal for which the alchemical
Mercury (element) 6
planetary name became the common name.[19]

The mines in Almadén (Spain), Monte Amiata (Italy), and Idrija (now Slovenia) dominated
the mercury production from the opening of the mine in Almadén 2500 years ago until new
deposits were found at the end of the 19th century.[20]
Occurrence
Mercury is an extremely rare
element in the Earth's crust,
having an average crustal
abundance by mass of only 0.08
parts per million (ppm).[21]
However, because it does not
blend geochemically with those
elements that constitute the
majority of the crustal mass,
Mercury output in 2005
mercury ores can be
extraordinarily concentrated
considering the element's abundance in ordinary rock. The richest mercury ores contain up
to 2.5% mercury by mass, and even the leanest concentrated deposits are at least 0.1%
mercury (12,000 times average crustal abundance). It is found either as a native metal
(rare) or in cinnabar, corderoite, livingstonite and other minerals, with cinnabar (HgS)
being the most common ore. Mercury ores usually occur in very young orogenic belts where
rock of high density are forced to the crust of the Earth, often in hot springs or other
volcanic regions.[22]
Beginning in 1558, with the invention of the patio process to extract silver from ore using
mercury, mercury became an essential resource in the economy of Spain and its American
colonies. Mercury was used to extract silver from the lucrative mines in New Spain and
Peru. Initially, the Spanish Crown's mines in Almaden in Southern Spain supplied all the
mercury for the colonies.[23] Mercury deposits were discovered in the New World, and more
than 100,000 tons of mercury were mined from the region of Huancavelica, Peru, over the
course of three centuries following the discovery of deposits there in 1563. The patio
process and later pan amalgamation process continued to create great demand for mercury
to treat silver ores until the late 1800s.[24]
Former mines in Italy, the United States and Mexico which once produced a large
proportion of the world supply have now been completely mined out or, in the case of
Slovenia (Idrija) and Spain (Almadén), shut down due to the fall of the price of mercury.
Nevada's McDermitt Mine, the last mercury mine in the United States, closed in 1992. The
price of mercury has been highly volatile over the years and in 2006 was $650 per
76-pound (34.46 kg) flask.[25]
Mercury is extracted by heating cinnabar in a current of air and condensing the vapor. The
equation for this extraction is
HgS + O2 → Hg + SO2
In 2005, China was the top producer of mercury with almost two-thirds global share
followed by Kyrgyzstan.[26] Several other countries are believed to have unrecorded
production of mercury from copper electrowinning processes and by recovery from
Mercury (element) 7
effluents.
Because of the high toxicity of mercury, both the mining of cinnabar and refining for
mercury are hazardous and historic causes of mercury poisoning. In China, prison labor
was used by a private mining company as recently as the 1950s to create new cinnabar
mercury mines. Thousands of prisoners were used by the Luo Xi mining company to
establish new tunnels.[] In addition, worker health in functioning mines is at high risk.
The European Union directive calling for compact fluorescent bulbs to be made mandatory
by 2012 has encouraged China to re-open deadly cinnabar mines to obtain the mercury
required for CFL bulb manufacture. As a result, new generations of Chinese, their livestock,
and their crops are being poisoned, particularly in the southern cities of Foshan and
Guangzhou, and in the Guizhou province in the southwest.[27]
Abandoned mercury mine processing sites often contain very hazardous waste piles of
roasted cinnabar calcines. Water runoff from such sites is a recognized source of ecological
damage. Former mercury mines may be suited for constructive re-use. For example, in
1976 Santa Clara County, California purchased the historic Almaden Quicksilver Mine and
created a county park on the site, after conducting extensive safety and environmental
analysis of the property.[28]
Releases in the environment

Preindustrial deposition rates of mercury from the atmosphere
may be in the range of 4 ng /(1 L of ice deposit). Although that
can be considered a natural level of exposure, regional or
global sources have significant effects. Volcanic eruptions can
increase the atmospheric source by 4 — 6 times.[29]
Natural sources such as volcanoes are responsible for
approximately half of atmospheric mercury emissions. The
human-generated half can be divided into the following
estimated percentages:[30] [31] [32]
• 65% from stationary combustion, of which coal-fired power
plants are the largest aggregate source (40% of U.S. mercury
emissions in 1999). This includes power plants fueled with
gas where the mercury has not been removed. Emissions
from coal combustion are between one and two orders of Amount of atmospheric
magnitude higher than emissions from oil combustion, mercury deposited at
Wyoming's Upper Fremont
depending on the country.[30]
Glacier over the last 270
• 11% from gold production. The three largest point sources years
for mercury emissions in the U.S. are the three largest gold
mines.
• 6.8% from non-ferrous metal production, typically smelters.
• 6.4% from cement production.
• 3.0% from waste disposal, including municipal and hazardous waste, crematoria, and
sewage sludge incineration. This is a significant underestimate due to limited
information, and is likely to be off by a factor of two to five.
• 3.0% from caustic soda production.
• 1.4% from pig iron and steel production.
Mercury (element) 8
• 1.1% from mercury production, mainly for batteries.

• 2.0% from other sources.
The above percentages are estimates of the global human-caused mercury emissions in
2000, excluding biomass burning, an important source in some regions.[30]
Current atmospheric mercury contamination in outdoor urban air is (0.01 – 0.02 µg/m3 )
indoor concentrations are significantly elevated over outdoor concentrations, at a range of
0.0065 – 0.523 µg/m3 (average 0.069 µg/m3) [33]
Mercury also enters into the environment through the disposal (e.g., land filling,
incineration) of certain products. Products containing mercury include: auto parts,
batteries, fluorescent bulbs, medical products, thermometers, and thermostats.[34] Due to
health concerns (see below), toxics use reduction efforts are cutting back or eliminating
mercury in such products. For example, most thermometers now use pigmented alcohol
instead of mercury. Mercury thermometers are still occasionally used in the medical field
because they are more accurate than alcohol thermometers, though both are being
replaced by electronic thermometers. Mercury thermometers are still widely used for
certain scientific applications because of their greater accuracy and working range.
The United States Clean Air Act, passed in 1990, put mercury on a list of toxic pollutants
that need to be controlled to the greatest possible extent. Thus, industries that release high
concentrations of mercury into the environment agreed to install maximum achievable
control technologies (MACT). In March 2005 EPA rule[35] added power plants to the list of
sources that should be controlled and a national cap and trade rule was issued. States were
given until November 2006 to impose stricter controls, and several States are doing so. The
rule was being subjected to legal challenges from several States in 2005 and decision was
made in 2008. The Clean Air Mercury Rule was struck down by a Federal Appeals Court on
February 8, 2008. The rule was deemed not sufficient to protect the health of persons living
near coal-fired power plants. The court opinion cited the negative impact on human health
from coal fired power plants' mercury emissions documented in the EPA Study Report to
Congress of 1998.[36]
Historically, one of the largest releases was from the Colex plant, a lithium-isotope
separation plant at Oak Ridge. The plant operated in the 1950s and 1960s. Records are
incomplete and unclear, but government commissions have estimated that some two million
pounds of mercury are unaccounted for.[37]
One of the worst industrial disasters in history was caused by the dumping of mercury
compounds into Minamata Bay, Japan. The Chisso Corporation, a fertilizer and later
petrochemical company, was found responsible for polluting the bay from 1932 — 1968. It
is estimated that over 3,000 people suffered various deformities, severe mercury poisoning
symptoms or death from what became known as Minamata disease.[38]
Mercury (element) 9
Applications
Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of
industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic
applications. It is used in some thermometers,
especially ones which are used to measure high
temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as
gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps, while most of
the other applications are slowly phased out due to
health and safety regulations and is in some The bulb of a mercury-in-glass
thermometer
applications replaced with less toxic but considerably
more expensive Galinstan alloy.
Present use
Medicine
Mercury and its compounds have been used in

medicine, although they are much less common today
than they once were, now that the toxic effects of
mercury and its compounds are more widely
understood. The element mercury is an ingredient in
dental amalgams. Thiomersal (called Thimerosal in the
United States) is an organic compound used as a
preservative in vaccines, though this use is in
decline.[39] Another mercury compound Merbromin
(Mercurochrome) is a topical antiseptic used for minor Amalgam filling
cuts and scrapes is still in use in some countries.
Mercury(I) chloride (also known as calomel or mercurous chloride) has traditionally been
used as a diuretic, topical disinfectant, and laxative. Mercury(II) chloride (also known as
mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate) was once used to treat syphilis (along with other
mercury compounds), although it is so toxic that sometimes the symptoms of its toxicity
were confused with those of the syphilis it was believed to treat.[40] It was also used as a
disinfectant. Blue mass, a pill or syrup in which mercury is the main ingredient, was
prescribed throughout the 1800s for numerous conditions including constipation,
depression, child-bearing and toothaches.[41] In the early 20th century, mercury was
administered to children yearly as a laxative and dewormer, and it was used in teething
powders for infants. The mercury-containing organohalide merbromin (sometimes sold as
Mercurochrome) is still widely used but has been banned in some countries such as the
U.S.[42]
Mercury (element) 10
Since the 1930s some vaccines have contained the preservative

thiomersal, which is metabolized or degraded to ethyl mercury.
Although it was widely speculated that this mercury-based
preservative can cause or trigger autism in children, scientific
studies showed no evidence supporting any such link.[43]
Nevertheless thiomersal has been removed from or reduced to
trace amounts in all U.S. vaccines recommended for children 6
years of age and under, with the exception of inactivated
influenza vaccine.[44]
The deep violet glow of a

mercury vapor discharge in a
germicidal lamp, whose
spectrum is rich in invisible
ultraviolet radiation.
Mercury in the form of one of its common ores, cinnabar, remains an important component
of Chinese, Tibetan, and Ayurvedic medicine. As problems may arise when these medicines
are exported to countries that prohibit the use of mercury in medicines, in recent times,
less toxic substitutes have been devised.
Today, the use of mercury in medicine has greatly declined in all respects, especially in
developed countries. Thermometers and sphygmomanometers containing mercury were
invented in the early 18th and late 19th centuries, respectively. In the early 21st century,
their use is declining and has been banned in some countries, states and medical
institutions. In 2002, the U.S. Senate passed legislation to phase out the sale of
non-prescription mercury thermometers. In 2003, Washington and Maine became the first
states to ban mercury blood pressure devices.[45] Mercury compounds are found in some
over-the-counter drugs, including topical antiseptics, stimulant laxatives, diaper-rash
ointment, eye drops, and nasal sprays. The FDA has “inadequate data to establish general
recognition of the safety and effectiveness,” of the mercury ingredients in these
products.[46] Mercury is still used in some diuretics, although substitutes now exist for most
therapeutic uses.
Cosmetics
Mercury, as thiomersal, is widely used in the manufacture of mascara. In 2008, Minnesota
became the first state in the US to ban intentionally added mercury in cosmetics, giving it a
tougher standard than the federal government.[47]
Production of chlorine and caustic soda

Chlorine is produced from sodium chloride (common salt, NaCl) using electrolysis to
separate the metallic sodium from the chlorine gas. Usually the salt is dissolved in water to
produce a brine. By-products of any such chloralkali process are hydrogen (H2) and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), which is commonly called caustic soda or lye. By far the largest use of
mercury[48] [49] in the late 1900s was in the mercury cell process (also called the
Castner-Kellner process) where metallic sodium is formed as an amalgam at a cathode
made from mercury; this sodium is then reacted with water to produce sodium
hydroxide.[50] Many of the industrial mercury releases of the 1900s came from this process,
although modern plants claimed to be safe in this regard.[49] After about 1985, all new
chloralkali production facilities that were built in the United States used either membrane
cell or diaphragm cell technologies to produce chlorine.
Gold and silver mining

Historically, mercury was used extensively in hydraulic gold mining in order to help the
gold to sink through the flowing water-gravel mixture. Thin mercury particles may form
mercury-gold amalgam and therefore increase the gold recovery rates.[3] Large scale use of
mercury stopped in the 1960s. However, mercury is still used in small scale, often
clandestine, gold prospection. It is estimated that 45,000 metric tons of mercury used in
California for placer mining have not been recovered.[51] Mercury was also used in silver
mining.[52]
Other present uses
Gaseous mercury is used in mercury-vapor lamps and

some "neon sign" type advertising signs and fluorescent
lamps. Those low-pressure lamps emit very spectrally
narrow lines, which are traditionally used in optical
spectroscopy for calibration of spectral position.
Commercial calibration lamps are sold for this purpose;
however simply reflecting some of the fluorescent-lamp
ceiling light into a spectrometer is a common
calibration practice.[53] Gaseous mercury is also found
Skin tanner containing a low-pressure
in some electron tubes, including ignitrons, thyratrons,
mercury vapor lamp and two infrared
and mercury arc rectifiers.[54] It is also used in lamps, which act both as light source
specialty medical care lamps for skin tanning and and electrical ballast
[55]
desinfection (see pictures). Gaseous mercury is
added to cold cathode argon-filled lamps to increase the ionization and electrical
conductivity. An argon filled lamp without mercury will have dull spots and will fail to light
correctly. Lighting containing mercury can be
bombarded/oven pumped only once. When added to

neon filled tubes the light produced will be inconsistent
red/blue spots until the initial burning-in process is
completed; eventually it will light a consistent dull
off-blue color.[56]
Some medical thermometers, especially those for high
temperatures, are filled with mercury, however, they
are gradually disappearing. In the United States,
non-prescription sale of mercury fever thermometers Assorted types of fluorescent lamps.
has been banned in 2003. [57] It is also found in
liquid-mirror telescopes. The mirror is formed by rotating liquid mercury on a disk, the
parabolic form of the liquid thus formed reflecting and focusing incident light. Such
telescopes are cheaper than conventional large mirror telescopes by up to a factor of 100,
but the mirror cannot be tilted and always points straight up.[58] [59]
Liquid mercury is a part of popular secondary reference electrode (called the calomel
electrode) in electrochemistry as an alternative to the standard hydrogen electrode. The
calomel electrode is used to work out the electrode potential of half cells.[60] Last, but not
least, the triple point of mercury, -38.8344 °C, is a fixed point used as a temperature
standard for the International Temperature Scale (ITS-90).[3]
Proposed uses
Liquid mercury has been proposed as a working fluid for a heat pipe type of cooling device
for spacecraft heat rejection systems or radiation panels.[61] A new type of atomic clock,
using mercury instead of caesium, has been demonstrated. Accuracy is expected to be
within one second in 100 million years.[62] [63]
Historic uses
Mercury was used for preserving wood, developing
daguerreotypes, silvering mirrors, anti-fouling paints
(discontinued in 1990), herbicides (discontinued in
1995), handheld maze games, cleaning, and road
leveling devices in cars. Mercury compounds have been
used in antiseptics, laxatives, antidepressants, and in
antisyphilitics. It was also allegedly used by allied spies
to sabotage German planes. A mercury paste was
applied to bare aluminium, causing the metal to rapidly
Old mercury switches
corrode. This would cause structural failures.[12]
• Mercury switches (including home mercury light switches installed prior to 1970), tilt
switches used in old fire detectors, tilt switches in many modern home thermostats,[64]
electrodes in some types of electrolysis, batteries (mercury cells), sodium hydroxide and
chlorine production, handheld games, catalysts, insecticides and liquid mirror
telescopes.[65]
• In Islamic Spain it was used for filling decorative pools. Later

the American artist Alexander Calder built a mercury
fountain for the Spanish Pavilion at the 1937 World
Exhibition in Paris. The fountain is now on display at the
Fundació Joan Miró in Barcelona.[66]
• Mercury was used inside wobbler lures. Its heavy, liquid form
made it useful since the lures made an attractive irregular
movement when the mercury moved inside the plug. Such
use was stopped due to environmental concerns, but illegal
preparation of modern fishing plugs has occurred.
Mercury manometer to
measure pressure
• The Fresnel lenses of old lighthouses used to float and rotate in a bath of mercury which
acted like a bearing.[67]
• Mercury sphygmomanometers (blood pressure meter), barometers, diffusion pumps,
coulometers, and many other laboratory instruments. As an opaque liquid with a high
density and a nearly linear thermal expansion, it is ideal for this role.[68]
• Liquid mercury was used as a coolant for some nuclear reactors; however, sodium is
proposed for reactors cooled with liquid metal, because the high density of mercury
requires much more energy to circulate as coolant.[69]
• Mercury was a propellant for early ion engines in electric propulsion systems.
Advantages were mercury's high molecular weight, low ionization energy, low
dual-ionization energy, high liquid density and liquid storability at room temperature.
Disadvantages were concerns regarding environmental impact associated with ground
testing and concerns about eventual cooling and condensation of some of the propellant
on the spacecraft in long-duration operations. The first spaceflight to use electric
propulsion was a mercury-fueled ion thruster SERT-1 launched by NASA at its Wallops
Flight Facility in 1964. SERT stands for Space Electric Rocket Test. The SERT-1 flight
was followed up by the SERT-2 flight in 1970. Mercury and caesium were preferred
propellants for ion engines until Hughes Research Laboratory performed studies finding
xenon gas to be a suitable replacement. Xenon is now the preferred propellant for ion
engines as it has a high molecular weight, little or no reactivity due its noble gas nature,
and has a high liquid density under mild cryogenic storage.[70] [71]
• Experimental mercury vapor turbines were installed to increase the efficiency of
fossil-fuel electrical power plants.[72]
• Mercury was once used as a gun barrel bore cleaner.[73] [74]
Hat making
From the mid-18th to the mid-19th centuries, a process called "carroting" was used in the
making of felt hats. Animal skins were rinsed in an orange solution (the term "carroting"
arose from this color) of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate, Hg(NO3)2·2H2O.[75] This
process separated the fur from the pelt and matted it together. This solution and the vapors
it produced were highly toxic. The United States Public Health Service banned the use of
mercury in the felt industry in December 1941. The psychological symptoms associated
with mercury poisoning are said by some to have inspired the phrase "mad as a hatter",
though etymological study suggests that the phrase is actually much older and unrelated to
hatters - see hatter for commentary on the origin of the phrase. Lewis Carroll's "Mad
Hatter" in his book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland was a play on words based on the
[76]
older phrase, but the character himself does not exhibit symptoms of mercury poisoning.
Safety
Mercury and most of its compounds are extremely toxic and are generally handled with
care; in cases of spills involving mercury (such as from certain thermometers or fluorescent
light bulbs) specific cleaning procedures are used to avoid toxic exposure.[77] It can be
inhaled and absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes, so containers of mercury
are securely sealed to avoid spills and evaporation. Heating of mercury, or compounds of
mercury that may decompose when heated, are always carried out with adequate
ventilation in order to avoid exposure to mercury vapor. The most toxic forms of mercury
are its organic compounds, such as dimethylmercury and methylmercury. However,
inorganic compounds, such as cinnabar are also highly toxic by ingestion or inhalation of
the dust.[78] Mercury can cause both chronic and acute poisoning.
Occupational exposure
Due to the health effects of mercury exposure, industrial and commercial uses are
regulated in many countries. The World Health Organization, OSHA, and NIOSH all treat
mercury as an occupational hazard, and have established specific occupational exposure
limits. Environmental releases and disposal of mercury are regulated in the U.S. primarily
by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Case control studies have shown effects such as tremors, impaired cognitive skills, and
sleep disturbance in workers with chronic exposure to mercury vapor even at low
concentrations in the range 0.7–42 μg/m3.[79] [80] A study has shown that acute exposure (4
— 8 hours) to calculated elemental mercury levels of 1.1 to 44 mg/m3 resulted in chest pain,
dyspnea, cough, hemoptysis, impairment of pulmonary function, and evidence of interstitial
pneumonitis.[81] Acute exposure to mercury vapor has been shown to result in profound
central nervous system effects, including psychotic reactions characterized by delirium,
hallucinations, and suicidal tendency. Occupational exposure has resulted in broad-ranging
functional disturbance, including erethism, irritability, excitability, excessive shyness, and
insomnia. With continuing exposure, a fine tremor develops and may escalate to violent
muscular spasms. Tremor initially involves the hands and later spreads to the eyelids, lips,
and tongue. Long-term, low-level exposure has been associated with more subtle symptoms
of erethism, including fatigue, irritability, loss of memory, vivid dreams, and depression.[82]
[83]
Treatment
Research on the treatment of mercury poisoning is limited. Currently available drugs for
acute mercurial poisoning include chelators N-acetyl-D,L-penicillamine (NAP), British
Anti-Lewisite (BAL), 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS), and
dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). In one small study including 11 construction workers
exposed to elemental mercury, patients were treated with DMSA and NAP.[84] Chelation
therapy with both drugs resulted in the mobilization of a small fraction of the total
estimated body mercury. DMSA was able to increase the excretion of mercury to a greater
extent than NAP.[85]
Fish
Fish and shellfish have a natural tendency to concentrate mercury in their bodies, often in
the form of methylmercury, a highly toxic organic compound of mercury. Species of fish
that are high on the food chain, such as shark, swordfish, king mackerel, albacore tuna, and
tilefish contain higher concentrations of mercury than others. As mercury and
methylmercury are fat soluble, they primarily accumulate in the viscera, although they are
also found throughout the muscle tissue. When this fish is consumed by a predator, the
mercury level is accumulated. Since fish are less efficient at depurating than accumulating
methylmercury, fish-tissue concentrations increase over time. Thus species that are high on
the food chain amass body burdens of mercury that can be ten times higher than the
species they consume. This process is called biomagnification. Mercury poisoning happened
this way in Minamata, Japan, now called Minamata disease. As a result, those consuming
high levels of fish should be aware of the symptoms of mercury poisoning. [86]
Regulations
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency is charged with regulating and
managing mercury contamination. Several laws give the EPA this authority, including the
Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the
Safe Drinking Water Act. Additionally, the Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery
Management Act, passed in 1996, phases out the use of mercury in batteries, and provides
for the efficient and cost-effective disposal of many types of used batteries.[87] North
America contributed approximately 11% of the total global anthropogenic mercury
emissions in 1995.[88]
In the European Union, the directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous
Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (see RoHS) bans mercury from certain
electrical and electronic products, and limits the amount of mercury in other products to
less than 1000 ppm.[89] There are restriction for mercury concentration in packaging (the
limit is 100 ppm for sum of mercury, lead, hexavalent chromium and cadmium) and
batteries (the limit is 5 ppm).[90] In July 2007, the European Union also banned mercury in
non-electrical measuring devices, such as thermometers and barometers. The ban applies
to new devices only, and contains exemptions for the health care sector and a two year
grace period for manufacturers of barometers. [91]
Norway enacted a total ban on the use of mercury in the manufacturing and import/export
of mercury products, effective January 1, 2008.[92]
In 2002, several lakes in Norway were found to have a poor state of mercury pollution, with
an excess of 1 mg/g of mercury in their sediment.[93]
Further reading
• Jane M. Hightower Diagnosis: Mercury: Money, Politics, and Poison Island Press
(October 1, 2008) ISBN 1597263958 ISBN 978-1597263955
External links
• ATSDR — ToxFAQs: Mercury [94]
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - Mercury Topic [95]
• EPA fish consumption guidelines [96]
• Global Mercury Assessment report 2002 [97] by the UNEP.
• Global Mercury Project [98]
• Got Mercury? calculator [99]
• Hg 80 Mercury [100]
• Japanese Sushi Lovers Shrug at Mercury [101]
• Material Safety Data Sheet — Mercury [102]
• Mercury Contamination in fish and Source Control, Oceana [103]
• Mercury (UK PID) [104]. National Poisons Information Service: Medical Toxicology Unit
(London Centre) - Kolev, S.T. Bates, N.
• Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC): Mercury Contamination in Fish guide [105]
— NRDC
• NLM Hazardous Substances Databank — Mercury [106]
• University of Calgary: How Mercury Causes Brain Neuron Degeneration [107]
• WebElements.com — Mercury [108]
• Mercury and Your Health [109]
pnb:‫ہراپ‬
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License
Thallium 1
Thallium
mercury ← thallium → lead

In
↑
Tl
↓
Uut
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number thallium, Tl, 81

−1

14
5d
10 2
6s 6p
1
Physical properties
Phase solid
Melting point 577 K

(304 °C, 579 °F)

(1473 °C, 2683 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 882 977 1097 1252 1461 1758

Thallium 2
Atomic properties
2nd: 1971 kJ/mol
3rd: 2878 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous

diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 0.18 µ Ω·m

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Bulk modulus 43 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.45
Mohs hardness 1.2
Main article: Isotopes of thallium
203
Tl 29.524% 203
Tl is stable with 122 neutron
204
Tl syn 119 Ms β− 0.764 204
Pb
(3.78 y)
ε 0.347 204
Hg
205
Tl 70.476% 205
Tl is stable with 124 neutron
References
Thallium (pronounced /ˈθæliəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Tl and atomic
number 81. This soft gray malleable poor metal resembles tin but discolors when exposed
to air. Approximately 60-70% of thallium production is used in the electronics industry, and
the rest is used in the pharmaceutical industry and in glass manufacturing.[2] It is also used
in infrared detectors. Thallium is highly toxic and is used in rat poisons and insecticides,
Thallium 3
but its use has been cut back or eliminated in many countries. Because of its use for
murder, thallium has gained the nicknames "The Poisoner's Poison" and "Inheritance
Powder" (alongside arsenic).
Characteristics
Thallium is very soft and malleable and can be cut with a knife at room temperature. It has
a metallic luster, but when exposed to air, it quickly tarnishes with a bluish-grey tinge that
resembles lead. (It is preserved by keeping it under oil). A heavy layer of oxide builds up on
thallium if left in air. In the presence of water, thallium hydroxide is formed.
History
Thallium (Greek θαλλός, thallos, meaning "a green shoot or twig")[3] was discovered by
flame spectroscopy in 1862. The name comes from thallium's bright green spectral
emission lines.
After the publication of the improved method of flame spectroscopy by Robert Bunsen and
Gustav Kirchhoff[4] and the discovery of caesium and rubidium in the years 1859 to 1860
flame spectroscopy became an approved method to determine the composition of minerals
and chemical products. William Crookes and Claude-Auguste Lamy both started to use the
new method. William Crookes used it to make spectroscopic determinations for tellurium on
selenium compounds deposited in the lead chamber of a sulfuric acid production plant near
Tilkerode in the Harz mountains. He had obtained the samples for his research on selenium
cyanide from August Hofmann years earlier.[5] [6] By 1862 Crookes was able to isolate small
quantities of the element and determine the properties of a few compounds.[7]
Claude-Auguste Lamy used a similar spectrometer to Crookes' to determine the
composition of a selenium-containing substance which was deposited during the production
of sulfuric acid from pyrite. He also noticed the new green line in the spectra and
concluded that a new element was present. Lamy had received this material from the
sulfuric acid plant of his friend Fréd Kuhlmann and this by-product was available in large
quantities. Lamy started to isolate the new element from that source.[8] The fact that Lamy
was able to work ample quantities of thallium enabled him to determine the properties of
several compounds and in addition he prepared a small ingot of metallic thallium which he
prepared by remelting thallium he had obtained by electrolysis of thallium salts.
As both scientists discovered thallium independently and a large part of the work,
especially the isolation of the metallic thallium was done by Lamy, Crookes tried to secure
his priority on the work. Lamy was awarded a medal at the International Exhibition in
London 1862: For the discovery of a new and abundant source of thallium and after heavy
protest Crookes also received medal: thallium, for the discovery of the new element. The
controversy between both scientists continued through 1862 and 1863. Most of the
discussion ended after Crookes was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1863.[9] [10]
Thallium 4

Although the metal is reasonably abundant in the
Earth's crust at a concentration estimated to be about
0.7 mg/kg, mostly in association with potassium
minerals in clays, soils, and granites, it is not generally
considered to be commercially recoverable from those
forms. The major source of commercial thallium is the
trace amounts found in copper, lead, zinc, and other
Corroded thallium rod sulfide ores.
Thallium is found in the minerals crookesite TlCu7Se4,

hutchinsonite TlPbAs5S9, and lorandite TlAsS2. It also occurs as trace in pyrite and
extracted as a by-product of roasting this ore for sulfuric acid production.[2] The metal can
be obtained from the smelting of lead and zinc rich ores. Manganese nodules found on the
ocean floor also contain thallium, but nodule extraction is prohibitively expensive and
potentially environmentally destructive. In addition, several other thallium minerals,
containing 16% to 60% thallium, occur in nature as sulfide or selenide complexes with
antimony, arsenic, copper, lead, and silver, but are rare, and have no commercial
importance as sources of this element. Thallium metal can also be obtained as a by-product
in the production of sulfuric acid by roasting of pyrite.[2] [11]
Isotopes
Thallium has 25 isotopes which have atomic masses that range from 184 to 210. 203Tl and
205
Tl are the only stable isotopes, and 204Tl is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life
of 3.78 years.
202
Tl (half life 12.23 days) can be made in a cyclotron,[12] while 204Tl (half life 3.78 years) is
made by the neutron activation of stable thallium in a nuclear reactor.[13]
Compounds
Fluorides: Thallium(I) fluoride (TlF), Thallium(III) fluoride (TlF3)
Chlorides: Thallium(I) chloride (TlCl), Thallium(II) chloride (TlCl2), Thallium(III) chloride
(TlCl3)
Bromides: Thallium(I) bromide (TlBr), Thallium(II) bromide (Tl2Br4)
Iodides: Thallium triiodide (TlI), Thallium triiodide (TlI3)
Hydrides: none listed
Oxides: Thallium oxide (Tl2O), Thallium(III) oxide (Tl2O3)
Sulfides: Thallium(I) sulfide Tl2S
Selenides: Thallium(I) selenide Tl2Se
Tellurides: none listed
Nitrides: none listed
Thallium 5
Applications
The odorless and tasteless thallium sulfate was once widely used as rat poison and ant
killer. Since 1975, this use in the United States and many other countries is prohibited due
to safety concerns.[2] Other uses:
• thallium(I) sulfide's electrical conductivity changes with exposure to infrared light
therefore making this compound useful in photocells.[14] [15]
• thallium(III) salts, as thallium trinitrate or triacetate, are useful reagents in organic
synthesis performing different transformations in aromatics, ketones, olefins, among
others.
• Thallium(I) bromide and thallium(I) iodide crystals have been used as infrared optical
materials, because they are harder than other common infrared optics, and because they
have transmission at significantly longer wavelengths. The trade name KRS-5 refers to
[14]
this material.
• used in semiconductor materials for selenium rectifiers,[14]
• used as a dopant for sodium iodide crystals in gamma radiation detection equipment,
such as scintillation counters,
• high-density liquid used for sink-float separation of minerals,
• used in the treatment of ringworm and other skin infections. However this use has been
limited due to the narrow therapeutic index.[14]
• radioactive thallium-201 (half-life of 73 hours) is used for diagnostic purposes in nuclear
medicine, particularly in stress tests used for risk stratification in patients with coronary
artery disease A(CAD).[16] [17] This isotope of thallium can be generated using a
transportable generator which is similar to the technetium cow.[18] The generator
contains lead-201 (half life 9.33 hours) which decays by electron capture to the
thallium-201. The lead-201 can be produced in a cyclotron by the bombardment of
thallium with protons or deuterons by the (p,3n) and (d,4n) reactions.[19]
• Thallium oxide has been used to manufacture glasses that have a high index of refraction.
Combined with sulfur or selenium and arsenic, thallium has been used in the production
of high-density glasses that have low melting points in the range of 125 and 150 °C.
These glasses have room temperature properties that are similar to ordinary glasses and
are durable, insoluble in water and have unique refractive indices.[14]
• A mercury-thallium alloy, which forms a eutectic at 8.5% thallium, is reported to freeze at
–60 °C, some 20 °C below the freezing point of mercury. This alloy is used in
thermometers and low-temperature switches.[14]
• thallium is used in the electrodes in dissolved oxygen analyzers.[2]
• thallium is a constituent of the alloy in the anode plates in magnesium seawater
batteries.[2]
In addition, research activity with thallium is ongoing to develop high-temperature
superconducting materials for such applications as magnetic resonance imaging, storage of
magnetic energy, magnetic propulsion, and electric power generation and transmission.
After the discovery of the first thallium barium calcium copper oxide superconductor in
1988 the research in applications started.[20]
Thallium 6
Toxicity
Thallium and its compounds are extremely toxic, and should be handled
with great care. Contact with skin is dangerous, and adequate ventilation
should be provided when melting this metal. Thallium(I) compounds have
a high aqueous solubility and are readily absorbed through the skin.
Exposure to them should not exceed 0.1 mg per m² of skin in an 8-hour
time-weighted average (40-hour work week). Thallium is a suspected
human carcinogen.[21] .
Treatment and internal decontamination

One of the main methods of removing thallium (both radioactive and normal) from humans
is to use Prussian blue, which is a solid ion exchange material which absorbs thallium and
releases potassium. Up to 20 g per day of Prussian blue is fed by mouth to the person, and
it passes through their digestive system and comes out in the stool. Hemodialysis and
hemoperfusion are also used to remove thallium from the blood serum. At later stage of the
treatment additional potassium is used to mobilize thallium from the tissue.[22] [23]
Bioconcentration
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), thallium release to
the environment was reported in Texas and Ohio. This may indicate bioconcentration in
aquatic ecosystems.[24]
See also
• Thallium poisoning
• Thallium compounds
External links
• WebElements.com — Thallium [25]
[26]
• pure Thallium >=99,99% picture in the element collection from Heinrich Pniok
• Toxicity, Thallium [27]
• NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Thallium, Elemental [28]
• ATSDR - ToxFAQs [29]*pure Thallium cast in acrylic for safe handling [30]
References
[2] " Chemical fact sheet — Thallium (http:/ / www. speclab. com/ elements/ thallium. htm)". Spectrum
Laboratories. April 2001. . Retrieved 2008-02-02.
[3] Liddell & Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (http:/ / perseus. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ cgi-bin/
resolveform?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057;layout=;query=toc;loc=qallo/ s), sub θαλλος (http:/ / perseus.
mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ cgi-bin/ resolveform?lookup=qallos& type=begin& lang=greek& searchText=&
options=Sort+ Results+ Alphabetically& . submit=Submit& formentry=1& lang=greek)
[5] Crookes, William (1862 - 1863). " Preliminary Researches on Thallium (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/
112218)". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 12: 150–159. doi: 10.1098/rspl.1862.0030 (http:/ / dx.
Thallium 7
doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rspl. 1862. 0030). .

[6] Crookes, William (1863). " On Thallium (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 108794)". Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London, 153: 173–192. doi: 10.1098/rstl.1863.0009 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rstl.
1863. 0009). .
[7] DeKosky, Robert K. (1973). " Spectroscopy and the Elements in the Late Nineteenth Century: The Work of Sir
William Crookes (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 4025503)". The British Journal for the History of Science 6 (4):
400–423. doi: 10.1017/S0007087400012553 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1017/ S0007087400012553). .
[8] Lamy, Claude-Auguste (1862). " De l'existencè d'un nouveau métal, le thallium (http:/ / gallica2. bnf. fr/ ark:/
12148/ bpt6k30115. image. r=Comptes+ Rendus+ Hebdomadaires. f1254. langFR)". Comptes Rendus: 1255–. .
[9] James, Frank A. J. L. (1984). " Of 'Medals and Muddles' the Context of the Discovery of Thallium: William
Crookes's Early (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 531576)". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 39
(1): 65–90. doi: 10.1098/rsnr.1984.0005 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rsnr. 1984. 0005). .
[10] Emsley, John (2006). " Thallium (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=BACSR7TXWhoC)". The Elements of
Murder: A History of Poison. Oxford University Press. pp. 326–327. ISBN 9780192806000. .
[11] Downs, Anthony John (1993). " Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium, and Thallium (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=v-04Kn758yIC)". Springer. pp. 89 and 106. .
[12] Thallium Research (http:/ / www. eh. doe. gov/ ohre/ roadmap/ histories/ 0472/ 0472d. html) from Department
of Energy
[13] Manual for reactor produced radioisotopes (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/ publications/ PDF/
te_1340_web. pdf) from the International Atomic Energy Agency
0849304857.
[15] Nayer, P. S, Hamilton, O. (1977). " Thallium selenide infrared detector (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/
1977ApOpt. . 16. 2942N)". Appl. Opt. 16: 2942. doi: 10.1364/AO.16.002942 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1364/ AO.
16. 002942). .
[16] Thallium Test (http:/ / www. wramc. amedd. army. mil/ departments/ nuclear/ PatientInfo/ Thallium. htm)
from Walter Reed Army Medical Center
[17] Thallium Stress Test (http:/ / www. americanheart. org/ presenter. jhtml?identifier=4743) from the American
Heart Association
[18] M. C., Lagunas-Solar; Little, F. E.; Goodart, C. D. (1982). " Abstract An integrally shielded transportable
generator system for thallium-201 production (http:/ / www. medscape. com/ medline/ abstract/ 7169272)".
International Journal of Applied Radiation Isotopes 33 (12): 1439–1443. doi: 10.1016/0020-708X(82)90183-1
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0020-708X(82)90183-1). Abstract.
[19] Thallium-201 production (http:/ / www. med. harvard. edu/ JPNM/ physics/ isotopes/ Tl/ Tl201/ prod. html)
from Harvard Medical School's Joint Program in Nuclear Medicine
[20] Sheng, Z. Z.; Hermann A. M. (1988). "Bulk superconductivity at 120 K in the Tl–Ca/Ba–Cu–O system". Nature
332: 138–139. doi: 10.1038/332138a0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ 332138a0).
[21] " Biology of Thallium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Tl/ biol. html)".
webelemnts. . Retrieved 2008-11-11.
[22] Prussian blue fact sheet (http:/ / www. bt. cdc. gov/ radiation/ prussianblue. asp) from the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention
[23] Malbrain, Manu L. N. G.; Lambrecht, Guy L. Y.; Zandijk, Erik; Demedts, Paul A.; Neels, Hugo M.; Lambert,
Willy; De Leenheer, André P.; Lins, Robert L.; Daelemans, Ronny; (1997). "= Treatment of Severe Thallium
Intoxication". Clinical Toxicology 35 (1): 97–100. doi: 10.3109/15563659709001173 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
3109/ 15563659709001173).
[24] " Technical Factsheet on: Thallium (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ogwdw/ dwh/ t-ioc/ thallium. html)". . Retrieved
2009-06-06.
[25] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Tl/ index. html
[26] http:/ / www. pse-mendelejew. de/ bilder/ tl. jpg
[27] http:/ / www. emedicine. com/ emerg/ topic926. htm
[28] http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+ @na+ @rel+ thallium,+ elemental
[30] http:/ / www. smart-elements. com/ ?arg=zoom& element=Tl& art=1967& newitems=& ref=Tl& seite=0&
total=1& suche=#magnify

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Lead 1
Lead
thallium ← lead → bismuth

Sn
↑
Pb
↓
Uuq
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number lead, Pb, 82
Element category Post-transition metals
Appearance bluish gray

−1

14
5d
10 2
6s 6p
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(327.46 °C, 621.43 °F)

(1749 °C, 3180 °F)

Lead 2
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 978 1088 1229 1412 1660 2027
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 4, 2, -4
(Amphoteric oxide)

(more)
2nd: 1450.5 kJ·mol−1
−1
3rd: 3081.5 kJ·mol
Miscellaneous

−1
·K
−1

−1
·K
−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (annealed)

−1
1190 m·s
Bulk modulus 46 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.44
Mohs hardness 1.5
Lead 3
Main article: Isotopes of lead

204
Pb 1.4% >1.4×1017 y Alpha 2.186 200
Hg
205
Pb syn 1.53×107 y Epsilon 0.051 205
Tl
206
Pb 24.1% 206
Pb is stable with 124 neutron
207
Pb 22.1% 207
208
Pb 52.4% 208
210
Pb trace 22.3 y Alpha 3.792 206
Hg
Beta 0.064 210

Bi
References
Lead (pronounced /ˈlɛd/) is a main-group element with symbol Pb (Latin: plumbum) and
atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal, also considered to be one of the
heavy metals. Lead has a bluish-white color when freshly cut, but tarnishes to a dull grayish
color when exposed to air. It has a shiny chrome-silver luster when melted into a liquid.
Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shot, weights, and is
part of solder, pewter, fusible alloys and radiation shields. Lead has the highest atomic
number of all stable elements, although the next element, bismuth, has a half-life so long
(longer than the estimated age of the universe) it can be considered stable. Like mercury,
another heavy metal, lead is a potent neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bone
over time. Lead poisoning was documented in ancient Rome, Greece, and China.
Characteristics
Lead is bright and silvery when freshly cut but the surface rapidly tarnishes in air to
produce the more commonly observed dull luster normally associated with lead. It is a
dense, ductile, very soft, highly malleable, bluish-white metal that has poor electrical
conductivity. This true metal is highly resistant to corrosion, and because of this property, it
is used to contain corrosive liquids (e.g., sulfuric acid). Because lead is very malleable and
resistant to corrosion it is extensively used in building construction, e.g., external coverings
of roofing joints. Lead can be toughened by adding a small amount of antimony or other
metals to it. It is a common misconception that lead has a zero Thomson effect. All lead,
except 204Pb, is the end product of a complex radioactive decay. Lead is also poisonous, as
are its compounds, and therefore is dangerous to human health and use as a food
containment device is not recommended.
Lead 4
History
Lead has been commonly used for thousands of years because it is widespread, easy to
extract and easy to work with. It is highly malleable and ductile as well as easy to smelt.
Metallic lead beads dating back to 6400 B.C. have been found in Çatalhöyük in modern-day
Turkey.[1] In the early Bronze Age, lead was used with antimony and arsenic. Lead is
mentioned in the Book of Exodus (15:10).
In alchemy, lead was thought to be the oldest metal and was associated with the planet
Saturn. Lead pipes that bear the insignia of Roman emperors are still in service and many
Roman "pigs" (ingots) of lead figure in Derbyshire lead mining history and in the history of
the industry in other English centres. The Romans also used lead in molten form to secure
iron pins that held together large limestone blocks in certain monumental buildings. Lead's
symbol Pb is an abbreviation of its Latin name plumbum for soft metals; originally it was
plumbum nigrum (literally, "black plumbum"), where plumbum candidum (literally, "bright
plumbum") was tin. The English words "plumbing", "plumber", "plumb", and "plumb-bob"
also derive from this Latin root.
Occurrence
Metallic lead does occur in nature, but it is rare. Lead is usually found in ore with zinc,
silver and (most abundantly) copper, and is extracted together with these metals. The main
lead mineral is galena (PbS), which contains 86.6% lead. Other common varieties are
cerussite (PbCO3) and anglesite (PbSO4).
Ore processing
Most ores contain less than 10% lead, and ores
containing as little as 3% lead can be economically
exploited. Ores are crushed and concentrated by froth
flotation typically to 70% or more. Sulfide ores are
roasted, producing primarily lead oxide and a mixture
of sulfates and silicates of lead and other metals
contained in the ore.[2]
Lead oxide from the roasting process is reduced in a

Lead ore
coke-fired blast furnace.[3] This converts most of the
lead to its metallic form. Three additional layers
separate in the process and float to the top of the metallic lead. These are slag (silicates
containing 1.5% lead), matte (sulfides containing 15% lead), and speiss (arsenides of iron
and copper). These wastes contain concentrations of copper, zinc, cadmium, and bismuth
that can be recovered economically, as can their content of unreduced lead.[2]
Metallic lead that results from the roasting and blast furnace processes still contains
significant contaminants of arsenic, antimony, bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, and gold. The
melt is treated in a reverberatory furnace with air, steam, and sulfur, which oxidizes the
contaminants except silver, gold, and bismuth. The oxidized contaminants are removed by
drossing, where they float to the top and are skimmed off.[2] [4]
Most lead ores contain significant concentrations of silver, resulting in the smelted metal
also containing silver as a contaminant. Metallic silver as well as gold is removed and
recovered economically by means of the Parkes process.[2] [4] [5]
Lead 5
Desilvered lead is freed of bismuth according to the Betterton-Kroll process by treating it

with metallic calcium and magnesium, which forms a bismuth dross that can be skimmed
off.[2] [4]
Very pure lead can be obtained by processing smelted lead electrolytically by means of the
Betts process. The process uses anodes of impure lead and cathodes of pure lead in an
electrolyte of silica fluoride.[2] [4]
Production and recycling

Production and consumption of lead is increasing worldwide. Total annual production is
about 8 million tonnes; about half is produced from recycled scrap. Top lead producing
countries, as of 2008, are Australia, China, USA, Peru, Canada, Mexico, Sweden, Morocco,
South Africa and North Korea.[4] Australia, China and the United States account for more
than half of primary production.[6]
• 2008 mine production: 3,886,000 tones
• 2008 metal production: 8,725,000 tones
• 2008 metal consumption: 8,706,000 tones[7]
At current use rates, the supply of lead is estimated to run out in 42 years.[8] Environmental
analyst, Lester Brown, however, has suggested lead could run out within 18 years based on
an extrapolation of 2% growth per year.[9] This may need to be reviewed to take account of
renewed interest in recycling, and rapid progress in fuel cell technology.
Isotopes
Lead has many isotopes but 4 stable ones. The 4 stable isotopes are204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb and
208
Pb with204Pb regarded as primordial Pb and 206, 207, 208 are formed from decay of U
and Th. The one common radiogenic isotope, 202Pb, has a half-life of approximately 53,000
years.[10]
Health effects
Lead is a poisonous metal that can damage nervous connections (especially in young
children) and cause blood and brain disorders. Because of its low reactivity and solubility,
lead poisoning usually only occurs in cases when the lead is dispersed, like when sanding
lead based paint, or long term exposure in the case of pewter tableware. Long term
exposure to lead or its salts (especially soluble salts or the strong oxidant PbO2) can cause
nephropathy, and colic-like abdominal pains. The effects of lead are the same whether it
enters the body through breathing or swallowing. Lead can affect almost every organ and
system in the body. The main target for lead toxicity is the nervous system, both in adults
and children. Long-term exposure of adults can result in decreased performance in some
tests that measure functions of the nervous system. It may also cause weakness in fingers,
wrists, or ankles. Lead exposure also causes small increases in blood pressure, particularly
in middle-aged and older people and can cause anemia. Exposure to high lead levels can
severely damage the brain and kidneys in adults or children and ultimately cause death. In
pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage. Chronic, high-level
exposure in men can damage the organs responsible for sperm production.
The concern about lead's role in cognitive deficits in children has brought about widespread
reduction in its use (lead exposure has been linked to learning disabilities[11] ). Most cases
Lead 6
of adult elevated blood lead levels are workplace-related.[12] High blood levels are
associated with delayed puberty in girls.[13] Lead has been shown many times to
permanently reduce the cognitive capacity of children at extremely low levels of
exposure.[14] There appears to be no detectable lower limit, below which lead has no effect
on cognition.
During the 20th century, the use of lead in paint pigments was sharply reduced because of
the danger of lead poisoning, especially to children.[15] [16] [17] By the mid-1980s, a
significant shift in lead end-use patterns had taken place. Much of this shift was a result of
the U.S. lead consumers' compliance with environmental regulations that significantly
reduced or eliminated the use of lead in non-battery products, including gasoline, paints,
solders, and water systems. Lead use is being further curtailed by the European Union's
RoHS directive. Lead may still be found in harmful quantities in stoneware, vinyl (such as
that used for tubing and the insulation of electrical cords), and brass manufactured in
China. Between 2006 and 2007 many children's toys made in China were recalled, primarily
due to lead in paint used to color the product.
Older houses may still contain substantial amounts of lead paint. White lead paint has been
withdrawn from sale in industrialized countries, but the yellow lead chromate is still in use;
for example, Holland Colours Holcolan Yellow. Old paint should not be stripped by sanding,
as this produces inhalable dust.
Lead salts used in pottery glazes have on occasion caused poisoning, when acidic drinks,
such as fruit juices, have leached lead ions out of the glaze.[18] It has been suggested that
what was known as "Devon colic" arose from the use of lead-lined presses to extract apple
juice in the manufacture of cider. Lead is considered to be particularly harmful for women's
ability to reproduce. For that reason, many universities do not hand out lead-containing
samples to women for instructional laboratory analyses. Lead(II) acetate (also known as
sugar of lead) was used by the Roman Empire as a sweetener for wine, and some consider
this to be the cause of the dementia that affected many of the Roman Emperors.[19]
Lead as a soil contaminant is a widespread issue, since lead is present in natural deposits
and may also enter soil through (leaded) gasoline leaks from underground storage tanks or
through a wastestream of lead paint or lead grindings from certain industrial operations.
Lead can also be found listed as a criteria pollutant in the United States Clean Air Act
section 108. Lead that is emitted into the atmosphere can be inhaled, or it can be ingested
after it settles out of the air. It is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and is believed to
have adverse effects on the central nervous system, the cardiovascular system, kidneys, and
the immune system.[20]
Biochemistry of lead poisoning

In the human body, lead inhibits porphobilinogen synthase and ferrochelatase, preventing
both porphobilinogen formation and the incorporation of iron into protoporphyrin IX, the
final step in heme synthesis. This causes ineffective heme synthesis and subsequent
microcytic anemia. At lower levels, it acts as a calcium analog, interfering with ion channels
during nerve conduction. This is one of the mechanisms by which it interferes with
cognition. Acute lead poisoning is treated using disodium calcium edetate: the calcium
chelate of the disodium salt of ethylene-diamine-tetracetic acid (EDTA). This chelating
agent has a greater affinity for lead than for calcium and so the lead chelate is formed by
exchange. This is then excreted in the urine leaving behind harmless calcium.[21]
Lead 7
Leaching of lead from metal surfaces

It is clear from the Pourbaix diagram below that lead is more likely to corrode in a citrate
medium than it is in a non-complexing medium. The central part of the diagram shows that
lead metal oxidizes more easily in the citrate medium than in normal water.
The Pourbaix diagram for lead in a non-complexing The Pourbaix diagram for lead in citric acid/citrate<ref
aqueous medium (eg perchloric acid / sodium name="medusa"/>
hydroxide)<ref name="medusa"/>
In a Pourbaix diagram, the acidity is plotted on the x axis using the pH scale, while how
oxidising/reducing nature of the system is plotted on the y axis in terms of volts relative to
the standard hydrogen electrode. The diagram shows the form of the element which is most
chemically stable at each point, it only comments on thermodynamics and it says nothing
about the rate of change (kinetics).
Occupational exposure
It is widely used in the production of batteries, metal products (solder and pipes),
ammunition and devices to shield X-rays leading to its exposure to the people working in
these industries. Use of lead in gasoline, paints and ceramic products, caulking, and pipe
solder has been dramatically reduced in recent years because of health concerns. Ingestion
of contaminated food and drinking water is the most common source of lead exposure in
humans. Exposure can also occur via inadvertent ingestion of contaminated soil/dust or
lead-based paint.
Testing
Water contamination can be tested with commercially available kits. Analysis of lead in
whole blood is the most common and accurate method of assessing lead exposure in
human. Erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EP) tests can also be used to measure lead exposure,
but are not as sensitive at low blood lead levels (<20 μg/dL). Lead in blood reflects recent
exposure. Bone lead measurements are an indicator of cumulative exposure. While
measurements of urinary lead levels and hair have been used to assess lead exposure, they
are not reliable.
Lead 8
Chemistry
Various oxidized forms of lead are easily reduced to the metal. An example is heating PbO
with mild organic reducing agents such as glucose. A mixture of the oxide and the sulfide
heated together without any reducing agent will also form the metal.[5]
2 PbO + PbS → 3 Pb + SO2
Metallic lead is attacked only superficially by air, forming a thin layer of oxide that protects
it from further oxidation. The metal is not attacked by sulfuric or hydrochloric acids. It
does, however, dissolve in nitric acid with the evolution of nitric oxide gas to form dissolved
Pb(NO3)2.
3 Pb + 8 H+ + 8 NO−3 → 3 Pb2+ + 6 NO−3 + 2 NO + 4 H2O
When heated with nitrates of alkali metals, metallic lead oxidizes to form PbO (also known
as litharge), leaving the corresponding alkali nitrite. PbO is representative of lead's +2
oxidation state. It is soluble in nitric and acetic acids, from which solutions it is possible to
precipitate halide, sulfate, chromate, carbonate (PbCO3), and basic carbonate
(Pb3(OH)2(CO3)2) salts of lead. The sulfide can also be precipitated from acetate solutions.
These salts are all poorly soluble in water. Among the halides, the iodide is less soluble than
the bromide, which, in turn, is less soluble than the chloride.[22]
Lead(II) oxide is also soluble in alkali hydroxide solutions to form the corresponding
plumbite salt.[5]
PbO + 2 OH− + H2O → Pb(OH)2−4
Chlorination of plumbite solutions causes the formation of lead's +4 oxidation state.
Pb(OH)2−4 + Cl2 → PbO2 + 2 Cl− + 2 H2O
Lead dioxide is representative of the +4 oxidation state, and is a powerful oxidizing agent.
The chloride of this oxidation state is formed only with difficulty and decomposes readily
into lead(II) chloride and chlorine gas. The bromide and iodide of lead(IV) are not known to
exist.[22] Lead dioxide dissolves in alkali hydroxide solutions to form the corresponding
plumbates.[5]
PbO2 + 2 OH− + 2 H2O → Pb(OH)2−6
Lead also has an oxide with mixed +2 and +4 oxidation states, red lead (Pb3O4), also known
as minium.
Lead readily forms an equimolar alloy with sodium metal that reacts with alkyl halides to
form organometallic compounds of lead such as tetraethyl lead.[23]
Lead 9
Chloride complexes
Lead(II) forms a series of complexes with
chloride, the formation of which alters the
corrosion chemistry of the lead. This will
tend to limit the solubility of lead in saline
media.
Diagram showing the forms of lead in chloride

[24]
media
Equilibrium constants for aqueous lead chloride complexes at 25 °C

K1 = 12.59
Pb2+ + Cl− → PbCl+
K2 = 14.45
PbCl+ + Cl− → PbCl2
PbCl2 + Cl− → PbCl3− K3 = 3.98 ×10−1
PbCl3− + Cl− → PbCl42− K4 = 8.92 × 10−2
Phase diagrams of solubilities

Lead(II) sulfate is poorly soluble, as can be seen in the following diagram showing addition
of SO42− to a solution containing 0.1M of Pb2+. The pH of the solution is 4.5, as above that,
Pb2+ concentration can never reach 0.1M due to the formation of Pb(OH)2. Observe that
Pb2+ solubility drops 10,000 fold as SO42− reaches 0.1M.
Plot showing aqueous concentration of dissolved Pb2+

as a function of SO42−<ref name="medusa"/>
Diagram for lead in sulfate media<ref

name="medusa"/>
Lead 10
Here it can be seen that the addition of chloride can lower the solubility of lead, however in
chloride rich media (such as aqua regia) the lead can become soluble again as anionic
chlorocomplexes.
Diagram showing the solubility of lead in chloride

media. The lead concentrations are plotted as a
function of the total chloride present.<ref
Pourbaix diagram for lead in chloride (0.1 M)
name="medusa"/>
media<ref name="medusa"/>
Applications
Because of its high density and resistance against corrosion, lead is used for the ballast
keel of sailboats. Its high weight-to-volume ratio allows it to counterbalance the heeling
effect of wind on the sails while at the same time occupying a small volume and thus
offering the least underwater resistance. For the same reason its is used in scuba diving
weight belts to counteract the diver's natural buoyancy and that of his equipment. It does
not have the weight-to-volume ratio of many heavy metals, but its low cost increases its use
in these and other applications.
• Lead is a major constituent of the lead-acid battery
used extensively as a car battery.[25]
• Lead is used as a coloring element in ceramic glazes,
notably in the colors red and yellow.[26]
• Lead is used to form glazing bars for stained glass or
other multi-lit windows. The practice has become less
common, not for danger but for stylistic reasons.
• Lead is frequently used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
plastic, which coats electrical cords.[27] [28]
Roman lead water pipes with taps
• Lead is used as projectiles for firearms and fishing
sinkers because of its density, low cost compared to alternative products and ease of use
due to relatively low melting point.[29]
• Lead or "sheet-lead" is used as a sound deadening layer in such areas as wall, floor and
ceiling design in sound studios where levels of airborne and mechanically produced
sound are targeted for reduction or virtual elimination.[30] [31]
Lead 11
• Lead is used in some candles to treat the wick to ensure a

longer, more even burn. Because of the dangers, European
and North American manufacturers use more expensive
alternatives such as zinc.[32] [33]
• Lead is used as shielding from radiation, e.g. in x-ray
rooms.[34]
Lead pipe in Roman baths
• Molten lead is used as a coolant, eg. for lead cooled fast reactors.[35]
• Lead glass is composed of 12-28% lead oxide. It changes the optical characteristics of the
glass and reduces the transmission of radiation.[36]
• Lead is the traditional base metal of organ pipes, mixed with varying amounts of tin to
control the tone of the pipe.[37] [38]
• Lead is used as electrodes in the process of electrolysis.
• Lead is used in solder for electronics, although this usage is being phased out by some
countries to reduce the amount of environmentally unfriendly waste.
• Lead is used in high voltage power cables as sheathing material to prevent water
diffusion into insulation.
• Lead is added to brass to reduce machine tool wear.
• Some artists using oil-based paints continue to use lead carbonate white, citing its
properties in comparison with the alternatives.
• Lead, in the form of strips or "tape" is used for the customization of tennis rackets.
Tennis rackets of the past sometimes had lead added to them by the manufacturer to
increase weight.[39]
• Lead has many uses in the construction industry, e.g. lead sheets are used as
architectural metals in roofing material, cladding, flashings, gutters and gutter joints,
and on roof parapets. Detailed lead moldings are used as decorative motifs used to fix
lead sheet.
• Lead is still widely used in statues and sculptures.
• Tetra-ethyl lead is used as an anti-knock additive for aviation fuel in piston driven
aircraft.
• Lead-based semiconductors, such as lead telluride, lead selenide and lead antimonide are
finding applications in photovoltaic (solar energy) cells and infrared detectors.[40]
• Lead is often used to balance the wheels of a car; this use is being phased out in favor of
other materials for environmental reasons.
Lead 12
Former applications
• Lead pigments were used in lead paint for white as well as yellow, orange, and red. Most
have been discontinued due of the dangers of lead poisoning. However, lead chromate is
still in industrial use. Lead carbonate (white) is the traditional pigment for the priming
medium for oil painting, but it has been largely displaced by the zinc and titanium oxide
pigments. It was also quickly replaced in water-based painting mediums.
• Lead carbonate white was used by the Japanese geisha and in the West for
face-whitening make-up, which caused ill-health in the wearer.
• Lead was the hot metal used in hot metal typesetting.
• Lead was used for plumbing in Ancient Rome.
• Lead was used as a preservative for food and drink in Ancient Rome.
• Lead was used for joining cast iron water pipes and used as a material for small diameter
water pipes until the early 1970s.
• Tetraethyl lead was used in leaded fuels to reduce engine knocking; however, this is no
longer common practice in the Western world due to its incompatibility with catalytic
converters.
• The EPA banned the use of lead gasoline for highway transportation, beginning
January 1, 1996.[41]
• Lead has been used to make "clubs" or bats more lethal by melting it into a hole drilled
into the top.
• Lead was used to make bullets for slings.
• Lead was used for shotgun pellets in the US until about 1992 when it was outlawed (for
waterfowl hunting only) and replaced by "non-toxic" shot, primarily steel pellets.
• Lead was used as a component of toys. Due to toy safety regulations, this use has been
stopped in the United States.
• Lead was used in car body filler, which was used in many custom cars in the 1940s–60s.
Hence the term Leadsled.
• Lead is a superconductor at 7.2 K and IBM tried to make a Josephson effect computer out
of lead-alloy.[42]
• Lead was also used in pesticides before the 1950s, when fruit orchards were treated
(ATSDR).
• A lead cylinder attached to a long line was used by sailors for the vital navigational task
of determining water depth by 'heaving the lead' at regular internals. A soft tallow insert
at it's base allowed the nature of the sea bed to be determined, further aiding position
finding.
Contrary to popular belief, pencil "leads" have never been made from lead. The term comes
from the Roman stylus, called the penicillus, which was made of lead.[43] When the pencil
originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of graphite being used
was named plumbago (lit. "act for lead"; "lead mockup").
Lead 13
See also
• Adult Blood Lead Epidemiology and Surveillance
• Lead-Free Toys Act
• Medical geology
• Plumbosolvency
Further reading
• Keisch, B., Feller, R. L., Levine, A. S., and Edwards, R. R.: "Dating and Authenticating
Works of Art by Measurement of Natural Alpha Emitters". In: Science, 155, No. 3767,
p. 1238–1242, 1967.
• Keisch, B: "Dating Works of Art Through their Natural Radioactivity: Improvements and
Applications". In: Science, 160, p. 413–415, 1968.
• Keisch, B: "Discriminating Radioactivity Measurements of Lead: New Tool for
Authentication". In: Curator, 11, No. 1., p. 41–52, 1968.
• Jose S. Casas and Jose Sordo. Lead Chemistry, Analytical Aspects. Environmental Impacts
and Health Effects, 2006, First Edition, ELSEVIER B.V
• R.M. Harrison and D.P.H. Laxen, Lead Pollution Causes and Control, 1981, First Publish,
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
External links
[44]
• ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Lead Toxicity U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services
• Lead [45] at the Open Directory Project
pnb:‫ہسیس‬
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Lead 14
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Lead 15
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License 17

Bismuth 1
Bismuth
lead ← bismuth → poloniumSb
↑
Bi
↓
Uup

83Bi
Periodic table
Appearance lustrous silver

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 941 1041 1165 1325 1538 1835

Bismuth 2

ratioMohs hardnessBrinell hardnessCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article:
Isotopes of bismuth
207 syn 31.55 y 2.399

ε, β+ 207
Bi Pb
208 syn 368,000 y 2.880

ε, β+ 208
Bi Pb
209 100% α
(19 ± 2) ×1018y 205
Bi Tl
210m syn IT 0.271

3.04 ×106y 210
Bi Bi
bismuth, Bi, 83 poor metals15, 6, p208.98040(1) g·mol−1 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3 2, 8, 18, 32,
18, 5 (Image) solid 9.78 g·cm−3 10.05 g·cm−3 544.7 K,271.5 °C,520.7 °F
1837 K,1564 °C,2847 °F 11.30 kJ·mol 151 kJ·mol (25 °C) 25.52 J·mol−1·K−13, 5
−1 −1
(mildly acidic oxide) 2.02 (Pauling scale) 1st: 703 kJ·mol−1 156 pm 148±4 pm rhombohedral
diamagnetic (20 °C) 1.29x10^-6Ω·m (300 K) 7.97 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 13.4 µm·m−1·K−1 (20
°C) 1790 m/s 32 GPa 12 GPa 31 GPa 0.33 2.25 94.2 MPa 7440-69-9
Bismuth (pronounced /ˈbɪzməθ/) is a chemical element that has the symbol Bi and atomic
number 83. This trivalent poor metal chemically resembles arsenic and antimony. Bismuth
is heavy and brittle; it has a silvery white color with a pink tinge due to the surface oxide.
Bismuth is the most naturally diamagnetic of all metals, and only mercury has a lower
thermal conductivity. It is generally considered to be the last naturally occurring stable,
non-radioactive element on the periodic table, although it is actually slightly radioactive,
with an extremely long half-life.
Bismuth compounds are used in cosmetics, medicines, and in medical procedures. As the
toxicity of lead has become more apparent in recent years, alloy uses for bismuth metal as a
replacement for lead have become an increasing part of bismuth's commercial importance.
Bismuth 3
Characteristics
Bismuth is a brittle metal with a white, silver-pink hue,
often occurring in its native form with an iridescent
oxide tarnish showing many refractive colors from
yellow to blue. When combusted with oxygen, bismuth
burns with a blue flame and its oxide forms yellow
fumes.[1] Its toxicity is much lower than that of its
neighbors in the periodic table such as lead, tin,
tellurium, antimony, and polonium.
Although ununpentium is theoretically more

diamagnetic, no other metal is verified to be more
naturally diamagnetic than bismuth.[1]
(Superdiamagnetism is a different physical
phenomenon.) Of any metal, it has the second lowest
thermal conductivity (after mercury) and the highest
Bismuth crystal with an iridescent
Hall coefficient. It has a high electrical resistance.[1]
oxide surface When deposited in sufficiently thin layers on a
substrate, bismuth is a semiconductor, rather than a
poor metal.[2]
Elemental bismuth is one of very few substances of which the liquid phase is denser than its
solid phase (water being the best-known example). Bismuth expands 3.32% on
solidification; therefore, it was long an important component of low-melting typesetting
alloys, which needed to expand to fill printing molds.[1]
Though virtually unseen in nature, high-purity bismuth
can form distinctive hopper crystals. These colorful
laboratory creations are typically sold to collectors.
Bismuth is relatively nontoxic and has a low melting
point just above 271 °C, so crystals may be grown using
a household stove, although the resulting crystals will
tend to be lower quality than lab-grown crystals.
Isotopes
While bismuth was traditionally regarded as the
element with the heaviest stable isotope, bismuth-209,
it had long been suspected to be unstable on theoretical
grounds. This was finally demonstrated in 2003 when
Bismuth crystals
researchers at the Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale in
Orsay, France, measured the alpha emission half-life of
209 19 [3]
Bi to be 1.9 x 10 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of
the universe. Owing to its extraordinarily long half-life, for nearly all applications bismuth
can be treated as if it is stable and non-radioactive. The radioactivity is of academic
interest, however, because bismuth is one of few elements whose radioactivity was
suspected, and indeed theoretically predicted, before being detected in the laboratory.
Bismuth 4
History
Bismuth (New Latin bisemutum from German Wismuth, perhaps from weiße Masse, "white
mass") was confused in early times with tin and lead because of its resemblance to those
elements. Bismuth has been known since ancient times, and so no one person is credited
with its discovery. Agricola, in De Natura Fossilium states that bismuth is a distinct metal in
a family of metals including tin and lead in 1546 based on observation of the metals and
their physical properties.[4] Claude François Geoffroy demonstrated in 1753 that this metal
is distinct from lead and tin.[1]
"Artificial bismuth" was commonly used in place of the actual metal. It was made by
hammering tin into thin plates, and cementing them by a mixture of white tartar, saltpeter,
and arsenic, stratified in a crucible over an open fire.
Bismuth was also known to the Incas and used (along with the usual copper and tin) in a
special bronze alloy for knives.[5]

New York prices
Time Price (USD/lb.)
December 2000 $3.85–$4.15
November 2002 $2.70–$3.10
December 2003 $2.60–$2.90
June 2004 $3.65–$4.00
September 2005 $4.20–$4.60
September 2006 $4.50–$4.75
November 2006 $6.00–$6.50
December 2006 $7.30–$7.80
March 2007 $9.25–$9.75
April 2007 $10.50–$11.00
June 2007 $18.00–$19.00
November 2007 $13.50–$15.00
In the Earth's crust, bismuth is about twice as abundant

as gold. It is not usually economical to mine it as a
primary product. Rather, it is usually produced as a
byproduct of the processing of other metal ores,
especially lead, tungsten (China), tin, copper, and also
Bismuth output in 2005
silver (indirectly) or other metallic elements.
The most important ores of bismuth are bismuthinite

and bismite.[1] In 2005, China was the top producer of bismuth with at least 40% of the
world share followed by Mexico and Peru, reports the British Geological Survey. Native
bismuth is known from Australia, Bolivia, and China.
Bismuth 5
According to the USGS, world 2006 bismuth mine

production was 5,700 tonnes, of which China produced
3,000 tonnes, Mexico 1,180 tonnes, Peru 950 tonnes,
and the balance Canada, Kazakhstan and other nations.
World 2006 bismuth refinery production was 12,000
tonnes, of which China produced 8,500 tonnes, Mexico
1,180 tonnes, Belgium 800 tonnes, Peru 600 tonnes,
Japan 510 tonnes, and the balance Canada and other
nations.[6]
Bismite mineral
The difference between world bismuth mine production and refinery production reflects
bismuth's status as a byproduct metal. Bismuth travels in crude lead bullion (which can
contain up to 10% bismuth) through several stages of refining, until it is removed by the
Kroll-Betterton process or the Betts process. The Kroll-Betterton process uses a
pyrometallurgical separation from molten lead of calcium-magnesium-bismuth drosses
containing associated metals (silver, gold, zinc, some lead, copper, tellurium, and arsenic),
which are removed by various fluxes and treatments to give high-purity bismuth metal (over
99% Bi). The Betts process takes cast anodes of lead bullion and electrolyzes them in a lead
fluosilicate-hydrofluosilicic acid electrolyte to yield a pure lead cathode and an anode slime
containing bismuth. Bismuth will behave similarly with another of its major metals, copper.
Thus world bismuth production from refineries is a more complete and reliable statistic.
According to the Bismuth Advocate News[] , the price for bismuth metal from year-end 2000
to September 2005 was stuck in a range from $2.60 to $4.15 per lb., but after this period
the price started rising rapidly as global bismuth demand as a lead replacement and other
uses grew rapidly. New mines in Canada and Vietnam may relieve the shortages, but prices
are likely to remain above their previous level for the foreseeable future. The
Customer-Input price for bismuth is more oriented to the ultimate consumer; it started
January 2008 at US$39.40 per kilogram ($17.90 per pound) in January 2008 and reached
US$35.55 per kg (US$16.15 per lb.) in September 2008. [7]
Recycling
While bismuth is most available today as a byproduct, its sustainability is more dependent
on recycling. Bismuth is mostly a byproduct of lead smelting, along with silver, zinc,
antimony, and other metals, and also of tungsten production, along with molybdenum and
tin, and also of copper and tin production. Recycling bismuth is difficult in many of its end
uses, primarily because of scattering. Probably the easiest to recycle would be
bismuth-containing fusible alloys in the form of larger objects, then larger soldered objects.
Half of the world solder consumption is in electronics (i.e., circuit boards).[8] As the
soldered objects get smaller or contain little solder or little bismuth, the recovery gets
progressively more difficult and less economic, although solder with a sizable silver content
will be more worth recovering. Next in recycling feasibility would be sizeable catalysts with
a fair bismuth content, perhaps as bismuth phosphomolybdate, and then bismuth used in
galvanizing and as a free-machining metallurgical additive. Finally, the bismuth in the uses
where it gets scattered the most, in stomach medicines (bismuth subsalicylate), paints
(bismuth vanadate) on a dry surface, pearlescent cosmetics (bismuth oxychloride), and
Bismuth 6
bismuth-containing bullets. The bismuth is so scattered in these uses as to be

unrecoverable with present technology. Bismuth can also be available sustainably from
greater efficiency of use or substitution, most likely stimulated by a rising price. For the
stomach medicine, another active ingredient could be substituted for some or all of the
bismuth compound . It would be more difficult to find an alternative to bismuth oxychloride
in cosmetics to give the pearlescent effect. However, there are many alloying formulas for
solders and therefore many alternatives.
The most important sustainability fact about bismuth is its byproduct status, which can
either improve sustainability (i.e., vanadium or manganese nodules) or, for bismuth from
lead ore, constrain it; bismuth is constrained. The extent that the constraint on bismuth can
be ameliorated or not is going to be tested by the future of the lead storage battery, since
90% of the world market for lead is in storage batteries for gasoline or diesel-powered
motor vehicles. A huge worldwide research and development effort is underway to develop
and manufacture advanced (non-lead) batteries or electrical storage devices. In December
2008, it was announced that a consortium of 14 U.S. firms were seeking $1 billion in
Federal aid to build a battery manufacturing plant to make Li-on batteries for electric
automobiles. The plant would build the basic cell and the individual consortium firm would
finish its batteries by adding their own electronics, changing the voltage, chemistry, and
other parameters as required. Similar batteries are already being manufactured in several
countries in the Far East, and four dozen advanced battery plants are under construction in
China. These batteries certainly foreshadow such batteries for gasoline-powered motor
vehicles. When the Li-on battery or other electrical storage devices replace the lead storage
battery, the bismuth recovered from lead ore is going to drop along with the production of
lead ore and bismuth is going to become more dependent on recycling.
The life-cycle assessment of bismuth will focus on solders, one of the major uses of bismuth,
and the one with the most complete information. The average primary energy use for
solders is around 200 MJ per kg, with the high-bismuth solder (58% Bi) only 20% of that
value, and three low-bismuth solders (2% to 5% Bi) running very close to the average. The
global warming potential averaged 10 to 14 kg carbon dioxide, with the high-bismuth solder
about two-thirds of that and the low-bismuth solders about average. The acidification
potential for the solders is around 0.9 to 1.1 kg sulfur dioxide equivalent, with the
high-bismuth solder and one low-bismuth solder only one-tenth of the average and the other
low-bismuth solders about average. [9] There is very little life-cycle information on other
bismuth alloys or compounds.
Chemistry
Bismuth forms trivalent and pentavalent compounds. The trivalent compounds are more
common. Many of its chemical properties are similar to other elements in its group; namely,
arsenic and antimony.
Bismuth is stable to both dry and moist air at ordinary temperatures. At elevated
temperatures, the vapours of the metal combine rapidly with oxygen, forming the yellow
trioxide, Bi2O3.[10] On reaction with base, this oxide forms two series of oxyanions: BiO−2,
which is polymeric and forms linear chains, and BiO3−3. The anion in Li3BiO3 is actually a
cubic octameric anion, Bi8O24−24, whereas the anion in Na3BiO3 is tetrameric.[11]
Bismuth sulfide, Bi2S3, occurs naturally in bismuth ores.[12] It is also produced by the
combination of molten bismuth and sulfur.[10]
Bismuth 7
Unlike earlier members of group 15 elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and arsenic,
and similar to the previous group 15 element antimony, bismuth does not form a stable
hydride analogous to ammonia and phosphine. Bismuth hydride, bismuthine (BiH3), is an
endothermic compound that spontaneously decomposes at room temperature. It is stable
[11]
only below −60°C.
The halides of bismuth in low oxidation states have been shown to have unusual structures.
What was originally thought to be bismuth(I) chloride, BiCl, turns out to be a complex
compound consisting of Bi5+9 cations and BiCl2−5 and Bi2Cl2−8 anions.[11] [13] The Bi5+9
cation is also found in Bi10HfCl18, prepared by reducing a mixture of hafnium(IV) chloride
and bismuth chloride with elemental bismuth. Other polyatomic bismuth cations are also
known, such as Bi2+8, found in Bi8(AlCl4)2.[13] Bismuth also forms a low-valence bromide
with the same structure as "BiCl". There is a true monoiodide, BiI, which contains chains of
Bi4I4 units. BiI decomposes upon heating to the triiodide, BiI3, and elemental bismuth. A
monobromide of the same structure also exists.[11]
In oxidation state +3, bismuth forms trihalides with all of the halogens: BiF3, BiCl3, BiBr3,
and BiI3. All of these, except BiF3, are hydrolysed by water to form the bismuthyl cation,
BiO+, a commonly encountered bismuth oxycation.[11] Bismuth(III) chloride reacts with
hydrogen chloride in ether solution to produce the acid HBiCl4.[14]
Bismuth dissolves in nitric acid to form bismuth(III) nitrate, Bi(NO3)3. In the presence of
excess water or the addition of a base, the Bi3+ ion reacts with the water to form BiO+,
which precipitates as (BiO)NO3.[15]
The oxidation state +5 is less frequently encountered. One such compound is the
pentafluoride, BiF5, a powerful oxidising agent capable of oxidising xenon tetrafluoride:[14]
BiF5 + XeF4 → XeF+3BiF−6
The dark red bismuth(V) oxide, Bi2O5, is unstable, liberating O2 gas upon heating.[16]
In aqueous solution, the Bi3+ ion exists in various states of hydration, depending on the pH:
pH range Species
<3 Bi(H2O)3+6
0-4 Bi(H2O)5OH2+
1-5 Bi(H2O)4(OH)2+
5-14 Bi(H2O)3(OH)3
>11 Bi(H2O)2(OH)4−
These mononuclear species are in equilibrium. Polynuclear species also exist, the most
important of which is BiO+, which exists in hexameric form as the octahedral complex
[Bi6O4(OH)4]6+ (or 6 [BiO+]·2 H2O).[17]
Applications
Bismuth oxychloride is sometimes used in cosmetics. Bismuth subnitrate and bismuth
subcarbonate are used in medicine.[1] Bismuth subsalicylate (the active ingredient in
Pepto-Bismol and (modern) Kaopectate) is used as an antidiarrheal and to treat some other
gastro-intestinal diseases (oligodynamic effect). Also, the product Bibrocathol is an organic
molecule containing Bismuth and is used to treat eye infections. Bismuth subgallate (the
Bismuth 8
active ingredient in Devrom) is used as an internal deodorant to treat malodor from

flatulence (or gas) and faeces.
Some other current uses:
• New research by physicists has found a potential role of bismuth as an ingredient in
electronic circuits and in manufacturing next-generation solar cells which would have a
greater efficiency. Bismuth allows for the creation of new diodes that can reverse their
direction of current flow.[18] Ordinary semiconductor diodes are fixed in their direction.
• Many bismuth alloys have low melting points and are widely used for fire detection and
suppression system safety devices.[1]
• Bismuth is used as an alloying agent in production of malleable irons.[1]
• It is also used a thermocouple material.[1]
• A carrier for U-235 or U-233 fuel in nuclear reactors.[1]
• Bismuth has also been used in solders. The fact that bismuth and many of its alloys
expand slightly when they solidify make them ideal for this purpose.
• Bismuth subnitrate is a component of glazes that produces an iridescent luster finish.
• Bismuth telluride is an excellent thermoelectric material; it is widely used.
• A replacement propellant for xenon in Hall effect thrusters
• In 1997 an antibody conjugate with Bi-213, which has a 45 minute half-life, and decays
with the emission of an alpha-particle, was used to treat patients with leukemia.
• In 2001, Professor Barry Allen and Dr. Graeme Melville at St. George Hospital in Sydney
successfully produced Bi-213 in linac experiments which involved bombarding radium
with bremsstrahlung photons. This cancer research team used Bi-213 in its Targeted
Alpha Therapy (TAT) program.
• The delta form of bismuth oxide when it exists at room temperature is a solid electrolyte
for oxygen. This form normally only exists above and breaks down below a high
temperature threshold, but can be electrodeposited well below this temperature in a
highly alkaline solution.
In the early 1990s, research began to evaluate bismuth as a nontoxic replacement for lead
in various applications:
• As noted above, bismuth has been used in solders; its low toxicity will be especially
important for solders to be used in food processing equipment and copper water pipes.
• A pigment in artists' oil and acrylic paint (Bismuth Vanadate)
• Ingredient in free-machining brasses for plumbing applications
• Ingredient in free-machining steels for precision machining properties
• A catalyst for making acrylic fibers[1]
• In low-melting alloys used in fire detection and extinguishing systems
• Ingredient in lubricating greases
• Dense material for fishing sinkers
• In crackling microstars (dragon's eggs) in pyrotechnics, as the oxide, subcarbonate, or
subnitrate
• Replacement for lead in shot and bullets. The UK, U.S., and many other countries now
prohibit the use of lead shot for the hunting of wetland birds, as many birds are prone to
lead poisoning due to mistaken ingestion of lead (instead of small stones and grit) to aid
digestion. Bismuth-tin alloy shot is one alternative that provides similar ballistic
performance to lead. (Another less expensive but also more poorly performing alternative
is "steel" shot, which is actually soft iron.)
Bismuth 9
• Bismuth core bullets are also starting to appear for use in indoor shooting ranges, where
fine particles of lead from bullets impacting the backstop can be a chronic toxic inhalant
problem. Owing to bismuth's crystalline nature, the bismuth bullets shatter into a
non-toxic powder on impact, making recovery and recycling easy. The lack of malleability
does, however, make bismuth unsuitable for use in expanding hunting bullets.
• Fabrique Nationale de Herstal uses bismuth in the projectiles for its FN 303 less-lethal
riot gun.
According to the USGS, U.S. bismuth consumption in 2006 totaled 2,050 tonnes, of which
chemicals (including pharmaceuticals, pigments, and cosmetics) were 510 tonnes, bismuth
alloys 591 tonnes, metallurgical additives 923 tonnes, and the balance other uses.
Precautions
Bismuth is not known to be toxic, compared to its periodic table neighbours (lead,
antimony, and polonium), although some compounds (including bismuth chloride due to its
corrosive acidity) are toxic and should be handled with care. As with lead, overexposure to
bismuth can result in the formation of a black deposit on the gingiva, known as a bismuth
line[19] .
Fine bismuth powder can be pyrophoric.[20]
See also
• Bismuth minerals
External links
• WebElements.com - Bismuth [21]
[22]
• USGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Bismuth
• Bismuth Advocate News (BAN) [23]
• Bismuth Statistics and Information [24] - United States Geological Survey minerals
information for bismuth
• Laboratory growth of large crystals of Bismuth [25] by Jan Kihle Crystal Pulling
Laboratories, Norway
• Bismuth breaks half-life record for alpha decay [26]
• Bismuth Crystals – Instructions & Pictures [27]
pnb:‫ھتمسب‬
References
0849304857.
[2] C. A. Hoffman, J. R. Meyer, and F. J. Bartoli, A. Di Venere, X. J. Yi, C. L. Hou, H. C. Wang, J. B. Ketterson, and
G. K. Wong (1993). "Semimetal-to-semiconductor transition in bismuth thin films". Phys. Rev. B 48: 11431. doi:
[3] Marcillac, Pierre de; Noël Coron, Gérard Dambier, Jacques Leblanc, and Jean-Pierre Moalic (April 2003).
"Experimental detection of α-particles from the radioactive decay of natural bismuth". Nature 422: 876–878.
doi: 10.1038/nature01541 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ nature01541). PMID 12712201.
[4] Agricola, Georgious (1546 (oring.); 1955(trans)). De Natura Fossilium. New York: Mineralogical Society of
America. pp. 178.
[5] " Bismuth Bronze from Machu Picchu, Peru (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1984Sci. . . 223. . 585G)". .
Bismuth 10
[6] Carlin, Jr., James F.. " Commodity Report 2006: Bismuth (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/
commodity/ bismuth/ myb1-2006-bismu. pdf)" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2009-02-08.
[7] " Customer input prices (http:/ / customer-inputprices. blogspot. com)". . Retrieved 2009-02-08.
[8] Taylor, Harold A.. Bismuth. Financial Times Executive Commodity Reports. p. 17. ISBN 1 84083 326 2.
[9] " IKP, Department of Life-Cycle Engineering (http:/ / leadfree. ipc. org/ files/ RoHS_15. pdf)". . Retrieved
2009-05-05.
[10] Pradyot Patnaik. Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. McGraw-Hill, 2002, ISBN 0070494398
[11] S. M. Godfrey; C. A. McAuliffe; A. G. Mackie; R. G. Pritchard (1998). Nicholas C. Norman. ed. Chemistry of
arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. Springer. pp. 67-84. ISBN 075140389X.
[12] Ira Remsen (1886). An Introduction to the Study of Chemistry. Henry Holt and Company. p. 363.
[13] R. J. Gillespie; J. Passmore (1975). H. J. Emeléus, A. G. Sharp. ed. Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and
Radiochemistry. Academic Press. pp. 77-78. ISBN 0120236176.
[14] Hitomi Suzuki; Yoshihiro Matano (2001). Organobismuth chemistry. Elsevier. p. 8. ISBN 0444205284.
[15] Charles Adolphe Wurtz; William Houston Greene; H. F. Keller (1880). William Houston Greene. ed. Elements
of modern chemistry (6th ed.). J.B. Lippincott. p. 351.
[16] Thomas Scott; Mary Eagleson (1994). Concise encyclopedia chemistry. Walter de Gruyter. p. 136. ISBN
3110114518.
[17] Arnold F. Holleman; Egon Wiberg (2001). Nils Wiberg. ed. Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. p. 771.
ISBN 0123526515.
[18] http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 02/ 090219141530. htm
[19] " bismuth line (http:/ / medical-dictionary. thefreedictionary. com/ bismuth+ line)". Farlex, Inc.. . Retrieved 8
February 2008.
[20] Patnaik, Patnaik (2002). Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN
0070494398.
[21] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Bi/ index. html
[22] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ bismuth/ myb1-2006-bismu. pdf
[23] http:/ / www. basicsmines. com/ bismuth/ index. html
[24] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ bismuth/
[25] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Image:Bismuth-501g. jpg
[26] http:/ / physicsweb. org/ article/ news/ 7/ 4/ 16
[27] http:/ / www. amazingrust. com/ Experiments/ how_to/ Bismuth_Crystals. html

Bismuth Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308317024 Contributors: Acroterion, Ahoerstemeier, Akulo, Alansohn, Alchemist-hp,
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License
Polonium 1
Polonium
bismuth ← polonium → astatine

Te
↑
Po
↓
Uuh
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number polonium, Po, 84
Appearance silvery
Standard atomic weight (209) g·mol

−1
Electron configuration [Xe] 6s 4f

2 14
5d
10
6p
4
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) (alpha) 9.196 g·cm

−3
Density (near r.t.) (beta) 9.398 g·cm

−3
Melting point 527 K

(254 °C, 489 °F)

(962 °C, 1764 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) (846) 1003 1236
Atomic properties
Crystal structure cubic
Oxidation states 6, 4, 2, -2
(amphoteric oxide)
Polonium 2
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering nonmagnetic
Electrical resistivity (0 °C) (α) 0.40 µΩ·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) ? 20 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 23.5 µm·m−1·K−1
Main article: Isotopes of polonium

208
Po syn 2.898 y α 5.215 204
Pb
ε, β
+ 1.401 208
Bi
209
Po syn 103 y α 4.979 205
Pb
ε, β
+ 1.893 209
Bi
210
Po syn 138.376 d α 5.407 206
Pb
References
Polonium (pronounced /pɵˈloʊniəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Po and atomic
number 84, discovered in 1898 by Marie and Pierre Curie. A rare and highly radioactive
metalloid,[1] polonium is chemically similar to bismuth[2] and tellurium, and it occurs in
uranium ores. Polonium has been studied for possible use in heating spacecraft. It is
unstable; all isotopes of polonium are radioactive. Polonium is very volatile; it will almost
completely vaporize at room temperatures.
Characteristics
Isotopes
Polonium has 27 known isotopes, all of which are radioactive. They have atomic masses that
range from 194 to 218 u. 210Po (half-life 138.376 days) is the most widely available. 209Po
(half-life 103 years) and 208Po (half-life 2.9 years) can be made through the alpha, proton,
or deuteron bombardment of lead or bismuth in a cyclotron.
210
Po is an alpha emitter that has a half-life of 138.376 days; it decays directly to its stable
daughter isotope, 206Pb. A milligram of 210Po emits about as many alpha particles per
second as 4.5 grams of 226Ra. A few curies (1 curie equals 37 gigabecquerels, 1 Ci = 37
GBq) of 210Po emit a blue glow which is caused by excitation of surrounding air. A single
gram of 210Po generates 140 watts of power.[3] Because it emits many alpha particles,
Polonium 3
which are stopped within a very short distance in dense media and release their energy,
210
Po has been used as a lightweight heat source to power thermoelectric cells in artificial
satellites; for instance, 210Po heat source was also used in each of the Lunokhod rovers
deployed on the surface of the Moon, to keep their internal components warm during the
[4] 210
lunar nights. Some anti-static brushes contain up to 500 microcuries (20 MBq) of Po as
a source of charged particles for neutralizing static electricity in materials like
photographic film.[5] 210
The majority of the time 210Po decays by emission of an alpha particle only, not by emission
of an alpha particle and a gamma ray. About one in 100,000 alpha emissions causes an
excitation in the nucleus which then results in the emission of a gamma ray.[6] This low
gamma ray production rate (and the short range of alpha particles) makes it difficult to find
and identify this isotope. Rather than gamma ray spectroscopy, alpha spectroscopy is the
best method of measuring this isotope.
Solid state form

Polonium is a radioactive element that exists in two
metallic allotropes. The alpha form has a simple cubic
crystal structure with an edge length of 335.2
picometres; the beta form is rhombohedral.[7] [8] The
structure of polonoum has been characterized by X-ray
diffraction [9] [10] and electron diffraction.[11]
Chemistry
The chemistry of polonium is similar to that of tellurium
and bismuth. Polonium dissolves readily in dilute acids, The alpha form of solid polonium.
but is only slightly soluble in alkalis. The hydrogen

compound PoH2 is liquid at room temperature (melting point -36.1°C, boiling point 35.3°C).
Halides of the structure PoX2, PoX4 and PoX6 are known. The two oxides PoO2 and PoO3 are
the products of oxidation of polonium.[12]
210
Po (in common with 238Pu) has the ability to become airborne with ease: if a sample is
heated in air to 55 °C (131 °F), 50% of it is vaporized in 45 hours, even though the melting
point of polonium is 254 °C (489 °F) and its boiling point is 962 °C (1763 °F).[13] More than
one hypothesis exists for how polonium does this; one suggestion is that small clusters of
polonium atoms are spalled off by the alpha decay.
It has been reported that some microbes can methylate polonium by the action of
methylcobalamin.[14] [15] This is similar to the way in which mercury, selenium and
tellurium are methylated in living things to create organometallic compounds. As a result
when considering the biochemistry of polonium one should consider the possibility that the
polonium will follow the same biochemical pathways as selenium and tellurium.
Polonium 4
Compounds
Oxides Hydrides Halogen Compounds
• PoO2 • PoH2 • PoX2, e.g. polonium dichloride, PoCl2
• PoO3 • PoX4
• PoX6
History
Also tentatively called "Radium F", polonium was discovered by Marie Skłodowska-Curie
and her husband Pierre Curie in 1898[16] and was later named after Marie Curie's native
land of Poland (Latin: Polonia)[17] [18] Poland at the time was under Russian, Prussian, and
Austrian partition, and did not exist as an independent country. It was Curie's hope that
naming the element after her native land would publicize its lack of independence.
Polonium may be the first element named to highlight a political controversy.[19]
This element was the first one discovered by the Curies while they were investigating the
cause of pitchblende radioactivity. The pitchblende, after removal of the radioactive
elements uranium and thorium, was more radioactive than both the uranium and thorium
put together. This spurred the Curies on to find additional radioactive elements. The Curies
first separated out polonium from the pitchblende, and then within a few years, also
isolated radium.
Detection
Gamma counting
By means of radiometric methods such as gamma
spectroscopy (or a method using a chemical separation
followed by an activity measurement with a
non-energy-dispersive counter), it is possible to
measure the concentrations of radioisotopes and to
distinguish one from another. In practice, background
Intensity against photon energy for
noise would be present and depending on the detector,
three isotopes.
the line width would be larger which would make it
harder to identify and measure the isotope. In
biological/medical work it is common to use the natural 40K present in all tissues/body
fluids as a check of the equipment and as an internal standard.
Polonium 5
Alpha counting
The best way to test for (and measure) many alpha
emitters is to use alpha-particle spectroscopy as it is
common to place a drop of the test solution on a metal
disk which is then dried out to give a uniform coating
on the disk. This is then used as the test sample. If the
thickness of the layer formed on the disk is too thick
Intensity against alpha energy for four
then the lines of the spectrum are broadened, this is
isotopes, note that the line width is
because some of the energy of the alpha particles is lost narrow and the fine details can be
during their movement through the layer of active seen.
material. An alternative method is to use internal liquid
scintillation where the sample is mixed with a
scintillation cocktail. When the light emitted is then
counted, some machines will record the amount of light
energy per radioactive decay event. Due to the
imperfections of the liquid scintillation method (such as
a failure for all the photons to be detected, cloudy or
coloured samples can be difficult to count) and the fact
that random quenching can reduce the number of
Intensity against alpha energy for four
photons generated per radioactive decay it is possible
isotopes, note that the line width is
to get a broadening of the alpha spectra obtained wide and some of the fine details can
through liquid scintillation. It is likely that these liquid not be seen. This is for liquid
scintillation spectra will be subject to a Gaussian scintillation counting where random
effects cause a variation in the number
broadening rather than the distortion exhibited when
of visible photons generated per alpha
the layer of active material on a disk is too thick. decay.
A third energy dispersive method for counting alpha particles is to use a semiconductor
detector.
From left to right the peaks are due to 209Po, 210Po, 239Pu and 241Am. The fact that isotopes
such as 239Pu and 241Am have more than one alpha line indicates that the nucleus has the
ability to be in different discrete energy levels (like a molecule can).

Polonium is a very rare element in nature because of the short half-life of all its isotopes. It
is found in uranium ores at about 100 micrograms per metric ton (1 part in 1010), which is
approximately 0.2% of the abundance of radium. The amounts in the Earth's crust are not
harmful. Polonium has been found in tobacco smoke from tobacco leaves grown with
phosphate fertilizers.[20] [21] [22]
Polonium 6
Neutron capture
Synthesis by (n,γ) reaction
In 1934 an experiment showed that when natural 209Bi is bombarded with neutrons, 210Bi
is created, which then decays to 210Po via β decay. The final purification is done
pyrochemically followed by liquid-liquid extraction techniques.[23] Polonium may now be
made in milligram amounts in this procedure which uses high neutron fluxes found in
nuclear reactors. Only about 100 grams are produced each year, practically all of it in
Russia, making polonium exceedingly rare.[24] [25]
Proton capture
Synthesis by (p,n) and (p,2n) reactions
It has been found that the longer-lived isotopes of polonium can be formed by proton
bombardment of bismuth using a cyclotron. Other more neutron rich isotopes can be
formed by the irradiation of platinum with carbon nuclei.[26]
Applications
When it is mixed or alloyed with beryllium, polonium can be a neutron source: beryllium
releases a neutron upon absorption of an alpha particle that is supplied by 210Po. It has
been used in this capacity as a neutron trigger or initiator for nuclear weapons. However, a
license is needed to own and operate this form of neutron source.[27] Other uses include the
following.
• Devices that eliminate static charges in textile mills and other places.[28] However, beta
particle sources are more commonly used and are less dangerous. A non-radioactive
alternative is to use a high-voltage DC power supply to ionise air positively or negatively
as required.[29]
• 210Po can be used as an atomic heat source to power radioisotope thermoelectric
generators via thermoelectric materials.[30]
• Because of its very high toxicity, polonium can be used as a poison (see, for example,
Alexander Litvinenko poisoning).
• Polonium is also used to eliminate dust on film.[31]
Toxicity
Overview
By mass, polonium-210 is around 250,000 times more toxic than hydrogen cyanide (the
actual LD50 for 210Po is about 1 microgram for an 80 kg person (see below) compared with
about 250 milligrams for hydrogen cyanide[32] ). The main hazard is its intense radioactivity
(as an alpha emitter), which makes it very difficult to handle safely: one gram of Po will
self-heat to a temperature of around 500 °C (932 °F).[3] Even in microgram amounts,
handling 210Po is extremely dangerous, requiring specialized equipment and strict handling
procedures. Alpha particles emitted by polonium will damage organic tissue easily if
polonium is ingested, inhaled, or absorbed, although they do not penetrate the epidermis
and hence are not hazardous if the polonium is outside the body.
Polonium 7
Acute effects
The median lethal dose (LD50) for acute radiation exposure is generally about 4.5 Sv.[33]
The committed effective dose equivalent 210Po is 0.51 µSv/Bq if ingested, and 2.5 µSv/Bq if
inhaled.[34] Since 210Po has an activity of 166 TBq (4486.5 Ci) per gram[34] (1 gram
produces 166×1012 decays per second), a fatal 4.5 Sv (J/kg) dose can be caused by
ingesting 8.8 MBq (238 microcuries, µCi), about 50 nanograms (ng), or inhaling 1.8 MBq
(48 µCi), about 10 ng. One gram of 210Po could thus in theory poison 20 million people of
whom 10 million would die. The actual toxicity of 210Po is lower than these estimates,
because radiation exposure that is spread out over several weeks (the biological half-life of
polonium in humans is 30 to 50 days[35] ) is somewhat less damaging than an instantaneous
dose. It has been estimated that a median lethal dose of 210Po is 0.015 GBq (0.4 mCi), or
0.089 micrograms, still an extremely small amount. [36] [37]
Long term (chronic) effects

In addition to the acute effects, radiation exposure (both internal and external) carries a
long-term risk of death from cancer of 5–10% per Sv.[33] The general population is exposed
to small amounts of polonium as a radon daughter in indoor air; the isotopes 214Po and
218
Po are thought to cause the majority[38] of the estimated 15,000-22,000 lung cancer
deaths in the US every year that have been attributed to indoor radon.[39] Tobacco smoking
causes additional exposure to polonium.[40]
Regulatory exposure limits

The maximum allowable body burden for ingested 210Po is only 1.1 kBq (30 nCi), which is
equivalent to a particle massing only 6.8 picograms. The maximum permissible workplace
concentration of airborne 210Po is about 10 Bq/m3 (3 × 10−10 µCi/cm³).[41] The target
organs for polonium in humans are the spleen and liver.[42] As the spleen (150 g) and the
liver (1.3 to 3 kg) are much smaller than the rest of the body, if the polonium is
concentrated in these vital organs, it is a greater threat to life than the dose which would
be suffered (on average) by the whole body if it were spread evenly throughout the body, in
the same way as caesium or tritium (as T2O).
210
Po is widely used in industry, and readily available with little regulation or restriction. In
the US, a tracking system run by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission will be implemented
in 2007 to register purchases of more than 16 curies (590 GBq) of polonium 210 (enough to
make up 5,000 lethal doses). The IAEA "is said to be considering tighter regulations... There
is talk that it might tighten the polonium reporting requirement by a factor of 10, to
1.6 curies (59 GBq)."[43]
Famous poisoning cases

Notably, the murder of Alexander Litvinenko, a Russian dissident, in 2006 was announced
as due to 210Po poisoning[44] [45] (see Alexander Litvinenko poisoning). According to Prof.
Nick Priest of Middlesex University, an environmental toxicologist and radiation expert,
speaking on Sky News on December 2, Litvinenko was probably the first person ever to die
of the acute α-radiation effects of 210Po.[46] The Polonium Restaurant (a Polish restaurant in
Sheffield, England, owned by Boguslaw Sidorowicz and named after his folk band in the
late 1970s) experienced increased interest and business as a result of internet searches for
the phrase polonium restaurant.[47] [48] [49]
Polonium 8
It has also been suggested that Irène Joliot-Curie was the first person ever to die from the
radiation effects of polonium (due to a single intake) in 1956.[50] She was accidentally
exposed to polonium in 1946 when a sealed capsule of the element exploded on her
laboratory bench. A decade later, on 17 March 1956, she died in Paris from leukemia which
may have been caused by that exposure.
According to the book The Bomb in the Basement, several death cases in Israel during
1957-1969 were caused by 210Po.[51] A leak was discovered at a Weizmann Institute
laboratory in 1957. Traces of 210Po were found on the hands of professor Dror Sadeh, a
physicist who researched radioactive materials. Medical tests indicated no harm, but the
tests did not include bone marrow. Sadeh died from cancer. One of his students died of
leukemia, and two colleagues died after a few years, both from cancer. The issue was
investigated secretly, and there was never any formal admission that a connection between
the leak and the deaths had existed.[52]
Treatment
It has been suggested that chelation agents such as British Anti-Lewisite (dimercaprol) can
be used to decontaminate humans.[53] In one experiment, rats were given a fatal dose of
1.45 MBq/kg (8.7 ng/kg) of 210Po; all untreated rats were dead after 44 days, but 90% of
the rats treated with the chelation agent HOEtTTC remained alive after 5 months.[54]
Commercial products containing polonium

No nuclear authority has asserted that a commercial product was a likely source for the
poisoning of Litvinenko. However, as Prof. Peter D. Zimmerman says, "Polonium 210 is
surprisingly common. ...Polonium sources with about 10 percent of a lethal dose are readily
available—even in a product sold on Amazon.com."[55]
Potentially lethal amounts of polonium are present in anti-static brushes sold to
photographers.[56] Many of the devices are available by mail order. General Electric
markets a static eliminator module with 500 µCi (20 MBq), roughly 2.5 times the lethal
dose of 210Po if 100%-ingested, for US$71;[57] Staticmaster sells replacement units with the
same amount (500 µCi) of 210Po for US$36.[58] In USA, the devices with no more than 500
µCi of (sealed) 210Po per unit can be bought in any amount under a "general license"[59]
which means that a buyer need not be registered by any authorities: the general license "is
effective without the filing of an application with the Commission or the issuance of a
licensing document to a particular person."
If these sources were used to collect the amount of polonium likely used in the
poisoning—and one could devise a method of separating the polonium from its protective
casing—it would take 10–100 modules for price of US$360 to US$7,100. That such a thing
could be done is extremely difficult according to the manufacturers and would be highly
dangerous to anyone attempting to do so without some special equipment like a glovebox.
Sometimes sources of polonium used in industry are stolen or lost. According to the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), there were registered at least 8 cases of loss of
control of potentially lethal polonium sources in the USA during 2006.
Tiny amounts of such radioisotopes are sometimes used in the laboratory and for teaching
purposes—typically of the order of 4–40 kBq (0.1–1.0 µCi), in the form of sealed sources,
with the polonium deposited on a substrate or in a resin or polymer matrix—are often
Polonium 9
exempt from licensing by the NRC and similar authorities as they are not considered
hazardous. Small amounts of 210Po are available to the public in the United States by mail
order from a company called United Nuclear as 'needle sources' for laboratory
experimentation. It would require about 15,000 of these 210Po sources, at a total cost of
about $1 million, to obtain a toxic quantity of polonium. They typically sell between four and
eight sources per year.[60] [61]
According to some estimates,[62] the cost of the quantity of pure polonium-210 used to kill
Litvinenko would be around £20 million (US$39 million).[63] However, this estimation is
based on retail prices of commercially available demonstration radiation sources with very
small activities and cannot be considered as reasonable.
Tobacco
[64] [65]
The presence of polonium in tobacco smoke has been known since the early 1960s.
Some of the world's biggest tobacco firms researched ways to remove the substance—to no
avail—over a 40-year period but never published the results.[22]
Radioactive polonium-210 contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the roots of
plants (such as tobacco) and stored in its tissues.[66] [67] [68] Tobacco plants fertilized by
rock phosphates contain polonium-210, which emits alpha radiation estimated to cause
about 11,700 lung cancer deaths annually worldwide.[22] [69] [70]
See also
• Decay chain
• Polonium halo
• Copernicium
External links
[71]
• Build a pocket-sized ion chamber, useful for detecting Polonium
pnb:‫مینولوپ‬
References
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[3] " Polonium (http:/ / www. ead. anl. gov/ pub/ doc/ polonium. pdf)". Argonne National Laboratory. . Retrieved
2009-05-05.
[4] Andrew Wilson (1987). Solar System Log. London: Jane's Publishing Company Ltd. p. 64.
[5] " Staticmaster Ionizing Brushes (http:/ / www. amstat. com/ solutions/ staticmaster. html)". AMSTAT
Industries. . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[6] " 210PO a decay (http:/ / atom. kaeri. re. kr/ cgi-bin/ decay?Po-210 A)". . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[7] Gary L. Miessler; Donald A. Tarr (2004). Inorganic Chemistry (3 ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson
Prentice Hall. pp. 285. ISBN 0-13-120198-0.
[8] " The beta Po (A_i) Structure (http:/ / cst-www. nrl. navy. mil/ lattice/ struk/ a_i. html)". . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[9] Desando, R. J.; Lange, R. C. (1966). "The structures of polonium and its compounds—I α and β polonium
metal". Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry 28: 1837. doi: 10.1016/0022-1902(66)80270-1 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0022-1902(66)80270-1).
[10] Beamer, W. H.; Maxwell, C. R. (1946). "The Crystal Structure of Polonium". Journal of Chemical Physics 14:
[11] Rollier, M. A.; Hendricks, S. B.; Maxwell, L. R. (1936). "The Crystal Structure of Polonium by Electron
Diffraction". Journal of Chemical Physics 4: 648. doi: 10.1063/1.1749762 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1.
Polonium 10
1749762).
[12] Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
[13] Bogdan Wąs, Ryszard Misiak, Mirosław Bartyzel, Barbara Petelenz (2006). " Thermochromatographic
Separation of 206,208Po from a Bismuth Target Bombardet with Protons (http:/ / www. ichtj. waw. pl/ ichtj/
nukleon/ back/ full/ vol51_2006/ v51s2p03f. pdf)". Nukleonica 51 (Suppl. 2): s3-s5. .
[14] Momoshima N., Song L.X., Osaki S.,Maeda Y., (2001). " Formation and emission of volatile polonium
compound by microbial activity and polonium methylation with methylcobalamin (http:/ / www. medscape. com/
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(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ es001730+ ). .
[15] Momoshima N., Song L.X., Osaki S.,Maeda Y., (2002). "Biologically induced Po emission from fresh water". J
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S0265-931X(02)00028-0).
[16] Curie P., Curie M. (1898). "Radiations from Compounds of Uranium and of Thorium". Comptes Rendus 126:
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[17] Pfützner M. (1999). " Borders of the Nuclear World --- 100 Years After Discovery of Polonium (http:/ / adsabs.
harvard. edu/ abs/ 1999AcPPB. . 30. 1197P)". Acta Physica Polonica B 30: 1197. .
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License
Astatine 1
Astatine
polonium ← astatine → radonI
↑
At
↓
Uus

85At
Periodic table
Appearance black solid (presumed) General Name, symbol, numberElement categoryGroup,

period, blockStandard atomic weightElectron configurationElectrons per shell Physical
properties PhaseMelting pointBoiling pointHeat of vaporizationVapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 361 392 429 475 531 607
Atomic properties Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energiesCovalent radius

Miscellaneous Magnetic orderingThermal conductivityCAS registry number Most stable
isotopes Main article: Isotopes of astatine
210 syn 8.1 h 3.981

ε, β+ 210
At Po
α 5.631 206
Bi
211 syn 7.2 h

At
astatine, At, 85 halogens17, 6, p(210) g·mol−1 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p5 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7
(Image) solid 575 K,302 °C,576 °F 610 K,337 °C,639 °F 40 kJ·mol−1 ±1, 3, 5, 7 2.2 (Pauling
scale) 1st: 890±40 kJ·mol−1 150 pm no data (300 K) 1.7 W·m−1·K−1 7440-68-8
Astatine 2
Astatine (pronounced /ˈæstətiːn/ or /ˈæstətɨn/) is a radioactive chemical element with the

symbol At and atomic number 85. It is the heaviest of the discovered halogens. Although
astatine is produced by radioactive decay in nature, due to its short half life it is found only
in minute amounts. Astatine was first produced by Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross
MacKenzie, and Emilio Segrè in 1940. Three years passed before traces of astatine were
also found in natural minerals. Until recently most of the physical and chemical
characteristics of astatine were inferred from comparison with other elements. Some
astatine isotopes are used as alpha-particle emitters in science applications, and medical
applications for astatine 211 have been tested. Astatine is currently the rarest
naturally-occurring element, with less than an ounce contained in the entire Earth's
crust.[1]
Characteristics
This highly radioactive element has been confirmed by mass spectrometers to behave
chemically much like other halogens, especially iodine (it would probably accumulate in the
thyroid gland like iodine), though astatine is thought to be more metallic than iodine.
Researchers at the Brookhaven National Laboratory have performed experiments that have
identified and measured elementary reactions that involve astatine;[2] however, chemical
research into astatine is limited by its extreme rarity, which is a consequence of its
extremely short half-life. Its most stable isotope has a half-life of around 8.3 hours. The final
products of the decay of astatine are isotopes of lead. The halogens get darker in color with
increasing molecular weight and atomic number. Thus, following the trend, astatine would
be expected to be a nearly black solid, which, when heated, sublimes into a dark, purplish
vapor (darker than iodine). Astatine is expected to form ionic bonds with metals such as
sodium, like the other halogens, but it can be displaced from the salts by lighter, more
reactive halogens. Astatine can also react with hydrogen to form hydrogen astatide, which
when dissolved in water, forms the exceptionally strong hydroastatic acid. Astatine is the
least reactive of the halogens, being less reactive than iodine.[3]
History
The existence of "eka-iodine" had been predicted by Mendeleev. Astatine (after Greek
αστατος astatos, meaning "unstable") was first synthesized in 1940 by Dale R. Corson,
Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio Segrè at the University of California, Berkeley by
bombarding bismuth with alpha particles.[4]
As the periodic table of elements was long known, several scientists tried to find the
element following iodine in the halogen group. The unknown substance was called
Eka-iodine before its discovery because the name of the element was to be suggested by the
discoverer. The claimed discovery in 1931 at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute (now
Auburn University) by Fred Allison and associates, led to the spurious name for the element
as alabamine (Ab) for a few years.[5] [6] [7] This discovery was later shown to be an
erroneous one.
The name Dakin was proposed for this element in 1937 by the chemist Rajendralal De
working in Dhaka, Bangladesh.[8]
The name Helvetium was chosen by the Swiss chemist Walter Minder, when he announced
the discovery of element 85 in 1940, but changed his suggested name to Anglohelvetium in
1942.[9]
Astatine 3
It took three years before astatine was found as product of the natural decay processes. The
short-lived element was found by the two scientists Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert.[10] [11]
Occurrence
Astatine occurs naturally in three natural radioactive decay series, but because of its short
half-life is found only in minute amounts. Astatine-218 (218At) is found in the uranium
series, 216At is in the thorium series, and 215At as well as 219At are in the actinium series[12]
. The most long-lived of these naturally-occurring astatine isotopes is 219At with a half-life
of 56 seconds.
Astatine is the rarest naturally-occurring element, with the total amount in Earth's crust
estimated to be less than 1 oz (28 g) at any given time. This amounts to less than one
teaspoon of the element. Guinness World Records has dubbed the element the rarest on
Earth, stating: "Only around 0.9 oz (25 g) of the element astatine (At) occurring naturally".
Isaac Asimov, in a 1957 essay on large numbers, scientific notation, and the size of the
atom, wrote that in "all of North and South America to a depth of ten miles", the number of
astatine atoms at any time is "only a trillion".[13]
Production
for alpha particles of 26 MeV[14]
for alpha particles of 40 MeV[14]
for alpha particles of 60 MeV.[15]
Astatine is produced by bombarding bismuth with energetic alpha particles to obtain
relatively long-lived 209At - 211At, which can then be distilled from the target by heating in
the presence of air.
Compounds
Multiple compounds of astatine have been synthesized in microscopic amounts and studied
as intensively as possible before their inevitable radioactive disintegration. The reactions
are normally tested with dilute solutions of astatine mixed with larger amounts of iodine.
The iodine acts as a carrier, ensuring that there is sufficient material for laboratory
techniques such as filtration and precipitation to work.[14] [16]
While these compounds are primarily of theoretical interest, they are being studied for
potential use in nuclear medicine.[17] Astatine is expected to form ionic bonds with metals
such as sodium, like the other halogens, but it can be displaced from the salts by lighter,
more reactive halogens. Astatine can also react with hydrogen to form hydrogen astatide
(HAt), which when dissolved in water, forms hydroastatic acid.
Some examples of astatic compounds are:
NaAt or sodium astatide
MgAt2 or magnesium astatide
CAt4 or carbon tetrastatide (tetraastatide)
Astatine 4
Isotopes
Astatine has 33 known isotopes, all of which are radioactive; the range of their mass
numbers is from 191 to 223. There exist also 23 metastable excited states. The longest-lived
isotope is 210At, which has a half-life of 8.1 hours; the shortest-lived known isotope is 213At,
which has a half-life of 125 nanoseconds.[18]
Applications
The least stable isotopes of astatine have no practical applications other than scientific
study due to their extremely short life, but heavier isotopes have medical uses. Astatine 211
is an alpha emitter with a physical half-life of 7.2 h. These features have led to its use in
radiation therapy.[19] An investigation of the efficacy of astatine-211—tellurium colloid for
the treatment of experimental malignant ascites in mice reveals that this alpha-emitting
radiocolloid can be curative without causing undue toxicity to normal tissue. By
comparison, beta-emitting phosphorus-32 as colloidal chromic phosphate had no
antineoplastic activity. The most compelling explanation for this striking difference is the
dense ionization and short range of action associated with alpha-emission. These results
have important implications for the development and use of alpha-emitters as radiocolloid
therapy for the treatment of human tumors.[20]
Precautions
Since astatine is extremely radioactive, it should be handled with extreme care. Because of
its extreme rarity, it is not likely that the general public will be exposed.
Astatine is a halogen, and standard precautions apply. It is reactive, sharing similar
chemical characteristics with iodine.
There are toxicologic studies of astatine-211 on mice indicating that radioactive poisoning
is the major effect on living organisms. [21]
External links
• WebElements.com - Astatine [22]
[23]
• Doc Brown's Chemistry Clinic - Group 7 The Halogens
pnb:‫نیٹاٹسیا‬
References
[1] Close, Frank. Particle Physics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press: New York, 2004. Page 2.
0849304857.
[3] Anders, E. (1959). "Technetium and Astatine Chemistry". Annual Review of Nuclear Science 9: 203–220. doi:
10.1146/annurev.ns.09.120159.001223 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1146/ annurev. ns. 09. 120159. 001223).
[4] D. R. Corson, K. R. MacKenzie, and E. Segrè (1940). "Artificially Radioactive Element 85". Phys. Rev. 58:
[5] Fred Allison, Edgar J. Murphy, Edna R. Bishop, and Anna L. Sommer (1931). "Evidence of the Detection of
Element 85 in Certain Substances". Phys. Rev. 37: 1178–1180. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.37.1178 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 37. 1178).
[6] " Alabamine & Virginium (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,743159,00. html)". time. .
[7] Trimble, R. F. (1975). "What happened to alabamine, virginium, and illinium?". J. Chem. Educ. 52: 585.
[8] 85 Astatine (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ elem/ at. html)
Astatine 5
[9] Alice Leigh-Smith, Walter Minder (1942). "Experimental Evidence of the Existence of Element 85 in the
Thorium Family". Nature 150: 767–768. doi: 10.1038/150767a0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ 150767a0).
[10] Karlik, Berta; Bernert Traude (1943). "Eine neue natürliche α-Strahlung". Naturwissenschaften 31 (25–26):
[11] Karlik, Berta; Bernert Traude (1943). "Das Element 85 in den natürlichen Zerfallsreihen". Zeitschrift für
Physik 123 (1–2): 51–72. doi: 10.1007/BF01375144 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF01375144).
[12] " astatine (At) (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9009963/ astatine)". Encyclopedia Britannica online.
. Retrieved 2008-06-22.
[13] http:/ / ia331335. us. archive. org/ 1/ items/ onlyatrillion017765mbp/ onlyatrillion017765mbp_djvu. txt
[14] Nefedov, V. D. (1968). "Astatine". Russ. Chem. Rev. 37: 87–98. doi: 10.1070/RC1968v037n02ABEH001603
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1070/ RC1968v037n02ABEH001603).
[15] Barton, G. W.; Ghiorso, A.; Perlman, I. (1951). "Radioactivity of Astatine Isotopes". Physical Reviews 82 (1):
[16] Aten Jun., A. H. W.; Doorgeest, T.; Hollstein U.; Moeken H. P. (1952). "Section 5: radiochemical methods.
Analytical chemistry of astatine". Analyst 77: 774–777. doi: 10.1039/AN9527700774 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1039/ AN9527700774).
[17] Boyd, Jade (1007-08-27). " Nuclear Nanocapsules, The New Cancer Weapon (http:/ / www. medicalnewstoday.
com/ articles/ 80581. php)". Medical News Today. . Retrieved 2008-11-05.
nuclphysa. 2003. 11. 001).
[19] Wilbur, D. S. (01 Oct 2001). " Overcoming the Obstacles to Clinical Evaluation of 211At-Labeled
Radiopharmaceuticals. (http:/ / jnm. snmjournals. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 42/ 10/ 1516)". Journal Nuclear Medicine 42
(10): 1516–1518. .
[20] Bloomer, W. D.; McLaughlin, W. H.; Neirinckx, R. D.; Adelstein, S. J.; Gordon, P. R.; Ruth, T. J.; Wolf, AP
(1981). " Astatine-211--tellurium radiocolloid cures experimental malignant ascites (http:/ / www. sciencemag.
org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 212/ 4492/ 340)". Science 212 (4492): 340–341. doi: 10.1126/science.7209534
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1126/ science. 7209534). PMID 7209534. .
[21] Cobb, L.M. (1988). "Toxicity of Astatine-211 in the Mouse". Human & Experimental Toxicology 7: 529. doi:
10.1177/096032718800700602 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 096032718800700602).
[22] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ At/ index. html
[23] http:/ / www. docbrown. info/ page03/ The_Halogens. htm

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file:Electron shell 085 Astatine.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Electron_shell_085_Astatine.svg License: Creative
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Radon 1
Radon
astatine ← radon → franciumXe
↑
Rn
↓
Uuo

86Rn
Periodic table
Appearance colorless General Name, symbol, numberElement categoryGroup, period,

PhaseMelting pointBoiling pointCritical pointHeat of fusionHeat of vaporizationSpecific
heat capacityVapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 110 121 134 152 176 211
Atomic properties Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energiesCovalent radius

Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingThermal conductivityCAS registry
number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of radon
210 syn 2.4 h Alpha 6.404 216

Rn Po
211 syn 14.6 h Epsilon 2.892 211

Rn At
Alpha 5.965 207

Po
222 trace 3.8235 d Alpha 5.590 218

Rn Po
224 syn 1.8 h Beta 0.8 224

Rn Fr
Radon 2
radon, Rn, 86 noble gases 18, 6, p(222) g·mol−1 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8
(Image) gas 202 K,−71.15 °C,−96 °F 211.3 K,−61.85 °C,−79.1 °F 377 K, 6.28 MPa 3.247
kJ·mol−1 18.10 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 20.786 J·mol−1·K−1 2 2.2 (Pauling scale) 1st: 1037 kJ·mol−1
150 pm face-centered cubic non-magnetic (300 K) 3.61 m W·m−1·K−1 10043-92-2
Radon (pronounced /ˈreɪdɒn/) is a chemical element with symbol Rn and atomic number
86. Radon is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that
is formed from the decay of radium. It is one of the heaviest substances that remains a gas
under normal conditions and is considered to be a health hazard. The most stable isotope,
222
Rn, has a half-life of 3.8 days. While having been less studied by chemists due to its high
radioactivity, there are a few known compounds of this generally unreactive element.
Radon is formed from the normal radioactive decay of uranium. Uranium has been around
since the earth was formed and its most common isotope has a very long half-life (4.5 billion
years), which is the amount of time required for one-half of uranium to break down.
Uranium, radium, and thus radon, will continue to exist indefinitely at about the same levels
as they do now.[1]
Radon is responsible for the majority of the mean public exposure to ionizing radiations. It
is often the single largest contributor to an individual's background radiation dose, and is
certainly the most variable from location to location. Radon gas from natural sources can
accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as basements. Radon can be
found in some spring waters and hot springs.[2]
Breathing high concentrations of radon can cause lung cancer. Thus, radon is considered a
significant contaminant that affects indoor air quality worldwide. According to the United
States Environmental Protection Agency, radon could be the second most frequent cause of
lung cancer, after cigarette smoking; and radon-induced lung cancer the 6th leading cause
of cancer death overall, causing 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States.[3]
Radon 3

Discovered in 1900 by Friedrich Ernst Dorn, radon was the fifth
radioactive element to be discovered, after uranium, thorium,
radium and polonium.[4] [5] [6] In 1900 Dorn reported some
experiments in which he noticed that radium compounds
emanate a radioactive gas which he named Radium Emanation
(Ra Em).[7] Before that, in 1899, Pierre and Marie Curie
observed that the "gas" emitted by radium remained
radioactive for a month.[8] Later that year, Robert B. Owens and
Ernest Rutherford noticed variations when trying to measure
radiation from thorium oxide.[9] Rutherford noticed that the
compounds of thorium continuously emit a radioactive gas
which retain the radioactive powers for several minutes and
called this gas "emanation" (from Latin "emanare"—to elapse
and "emanatio"—expiration),[10] and later Thorium Emanation
(Th Em). In 1901, he demonstrated that the emanations are
radioactive, but credited the Curies for the discovery of the
element.[11] In 1903, similar emanations were observed from
actinium by André-Louis Debierne[12] [13] and were called
Actinium Emanation (Ac Em).
Several names were suggested for these three gases: exradio,

Apparatus used by Ramsay exthorio, and exactinio in 1904;[14] radon, thoron, and akton in
and Whytlaw-Gray to isolate 1918;[15] radeon, thoreon, and actineon in 1919,[16] and
radon. M is a capillary tube
eventually radon, thoron, and actinon in 1920.[17] The likeness
where approximately 0.1
mm3 were isolated. Rn mixed of the spectra of these three gases with those of argon, krypton,
with H2 entered the and xenon, and their observed chemical inertia led Sir William
evacuated system through Ramsay to suggest in 1904 that the "emanations" might contain
siphon A; mercury is shown
a new element of the noble gas family.[14]
in black.
In 1910, Sir William Ramsay and Robert Whytlaw-Gray isolated
radon, determined its density, and determined that it was the heaviest known gas.[18] They
wrote that "L'expression de l'émanation du radium est fort incommode," (the expression of
radium emanation is very awkward) and suggested the new name niton (Nt) (from the Latin
"nitens" meaning "shining") in order to emphasize the property of gases that cause the
phosphorescence of some substances,[18] and in 1912 it was accepted by the International
Commission for Atomic Weights. In 1923, the International Committee for Chemical
Elements and International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) chose among the
names radon (Rn), thoron (Tn), and actinon (An). Later, when isotopes were numbered
instead of named, the element took the name of the most stable isotope, radon, while Tn
became 220Rn and An 219Rn. As late as the 1960s, the element was also referred to simply
as emanation.[19] The first synthesized compound of radon, radon fluoride, was obtained in
1962.[20]
The danger of high exposure to radon in mines, where exposures reaching 1,000,000 Bq/m3
can be found, has long been known. In 1530, Paracelsus described a wasting disease of
miners, the mala metallorum, and Georg Agricola recommended ventilation in mines to
avoid this mountain sickness (Bergsucht).[21] [22] In 1879, this condition was identified as
Radon 4
lung cancer by Herting and Hesse in their investigation of miners from Schneeberg,
Germany. The first major studies with radon and health occurred in the context of uranium
mining, first in the Joachimsthal region of Bohemia and then in the Southwestern United
States during the early Cold War.
Characteristics
Physical form
Radon is a colorless and odorless gas, and therefore not readily detectable by human
senses alone. At standard temperature and pressure, radon forms a monatomic gas with a
density of 9.73 kg/m3,[23] about 8 times the surface density of the Earth's atmosphere,
1.217 kg/m3,[24] and is one of the heaviest gases at room temperature and the heaviest of
the noble gases, excluding ununoctium. At standard temperature and pressure, radon is a
colorless gas, but when it is cooled below its freezing point of 202 K (−71 °C; −96 °F), it
has a brilliant phosphorescence which turns yellow as the temperature is lowered, and
becomes orange-red as the air liquefies at temperatures below 93 K (−180.1 °C;
−292.3 °F).[25] Upon condensation, radon also glows because of the intense radiation it
produces.[26]
Because it is radioactive and is a relatively unreactive chemical element, radon has few
uses and is seldom used in academic research.
Isotopes
Radon has no stable isotopes. There are 36 radioactive isotopes that have been
characterized which range from an atomic mass of 193 to 228.[27] The most stable isotope
is 222Rn, which is a decay product of 226Ra. It has a half-life of 3.823 days and decomposes
by alpha particle emission into 218Po.[27] Among the decay daughters of this decay chain is
also the highly unstable isotope 218Rn. The naturally occurring 226Ra is a product of the
decay chain of 238U.[28] (The Wikipedia article on decay chain of 238U lists all the decay
products of 222Rn.)
There are three other isotopes that have a half life of over an hour: 211Rn, 210Rn and 224Rn.
The 220Rn isotope is a natural decay product of the most stable thorium isotope (232Th),
named thoron. It has a half-life of 55.6 seconds and also emits alpha radiation. Similarly,
219
Rn is derived from the most stable isotope of actinium (227Ac)—named “actinon”—and is
an alpha emitter with a half-life of 3.96 seconds.[27] No radon isotopes are part of the other
major decay series, that of neptunium (237Np).
Radon 5
Chemistry
Radon is a member of the zero-valence elements that
are called noble or inert gases. It is inert to most
common chemical reactions, such as combustion,
because the outer valence shell contains eight
electrons. This produces a stable, minimum energy
configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly
bound.[29] For example, energy of more than 248
kcal/mol is required to extract one electron from its
shells (also known as the first ionization energy).[30]
However, due to periodic trends, radon has a lower
electronegativity than the element one period before it,
xenon, and is therefore more reactive. Radon is
sparingly soluble in water, but more soluble than An electron shell diagram for radon.
lighter noble gases. Radon is appreciably more soluble Note the eight electrons in the outer
shell.
in organic liquids than in water. Early studies
concluded that the stability of radon hydrate should be
of the same order as that of the hydrates of chlorine (Cl2) or sulfur dioxide (SO2), and
significantly higher than the stability of the hydrate of hydrogen sulfide (H2S).[31]
Because of its price and radioactivity, experimental chemical research is seldom performed
with radon, and as a result there are very few reported compounds of radon, all either
fluorides or oxides. Radon can be oxidized by a few powerful oxidizing agents such as F2,
thus forming radon fluoride.[32] [33] It decomposes back to elements at a temperature of
above 250 °C. It has a low volatility and was thought to be RnF2. But because of the short
half-life of radon and the radioactivity of its compounds, it has not been possible to study
the compound in any detail. However, theoretical studies on this molecule have predicted
that it should have a Rn-F bond distance of 2.08 Ǻ, and that the compound is
thermodynamically more stable and less volatile than its lighter counterpart XeF2.[34] The
octahedral molecule RnF6 was predicted to have an even lower enthalpy of formation than
the difluoride.[35] The [RnF]+ is believed to form by the reaction:[36]
Rn (g) + 2 [O2]+[SbF6]− (s) → [RnF]+[Sb2F11]− (s) + 2 O2 (g)
Radon oxides are among the few other reported compounds of radon.[37] The radon
carbonyl RnCO has been predicted to be stable and to have a linear geometry.[38] The
molecules Rn2 and RnXe were found to be significantly stabilized by spin-orbit coupling.[39]
Radon caged inside a fullerene has been proposed as a drug for tumors.[40]
Radon 6
Equilibrium factor with radon progenies

222
Rn belongs to the Radium and Uranium-238 decay chain. It decays with a half-life of
3.8235 days. Its four first progenies (excluding marginal decay schemes) are very
short-lived, meaning that the corresponding disintegrations are correlated to the initial
radon distribution :
218
• Po, 3.10 minutes, alpha decay.
214
• Pb, 26.8 min, beta decay.
214
• Bi, 19.9 min, beta decay.
214
• Po, 0.1643 ms, alpha decay.
214 210
At the next step, Po decays to Pb, which has a much longer half-life of 22.3 years.
[41]
The radon equilibrium factor is the ratio between the activity of all short-period radon
progenies (which are responsible of most of the biological effect), and the activity that
would be at equilibrium with the radon parent. The equilibrium factor is 1 when both
activities are equal, meaning that the decay products have stayed close to the radon parent,
long enough for the equilibrium to be reached (a couple of hours).
If a closed volume is constantly supplied with radon, the concentration of short-lived
daughters will increase until an equilibrium is reached where the rate of decay of each
daughter will equal that of the radon itself. Under these conditions each pCi/l of radon will
give rise to (almost precisely) 0.01 WL (see explanation of WL below). Ordinarily these
conditions do not hold: in homes, the equilibrium fraction is typically 40%; that is, there will
be 0.004 WL of progeny for each pCi/l of radon in air.[42]
Progenies adhere to objects or dust particles (because of their electrostatic charge),
whereas gaseous radon does not, so that the equilibrium factor in the atmosphere is usually
less than one. The equilibrium factor is lowered by air circulation or air filtration devices. It
is increased by air borne dust particles (such as cigarette smoke). The equilibrium factor
retained in epidemiological studies is 0.4.[43]
210
Pb has a half-life of 22.3 years. Its progenies are:
210
• Bi, 5.013 days, beta decay.
210
• Po, 138.376 days, alpha decay.
206
• Pb, stable.
Radon 7
Occurrence
Concentration units
All discussions of radon
concentrations in the environment
refer to 222Rn. While the average
rate of production of 220Rn (from
the thorium decay series) is about
the same as 222Rn, the amount of
220
Rn entering the environment is
much less than that of 222Rn
because of the short half-life of
220
Rn (1 minute versus 4 days).[1]
Radon concentrations found in

natural environments are much 210
Pb is formed from the decay of 222Rn. Here is a typical
too low to be detected by chemical deposition rate of 210Pb as observed in Japan as a function of
[44]
means. A 1000 Bq/m3 (relatively time, due to variations in radon concentration.
high) concentration corresponds to

0.17 pico-gram per cubic meter. The average concentration of radon in the atmosphere is
about 6 × 10-20 atoms of radon for each molecule in the air, or about 150 atoms in each ml
of air.[45] All the radon activity of the Earth atmosphere is due to some tens of grams of
radon.[46]
Radon concentration is usually measured in the atmosphere, in becquerel per cubic meter
(Bq/m3), the SI derived unit. Typical domestic exposures are of ≈ 100 Bq/m3 indoors, and
10-20 Bq/m3 outdoors.
It is often measured in pico-curie per liter (pCi/l) in the USA, with 1 pCi/l=37 Bq/m3 (or 5
pCi/l ≈ 200 Bq/m3).[42]
In the mining industry, the exposition is traditionally measured in working level (WL), and
the cumulative exposition in working level month (WLM) : 1 WL equals any combination of
short-lived 222Rn progeny (218Po, 214Pb, 214Bi, and 214Po) in 1 liter of air that releases 1.3 x
105 MeV of potential alpha energy;[42] one WL is equivalent to 2.08 x 10^5 joules per cubic
meter of air (J/m3).[1] The SI unit of cumulative exposure is expressed in joule-hours per
cubic meter (J·h/m3). One WLM is equivalent to 3.6 x 10−3 J·h/m3. An exposure to 1 WL for
1 working month (170 hours) equals 1 WLM cumulative exposure.
A cumulative exposition of 1 WLM is roughly equivalent to living one year in an atmosphere
with a radon concentration of 230 Bq/m3.[47]
The radon (222Rn) released into the air decays to 210Pb and other radioisotopes, the levels
of 210Pb can be measured. The rate of deposition of this radioisotope is dependent on the
weather.
Radon 8
Natural
Radon is a decay product of uranium, which is
relatively common in the Earth's crust, but generally
concentrated in ore-bearing rocks scattered around
the world. Every square mile of surface soil, to a
depth of 6 inches (2.6 km2 to a depth of 15 cm),
contains approximately 1 gram of radium, which
releases radon in small amounts to the
[1]
atmosphere On a global scale, it is estimated that
2,400 million curies of radon are released from soil
annually.
Radon concentration varies wildly from place to

place. In the open air, it ranges from 1 to 100
Bq/m3, even less (0.1 Bq/m3) above the ocean. In
Radon concentration next to a uranium
caves or aerated mines, or ill-aerated houses, its
mine
concentration climbs to 20-2,000 Bq/m3.[48] Radon
concentration can be much higher in mining
contexts. Due to ventilation regulation, typical radon concentration in uranium mines is
usually maintained under the "working level", with 95th percentile levels ranging up to
nearly 3 WL (546 pCi 222Rn per liter of air; 20,202 Bq/m3, measured from 1976 to 1985).[1]
The concentration in the air at the (unventilated) Gastein Healing Gallery averages 43
kBq/m3 (about 1.2 nCi/l) with maximal value of 160 kBq/m3 (about 4.3 nCi/l).[49]
Radon mostly appears with the decay chain of the radium and uranium series (222Rn), and
marginally with the thorium series (220Rn). The element emanates naturally from the
ground all over the world, wherever traces of uranium or thorium can be found, and
particularly in regions with soils containing granite or shale, which have a higher
concentration of uranium. However, not all granitic regions are prone to high emissions of
radon. Being a rare gas, it usually migrates freely through faults and fragmented soils, and
222
may accumulate in caves or water. Due to its very small half-life (four days for Rn), its
concentration decreases very quickly when the distance from the production area
increases. Its concentration varies greatly with season and atmospheric conditions. For
instance, it has been shown to accumulate in the air if there is a meteorological inversion
and little wind.[50]
High concentrations of radon can be found in some spring waters and hot springs.[51] The
towns of Boulder, Montana; Misasa; Bad Kreuznach, Germany; and the country of Japan
have radium-rich springs which emit radon. To be classified as a radon mineral water,
radon concentration must be above a minimum of 2 nCi/l (74 Bq/l).[52] The activity of radon
mineral water reaches 2,000 Bq/l in Merano and 4,000 Bq/l in Lurisia (Italy).[49]
Natural radon concentrations in Earth's atmosphere are so low that radon-rich water in
contact with the atmosphere will continually lose radon by volatilization. Hence, ground
water has a higher concentration of 222Rn than surface water, because the radon is
continuously produced by radioactive decay of 226Ra present in rocks. Likewise, the
saturated zone of a soil frequently has a higher radon content than the unsaturated zone
because of diffusional losses to the atmosphere.[53] [54]
Radon 9
In 1971, Apollo 15 passed 110 km (68 mi) above the Aristarchus plateau on the Moon, and
detected a significant rise in alpha particles thought to be caused by the decay of 222Rn.
The presence of 222Rn has been inferred later from data obtained from the Lunar
Prospector alpha particle spectrometer.[55]
Radon is found in some petroleum. Because radon has a similar pressure and temperature
curve as propane, and oil refineries separate petrochemicals based on their boiling points,
the piping carrying freshly separated propane in oil refineries can become partially
radioactive due to radon decay particles. Residues from the oil and gas industry often
contain radium and its daughters. The sulfate scale from an oil well can be radium rich,
while the water, oil, and gas from a well often contains radon. The radon decays to form
solid radioisotopes which form coatings on the inside of pipework. An oil processing plant,
the area of the plant where propane is processed, is often one of the more contaminated
areas of the plant as radon has a similar boiling point as propane.[56]
Accumulation in houses
Typical domestic exposures are of ≈ 100 Bq/m3 indoors.
Depending on how houses are built and ventilated,
radon may accumulate in basements and dwellings.
Radon concentrations in the same location may differ
by a factor of two over a period of 1 hour. Also, the
concentration in one room of a building may be
significantly different than the concentration in an
adjoining room.[1]
Typical Lognormal radon distribution
The distribution of radon concentrations tends to be in dwellings.
asymmetrical around the average, the larger

concentrations have a disproportionately greater weight. Indoor radon concentration is
usually assumed to follow a lognormal distribution on a given territory.[57] Thus, the
geometric mean is generally used for estimating the "average" radon concentration in an
area.[58] The mean concentration ranges from less than 10 Bq/m3 to over 100 Bq/m3 in
some European countries.[59] Typical geometric standard deviations found in studies range
between 2 and 3, meaning (given the 68-95-99.7 rule) that the radon concentration is
expected to be more than a hundred time the mean concentration for 2 to 3% of the cases.
The highest average radon concentrations in the United States are found in Iowa and in the
Appalachian Mountain areas in southeastern Pennsylvania.[60] Some of the highest readings
ever have been recorded in the Irish town of Mallow, County Cork, prompting local fears
regarding lung cancer. Iowa has the highest average radon concentrations in the United
States due to significant glaciation that ground the granitic rocks from the Canadian Shield
and deposited it as soils making up the rich Iowa farmland.[61] Many cities within the state,
such as Iowa City, have passed requirements for radon-resistant construction in new
homes. In a few locations, uranium tailings have been used for landfills and were
subsequently built on, resulting in possible increased exposure to radon.[1]
Radon 10
Radon is obtained as a by-product of uraniferous ores processing after transferring into 1%
solutions of hydrochloric or hydrobromic acids. The gas mixture extracted from the
solutions contains H2, O2, He, Rn, CO2, H2O and hydrocarbons. The mixture is purified by
passing it over copper at 720 °C to remove the H2 and the O2, and then KOH and P2O5 are
used to remove the acids and moisture by sorption. Radon is condensed by liquid nitrogen
and purified from residue gases by sublimation.[62]
Radon commercialization is regulated, but it is available in small quantities for the
calibration of 222Rn measurement systems, at a price of almost $6,000 per milliliter of
radium solution (which only contains about 15 picograms of actual radon at a given
moment).[63] Radon is produced by a solution of radium-226 (half-life of 1 600 years).
Radium-226 decays by alpha-particle emission, producing Radon which collects over
3
samples of radium-226 at a rate of about 1 mm /day per gram of radium; equilibrium is
quickly achieved and the radon is produced in a steady flow, with an activity equals that of
the radium (50 Bq). Gaseous 222Rn (half-life of ~ four days) escapes from the capsule
through diffusion.
Concentration scale
Occurrence example
Bq/m3
1 Radon concentration at the shores of large oceans is typically 1 Bq/m3. Radon trace concentration
above oceans or in Antarctica can be lower than 0.1 Bq/m3.
10 Mean continental concentration in the open air : 10 to 30 Bq/m3. Based on a series of surveys, the
global mean indoor radon concentration is estimated to be 39 Bq/m3.
100 Typical indoor domestic exposure. Most countries have adopted a radon concentration of 200–400
Bq/m3 for indoor air as an Action or Reference Level. If testing shows levels less than 4 picocuries
radon per liter of air (160 Bq/m3), then no action is necessary. A cumulated exposure of 230 Bq/m3
of radon gas concentration during a period of 1 year corresponds to 1 WLM.
1,000 Very high radon concentrations (>1000 Bq/m3) have been found in countries where houses are
built on soils with a high uranium content and/or high permeability of the ground. For levels are
20 picocuries radon per liter of air (800 Bq/m3) or higher, the home owner should consider some
type of procedure to decrease indoor radon levels.
10,000 The "Working Level" in uranium mines corresponds to a 7000 Bq/m3 concentration. The
concentration in the air at the (unventilated) Gastein Healing Gallery averages 43 kBq/m3 (about
[49]
1.2 nCi/l) with maximal value of 160 kBq/m3 (about 4.3 nCi/l).
100,000 About 100,000 Bq/m3 (2,700 pCi/l) was found in Stanley Watras's basement
1,000,000 Expositions reaching 1,000,000 Bq/m3 can be found in unventilated uranium mines.
Radon 11
Applications
Medical
Arthritis
It has been said that exposure to radon mitigates auto-immune diseases such as
arthritis.[64] As a result, in the late 20th century and early 21st century, some "health
mines" were established in Basin, Montana which attracted people seeking relief from
health problems such as arthritis through limited exposure to radioactive mine water and
radon. The practice is controversial because of the "well-documented ill effects of high-dose
radiation on the body."[65] Radon has nevertheless been found to induce beneficial
long-term effects.[66]
Bathing
Radioactive water baths have been applied since 1906 in Jáchymov, Czech Republic, but
even before radon discovery they were used in Bad Gastein, Austria. Radium-rich springs
are also used in traditional Japanese onsen in Misasa, Tottori prefecture. Drinking therapy
is applied in Bad Brambach, Germany. Inhalation therapy is carried out in
Gasteiner-Heilstollen, Austria, in Kowary, Poland and in Boulder, Montana, United States.
In the United States and Europe there are several "radon spas," where people sit for
minutes or hours in a high-radon atmosphere in the belief that low doses of radiation will
invigorate or energize them.[67]
Medical Radiography
The radon gas which is used as a cancer treatment in medicine is obtained from the decay
of a radium chloride source. In the past, radium and radon have both been used for X-ray
medical radiography, but they have fallen out of use as they are radiotoxic alpha radiation
emitters which are expensive and have been replaced with iridium-192 and cobalt-60 since
they are far better photon sources.
Radiotherapy
Radon has been produced commercially for use in radiation therapy, but for the most part
has been replaced by radionuclides made in accelerators and nuclear reactors. Radon has
been used in implantable seeds, made of gold or glass, primarily used to treat cancers. The
gold seeds were produced by filling a long tube with radon pumped from a radium source,
the tube being then divided into short sections by crimping and cutting. The gold layer
keeps the radon within, and filters out the alpha and beta radiations, while allowing the
gamma rays to escape (which kill the diseased tissue). The activities might range from 0.05
to 5 millicuries per seed (2 to 200 MBq).[68] The gamma rays are produced by radon and the
first short-lived elements of its decay chain (218Po, 214Pb, 214Bi, 214Po).
Radon and its first decay products being very short-lived, the seed is left in place. After 12
half-lives (43 days), radon radioactivity is at 1/2000 of its original level. At this stage, the
predominant residual activity is due to the radon decay product 210Pb, whose half-life (22.3
year) is 2000 times that or radon (and whose activity is thus 1/2000 or radon's), and its
descendants 210Bi and 210Po, totalizing 0.03% of the initial seed activity.
In the early part of the 20th century in the USA, gold which was contaminated with 210Pb
entered the jewelry industry. This was from gold seeds which had held 222Rn that had been
Radon 12
melted down after the radon had decayed.[69] [70] Wearing a contaminated ring could lead
to a skin exposition of 10 to 100 rad/day (0.4 to 4 mSv/h)[71]
Scientific
Tracking of air masses
Radon emanation from the soil varies with soil type and
with surface uranium content, so outdoor radon
concentrations can be used to track air masses to a
limited degree. This fact has been put to use by some
atmospheric scientists. Because of radon's rapid loss to
air and comparatively rapid decay, radon is used in
hydrologic research that studies the interaction
between ground water and streams. Any significant Mean concentration of radon in the
concentration of radon in a stream is a good indicator atmosphere.
that there are local inputs of ground water. Radon is
also used in the dating of oil-containing soils because radon has a high affinity for oil-like
substances.
Geological faults
Radon soil-concentration has been used in an experimental way to map buried
close-subsurface geological faults because concentrations are generally higher over the
faults. Similarly, it has found some limited use in geothermal prospecting. Some
researchers have also looked at elevated soil-gas radon concentrations, or rapid changes in
soil or groundwater radon concentrations, for earthquake prediction.[72] The theory is that
compression around a fault about to rupture could produce radon emission, as if the ground
were being squeezed like a sponge. In the 1970s and 1980s, scientific measurements of
radon emissions near faults found that earthquakes often occurred with no radon signal,
and radon was often detected with no earthquake to follow. It was then dismissed by many
as an unreliable indicator.[73] However, as of 2009, it is under investigation as a possible
precursor by NASA.[74]
Radon 13
Power
Radon is a known pollutant emitted from geothermal power stations, though it disperses
rapidly, and no radiological hazard has been demonstrated in various investigations. The
trend in geothermal plants is to reinject all emissions by pumping deep underground, and
this seems likely to ultimately decrease such radon hazards further.
Health incidence of radon exposition
Cancer on miners
Radon is a common problem encountered during
uranium mining, and significant excesses in deaths
from lung cancer have been identified in epidemiology
studies of uranium miners and other hard rock miners
employed in the 1940s and 1950s.[75] [76] [77]
The first major studies with radon and health occurred
in the context of uranium mining, first in the
Joachimsthal region of Bohemia and then in the
Relative risk of lung cancer mortality
Southwestern United States during the early Cold War. by cumulative exposure to radon decay
Because radon is a product of the radioactive decay of products (in WLM) from the combined
uranium, underground uranium mines may have high data from 11 cohorts of underground
hard rock miners. Though high
concentrations of radon. Many uranium miners in the
exposures (>50 WLM) cause
Four Corners region contracted lung cancer and other statistically significant excess cancers,
pathologies as a result of high levels of exposure to the case of small exposures (10 WLM)
radon in the mid-1950s. The increased incidence of lung is inconclusive and appears slightly
beneficial in this study.
cancer was particularly pronounced among Native
American and Mormon miners, because those groups
normally have low rates of lung cancer.[78] Safety standards requiring expensive ventilation
were not widely implemented or policed during this period.[79]
In studies of uranium miners, workers exposed to radon levels of 50 to 150 picocuries of

radon per liter of air (2000–6000 Bq/m3) for about 10 years have shown an increased
frequency of lung cancer.[1] Statistically significant excesses in lung cancer deaths were
present after cumulative exposures of less than 50 WLM.[1] There is, however, unexplained
heterogeneity in these results (whose confidence interval do not always overlap).[42] The
size of the radon-related increase in lung cancer risk varied by more than an order of
magnitude between the different studies.[80]
Heterogeneities are possibly due to systematic errors in exposure ascertainment,
unaccounted for differences in the study populations (genetic, lifestyle, etc.), or
confounding mine exposures.[42] There are a number of confounding factors to consider,
including exposure to other agents, ethnicity, smoking history, and work experience. The
cases reported in these miners cannot be attributed solely to radon or radon daughters but
may be due to exposure to silica, to other mine pollutants, to smoking, or to other causes.[1]
[81]
The majority of miners in the studies are smokers and all inhale dust and other
pollutants in mines. Because radon and cigarette smoke both cause lung-cancer, and since
the effect of smoking is far above that of radon, it is complicated to disentangle the effects
of the 2 kinds of exposure; misinterpreting the smoking habit by a few percent can blur out
Radon 14
the radon effect.[82]

Since that time, ventilation and other measures have been used to reduce radon levels in
most affected mines that continue to operate. In recent years, the average annual exposure
of uranium miners has fallen to levels similar to the concentrations inhaled in some homes.
This has reduced the risk of occupationally induced cancer from radon, although it still
remains an issue both for those who are currently employed in affected mines and for those
who have been employed in the past.[80] The power to detect any excess risks in miners
nowadays is likely to be small, because the exposures are much smaller than in the early
years of mining.[83]
Health risks
Radon-222 has been classified by International Agency for Research on Cancer as being
carcinogenic to humans.[84] Raised lung cancer rates have been reported from a number of
cohort and case-control studies of underground miners exposed to radon and its decay
products. There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of radon and its decay
products in humans for such expositions.[85]
The primary route of exposure to radon and its progeny is inhalation. Radiation exposure
from radon is indirect. The health hazard from radon does not come primarily from radon
itself, but rather from the radioactive products formed in the decay of radon.[1] The general
effects of radon to the human body are caused by its radioactivity and consequent risk of
radiation-induced cancer. Lung cancer is the only observed consequence of high
concentration radon exposures; both human and animal studies indicate that the lung and
respiratory system are the primary targets of radon daughter-induced toxicity.[1]
Radon has a short half-life (4 days) and decays into other solid particulate radium-series
radioactive nuclides. Two of these decay products, polonium-218 and 214, present a
significant radiologic hazard.[86] If the gas is inhaled, these radioactive particles are inhaled
and may attach to the inner lining of the lung. The pattern of their deposition in the
respiratory tract is dependent on whether they are attached to particles or not. These
particles remain lodged in the lungs, and continue to decay, causing continued exposure by
emitting alpha radiations. The radiation decay products can damage cells in the lung
tissue,[87] either create free radicals or cause DNA breaks,[86] perhaps causing mutations
that sometimes turn cancerous.
The risk of lung cancer caused by smoking is much higher than the risk of lung cancer
caused by indoor radon. Radiation from radon has been attributed to increase of lung
cancer among smokers too. It is generally believed that exposure to radon and cigarette
smoking are synergistic; that is, that the combined effect exceeds the sum of their
independent effects. This is because the daughters of radon often become attached to
smoke and dust particles, and are then able to lodge in the lungs.[88]
It is unknown whether radon causes other types of cancer, but recent studies suggest a
need for further studies to assess the relationship between radon and leukemia.[89] [90]
The effects of radon, if found in food or drinking water, are unknown. Following ingestion of
radon dissolved in water, the biological half-life for removal of radon from the body ranges
from 30 to 70 minutes. More than 90% of the absorbed radon is eliminated by exhalation
within 100 minutes, By 600 minutes, only 1% of the absorbed amount remains in the
body.[1]
Radon 15
Effective dose and cancer risks estimations

UNSCEAR recommends[91] a reference value of 9 nSv (Bq·h/m3)−1. This means that people
living permanently (8760 h/year) in a high concentration of 1000 Bq/m3 receive a dose of 80
mSv/year.
Studies of miners exposed to radon and its decay products provide a direct basis for
assessing their lung cancer risk. The BEIR VI report, entitled Health Effects of Exposure to
Radon,[82] reported an excess relative risk from exposure to radon that was equivalent to
1.8 % per megabecquerel hours per cubic meter (MBq·h/m3) (95% confidence interval: 0.3,
35) for miners with cumulative exposures below 30 MBq·h/m3.[83] Estimates of risk per unit
exposure are 5.38×10−4 per WLM ; 9.68×10−4/WLM for ever smokers ; and 1.67×10−4 per
WLM for never smokers.[42]
According to the UNSCEAR modelization, based on these miner's studies, the excess
relative risk from long-term residential exposure to radon at 100 Bq/m3 is considered to be
about 0.16 (after correction for uncertainties in exposure assessment), with about a
threefold factor of uncertainty higher or lower than that value.[83] In other words, the
absence of ill effects (or even positive hormesis effects) at 100 Bq/m3 are compatible with
the known data.
The ICPR 65 model[92] follows the same approach, and estimates the relative life long risk
probability of radon-induced cancer death to 1.23 x 10−6 / (Bq/m3.year)[93] . This relative
risk is a global indicator; the risk estimation is independent of sex, age, or smoking habit.
Thus, if a smoker's chances of dying of lung cancer are 10 times that of a nonsmoker's, the
relative risks for a given radon exposure will be the same according to that model, meaning
that the absolute risk of a radon-generated cancer for a smoker is (implicitly) tenfold that of
a nonsmoker. The risk estimates correspond to a unit risk of approximately 3–6 × 10−5 per
Bq/m3, assuming a lifetime risk of lung cancer of 3%. This means that a person living in an
average European house with 50 Bq/m3 has a lifetime excess lung cancer risk of 1.5–3 ×
10−3. Similarly, a person living in a house with a high radon concentration of 1000 Bq/m3
has a lifetime excess lung cancer risk of 3–6%, implying a doubling of background lung
cancer risk.[94]
The BEIR VI model proposed by the National Academy of Sciences of the USA[82] is more
complex. It is a multiplicative model that estimates an excess risk per exposure unit. It
takes into account age, elapsed time since exposure, and duration and length of exposure,
and its parameters allow for taking smoking habits into account.[93] In the absence of other
causes of death, the absolute risks of lung cancer by age 75 at usual radon concentrations
of 0, 100, and 400 Bq/m3 would be about 0.4%, 0.5%, and 0.7%, respectively, for lifelong
nonsmokers, and about 25 times greater (10%, 12%, and 16%) for cigarette smokers.[95]
There is great uncertainty in applying risk estimates derived from studies in miners to the
effects of residential radon, and direct estimates of the risks of residential radon are
needed.[80]
Radon 16
Studies on domestic exposures
Major source of natural radiation

The largest natural
contributor to public radiation
dose is radon, a naturally
occurring, radioactive gas
found in soil and rock[96] ,
which comprises
approximately 55% of the
annual background dose.
Radon gas levels vary by
locality and the composition of
the underlying soil and rocks.
Radon (at concentrations

encountered in mines) was
recognized as carcinogenic in
the 1980s, in view of the lung
cancer statistics for miners'
cohorts. Although radon may Average radiation doses received in Germany. Radon accounts for half
of the background dose ; and medical doses reach the same levels as
present significant risks,
background dose.
thousands of people annually
go to radon-contaminated
mines for deliberate exposure to help with the symptoms of arthritis without any serious
health effects.[97]
The possible danger of radon exposure in dwellings was discovered in 1984 when Stanley
Watras, an employee at the Limerick nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania, set off the
radiation alarms on his way to work for two weeks while authorities searched for the source
of the contamination. They found that the source was high levels of radon—about 100,000
Bq/m3 (2,700 pCi/l)—in his house's basement, and it was not related to the nuclear plant.
The risks associated with living in his house were estimated to be equivalent to smoking
135 packs of cigarettes every day. Following this highly publicized event, national radon
safety standards were set, and radon detection and ventilation became a standard
homeowner concern,[98] though typical domestic expositions are two to three order of
magnitude lower (100 Bq/m3, or 2.5 pCi/l). Beginning with the late 1980s, this led to
activists forming campaigns to raise awareness of radiation resulting from radon.[99]
Radon as a terrestrial source of background radiation is of particular concern because,
although on average it is very rare, this intensely radioactive element can be found in high
concentrations in many areas of the world. Some of these areas, including Cornwall and
Aberdeenshire in the United Kingdom, have high enough natural radiation levels that
nuclear licensed sites cannot be built there—the sites would already exceed legal radiation
limits before they opened, and the natural topsoil and rock would all have to be disposed of
as low-level nuclear waste.[100]
People in affected localities can receive up to 10 mSv per year background radiation.[100]
Radon 17
This led to a health policy problem: what is the health impact of domestic exposures to
radon for the concentrations (100 Bq/m3) typically found in some buildings?
Detection methods
When exposure to a carcinogenic substance is suspected, the cause/effect relationship on
any given case can never be ascertained. Lung cancer occurs spontaneously, and there is
no difference between a "natural" cancer and another one caused by radon (or smoking).
Furthermore, it takes years for a cancer to develop, so that determining the past exposure
of a case is usually very approximative. The health effect of radon can only be demonstrated
through theory and statistical observation.
The Study design for epidemiological methods may be of three kinds:
• The best proofs are statistical observations of cohorts (predetermined population with
known expositions and exhaustive follow-up), like the ones made on miners, or the
studies of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors. They are efficient, but very costly when the
population needs to be a large one. Such studies can only be used when the effect is
strong enough, hence, for high exposures.
• Alternate proofs are case-control studies (the environment factors of a “case” population
is individually determined, and compared to that of a “control″population, to see what the
difference might have been, and which factors may be significant), like the ones that
have been used to demonstrate the link between lung cancer and smoking. Such studies
can identify key factors when the signal/noise ratio is strong enough, but are very
sensitive to selection bias, and prone to the existence of confounding factors.
• Lastly, ecological studies may be used (where the global environment variables and their
global effect on two different populations are compared). Such studies are “cheap and
dirty”: they can be easily conducted on very large populations (the whole USA, in Dr
Cohen's study), but are prone to the existence of confounding factors, and exposed to the
ecological fallacy problem.
Furthermore, theory and observation must confirm each other for a relationship to be
accepted as fully proven. Even when a statistical link between factor and effect appears
significant, it must be backed by a theoretical explanation; and a theory is not accepted as
factual unless confirmed by observations.
Radon 18
Epidemiology studies of domestic expositions

Cohort studies are impractical for the study of domestic
radon exposure. The expected effect of small exposures
being very small, the direct observation of this effect
would require huge cohorts: the populations of whole
countries.
Several ecological studies have been performed to
assess possible relationships between selected cancers
and estimated radon levels within particular geographic
regions where environmental radon levels appear to be
higher than other geographic regions.[103] Results of
such ecological studies are mixed; both positive and
negative associations, as well as no significant
associations, have been suggested.[104]
A controversial epidemiological study
The most direct way to assess the risks posed by radon showing increased cancer risk vs.
radon domestic exposure (5 pCi/l ≈
in homes is through case-control studies. [101]
200 Bq/m3). This study lacks
The studies have not produced a definitive answer, individual level controls for smoking
primarily because the risk is likely to be very small at and radon exposure, and therefore
lacks statistical power to draw
the low exposure encountered from most homes and
conclusions on what would be
because it is difficult to estimate radon exposures that radiation hormesis. Because of this the
people have received over their lifetimes. In addition, it error bars (which simply reflect the
is clear that far more lung cancers are caused by raw data variability) are probably too
[102]
small.
smoking than are caused by radon.[82]
Epidemiologic radon studies have found trends to increased lung cancer risk from radon
with a no evidence of a threshold, and evidence against a threshold above high as 150
Bq/m3 (almost exactly the EPA's action level of 4 pCi/l).[95] Another study similarly found
that there is no evidence of a threshold but lacked the statistical power to clearly identify
the threshold at this low level.[105] Notably, the latter deviance from zero at low level
convinced the World Health Organization that, "The dose-response relation seems to be
linear without evidence of a threshold, meaning that the lung cancer risk increases
proportionally with increasing radon exposure."[106]
The most elaborate case-control epidemiologic radon study performed by R. William Field
and colleagues identified a 50% increased lung cancer risk with prolonged radon exposure
at the EPA's action level of 4 pCi/l.[107] Iowa has the highest average radon concentrations
in the nation and a very stable population which added to the strength of the study. For that
study, the odds ratio was found to be increased slightly above the confidence interval (95%
CI) for cumulative radon exposures above 17 WLM (6.2 pC/l=230 Bq/m3 and above).
The results of a methodical ten-year-long, case-controlled study of residential radon
exposure in Worcester County, Massachusetts, found an apparent 60% reduction in lung
cancer risk amongst people exposed to low levels (0–150 Bq/m3) of radon gas; levels
typically encountered in 90% of American homes—an apparent support for the idea of
radiation hormesis.[108] In that study, a significant result (95% CI) was obtained for the
75-150 Bq/m3 category. The study paid close attention to the cohort's levels of smoking,
occupational exposure to carcinogens and education attainment. However, unlike the
majority of the residential radon studies, the study was not population-based. Errors in
Radon 19
retrospective exposure assessment could not be ruled out in the finding at low levels. Other
studies into the effects of domestic radon exposure have not reported a hormetic effect;
including for example the respected "Iowa Radon Lung Cancer Study" of Field et al. (2000),
which also used sophisticated radon exposure dosimetry.[107]
All these case-control studies should be taken with caution, since it is known that just like
ecological studies, they are prone to Ecological fallacy and confounding factors, and cannot
cannot prove causation. Such studies can be used to point the way, but further confirmation
must come from cohort studies, animal testings, and biological models of the radon effect.
To date, most of the studies have had inadequate power to detect a risk on their own,
although a weighted average of the published results is indicative of a risk (estimated
relative risk at 100 Bq/m3 compared with 0 Bq/m3 1.06, 95% confidence interval (95% CI)
1.01-1.10.[80] .[106]
Health policy on radon public exposure
Dose-effect model retained

Radon has been recognized as carcinogenic to humans at high concentrations, based on
miners studies. The highly publicized case of Stanley Watras showed that radon
concentration could reach the levels found in mines, where it is considered a health hazard.
This led to awareness of radiation resulting from radon. But what is the real health impact
of radon concentration in dwellings? This is an open question.
The only dose-effect relationship available are those of miners cohorts (for much higher
expositions), exposed to radon. Studies of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors are less
informative (the exposition to radon is chronic, localized, and the ionizing radiations are
alpha rays). Although low-exposed miners experienced exposures comparable to long-term
residence in high radon houses, the mean cumulative exposure among miners is
approximately 30-fold higher than that associated with long-term residency in a typical
home. It can be concluded from miner studies that when the radon exposure in houses
compares to that in mines (above 1000 Bq/m3), radon is a proven health hazard ; but in the
1980s very little was known on the dose-effect relationship, both theoretically and
statistically.
Researches have been made since the 1980s, both on epidemiological studies and in the
radiobiology field. In the radiobiology and carcinogenesis studies, progress has been made
in understanding the first steps of cancer development, but not to the point of validating a
reference dose-effect model. The only certainty gained is that the process is very complex,
the resulting dose-effect response being complex, and most probably not a linear one.
Biologically based models have also been proposed that could project substantially reduced
carcinogenicity at low doses.[42] [109] [110] In the epidemiological field, no definite
conclusion has been reached. However, from the evidence now available, a threshold
exposure, that is, a level of exposure below which there is no effect of radon, cannot be
excluded.[82]
Given the radon distribution observed in dwellings, and the dose-effect relationship
proposed by a given model, a theoretical number of victims can be calculated, and serve as
a basis for public health policies.
With the BEIR VI model, the main health impact (nearly 75% of the death toll) is to be
found at low radon concentration exposures, because most of the population (about 90%)
Radon 20
lives in the 0-200 Bq/m3 range.[111] Under this modeling, the best policy is obviously to
reduce the radon levels of all homes where the radon level is above average, because this
leads to a significant decrease of radon exposition on a significant fraction of the population
; but this effect is predicted in the 0-200 Bq/m3 range, where the linear model has its
maximum uncertainty. From the statistical evidence available, a threshold exposure cannot
be excluded ; if such a threshold exists, the real radon health impact would in fact be
limited to those homes where the radon concentrations reaches that observed in mines - at
most a few percent. If a radiation hormesis effect exists after all, the situation would be
even worse : under that hypothesis, suppressing the natural low exposure to radon (in the
0-200 Bq/m3 range) would actually lead to an increase of cancer incidence, due to the
suppression of this (hypothetical) protecting effect. Since the low-dose response is unclear,
the choice of a model is very controversial. As the saying goes, “guess if you can, choose if
you dare”[112]
No conclusive statistics being available for the levels of exposure usually found in homes,
the risks posed by domestic exposures is usually estimated on the basis of observed
lung-cancer deaths caused by higher exposures in mines, under the assumption that the
risk of developing lung-cancer increases linearly as the exposure increases.[82] This was the
basis for the model proposed by BEIR IV in the 1980s. The linear no-threshold model has
since been kept in a conservative approach by the UNSCEAR[83] report and the BEIR VI and
BEIR VII[113] publications, essentially for lack of a better choice:
Until the [...] uncertainties on low-dose response are resolved, the Committee
believes that [the linear no-threshold model] is consistent with developing
knowledge and that it remains, accordingly, the most scientifically defensible
approximation of low-dose response. However, a strictly linear dose response
should not be expected in all circumstances.
The BEIR VI committee adopted the linear no-threshold assumption based on its
understanding of the mechanisms of radon-induced lung cancer, but recognized
that this understanding is incomplete and that therefore the evidence for this
assumption is not conclusive.[42]
Death toll attributed to radon

In discussing these figures, it should be kept in mind that both the radon distribution in
dwelling and its effect at low exposures are not precisely known, and the radon health
impact has to be computed (deaths caused by radon domestic exposure cannot be observed
as such). These estimations are strongly dependent on the model retained.
According to these models, radon exposure is thought to be the second major cause of lung
cancer after smoking.[97] Iowa has the highest average radon concentration in the United
States; studies performed there have demonstrated a 50% increased lung cancer risk with
prolonged radon exposure above the EPA's action level of 4 pCi/l.[107] [114]
Based on studies carried out by the National Academy of Sciences in the United States,
radon would thus be the second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking, and accounts
for 15,000 to 22,000 cancer deaths per year in the US alone.[115] The United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) says that radon is the number one cause of lung
cancer among non-smokers.[116] The general population is exposed to small amounts of
polonium as a radon daughter in indoor air; the isotopes 214Po and 218Po are thought to
cause the majority[117] of the estimated 15,000–22,000 lung cancer deaths in the US every
Radon 21
year that have been attributed to indoor radon.[118] The Surgeon General of the United
States has reported that over 20,000 Americans die each year of radon-related lung
cancer.[119]
In the United Kingdom, residential radon would be, after cigarette smoking, the second
most frequent cause of lung cancer deaths: according to models, 83.9% of deaths are
attributed to smoking only, 1.0% to radon only, and 5.5% to a combination of radon and
smoking.[80]
Radon concentration guidelines

The European Union recommends
that action should be taken
starting from concentrations of
400 Bq/m3 (11 pCi/l) for old houses
and 200 Bq/m3 (5 pCi/l) for new
ones. After publication of the
North American and European
Pooling Studies, Health Canada
proposed a new guideline that
lowers their action level from 800
to 200 Bq/m3 (22 to 5 pCi/l).[120]
The United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) strongly
recommends action for any house Predicted fraction of homes exceeding the EPA's recommended
with a concentration higher than action level of 4 pCi/l
3 [87]
148 Bq/m (4 pCi/l), and
encourages action starting at 74 Bq/m3 (2 pCi/l).
EPA recommends that all homes should be monitored for radon. If testing shows levels less
than 4 picocuries radon per liter of air (160 Bq/m3), then no action is necessary. For levels
are 20 picocuries radon per liter of air (800 Bq/m3) or higher, the home owner should
consider some type of procedure to decrease indoor radon levels.[1] For instance, since
radon has a half-life of four days, opening the windows once a day can cut the mean radon
concentration to one fourth of its level.
The EPA recommends homes be fixed if an occupant's long-term exposure will average 4
picocuries per liter (pCi/l) (148 Bq m−3) or higher.[121]
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that one in 15 homes
in the United States has radon levels above the recommended guideline of 4 picocuries per
liter (pCi/l) (148 Bq/m3).[87] EPA radon risk level tables including comparisons to other risks
encountered in life are available in their citizen's guide.[122] The EPA estimates that
nationally, 8% to 12% of all houses are above their maximum "safe levels" (four picocuries
per liter—the equivalent to roughly 200 chest x-rays). The United States Surgeon General
and the EPA both recommend that all homes be tested for radon.
The limits retained do not correspond to a known threshold in the biological effect, but are
determined by a cost-efficiency analysis. EPA believes that a 150 Bq/m3 level (4 pCi/l) is
achievable in the vast majority of homes for a reasonable cost, the average cost per life
saved by using this action level is about $700,000.[123]
Radon 22
For radon concentration in drinkable water, the World Health Organization issued as
guidelines (1988) that remedial action should be considered when the radon activity
exceeded 100 kBq/m3 in a building, and remedial action should be considered without long
delay if exceeding 400 kBq/m3.[1]
Radon testing
There are relatively simple tests for radon gas, but
these tests are not commonly done, even in areas of
known systematic hazards. Radon test kits are
commercially available. The short-term radon test kits
used for screening purposes are inexpensive, in many
cases free. The kit includes a collector that the user
hangs in the lowest livable floor of the house for 2 to 7
days. The user then sends the collector to a laboratory
for analysis. A radon test kit.
The National Environmental Health Association

provides a list of radon measurement professionals.[124]
Long term kits, taking collections for up to one year, are also available. An open-land test
kit can test radon emissions from the land before construction begins. The EPA and the
National Environmental Health Association have identified 15 types of radon testing.[125] A
Lucas cell is one type of device.
Radon levels fluctuate naturally. An initial test might not be an accurate assessment of a
home's average radon level. Transient weather can affect short term measurements.[126]
Therefore, a high result (over 4 pCi/l) justifies repeating the test before undertaking more
expensive abatement projects. Measurements between 4 and 10 pCi/l warrant a long term
radon test. Measurements over 10 pCi/l warrant only another short term test so that
abatement measures are not unduly delayed. Purchasers of real estate are advised to delay
or decline a purchase if the seller has not successfully abated radon to 4 pCi/l or less.
Since radon concentrations vary substantially from day to day, single grab-type
measurements are generally not very useful, except as a means of identifying a potential
problem area, and indicating a need for more sophisticated testing.[1]
Mitigation
Transport of radon in indoor air is almost entirely controlled by the ventilation rate in the
enclosure. Generally, the indoor radon concentrations increase as ventilation rates
decrease.[1] In a well ventilated place, the radon concentration tends to align with outdoor
values (typically 10 Bq/m3, ranging from 1 to 100 Bq/m3).
Radon levels in indoor air can be lowered in a number of ways, from sealing cracks in floors
and walls to increasing the ventilation rate of the building. The five principal ways of
reducing the amount of radon accumulating in a house are:[106]
• Improving the ventilation of the house and avoiding the transport of radon from the
basement into living rooms;
• Increasing under-floor ventilation;
• Installing a radon sump system in the basement;
• Sealing floors and walls; and
Radon 23
• Installing a positive pressurization or positive supply ventilation system.

The half-life for radon is 3.8 days, indicating that once the source is removed, the hazard
will be greatly reduced within a few weeks.
Positive-pressure ventilation systems can be combined with a heat exchanger to recover
energy in the process of exchanging air with the outside, and simply exhausting basement
air to the outside is not necessarily a viable solution as this can actually draw radon gas
into a dwelling. Homes built on a crawl space may benefit from a radon collector installed
under a "radon barrier" (a sheet of plastic that covers the crawl space).
ASTM E-2121 is a standard for reducing radon in homes as far as practicable below 4
picocuries per liter (pCi/l) in indoor air.[127] [128]
The National Environmental Health Association and the National Radon Safety Board
administer voluntary National Radon Proficiency Programs for radon professionals
consisting of individuals and companies wanting to take training courses and examinations
to demonstrate their competency.[129] A list of mitigation service providers is available.[130]
Indoor radon can be mitigated by sealing basement foundations, water drainage, or by
sub-slab de-pressurization. In severe cases, mitigation can use air pipes and fans to exhaust
sub-slab gases to the outside. Indoor ventilation systems are more effective, but exterior
ventilation can be cost-effective in some cases.
See also
• International Radon Project
• Lucas cell
• Radon mitigation
• Radon removal
• Radiation Exposure Compensation Act
• Radiohalo
External links
• Toxicological Profile for Radon [131], Draft for Public Comment, Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, September 2008
• Health Effects of Exposure to Radon: BEIR VI. Committee on Health Risks of Exposure to
Radon (BEIR VI), National Research Council available on-line [132]
• UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly [133],with scientific annexes : Annex B:
Exposures from natural radiation sources.
• Technical support document for the 1992 Citizen's guide to radon [134], [EPA
400-R-92-011, May 1992].
• Should you measure the radon concentration in your home? [135], Phillip N. Price,
Andrew Gelman, in Statistics: A Guide to the Unknown, January 2004.
Radon 24
External links
• Radon [136] and radon publications [134] at the United States Environmental Protection
Agency
• Radon Information Center [137]
• Frequently Asked Questions About Radon [138] at National Safety Council
• Home Buyer's and Seller's Guide to Radon [139] An article by the International
Association of Certified Home Inspectors (InterNACHI)
• Radon and Lung Health from the American Lung Association [140]
• Radon's impact on your health - Lung Association [141]
pnb:‫نوڈیر‬
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[115] " Radon and Cancer: Questions and Answers (http:/ / www. cancer. gov/ cancertopics/ factsheet/ Risk/
radon)". National Cancer Institute. . Retrieved 2008-06-26.
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[118] " Health Effects Of Exposure To Radon (http:/ / books. nap. edu/ html/ beir6/ )". National Academies Press. .
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pressreleases/ sg01132005. html)". Surgeon General of the United States. 2005-01-13. . Retrieved 2008-06-26.
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epa. gov/ radon/ pubs/ citguide. html)". United States Environmental Protection Agency. November 2007. .
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radon_mitigation. html)". Air Chek, Inc.. . Retrieved 2008-02-02.
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mitstds. html)". United States Environmental Protection Agency. . Retrieved 2008-02-02.
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License
Francium 1
Francium
radon ← francium → radium

Cs
↑
Fr
↓
Uue
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number francium, Fr, 87
Appearance metallic

−1
Electron configuration [Rn] 7s

1
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3
Melting point ? 300 K

(? 27 °C, ? 80 °F)
Boiling point ? 950 K

(? 677 °C, ? 1250 °F)
Heat of vaporization ca. 65 kJ·mol−1
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 404 454 519 608 738 946
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 1

Francium 2
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering Paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity 3 µΩ·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 15 W·m−1·K−1
Main article: Isotopes of francium

221
Fr syn 4.8 min α 6.457 217
At
222
Fr syn 14.2 min β
– 2.033 222
Ra
223
Fr trace 22.00 min β
– 1.149 223
Ra
α 5.430 219
At
References
Francium (pronounced /ˈfrænsiəm/), formerly known as eka-caesium and actinium K,[1]

is a chemical element that has the symbol Fr and atomic number 87. It has the lowest
electronegativity of all known elements, and is the second rarest naturally occurring
element (after astatine). Francium is a highly radioactive metal that decays into astatine,
radium, and radon. As an alkali metal, it has one valence electron.
Francium was discovered by Marguerite Perey in France (from which the element takes its
name) in 1939. It was the last element discovered in nature, rather than synthesized.[2]
Outside the laboratory, francium is extremely rare, with trace amounts found in uranium
and thorium ores, where the isotope francium-223 continually forms and decays. As little as
20-30 g (one ounce) exists at any given time throughout the Earth's crust; the other
isotopes are entirely synthetic. The largest amount ever collected of any isotope was a
cluster of 10,000 atoms (of francium-210) created as an ultracold gas at Stony Brook in
1997.[3]
Characteristics
Francium is the least stable of the naturally occurring elements: its most stable isotope,
francium-223, has a maximum half-life of only 22 minutes. In contrast, astatine, the
second-least stable naturally occurring element, has a maximum half-life of 8.5 hours.[4] All
isotopes of francium decay into either astatine, radium, or radon.[4] Francium is also less
stable than all synthetic elements up to element 105.[3]
Francium is an alkali metal whose chemical properties most resemble those of caesium.[3] A
very heavy element with a single valence electron,[5] it has the highest equivalent weight of
any element.[3] Liquid francium — if such a substance were to be created — should have a
surface tension of 0.05092 N/m at its melting point.[6] The francium’s melting point was
claimed to have calculated to be around 27 °C (80 °F, 300 K). However, the melting point is
Francium 3
uncertain because of the element’s extreme rarity and radioactivity. This melting point may
have been in limited precision, or so much heat produced from radioactivity that its
calculated melting point may have been overestimated.[7] However, the melting point of
francium is estimated to be about 22 °C (71 °F, 295 K), based from the periodic trends in
melting points with other alkali metals. Also the boiling point may have been overestimated
at around 677 °C (1250 °F, 950 K). Based from the periodic trends with other alkali metals,
the boiling point of francium is estimated to be between 660 to 665 °C (1220 to 1230 °F,
935 to 940 K). Because radioactive elements give off heat Francium would almost certainly
be a liquid if enough visible Francium were to be produced.
Linus Pauling estimated the electronegativity of francium at 0.7 on the Pauling scale, the
same as caesium;[8] the value for caesium has since been refined to 0.79, although there are
no experimental data to allow a refinement of the value for francium.[9] Francium has a
slightly higher ionisation energy than caesium,[10] 392.811(4) kJ/mol as opposed to
375.7041(2) kJ/mol for caesium, as would be expected from relativistic effects, and this
would imply that caesium is the less electronegative of the two.
Francium coprecipitates with several caesium salts, such as caesium perchlorate, which
results in small amounts of francium perchlorate. This coprecipitation can be used to isolate
francium, by adapting the radiocaesium coprecipitation method of Glendenin and Nelson. It
will additionally coprecipitate with many other caesium salts, including the iodate, the
picrate, the tartrate (also rubidium tartrate), the chloroplatinate, and the silicotungstate. It
also coprecipitates with silicotungstic acid, and with perchloric acid, without another alkali
metal as a carrier, which provides other methods of separation.[11] [12] Nearly all francium
salts are water-soluble.[13]
Applications
Due to its instability and rarity, there are no commercial applications for francium.[14] [15]
[16] [17] [18]
It has been used for research purposes in the fields of biology and of atomic
structure. Its use as a potential diagnostic aid for various cancers has also been explored,[4]
but this application has been deemed impractical.[16]
Francium's ability to be synthesized, trapped, and cooled, along with its relatively simple
atomic structure have made it the subject of specialized spectroscopy experiments. These
experiments have led to more specific information regarding energy levels and the coupling
constants between subatomic particles.[19] Studies on the light emitted by laser-trapped
francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels
which are fairly similar to those predicted by quantum theory.[20]
Francium 4
History
As early as 1870, chemists thought that there should be an alkali metal beyond caesium,
with an atomic number of 87.[4] It was then referred to by the provisional name
eka-caesium.[21] Research teams attempted to locate and isolate this missing element, and
at least four false claims were made that the element had been found before an authentic
discovery was made.
Erroneous and incomplete discoveries

Russian chemist D. K. Dobroserdov was the first scientist to claim to have found
eka-caesium, or francium. In 1925, he observed weak radioactivity in a sample of
potassium, another alkali metal, and concluded that eka-caesium was contaminating the
sample.[22] He then published a thesis on his predictions of the properties of eka-caesium,
in which he named the element russium after his home country.[23] Shortly thereafter,
Dobroserdov began to focus on his teaching career at the Polytechnic Institute of Odessa,
and he did not pursue the element further.[22]
The following year, English chemists Gerald J. F. Druce and Frederick H. Loring analyzed
X-ray photographs of manganese(II) sulfate.[23] They observed spectral lines which they
presumed to be of eka-caesium. They announced their discovery of element 87 and
proposed the name alkalinium, as it would be the heaviest alkali metal.[22]
In 1930, Fred Allison of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute claimed to have discovered
element 87 when analyzing pollucite and lepidolite using his magneto-optical machine.
Allison requested that it be named virginium after his home state of Virginia, along with the
symbols Vi and Vm.[23] [24] In 1934, however, H.G. MacPherson of UC Berkeley disproved
the effectiveness of Allison's device and the validity of this false discovery.[25]
In 1936, Romanian chemist Horia Hulubei and his French colleague Yvette Cauchois also
analyzed pollucite, this time using their high-resolution X-ray apparatus.[22] They observed
several weak emission lines, which they presumed to be those of element 87. Hulubei and
Cauchois reported their discovery and proposed the name moldavium, along with the
symbol Ml, after Moldavia, the Romanian province where they conducted their work.[23] In
1937, Hulubei's work was criticized by American physicist F. H. Hirsh Jr., who rejected
Hulubei's research methods. Hirsh was certain that eka-caesium would not be found in
nature, and that Hulubei had instead observed mercury or bismuth X-ray lines. Hulubei,
however, insisted that his X-ray apparatus and methods were too accurate to make such a
mistake. Because of this, Jean Baptiste Perrin, Nobel Prize winner and Hulubei's mentor,
endorsed moldavium as the true eka-caesium over Marguerite Perey's recently discovered
francium. Perey, however, continuously criticized Hulubei's work until she was credited as
the sole discoverer of element 87.[22]
Perey's analysis
Eka-caesium was discovered in 1939 by Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris,
France when she purified a sample of actinium-227 which had been reported to have a
decay energy of 220 keV. However, Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level
below 80 keV. Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously
unidentified decay product, one which was separated during purification, but emerged
again out of the pure actinium-227. Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown
element being thorium, radium, lead, bismuth, or thallium. The new product exhibited
Francium 5
chemical properties of an alkali metal (such as coprecipitating with caesium salts), which
led Perey to believe that it was element 87, caused by the alpha decay of actinium-227.[21]
Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay in
actinium-227. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6%, a figure which she later
[26]
revised to 1%.
Perey named the new isotope actinium-K (now referred to as francium-223)[21] and in 1946,
she proposed the name catium for her newly discovered element, as she believed it to be
the most electropositive cation of the elements. Irène Joliot-Curie, one of Perey's
supervisors, opposed the name due to its connotation of cat rather than cation.[21] Perey
then suggested francium, after France. This name was officially adopted by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1949,[4] becoming the second element
after gallium to be named after France. It was assigned the symbol Fa, but this abbreviation
was revised to the current Fr shortly thereafter.[27] Francium was the last element
discovered in nature, rather than synthesized, following rhenium in 1925.[21] Further
research into francium's structure was carried out by, among others, Sylvain Lieberman
and his team at CERN in the 1970s and 1980s.[28]
Occurrence
Natural
Francium-223 is the result of the alpha decay of
actinium-227 and can be found in trace amounts in
uranium and thorium minerals.[3] In a given sample of
uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium
atom for every 1×1018 uranium atoms.[16] It is also
calculated that there is at most 30 g of francium in the
earth's crust at any time.[29] This makes it the second This sample of uraninite contains
rarest element in the crust after astatine.[4] [16] about 100,000 atoms (3.3 × 10−20 g) of
[16]
francium-223 at any given time.
Francium 6
Synthesized
Francium can be synthesized in the nuclear reaction 197Au +
18
O → 210Fr + 5n. This process, developed by Stony Brook
Physics, yields francium isotopes with masses of 209, 210, and
211,[31] which are then isolated by the magneto-optic trap
(MOT).[30] The production rate of a particular isotope depends
on the energy of the oxygen beam. An 18O beam from the
Stony Brook LINAC creates 210Fr in the gold target with the
nuclear reaction 197Au + 18O = 210Fr + 5n. The production
required some time to develop and understand. It was critical In the MOT, a magnetic field
to operate the gold target very close to its melting point and to is created by the copper
solenoids. Neutral francium
make sure that its surface was very clean. The nuclear reaction
atoms enter the glass bulb
imbeds the francium atoms deep in the gold target, and they from the left and are trapped
[30]
must be removed efficiently. The atoms diffuse fast to the by lasers.
surface of the gold target and are released as ions. The
francium ions are guided by electrostatic lenses until they land into a surface of hot yttrium
and become neutral again. The francium is then injected into a glass bulb. A magnetic field
and retroreflected laser beams cool and confine the atoms. Although the atoms remain in
the trap for only about 20 seconds before escaping (or decaying), a steady stream of fresh
atoms replaces those lost, keeping the number of trapped atoms roughly constant for
minutes or longer. Initially, about 1000 francium atoms were trapped in the experiment.
This was gradually improved and is capable of trapping over 300,000 neutral atoms of
francium a time. Although these are neutral "metallic" atoms ("francium metal"), they in a
gaseous unconsolidated state. Enough francium is trapped that a video camera can capture
the light given off by the atoms as they fluoresce. The atoms appear as a glowing sphere
about 1 millimeter in diameter. This was the very first time that anyone had ever seen
francium. The researchers can now make extremely sensitive measurements of the light
emitted and absorbed by the trapped atoms, providing the first experimental results on
various transitions between atomic energy levels in francium. Initial measurements show
very good agreement between experimental values and calculations based on quantum
theory. Other synthesis methods include bombarding radium with neutrons, and
bombarding thorium with protons, deuterons, or helium ions.[26] Francium has not yet, as of
2009[32], been synthesized in amounts large enough to weigh.[3] [4] [16] [33]
Isotopes
There are 34 known isotopes of francium ranging in atomic mass from 199 to 232.[3]
Francium has seven metastable nuclear isomers.[3] Francium-223 and francium-221 are the
only isotopes that occur in nature, though the former is far more common.[34]
Francium-223 is the most stable isotope with a half-life of 21.8 minutes,[3] and it is highly
unlikely that an isotope of francium with a longer half-life will ever be discovered or
synthesized.[26] Francium-223 is the fifth product of the actinium decay series as the
daughter isotope of actinium-227.[18] Francium-223 then decays into radium-223 by beta
decay (1149 keV decay energy), with a minor (0.006%) alpha decay path to astatine-219
(5.4 MeV decay energy).[35]
Francium 7
Francium-221 has a half-life of 4.8 minutes.[3] It is the ninth product of the neptunium

decay series as a daughter isotope of actinium-225.[18] Francium-221 then decays into
astatine-217 by alpha decay (6.457 MeV decay energy).[3]
The least stable ground state isotope is francium-215, with a half-life of 0.12 μs. (9.54 MeV
alpha decay to astatine-211):[3] Its metastable isomer, francium-215m, is less stable still,
with a half-life of only 3.5 ns.[36]
Notes
[1] Actually the least unstable isotope, Fr-223
[2] Some synthetic elements, like technetium, have later been found in nature.
[3] CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 4, CRC, 2006, pp. 12, 0-8493-0474-1
[4] Price, Andy (2004-12-20). " Francium (http:/ / www. andyscouse. com/ pages/ francium. htm)". . Retrieved
2007-03-25.
[5] Winter, Mark. " Electron Configuration (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Fr/
eneg. html)". Francium. The University of Sheffield. . Retrieved 2007-04-18.
[6] Kozhitov, L. V.; Kol'tsov, V. B.; Kol'tsov, A. V. (2003-02-21). " Evaluation of the Surface Tension of Liquid
Francium (http:/ / search. ebscohost. com/ login. aspx?direct=true& db=aqh& AN=16822434&
site=ehost-live)". Inorganic Materials (Springer Science & Business Media B.V.) 39 (11): 1138–1141. doi:
10.1023/A:1027389223381 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1023/ A:1027389223381). . Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[7] " What are the characteristics and properties of francium? (http:/ / answers. yahoo. com/ question/
index?qid=20080927201134AAcNUDO)". Yahoo! Answers. 2008. . Retrieved 2009-01-04.
[8] Pauling, Linus (1960). The Nature of the Chemical Bond (3rd Edn.). Cornell University Press. pp. 93.
[9] Allred, A. L. (1961). "Electronegativity values from thermochemical data". J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem. 17 (3–4):
[10] Andreev, S.V.; Letokhov, V.S.; Mishin, V.I., (1987). " Laser resonance photoionization spectroscopy of
Rydberg levels in Fr (http:/ / link. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v59/ p1274)". Phys. Rev. Lett. 59: 1274–76. doi:
10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.1274 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevLett. 59. 1274). .
[11] Hyde, E. K. (1952). "Radiochemical Methods for the Isolation of Element 87 (Francium)". J. Am. Chem. Soc.
74 (16): 4181–4184. doi: 10.1021/ja01136a066 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ja01136a066).
[12] E. N K. Hyde Radiochemistry of Francium,Subcommittee on Radiochemistry, National Academy of
Sciences-National Research Council; available from the Office of Technical Services, Dept. of Commerce, 1960.
[13] A. G. Maddock. Radioactivity of the heavy elements. Q. Rev., Chem. Soc., 1951, 3, 270–314. doi:
10.1039/QR9510500270 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ QR9510500270)
[14] Winter, Mark. " Uses (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Fr/ uses. html)".
Francium. The University of Sheffield. . Retrieved 2007-03-25.
[15] Bentor, Yinon. " Chemical Element.com - Francium (http:/ / www. chemicalelements. com/ elements/ fr.
0-19-850341-5.
[17] Gagnon, Steve. " Francium (http:/ / education. jlab. org/ itselemental/ ele087. html)". Jefferson Science
Associates, LLC. . Retrieved 2007-04-01.
[18] Considine, Glenn D., ed. (2005), "Chemical Elements", Van Nostrand's Encyclopedia of Chemistry, New York:
Wylie-Interscience, pp. 332, ISBN 0-471-61525-0
[19] Gomez, E; Orozco, L A, and Sprouse, G D (2005-11-07). " Spectroscopy with trapped francium: advances and
perspectives for weak interaction studies (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ abstract/ 0034-4885/ 69/ 1/ R02/ )". Rep.
Prog. Phys. 69 (1): 79–118. doi: 10.1088/0034-4885/69/1/R02 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1088/ 0034-4885/ 69/ 1/
R02). . Retrieved 2007-04-11.
[20] Peterson, I (1996-05-11). " Creating, cooling, trapping francium atoms (http:/ / search. ebscohost. com/ login.
aspx?direct=true& db=ulh& AN=9605167788& site=src-live)". Science News. pp. 294. . Retrieved 2007-04-11.
[21] Adloff, Jean-Pierre; Kaufman, George B. (2005-09-25). Francium (Atomic Number 87), the Last Discovered
Natural Element (http:/ / chemeducator. org/ sbibs/ s0010005/ spapers/ 1050387gk. htm). The Chemical
Educator 10 (5). Retrieved on 2007-03-26.
[22] Fontani, Marco (2005-09-10). " The Twilight of the Naturally-Occurring Elements: Moldavium (Ml),
Sequanium (Sq) and Dor (Do) (http:/ / 5ichc-portugal. ulusofona. pt/ uploads/ PaperLong-MarcoFontani. doc)".
International Conference on the History of Chemistry. Lisbon. pp. 1–8.
Francium 8
[23] Van der Krogt, Peter (2006-01-10). " Francium (http:/ / www. vanderkroft. net/ elements/ elem/ fr. html)".
[24] " Alabamine & Virginium (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,743159,00. html)". TIME.
1932-02-15. . Retrieved 2007-04-01.
[25] MacPherson, H. G. (1934-12-21). " An Investigation of the Magneto-Optic Method of Chemical Analysis (http:/
/ prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PR/ v47/ i4/ p310_1)". Physical Review (American Physical Society) 47 (4): 310–315.
doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.47.310 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 47. 310). . Retrieved 2007-04-08.
[26] "Francium", McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, 7, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2002,
pp. 493–494, ISBN 0-07-913665-6
[27] Grant, Julius (1969), "Francium", Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, McGraw-Hill, pp. 279–280
[28] " History (http:/ / fr. physics. sunysb. edu/ francium_news/ history. HTM)". Francium. SUNY Stony Brook
Physics & Astronomy. 2007-02-20. . Retrieved 2007-03-26.
[29] Winter, Mark. " Geological information (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Fr/
geol. html)". Francium. The University of Sheffield. . Retrieved 2007-03-26.
[30] " Cooling and Trapping (http:/ / fr. physics. sunysb. edu/ francium_news/ trapping. HTM)". Francium. SUNY
Stony Brook Physics & Astronomy. 2007-02-20. . Retrieved 2007-05-01.
[31] " Production of Francium (http:/ / fr. physics. sunysb. edu/ francium_news/ production. HTM)". Francium.
SUNY Stony Brook Physics & Astronomy. 2007-02-20. . Retrieved 2007-03-26.
[32] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Francium
[33] " Francium (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 87. html)". Los Alamos National Laboratory (http:/ / www.
lanl. gov/ ) Chemistry Division. 2003-12-15. . Retrieved 2007-03-29.
[34] Considine, Glenn D., ed. (2005), "Francium", Van Nostrand's Encyclopedia of Chemistry, New York:
Wylie-Interscience, pp. 679, ISBN 0-471-61525-0
[35] National Nuclear Data Center (1990). " Table of Isotopes decay data (http:/ / ie. lbl. gov/ toi/ nuclide.
asp?iZA=870223)". Brookhaven National Laboratory. . Retrieved 2007-04-04.
[36] National Nuclear Data Center (2003). " Fr Isotopes (http:/ / ie. lbl. gov/ education/ parent/ Fr_iso. htm)".
Brookhaven National Laboratory. . Retrieved 2007-04-04.
External links
• WebElements.com - Francium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/
text/ Fr/ index. html)
• Los Alamos National Laboratory - Francium (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 87.
html)
• Stony Brook University Physics Dept. (http:/ / fr. physics. sunysb. edu/ francium_news/
frconten. htm)
.
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License
Radium 1
Radium
francium ← radium → actinium

Ba
↑
Ra
↓
Ubn
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number radium, Ra, 88
Element category alkaline earth metals

−1
Electron configuration [Rn] 7s

2
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3
Melting point 973 K

(700 °C, 1292 °F)

(1737 °C, 3159 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 819 906 1037 1209 1446 1799
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 2

Radium 2
2nd: 979.0 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering nonmagnetic
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 1 µ Ω·m
Main article: Isotopes of radium

223
Ra ? 11.43 d alpha 5.99 219
Rn
224
Ra ? 3.6319 d alpha 5.789 220
Rn
226
Ra trace 1602 y alpha 4.871 222
Rn
228
Ra ? 5.75 y beta
− 0.046 228
Ac
References
Radium (pronounced /ˈreɪdiəm/) is a radioactive chemical element which has the symbol
Ra and atomic number 88. Its appearance is almost pure white, but it readily oxidizes on
exposure to air, turning black. Radium is an alkaline earth metal that is found in trace
amounts in uranium ores. It is extremely radioactive. Its most stable isotope, 226Ra, has a
half-life of 1602 years and decays into radon gas.
Characteristics
The heaviest of the alkaline earth metals, radium is intensely radioactive and resembles
barium in its chemical behavior. This metal is found in tiny quantities in the uranium ore
pitchblende, and various other uranium minerals. Radium preparations are remarkable for
maintaining themselves at a higher temperature than their surroundings, and for their
radiations, which are of three kinds: alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.
When freshly prepared, pure radium metal is brilliant white, but blackens when exposed to
air (probably due to nitride formation). Radium is luminescent (giving a faint blue color),
reacts violently with water and oil to form radium hydroxide and is slightly more volatile
than barium. The normal phase of radium is a solid.
Radium 3
Applications
Some of the few practical uses of radium are derived from its radioactive properties. More
recently discovered radioisotopes, such as 60Co and 137Cs, are replacing radium in even
these limited uses because several of these isotopes are more powerful emitters, safer to
handle, and available in more concentrated form.
When mixed with beryllium it is a neutron source for physics experiments.
Historical uses
Radium was formerly used in self-luminous paints for watches, nuclear panels, aircraft
switches, clocks, and instrument dials. More than 100 former watch dial painters who used
their lips to shape the paintbrush died from the radiation from the radium that had become
stored in their bones. Soon afterward, the adverse effects of radioactivity became widely
known. Radium was still used in dials as late as the 1950s. Although tritium's beta radiation
is potentially dangerous if ingested, it has replaced radium in these applications.
During the 1930s it was found that workers' exposure to radium by handling luminescent
paints caused serious health effects which included sores, anemia and bone cancer. This
use of radium was stopped soon afterward. This is because radium is treated as calcium by
the body, and deposited in the bones, where radioactivity degrades marrow and can mutate
bone cells. The litigation and ultimate deaths of five "Radium Girl" employees who had used
radium-based luminous paints on the dials of watches and clocks had a significant impact
on the formulation of occupational disease labor law. [1]
Radium was also put in some foods for taste and as a preservative, but also exposed many
people to radiation. Radium was once an additive in products like toothpaste, hair creams,
and even food items due to its supposed curative powers.[2] Such products soon fell out of
vogue and were prohibited by authorities in many countries, after it was discovered they
could have serious adverse health effects. (See for instance Radithor.) Spas featuring
radium-rich water are still occasionally touted as beneficial, such as those in Misasa,
Tottori, Japan. In the U.S., nasal radium irradiation was also administered to children to
prevent middle ear problems or enlarged tonsils from the late 1940s through early 1970s.
[3]
In 1909, the famous Rutherford experiment used radium as an alpha source to probe the
atomic structure of gold. This experiment led to the Rutherford model of the atom and
revolutionised the field of nuclear physics.
Radium (usually in the form of radium chloride) was used in medicine to produce radon gas
which in turn is used as a cancer treatment, for example several of these radon sources
were used in Canada in the 1920s and 1930s.[4] The isotope 223Ra is currently under
investigation for use in medicine as cancer treatment of bone metastasis.
History
Radium (Latin radius, ray) was discovered by Marie Skłodowska-Curie and her husband
Pierre in 1898 in pitchblende coming from North Bohemia, in the Czech Republic (area
around Jáchymov). While studying pitchblende the Curies removed uranium from it and
found that the remaining material was still radioactive. They then separated out a
radioactive mixture consisting mostly of barium which gave a brilliant green flame color
and crimson carmine spectral lines which had never been documented before. The Curies
Radium 4
announced their discovery to the French Academy of Sciences on 26 December 1898.[5]

In 1910, radium was isolated as a pure metal by Curie and André-Louis Debierne through
the electrolysis of a pure radium chloride solution by using a mercury cathode and distilling
in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas.[6]
Radium was first industrially produced in the beginning of the 20th Century by Biraco, a
subsidiary company of Union Minière du Haut Katanga (UMHK) in its Olen plant in
Belgium. UMHK offered to Marie Curie her first gramme of radium.
Historically the decay products of radium were known as radium A, B, C, etc. These are
now known to be isotopes of other elements as follows:
Isotope
Radium emanation 222

Rn
Radium A 218
Po
Radium B 214
Pb
Radium C 214
Bi
Radium C1 214
Po
Radium C2 210
Tl
Radium D 210
Pb
Radium E 210
Bi
Radium F 210
Po
On February 4, 1936 radium E became the first radioactive element to be made

synthetically.[7]
226
One unit for radioactivity, the non-SI curie, is based on the radioactivity of Ra (see
Radioactivity).
Occurrence
Radium is a decay product of uranium and is therefore found in all uranium-bearing ores.
(One ton of pitchblende yields one seventh of a gram of radium).[8] Radium was originally
acquired from pitchblende ore from Joachimsthal, Bohemia, in the Czech Republic.
Carnotite sands in Colorado provide some of the element, but richer ores are found in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Great Lakes area of Canada, and can also be
extracted from uranium processing waste. Large radium-containing uranium deposits are
located in Canada (Ontario), the United States (New Mexico, Utah, and Virginia), Australia,
and in other places.
Radium 5
Compounds
Its compounds color flames crimson carmine (rich red or crimson color with a shade of
purple) and give a characteristic spectrum. Due to its geologically short half life and intense
radioactivity, radium compounds are quite rare, occurring almost exclusively in uranium
ores.
• radium fluoride (RaF2)
• radium chloride (RaCl2)
• radium bromide (RaBr2)
• radium iodide (RaI2)
• radium oxide (RaO)
• radium nitride (Ra3N2)
Isotopes
Radium (Ra) has 25 different known isotopes, four of which are found in nature, with 226Ra
being the most common. 223Ra, 224Ra, 226Ra and 228Ra are all generated naturally in the
decay of either Uranium (U) or Thorium (Th). 226Ra is a product of 238U decay, and is the
longest-lived isotope of radium with a half-life of 1602 years; next longest is 228Ra, a
product of 232Th breakdown, with a half-life of 5.75 years.[9]
Radioactivity
Radium is over one million times more radioactive than the same mass of uranium. Its
decay occurs in at least seven stages; the successive main products have been studied and
were called radium emanation or exradio (now identified as radon), radium A (polonium),
radium B (lead), radium C (bismuth), etc. Radon is a heavy gas and the later products are
solids. These products are themselves radioactive elements, each with an atomic weight a
little lower than its predecessor.
Radium loses about 1% of its activity in 25 years, being transformed into elements of lower
atomic weight with lead being the final product of disintegration.
The SI unit of radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq), equal to one disintegration per second.
The Curie is a non-SI unit defined as that amount of radioactivity which has the same
disintegration rate as 1 gram of Ra-226 (3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second, or 37 GBq).
Safety
Handling of radium has been blamed for Marie Curie's premature death.
• Radium is highly radioactive and its decay product, radon gas, is also radioactive. Since
radium is chemically similar to calcium, it has the potential to cause great harm by
replacing it in bones. Inhalation, injection, ingestion or body exposure to radium can
cause cancer and other disorders. Stored radium should be ventilated to prevent
accumulation of radon.
• Emitted energy from the decay of radium ionizes gases, affects photographic plates,
causes sores on the skin, and produces many other detrimental effects.
Radium 6
Further reading
• Macklis, R. M. (1993). "The great radium scandal". Scientific American 269 (2): 94–99.
• Clark, Claudia (1987). Radium Girls: Women and Industrial Health Reform, 1910–1935.
University of North Carolina Press. ISBN ISBN 0-8078-4640-6.
See also
• Decay chains
• Radium Girls
References
[1] " Mass Media & Environmental Conflict - Radium Girls (http:/ / www. radford. edu/ ~wkovarik/ envhist/
radium. html)". . Retrieved 2009-08-01.
[2] " French Web site featuring products (medicines, mineral water, even underwear) containing radium (http:/ /
www. dissident-media. org/ infonucleaire/ radieux. html)". . Retrieved 2009-08-01.
[3] Cherbonnier, Alice (1997-10-01). " Nasal Radium Irradiation of Children Has Health Fallout (http:/ /
baltimorechronicle. com/ rupnose. html)". Baltimore Chronicle. . Retrieved 2009-08-01.
[4] Hayter, Charles (2005). " The Politics of Radon Therapy in the 1930s (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=NtKUdnjaCxMC& pg=PA135)". An Element of Hope: Radium and the Response to Cancer in Canada,
1900–1940. McGill-Queen's Press. ISBN 9780773528697. .
[5] Pierre Curie, Madame Pierre Curie, and Gustave Bémont (1898). " Sur une nouvelle substance fortement
radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende (On a new, strongly radioactive substance contained in pitchblende)
(http:/ / www. aip. org/ history/ curie/ discover. htm)". Comptes Rendus 127: 1215–1217. . Retrieved
2009-08-01.
[6] Marie Curie and André Debierne (1910). " Sur le radium métallique" (On metallic radium) (http:/ / visualiseur.
bnf. fr/ CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-3104& I=523& M=tdm)" (in French). Comptes Rendus 151: 523–525. .
[7] J. J. Livingood (1936). "Deuteron-Induced Radioactivities". Phys Rev 50 (5): 425–434. doi:
10.1103/PhysRev.50.425 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 50. 425).
[8] "Radium" (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 88. html), Los Alamos National Laboratory. Retrieved on
2009-08-05.
[9] " Chart Nuclides by the National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC) (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ chart/ reZoom.
jsp?newZoom=3)". . Retrieved 2009-08-01.
• Albert Stwertka (1998). Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-508083-1.
• Denise Grady (October 6, 1998). " A Glow in the Dark, and a Lesson in Scientific Peril
(http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ library/ national/ science/ 100698sci-radium. html)". The
New York Times. http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ library/ national/ science/
100698sci-radium. html. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
• Nanny Fröman (1 December 1996). " Marie and Pierre Curie and the Discovery of
Polonium and Radium (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ articles/ curie/
index. html)". Nobel Foundation. http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ articles/
curie/ index. html. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
Radium 7
External links
• WebElements.com - Radium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/
text/ Ra/ index. html) (also used as a reference)
• Lateral Science - Radium Discovery (http:/ / www. lateralscience. co. uk/ radium/ RaDisc.
html)
• Photos of Radium Water Bath in Oklahoma (http:/ / www. markwshead. com/
stuffHappens/ radium. html)
• NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Radium, Radioactive (http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih.
gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+ @na+ @rel+ radium,+ radioactive)
• Reproduction of a 1942 comic book ad selling a "Radiumscope" to children (http:/ / www.
lileks. com/ institute/ funny/ 07/ 40. html)
pnb:‫میڈیر‬

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Scholz, Clay66, Conversion script, Crazycomputers, Cryptic C62, Cureden, Cwkmail, Cyclonenim, DVD R W, Danny, Dannyc77, DariusMazeika,
DarkAudit, Darrien, Darth Panda, Dave6, David Latapie, David spector, David.Monniaux, Dcb1995, Deadlord114, Dennis Brown, DennyColt,
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Joanjoc, John, John C PI, Joshtynan, Joyous!, Julian Mendez, JunCTionS, Jurand, Kafka Liz, Kaiba, Kalamkaar, Karl-Henner, KeithD, Kesho, Kilo-Lima,
King of Hearts, Kpalion, Kwamikagami, LarryMorseDCOhio, Leafyplant, Lightmouse, Likethesunshine, Lugnuts, Luk, MPerel, Malbi, Marc Venot,
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Neverquick, Nihiltres, NotALizard, Oatmeal batman, Obli, Onevalefan, Ossmann, Paul1953h, Philip Trueman, Polyparadigm, Poolkris, Poor Yorick,
Postdlf, Primate, Pstudier, R, Ranveig, Razorflame, Rboatright, Remember, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rifleman 82,
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image:Ra-TableImage.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ra-TableImage.png License: GNU Free Documentation License
License
Actinium 1
Actinium
radium ← actinium → thoriumLa
↑
Ac
↓
Ute

89Ac
Periodic table
Appearance silvery General Name, symbol, numberElement categoryGroup, period,

PhaseDensity (near r.t.) Melting pointBoiling pointHeat of fusionHeat of
vaporizationSpecific heat capacity Atomic properties Oxidation states
ElectronegativityIonization energies 2nd: 1170 kJ·mol−1Covalent radius Miscellaneous
Crystal structureMagnetic orderingThermal conductivityCAS registry number Most stable
isotopes Main article: Isotopes of actinium
225 syn 10 days α 5.935 221

Ac Fr
226 syn 29.37 hours 1.117

β− 226
Ac Th
ε 0.640 226
Ra
α 5.536 222
Fr
227 100% 21.773 years 0.045

β− 227
Ac Th
α 5.042 223
Fr
Actinium 2
actinium, Ac, 89 actiniden/a, 7, f(227) g·mol−1 [Rn] 6d1 7s2 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 9, 2 (Image)
solid 10 g·cm−3 (circa) 1323 K,1050 °C,1922 °F 3471 K,3198 °C,5788 °F 14 kJ·mol−1 400
kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 27.2 J·mol−1·K−1 3
(neutral oxide) 1.1 (Pauling scale) 1st: 499 kJ·mol−1215 pm face-centered cubic no data
−1 −1
(300 K) 12 W·m ·K 7440-34-8
Actinium (pronounced /ækˈtɪniəm/) is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol Ac
and atomic number 89, which was discovered in 1899. It was the first non-primordial
radioactive element to be isolated, although polonium, radium and radon were observed
before, but not isolated until 1902. It gave the name to the actinoid series, a group of 15
similar elements between actinium and lawrencium in the periodic table.
History
Actinium was discovered in 1899 by André-Louis Debierne, a French chemist, who
separated it from pitchblende as a substance being similar to titanium (1899)[1] or similar
to thorium (1890).[2] Friedrich Oskar Giesel independently discovered actinium in 1902[3] as
a substance being similar to lanthanum and called it "emanium" in 1904.[4] After a
comparison of substances in 1904, Debierne's name was retained because it had
seniority.[5] [6]
The history of the discovery stayed questionable and in publications from 1971[7] and later
in 2000[8] showed that the claims of André-Louis Debierne in 1904 conflict with the
publications in 1899 and 1890.
The word actinium comes from the Greek aktis, aktinos, meaning beam or ray.
Characteristics
Actinium is a silvery, radioactive, metallic element. Due to its intense radioactivity,
actinium glows in the dark with a pale blue light. The chemical behavior of actinium is
similar to that of the rare earth element lanthanum.[9]
Chemistry
Actinium shows similar chemical behavior to lanthanum. Due to this similarity the
separation of actinium from lanthanum and the other rare earth elements, which are also
present in uranium ores was difficult. Solvent extraction and ion exchange chromatography
was used for the separation.[10] Only a limited amount of actinium compounds is known, for
example AcF3, AcCl3, AcBr3, AcOF, AcOCl, AcOBr, Ac2S3, Ac2O3 and AcPO4. All the
mentioned compounds are similar to the corresponding lanthanum compounds and shows
that actinium compounds are generally in the oxidation state of +3.[11]
Actinium 3
Relationship with actinoids

Actinium is the first element of the actinoids and gave the group its name, similar to
lanthanum for the lanthanoids. The group of elements is more diverse than the lanthanoids
and therefore it took until 1945 when Glenn T. Seaborg proposed the most significant
change to Mendeleev's periodic table, by introducing the actinoids.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring actinium is composed of 1 radioactive isotope; 227Ac. 36 radioisotopes
have been characterized with the most stable being 227Ac with a half-life of 21.772 y, 225Ac
with a half-life of 10.0 days, and 226Ac with a half-life of 29.37 h. All of the remaining
radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 10 hours and the majority of these
have half-lives that are less than 1 minute. The shortest-lived isotope of actinium is 217Ac
which decays through alpha decay and electron capture. It has a half-life of 69 ns. Actinium
also has 2 meta states.[12]
Purified 227Ac comes into equilibrium with its decay products at the end of 185 days, and
then decays according to its 21.773-year half-life. The isotopes of actinium range in atomic
weight from 206 u (206Ac) to 236 u (236Ac).[12]
Occurrence
Actinium is found in trace amounts in uranium ore, but more commonly is made in
milligram amounts by the neutron irradiation of 226Ra in a nuclear reactor. Actinium metal
has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor at about 1100 to
1300°C.[9]
Actinium is found only in traces in uranium ores as 227Ac, an α and β emitter with a half-life
of 21.773 years. One ton of uranium ore contains about a tenth of a gram of actinium. The
actinium isotope 227Ac is a transient member of the actinium series decay chain, which
begins with the parent isotope 235U (or 239Pu) and ends with the stable lead isotope 207Pb.
Another actinium isotope (225Ac) is transiently present in the neptunium series decay chain,
beginning with 237Np (or 233U) and ending with near-stable bismuth (209Bi).
Applications
It is about 150 times as radioactive as radium, making it valuable as a neutron source for
energy. Otherwise it has no significant industrial applications.[13]
225
Ac is used in medicine to produce 213Bi in a reusable generator or can be used alone as
an agent for radio-immunotherapy for Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT).[14] 225Ac was first
produced artificially by the Institute for Transuranium Elements (ITU) in Germany using a
cyclotron and by Dr Graeme Melville at St George Hospital in Sydney using a linac in
2000.[15]
Actinium 4
Precautions
227
Ac is extremely radioactive, and in terms of its potential for radiation induced health
effects[16] 227Ac is even more dangerous than plutonium. Ingesting even small amounts of
227
Ac would be fatal.
See also
• Actinium series
External links
• WebElements.com - Actinium [17]
[18]
• NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Actinium, Radioactive
pnb:‫مینیٹکیا‬
References
[1] Debierne, André-Louis (1899). " Sur un nouvelle matière radio-active (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/
bpt6k3085b/ f593. table)". Comptes rendus 129: 593–595. .
[2] Debierne, André-Louis (1900-1901). " Sur un nouvelle matière radio-actifl'actinium (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/
ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3086n/ f906. table)". Comptes rendus 130: 906–908. .
[3] Giesel, Friedrich Oskar (1902). "Ueber Radium und radioactive Stoffe". Berichte der Deutschen Chemische
Geselschaft 35 (3): 3608–3611. doi: 10.1002/cber.190203503187 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ cber.
190203503187).
[4] Giesel, Friedrich Oskar (1904). "Ueber den Emanationskörper (Emanium)". Berichte der Deutschen Chemische
Geselschaft 37 (2): 1696–1699. doi: 10.1002/cber.19040370280 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ cber.
19040370280).
[5] Giesel, Friedrich Oskar (1904). "Ueber Emanium". Berichte der Deutschen Chemische Geselschaft 37 (2):
1696–1699. doi: 10.1002/cber.19040370280 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ cber. 19040370280).
[6] Giesel, Friedrich Oskar (1905). "Ueber Emanium". Berichte der Deutschen Chemische Geselschaft 38 (1):
775–778. doi: 10.1002/cber.190503801130 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ cber. 190503801130).
[7] Kirby, H. W. (1971). " The Discovery of Actinium (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ view/ 229943?seq=1)". Isis
62 (3): 290–308. doi: 10.1086/350760 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1086/ 350760). .
[8] Adloff, J. P. (2000). "The centenary of a controversial discovery: actinium". Radiochim. Acta, 88: 123–128. doi:
10.1524/ract.2000.88.3-4.123 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1524/ ract. 2000. 88. 3-4. 123).
[9] Stites, Joseph G.; Salutsky, Murrell L. Stone, Bob D. (1955). "Preparation of Actinium Metal". J. Am. Chem.
Soc. 77 (1): 237–240. doi: 10.1021/ja01606a085 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ja01606a085).
[10] Katz, J. J.; Manning, W. M. (1952). "Chemistry of the Actinide Elements Annual Review of Nuclear Science".
Annual Review of Nuclear Science 1: 245–262. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ns.01.120152.001333 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1146/ annurev. ns. 01. 120152. 001333).
[11] Sherman, Fried; Hagemann, French; Zachariasen, W. H. (1950). "The Preparation and Identification of Some
Pure Actinium Compounds". Journal of the American Chemical Society 72: 771–775. doi: 10.1021/ja01158a034
nuclphysa. 2003. 11. 001).
[13] Dixon, W.R.; Bielesch, Alice; Geiger K.W. (1957). " Neutron Spectrum of an Actinium–Beryllium Source (http:/
/ pubs. nrc-cnrc. gc. ca/ cgi-bin/ rp/ rp2_abst_e?cjp_p57-075_35_ns_nf_cjp)". Can. J. Phys./Rev. Can. Phys. 35
(6): 699–702. .
[14] Bolla, Rose A.; Malkemusa, Dairin; Mirzadeh, Saed (2005). "Production of actinium-225 for alpha particle
mediated radioimmunotherapy". Applied Radiation and Isotopes 62 (5): 667–679. doi:
10.1016/j.apradiso.2004.12.003 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. apradiso. 2004. 12. 003).
[15] Melville, G; Allen, Bj (Apr 2009). "Cyclotron and linac production of Ac-225.". Applied radiation and isotopes :
including data, instrumentation and methods for use in agriculture, industry and medicine 67 (4): 549–55. doi:
10.1016/j.apradiso.2008.11.012 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. apradiso. 2008. 11. 012). ISSN 0969-8043
(http:/ / worldcat. org/ issn/ 0969-8043). PMID 19135381.
Actinium 5
[16] Langham, W.; Storer, J. (1952). "Toxicology of Actinium Equilibrium Mixture". Los Alamos Scientific Lab.:
Technical Report. doi: 10.2172/4406766 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2172/ 4406766).
[17] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Ac/ index. html
[18] http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+ @na+ @rel+ actinium,+ radioactive

Actinium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308284676 Contributors: 65.68.87.xxx, ABF, Abhishek Jacob, Ahoerstemeier, Andre
Engels, Arkuat, Astatine-210, Beetstra, Benbest, Benjiboi, BlueEarth, Bryan Derksen, CRGreathouse, Carnildo, Catgut, Ch'marr, Chill doubt, ChrisCork,
Conversion script, Danny, Dave Foley, David Latapie, Deviator13, Donarreiskoffer, Dureo, Dwmyers, Edgar181, Emperorbma, FMSrtTM, Femto,
Fibonacci, George Burgess, Glenn, Gmel, Goldenphoenix2007, Greatpatton, Hallpriest9, HazyM, HenryLi, Icairns, Ideyal, Jaan513, Jaraalbe, Jorfer,
Kalamkaar, Karelj, Karlhahn, Keilana, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, LarryMorseDCOhio, Lethalgeek, Marc Venot, Matani2005, Materialscientist, Mattman723,
Mav, Mdf, Micothemagic, Muke, Nergaal, Nick Y., Nihiltres, No1lakersfan, Orzetto, Paris moo, PeepP, Polonium, Poolkris, Poor Yorick, Ranveig, Redux,
Remember, Reyk, Reza kalani, Rich Farmbrough, Romanm, RoryReloaded, Saperaud, Schneelocke, Shawnhath, Sl, Snickerdo, SpeedyGonsales,
Stifynsemons, Stone, Tagishsimon, Thisisbossi, Trevor MacInnis, Tsogo3, Urhixidur, Vsmith, Vuerqex, Warut, WereSpielChequers, Yekrats, Ynhockey,
Youssefsan, Yyy, Zachlipton, 100 anonymous edits

Contributors
file:Electron shell 089 Actinium.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Electron_shell_089_Actinium.svg License: Creative
License
Thorium 1
Thorium
actinium ← thorium → protactinium

Ce
↑
Th
↓
(Uqn)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number thorium, Th, 90
Element category Actinides

−1
[Rn] 6d 7s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3

(1842 °C, 3348 °F)

(4788 °C, 8650 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2633 2907 3248 3683 4259 5055
Atomic properties

Thorium 2

(more)
2nd: 1110 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 1930 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic

−1
·K
−1
Bulk modulus 54 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.27
Mohs hardness 3.0
Main article: Isotopes of thorium

228
Th syn 1.9116 years α 5.520 224
Ra
229
Th syn 7340 years α 5.168 225
Ra
230
Th syn 75380 years α 4.770 226
Ra
231
Th trace 25.5 hours β 0.39 231
Pa
232
Th 100% 1.405×1010 years α 4.083 228
Ra
234
Th trace 24.1 days β 0.27 234
Pa
References
Thorium (pronounced /ˈθɔəriəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Th and atomic
number 90. It is a naturally occurring, slightly radioactive metal, which has been
successfully used as an alternative nuclear fuel to uranium in the molten-salt reactor
experiment (MSR) for several years to produce thermal energy. Thorium is abundant on
Earth and this type of reactor can be built to operate significantly cleaner than uranium
based power plants as the waste products are much easier to handle.[2] The benefits of the
MSR are similar (fuel abundancy and clean operation) to what nuclear fusion promises.[3]
Thorium 3
Characteristics
Physical
Pure thorium is a silvery-white metal which is air-stable and retains its luster for several
months. When contaminated with the oxide, thorium slowly tarnishes in air, becoming gray
and finally black. The physical properties of thorium are greatly influenced by the degree of
contamination with the oxide. The purest specimens often contain several tenths of a
percent of the oxide. Pure thorium is soft, very ductile, and can be cold-rolled, swaged, and
drawn. Thorium is dimorphic, changing at 1400 °C from a face-centered cubic to a
body-centered cubic structure. Powdered thorium metal is often pyrophoric and should be
carefully handled. When heated in air, thorium metal turnings ignite and burn brilliantly
with a white light. Thorium has the largest liquid range of any element: 2946 °C between
the melting point and boiling point. [4]
Chemical
Thorium is slowly attacked by water, but does not dissolve readily in most common acids,
except hydrochloric.[4] It dissolves in concentrated nitric acid containing a small amount of
catalytic fluoride ion.[5]
Compounds
Thorium compounds are stable in the +4 oxidation state.[6]
Thorium dioxide has the highest melting point (3300 °C) of all oxides.[7]
Thorium(IV) nitrate and thorium(IV) fluoride are known in their hydrated forms:
Th(NO3)4·4H2O and ThF4·4H2O, respectively. The thorium center has square planar
geometry.[6] Thorium(IV) carbonate, Th(CO3)2, is also known.[6]
When treated with potassium fluoride and hydrofluoric acid, Th4+ forms the complex anion
ThF62−, which precipitates as an insoluble salt, K2ThF6.[5]
Thorium(IV) hydroxide, Th(OH)4, is highly insoluble in water, and is not amphoteric. The
peroxide of thorium is rare in being an insoluble solid. This property can be utilized to
separate thorium from other ions in solution.[5]
In the presence of phosphate anions, Th4+ forms precipitates of various compositions,
which are insoluble in water and acid solutions.[5]
Isotopes
Naturally occurring thorium is composed mainly of one isotope: 232Th. 230Th occurs as the
daughter product of 238U decay. Twenty-seven radioisotopes have been characterized, with
the most abundant and/or stable being 232Th with a half-life of 14.05 billion years, 230Th
with a half-life of 75,380 years, 229Th with a half-life of 7340 years, and 228Th with a
half-life of 1.92 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less
than thirty days and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than ten minutes. One
isotope, 229Th, has a nuclear isomer (or metastable state) with a remarkably low excitation
energy of 7.6 eV.[8]
The known isotopes of thorium range in atomic weight from 210 u (210Th) to 236 u
(236Th).[9]
Thorium 4
Applications
Applications of thorium:[4]
• Thorium is used as an alloying element in magnesium, used in aircraft engines, imparting
high strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures.[10]
• Thorium is also used as an alloying agent in gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) to increase
the melting temperature of tungsten electrodes and improve arc stability. The electrodes
labeled EWTH-1 contain 1% thorium, while the EWTH-2 contain 2%.[11]
• Thorium is used to coat tungsten wire used in electronic equipment, improving the
electron emission of heated cathodes.
• Uranium-thorium age dating has been used to date hominid fossils.
• Thorium is used as a fertile material for producing nuclear fuel. In particular, the
proposed energy amplifier reactor design would employ thorium. Since thorium is more
abundant than uranium, some nuclear reactor designs incorporate thorium in their fuel
cycle.
• Thorium may also be used directly as nuclear fuel instead of uranium, producing less
transuranic waste.
• Thorium is a very effective radiation shield, although it has not been used for this
purpose as much as lead or depleted uranium.
Applications of thorium dioxide (ThO2):
• Mantles in portable gas lights. These mantles glow with a dazzling light (unrelated to
radioactivity) when heated in a gas flame.
• Used to control the grain size of tungsten used for electric lamps.
• Used in heat-resistant ceramics like high-temperature laboratory crucibles.
• Added to glass, it helps create glasses of a high refractive index and with low dispersion.
Consequently, they find application in high-quality lenses for cameras and scientific
instruments.
• Has been used as a catalyst:
• In the conversion of ammonia to nitric acid.
• In petroleum cracking.
• In producing sulfuric acid.
• Thorium dioxide is the active ingredient of Thorotrast, which was used as part of X-ray
diagnostics. This use has been abandoned due to the carcinogenic nature of Thorotrast.
Thorium as a nuclear fuel

Thorium, as well as uranium and plutonium, can be used as fuel in a nuclear reactor.
Although not fissile itself, 232Th will absorb slow neutrons to produce 233U, which is fissile.
Hence, like 238U, it is fertile. Theoretically thorium is a more suitable fuel source than
uranium. It is at least 4-5 times more abundant in nature than all of uranium isotopes
combined and is fairly evenly spread around Earth, with many countries having large
supplies of it. Also, preparation of thorium fuel does not require difficult and expensive
enrichment process. The thorium fuel cycle creates mainly Uranium-233 which can be used
for making nuclear weapons, and since there are no neutrons from spontaneous fission of
U-233, U-233 can be used easily in a gun-type nuclear bomb[12] Thorium can and has been
used to power nuclear energy plants using both the modified traditional Generation III
reactor design and prototype Generation IV reactor designs.
Thorium 5
When using thorium in modified light water reactor (LWR) problems include: the
undeveloped technology for fuel fabrication; in traditional, once-through LWR designs
potential problems in recycling thorium due to highly radioactive 228Th; some weapons
proliferation risk due to production of 233U; and the technical problems (not yet
satisfactorily solved) in reprocessing. Much development work is still required before the
thorium fuel cycle can be commercialized for use in LWR, and the effort required seems
unlikely while (or where) abundant uranium is available.
Nevertheless, the thorium fuel cycle, with its potential for breeding fuel without fast
neutron reactors, holds considerable potential long-term benefits. Thorium is significantly
more abundant than uranium, and is a key factor in sustainable nuclear energy. Perhaps
more importantly, thorium produces several orders of magnitude less long-lived radioactive
waste.
One of the earliest efforts to use a thorium fuel cycle took place at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory in the 1960s. An experimental reactor was built based on MSR technology to
study the feasibility of such an approach, using thorium-fluoride salt kept hot enough to be
liquid, thus eliminating the need for fabricating fuel elements. This effort culminated in the
Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment that used 232Th as the fertile material and 233U as the
fissile fuel. This reactor has been operated successfully for about five years. However due
to a lack of funding, the MSR program was discontinued in 1976. Nowadays this design is
considered as Generation IV reactor.
India's Kakrapar-1 reactor is the world's first reactor which utilizes thorium rather than
depleted uranium to achieve power flattening across the reactor core.[13] India, which has
about 25% of the world's thorium reserves, is developing a 300 MW prototype of a
thorium-based Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR). The prototype is expected to be
fully operational by 2011, following which five more reactors will be constructed.[14] India
currently envisages to meet 30% of its electricity demand through thorium-based reactors
by 2030.[15]
In 2007, Norway was debating whether or not to focus on thorium plants, due to the
existence of large deposits of thorium ores in the country, particularly at Fensfeltet, near
Ulefoss in Telemark county.
The primary fuel of the HT3R Project near Odessa, Texas, USA will be ceramic-coated
thorium beads.
History
M. T. Esmark found a black mineral on Løvøy Island, Norway and gave a sample to
Professor Jens Esmark, a noted mineralogist who was not able to identify it, so he sent a
sample to the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius for examination in 1828.[16] [17] [18]
Berzelius analyzed it and named it after Thor, the Norse god of thunder. The metal had
virtually no uses until the invention of the gas mantle in 1885.
In 1898 thorium was first observed to be radioactive, independently, by Polish-French
physicist Marie Curie and English chemist Gerhard Carl Schmidt.[19] [20] [21] Between 1900
and 1903, Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy showed how thorium decayed at a fixed
rate over time into a series of other elements. This observation led to the identification of
half life as one of the outcomes of the alpha particle experiments that led to their
disintegration theory of radioactivity.[22]
Thorium 6
The crystal bar process (or Iodide process) was discovered by Anton Eduard van Arkel and
Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925 to produce high-purity metallic thorium.[23]
The name ionium was given early in the study of radioactive elements to the 230Th isotope
produced in the decay chain of 238U before it was realized that ionium and thorium were
chemically identical. The symbol Io was used for this supposed element.
Occurrence
Thorium is found in small amounts in most rocks and
soils, where it is about four times more abundant than
uranium, and is about as common as lead. Soil
commonly contains an average of around 12 parts per
million (ppm) of thorium. Thorium occurs in several
minerals including thorite (ThSiO4), thorianite (ThO2 +
UO2) and monazite. The latter is most common and may
contain up to about 12% thorium oxide.
Thorium-containing monazite(Ce) occurs in Africa,
Monazite, a rare-earth-and-thorium
Antarctica, Australia, Europe, India, North America,
phosphate mineral, is the primary
source of the world's thorium and South America.[4] [24]
232
Th decays very slowly (its half-life is comparable to
the age of the Universe) but other thorium isotopes occur in the thorium and uranium
decay chains. Most of these are short-lived and hence much more radioactive than 232Th,
though on a mass basis they are negligible.
Thorium extraction
Thorium has been extracted chiefly from monazite through a complex multi-stage process.
The monazite sand is dissolved in hot concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Thorium is
extracted as an insoluble residue into an organic phase containing an amine. Next it is
separated or "stripped" using an ion such as nitrate, chloride, hydroxide, or carbonate,
returning the thorium to an aqueous phase. Finally, the thorium is precipitated and
collected.[25]
Several methods are available for producing thorium metal: it can be obtained by reducing
thorium oxide with calcium, by electrolysis of anhydrous thorium chloride in a fused
mixture of sodium and potassium chlorides, by calcium reduction of thorium tetrachloride
mixed with anhydrous zinc chloride, and by reduction of thorium tetrachloride with an
Thorium 7
alkali metal.[4]
Distribution
Present knowledge of the distribution of thorium resources is poor because of the relatively
low-key exploration efforts arising out of insignificant demand.[26] There are two sets of
estimates that define world thorium reserves, one set by the US Geological Survey (USGS)
and the other supported by reports from the OECD and the International Atomic Energy
Agency (the IAEA). Under the USGS estimate, Australia and India have particularly large
reserves of thorium. India and Australia are believed to possess about 300,000 metric
tonnes each; i.e. each country possessing 25% of the world's thorium reserves.[27] However,
in the OECD reports, estimates of Australian's Reasonably Assured Reserves (RAR) of
Thorium indicate only 19,000 metric tonnes and not 300,000 tonnes as indicated by USGS.
The two sources vary wildly for countries such as Brazil, Turkey, and Australia. However,
both reports appear to show some consistency with respect to India's thorium reserve
figures, with 290,000 metric tonnes (USGS) and 319,000 metric tonnes (OECD/IAEA).
Furthermore the IAEA report mentions that India possesses two thirds (67%) of global
reserves of monazite, the primary thorium ore. The IAEA also states that recent reports
have upgraded India's thorium deposits up from approximately 300,000 metric tonnes to
650,000 metric tonnes.[28] Therefore, the IAEA and OECD appear to conclude that Brazil
and India may actually possess the lion's share of world's thorium deposits.
• The prevailing estimate of the economically available thorium reserves comes from the
US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries (1997-2006):[29] [30]
Country Th Reserves (tonnes) Th Reserve Base (tonnes)
Australia 300,000 340,000
India 290,000 300,000
Norway 170,000 180,000
United States 160,000 300,000
Canada 100,000 100,000
South Africa 35,000 39,000
Brazil 16,000 18,000
Malaysia 4,500 4,500
Other Countries 95,000 100,000
World Total 1,200,000 1,400,000
Note: The Australian figures are based on assumptions and not on actual geological
surveys, therefore the figures cited for Australia may be misleading, should be treated with
caution and could possibly indicate inflated values for Australia's actual reserves of
thorium; note the OECD estimates of Australian's Reasonably Assured Reserves (RAR) of
Thorium (listed below) indicate only 19,000 metric tonnes and not 300,000 tonnes as listed
above.
• Another estimate of Reasonably Assured Reserves (RAR) and Estimated Additional
Reserves (EAR) of thorium comes from OECD/NEA, Nuclear Energy, "Trends in Nuclear
Fuel Cycle", Paris, France (2001):[31]
Country RAR Th (tonnes) EAR Th (tonnes)

Thorium 8
Brazil 606,000 700,000
Turkey 380,000 500,000
India 319,000 —
United States 137,000 295,000
Norway 132,000 132,000
Greenland 54,000 32,000
Canada 45,000 128,000
Australia 19,000 —
South Africa 18,000 —
Egypt 15,000 309,000
Other Countries 505,000 —
World Total 2,230,000 2,130,000
Precautions
See Actinides in the environment for details of the environmental aspects of thorium.
Powdered thorium metal will often ignite spontaneously in air (it is pyrophoric) and should
be handled carefully. Natural thorium decays very slowly compared to many other
radioactive materials, and the alpha radiation emitted cannot penetrate human skin.
Owning and handling small amounts of thorium, such as a gas mantle, is considered safe if
care is taken not to ingest the thorium—lungs and other internal organs can be penetrated
by alpha radiation. Exposure to an aerosol of thorium can lead to increased risk of cancers
of the lung, pancreas and blood. Exposure to thorium internally leads to increased risk of
liver diseases. This element has no known biological role. See also Thorotrast.
See also
• Periodic table
• Nuclear reactor
• Decay chain
• Sylvania Electric Products explosion
External links
• WebElements.com — Thorium [32]
• The World Nuclear Association [33]
• European Nuclear Society — Natural Decay Chains [34]
• often-quoted article by Michael Anissimov advocating adopting Thorium reactors [35]
• Thorium information page [36]
• New Age Nuclear: article on thorium reactors | Cosmos Magazine [37]
• ATSDR ToxFAQs — Thorium [38]
• Thorium as a Secure Nuclear Fuel Alternative [39]
• The Endless Refrigerator/Freezer Deodorizer [40], a commercial product which claimed to
destroy odours 'forever.' Made with thorium-232.
• Is thorium the answer to our energy crisis? [41]
• Thorium Energy [42] Blog, discussion forum and document repository
Thorium 9
[43]
• Another thorium information page
pnb:‫میروھت‬
References
[2] " Thorium (http:/ / www. world-nuclear. org/ info/ inf62. html)". World Nuclear Association. . Retrieved
2009-08-08.
[3] " Thorium Power Technology (http:/ / www. thoriumpower. com/ default2. asp?nav=technology_solutions)". .
0849304857.
[5] Earl K. Hyde (1960). The radiochemistry of thorium (http:/ / www. radiochemistry. org/ periodictable/
pdf_books/ pdf/ rc000034. pdf). Subcommittee on Radiochemistry, National Academy of Sciences—National
Research Council. .
[6] " Toxicological Profile Information Sheet (http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ toxprofiles/ tp147-c3. pdf)".
Department of Health and Human Services. . Retrieved 2009-05-21.
[7] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks ((Hardcover, First Edition) ed.). Oxford University Press.
pp. 441. ISBN 0198503407.
[8] B. R. Beck et al. (2007). "Energy Splitting of the Ground-State Doublet in the Nucleus 229Th". Phys. Rev. Lett.
98: 142501. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.142501 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevLett. 98. 142501).
[9] J. Uusitalo et al. (1995). "α decay of the new isotopes 210Th and 211Th". Phys. Rev. C 52: 113. doi:
10.1103/PhysRevC.52.113 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 52. 113).
[10] ed. by Michael M. Avedesian, Prepared under the direction of the ASM International Handbook Committee.
(1999). " Microstructure of Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys (http:/ / books. google. de/
books?id=0wFMfJg57YMC& pg=PA28)". Magnesium and magnesium alloys. Materials Park, OH: ASM
International. p. 28. ISBN 9780871706577. .
[11] Larry Jeffus. (2003). " Types of Tungsten (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=zeRiW7en7HAC&
pg=RA1-PA750)". Welding : principles and applications. Clifton Park, N.Y.: Thomson/Delmar Learning. p. 350.
ISBN 9781401810467. .
[12] R. Wilson (1998). " Accelerator Driven Subcritical Assemblies (http:/ / phys4. harvard. edu/ ~wilson/
publications/ ppaper703. html)". Report to Energy Environment and Economy Committee, U.S. Global Strategy
Council. .
[13] " Thorium: Cleaner Nuclear Power? (http:/ / www. power-technology. com/ features/ feature1141/ )". .
[14] " Development work on 300 MW advanced heavy water reactor at advanced stage (http:/ / timesofindia.
indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 3864684. cms)". .
[15] " Indian Thorium based reactor design complete (http:/ / www. indiadaily. com/ editorial/ 19093. asp)". .
[16] " Thorium (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ dna/ h2g2/ A3768861)". BBC.co. . Retrieved 2007-01-18.
[17] J. J. Berzelius (1829). " Untersuchung eines neues Minerals und einer darin erhalten zuvor unbekannten Erde
(Investigation of a new mineral and of a previously unknown earth contained therein) (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/
ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k151010. pleinepage. r=Annalen+ der+ Physic. f395. langFR)". Annalen der Physik und
Chemie 16: 385-415. . (modern citation: Annalen der Physik, vol. 92, no. 7, pages 385-415)
[18] J. J. Berzelius (1829). "Undersökning af ett nytt mineral (Thorit), som innehåller en förut obekant jord"
(Investigation of a new mineral (thorite), as contained in a previously unknown earth)". Kungliga Svenska
Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar (Transactions of the Royal Swedish Science Academy): 1-30.
[19] Marie Curie (1898). "Rayons émis par les composés de l'uranium et du thorium (Rays emitted by compounds
of uranium and thorium)". Comptes Rendus 126: 1101-1103.
[20] G. C. Schmidt (1898). "Über die vom Thorium und den Thoriumverbindungen ausgehende Strahlung (On the
radiation emitted by thorium and thorium compounds)". Verhandlungen der Physikalischen Gesellschaft zu
Berlin (Proceedings of the Physical Society in Berlin) 17: 14-16.
[21] G. C. Schmidt (1898). " Über die von den Thorverbindungen und einigen anderen Substanzen ausgehende
Strahlung (On the radiation emitted by thorium compounds and some other substances) (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/
ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k153068. image. r=Annalen+ der+ Physic. f149. langFR)". Annalen der Physik und Chemie
65: 141-151. . (modern citation: Annalen der Physik, vol. 301, pages 141-151 (1898)).
[22] Simmons, John Galbraith (1996). The Scientific 100. Seacaucus NJ: Carol. p. 19.
[23] van Arkel, A.E.; de Boer, J.H. (1925). "Preparation of pure titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and thorium metal".
Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie 148: 345–350.
Thorium 10
[24] " Monazite-(Ce): Monazite-(Ce) mineral information and data (http:/ / www. mindat. org/ min-2751. html)". .
Retrieved 18 May 2009.
[25] Crouse, David (1959). "The Amex Process for Extracting Thorium Ores with Alkyl Amines". Industrial &
Engineering Chemistry 51: 1461. doi: 10.1021/ie50600a030 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ie50600a030).
[26] K.M.V. Jayaram. " An Overview of World Thorium Resources, Incentives for Further Exploration and Forecast
for Thorium Requirements in the Near Future (http:/ / www. iaea. org/ inis/ aws/ fnss/ fulltext/ 0412_1. pdf)". .
[27] " US approves Indian nuclear deal (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 6219998. stm)". BBC News.
2006-12-09. .
[28] IAEA: Thorium fuel cycle — Potential benefits and challenges (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/
publications/ PDF/ TE_1450_web. pdf). pp. 45. .
[29] " U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries - Thorium (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/
pubs/ commodity/ thorium/ index. html#mcs)". .
[30] " Information and Issue Briefs - Thorium (http:/ / www. world-nuclear. org/ info/ inf62. htm)". World Nuclear
[31] IAEA: Thorium fuel cycle — Potential benefits and challenges (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/
publications/ PDF/ TE_1450_web. pdf). pp. 45(table 8), 97(ref 78). .
[32] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Th/ index. html
[33] http:/ / www. world-nuclear. org/
[34] http:/ / www. euronuclear. org/ info/ encyclopedia/ d/ decaybasinnatural. htm
[35] http:/ / www. acceleratingfuture. com/ michael/ blog/ 2006/ 10/ a-nuclear-reactor-in-every-home/
[36] http:/ / www. world-nuclear. org/ info/ inf62. htm
[37] http:/ / www. cosmosmagazine. com/ node/ 348/
[39] http:/ / www. ensec. org/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article&
id=187:thorium-as-a-secure-nuclear-fuel-alternative& catid=94:0409content& Itemid=342
[40] http:/ / www. orau. org/ ptp/ collection/ quackcures/ endless. htm
[41] http:/ / news. independent. co. uk/ sci_tech/ article2070374. ece
[42] http:/ / thoriumenergy. blogspot. com
[43] http:/ / www. energyfromthorium. com/

Thorium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=309574608 Contributors: 2mcm, 65.68.87.xxx, Aarchiba, Acalamari, Acid88, Adapter,
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Donarreiskoffer, DrHonzik, Dwmyers, Edgar181, El C, Emperorbma, Femto, Finefellow, Fionaclee, Foo1942, Fresheneesz, Fundamental metric tensor,
Furrykef, G-Man, Gaius Cornelius, GeorgeTSLC, Graeme Bartlett, Graibeard, Greatpatton, Grey Shadow, Gsmcolect, Gthb, Guthrie, Hak-kâ-ngìn,
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Protactinium 1
Protactinium
thorium ← protactinium → uranium

Pr
↑
Pa
↓
(Uqu)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number protactinium, Pa, 91
Element category actinides
Appearance bright, silvery metallic luster

−1
[Rn] 7s 6d 5f
1 2
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3

(1568 °C, 2854 °F)
Boiling point ? 4300 K

(? 4027 °C, ? 7280 °F)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 2, 3, 4, 5
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Protactinium 2
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 47 W·m−1·K−1
Main article: Isotopes of protactinium

229
Pa syn 1.4 d α 5.58 225
Ac
230
Pa syn 17.4 d ε 1.310 230
Th
β− 0.563 230
U
231
Pa ~100% 32760 y α 5.149 227
Ac
232
Pa syn 1.31 d β
− 0.31 232
U
233
Pa syn 26.967 d β
− 0.571 233
U
234m
Pa syn 1.17 min β
− 2.29 234
U
IT 0.0694 234
→ Pa
234
Pa syn 6.75 h β
− 0.23 234
U
References
Protactinium (pronounced /ˌproʊtækˈtɪniəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Pa

and atomic number 91. Its longest-lived and only naturally-occurring isotope, Pa-231, is a
decay product of uranium-235 (U-235), and it has a half-life of 32,760 years.
Characteristics
Protactinium is a metallic element that belongs to the actinoid group, with a bright metallic
luster that it retains for some time in contact with air.[2] Protactinium is superconductive at
temperatures below 1.4 K.[3]
Applications
Due to its scarcity, high radioactivity, and high toxicity, there are currently no uses for
protactinium outside of scientific research.
Protactinium-231 (which is formed by the alpha decay of U-235 followed by beta decay of
thorium-231) could possibly sustain a nuclear chain reaction. The physicist Walter Seifritz
once estimated that protactinium might possibly be used to build a nuclear weapon with a
critical mass of 750±180 kg. This possibility (of a chain reaction) has been ruled out by
other nuclear physicists since then.
The ratio of protactinium-231 to thorium-230 in ocean sediments has also been used in
paleoceanography to reconstruct the movements of North Atlantic water bodies during the
last melting of Ice Age glaciers.[4]
Protactinium 3
History
In 1890, Mendeleev predicted the existence of an element between thorium and uranium.
In 1900, William Crookes isolated protactinium as a radioactive material from uranium;
however, he did not identify it as a new element[5]
Protactinium was first identified in 1913, when Kasimir Fajans and O. H. Göring
encountered the short-lived isotope Pa-234 (half-life of about 1.17 minutes), during their
studies of the decay chains of uranium-238 (U-238). They gave the new element the name
brevium (from the Latin word, brevis, meaning brief or short);[6] [7] the name was changed
to protoactinium in 1918 when two groups of scientists (lead by Otto Hahn and Lise
Meitner of Germany; and Frederick Soddy and John Cranston of Great Britain)
independently discovered Pa-231. The name was shortened to Protactinium in 1949.
Aristid von Grosse prorduced 2 mg of Pa2O5 in 1927,[8] and in 1934 performed the first
isolation of elemental protactinium from 0.1 mg of Pa2O5, by converting the oxide to an
iodide and then reducing it in a vacuum with an electrically-heated metal filament by the
reaction 2PaI5 → 2Pa + 5I2 (iodide process).
In 1961, the British Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) was able to produce 125 grams of
99.9% pure protactinium by processing 60 tons of waste material in a 12-stage process. For
many years, this was the world's only significant supply of protactinium.
Occurrence
Protactinium occurs in pitchblende to the extent of about 1.0 part 231Pa per 10 million parts
of ore (i.e., 0.1 ppm). Some ores from the Democratic Republic of the Congo have about 3.0
ppm. Protactinium is one of the rarest and most expensive naturally occurring elements.[2]
Compounds
Examples of protactinium compounds:
• Fluorides: protactinium(IV) fluoride PaF4,
protactinium(V) fluoride PaF5
• Chlorides: protactinium(IV) chloride PaCl4,
protactinium(V) chloride PaCl5
• Bromides: protactinium(IV) bromide PaBr4,
protactinium(V) bromide PaBr5
• Iodides: protactinium(III) iodide PaI3,
protactinium(IV) iodide PaI4,
protactinium(V) iodide PaI5
• Oxides: protactinium(II) oxide PaO,
protactinium(IV) oxide PaO2,
protactinium(V) oxide Pa2O5
See also Protactinium compounds.
Protactinium 4
Isotopes
Twenty-nine radioisotopes of protactinium have been discovered, with the most stable
being Pa-231 with a half life of 32760 years, Pa-233 with a half-life of 27.0 days, and Pa-230
with a half-life of 17.4 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are
less than 1.60 days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 1.8 seconds.
Protactinium also has two meta states, Pa-217m (half-life 1.2 milliseconds) and Pa-234m
(half-life 1.17 minutes).
The primary decay mode for isotopes of Protactinium lighter than (and including) the most
stable isotope Pa-231 (ie, Pa-212 to Pa-231) is alpha decay and the primary mode for the
heavier isotopes (ie, Pa-232 to Pa-240) is beta decay. The primary decay products of
isotopes of protactinium lighter than (and including) Pa-231 are actinium isotopes and the
primary decay products for the heavier isotopes of protactinium are uranium isotopes.
Precautions
Protactinium is both toxic and highly radioactive. It requires precautions similar to those
used when handling plutonium.
External links
• ANL factsheet [9]
[10]
• WebElements.com - Protactinium
• It's Elemental - Protactinium [11]
• PROTACTINIUM [12]
pnb:‫مینیٹکیٹورپ‬
References
0849304857.
[3] R. D. Fowler et al. (1965). "Superconductivity of Protactinium". Phys. Rev. Lett. 15: 860. doi:
[4] J. F. McManus, R. Francois, J.-M. Gherardi, L. D. Keigwin, and S. Brown-Leger (2004). "Collapse and rapid
resumption of Atlantic meridional circulation linked to deglacial climate changes". Nature 428: 834-837.
[5] Emsley, John (2001). " Protactinium (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC& pg=PA348)".
Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press.
pp. 347–349. ISBN 0198503407. .
[6] K. Fajans and 0. Gohring, (1913). " Über die komplexe Natur des Ur X (http:/ / www. digizeitschriften. de/
no_cache/ home/ jkdigitools/ loader/ ?tx_jkDigiTools_pi1[IDDOC]=201162& tx_jkDigiTools_pi1[pp]=425)".
Naturwissenschaften 14: 339. doi: 10.1007/BF01495360 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF01495360). .
[7] K. Fajans and 0. Gohring, (1913). "Über das Uran X2-das neue Element der Uranreihe". Physikalische
Zeitschrift 14: 877–84.
[8] Aristid von Grosse (1928). "Das Element 91; seine Eigenschaften und seine Gewinnung". Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 61 (1): 233–245. doi: 10.1002/cber.19280610137 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1002/ cber. 19280610137).
[9] http:/ / www. ead. anl. gov/ pub/ doc/ protactinium. pdf
[10] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Pa/ index. html
[12] http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ protactinium. html

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License
Uranium 1
Uranium
protactinium ← uranium → neptuniumNd
↑
U
↓
(Uqb)

92U
Periodic table
Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

Uranium 2
at T/K 2325 2564 2859 3234 3727 4402
Atomic properties Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energies 2nd: 1420

kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radiusVan der Waals radius Miscellaneous Crystal
structureMagnetic orderingElectrical resistivityThermal conductivityThermal
ratioCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of uranium
232 syn 68.9 y α & SF 5.414 228

U Th
233 syn 159,200 y SF & α 4.909 229

U Th
234 0.0054% 245,500 y SF & α 4.859 230

U Th
235 0.7204% SF & α 4.679

7.038×108 y 231
U Th
236 syn SF & α 4.572

2.342×107 y 232
U Th
238 99.2742% SF & α 4.270

4.468×109 y 234
U Th
uranium, U, 92 actiniden/a, 7, f238.02891(3) g·mol−1 [Rn] 5f3 6d1 7s2 2, 8, 18, 32, 21, 9, 2
(Image) solid 19.1 g·cm−3 17.3 g·cm−3 1405.3 K,1132.3 °C,2070 °F 4404 K,4131 °C,7468 °F
9.14 kJ·mol−1 417.1 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C) 27.665 J·mol−1·K−16, 5, 4, 3[1]
(weakly basic oxide) 1.38 (Pauling scale) 1st: 597.6 kJ·mol−1156 pm 196±7 pm 186 pm
orthorhombic paramagnetic (0 °C) 0.280 µΩ·m (300 K) 27.5 W·m−1·K−1 (25 °C) 13.9
µm·m−1·K−1 (20 °C) 3155 m/s 208 GPa 111 GPa 100 GPa 0.23 7440-61-1
Uranium (pronounced /jʊˈreɪniəm/) is a silvery-white metallic chemical element in the
actinide series of the periodic table that has the symbol U and atomic number 92. Besides
its 92 protons, a uranium nucleus can have between 141 and 146 neutrons, with 146
(U-238) and 143 (U-235) in its most common isotopes. The number of electrons in a
uranium atom is 92, 6 of them valence electrons. Uranium has the highest atomic weight of
the naturally occurring elements. Uranium is approximately 70% denser than lead, but not
as dense as gold or tungsten. It is weakly radioactive. It occurs naturally in low
concentrations (a few parts per million) in soil, rock and water, and is commercially
extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite (see uranium mining).
In nature, uranium atoms exist as uranium-238 (99.284%), uranium-235 (0.711%),[2] and a
very small amount of uranium-234 (0.0058%). Uranium decays slowly by emitting an alpha
particle. The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4.47 billion years and that of uranium-235 is
704 million years,[3] making them useful in dating the age of the Earth (see
uranium-thorium dating, uranium-lead dating and uranium-uranium dating).
Many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its unique nuclear properties. Uranium-235 has
the distinction of being the only naturally occurring fissile isotope. Uranium-238 is both
fissionable by fast neutrons, and fertile (capable of being transmuted to fissile
plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor). An artificial fissile isotope, uranium-233, can be
produced from natural thorium and is also important in nuclear technology. While
uranium-238 has a small probability to fission spontaneously or when bombarded with fast
neutrons, the much higher probability of uranium-235 and to a lesser degree uranium-233
to fission when bombarded with slow neutrons generates the heat in nuclear reactors used
as a source of power, and provides the fissile material for nuclear weapons. Both uses rely
Uranium 3
on the ability of uranium to produce a sustained nuclear chain reaction. Depleted uranium
(uranium-238) is used in kinetic energy penetrators and armor plating.[4]
Uranium is used as a colorant in uranium glass, producing orange-red to lemon yellow
hues. It was also used for tinting and shading in early photography. The 1789 discovery of
uranium in the mineral pitchblende is credited to Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named the
new element after the planet Uranus. Eugène-Melchior Péligot was the first person to
isolate the metal, and its radioactive properties were uncovered in 1896 by Antoine
Becquerel. Research by Enrico Fermi and others starting in 1934 led to its use as a fuel in
the nuclear power industry and in Little Boy, the first nuclear weapon used in war. An
ensuing arms race during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union
produced tens of thousands of nuclear weapons that used enriched uranium and
uranium-derived plutonium. The security of those weapons and their fissile material
following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 is an ongoing concern for public health
and safety.
Characteristics
When refined, uranium is a silvery white, weakly radioactive
metal, which is slightly softer than steel,[5] strongly
electropositive and a poor electrical conductor.[6] It is
malleable, ductile, and slightly paramagnetic.[5] Uranium
metal has very high density, being approximately 70%
denser than lead, but slightly less dense than gold.
Uranium metal reacts with almost all nonmetallic elements

and their compounds, with reactivity increasing with
temperature.[7] Hydrochloric and nitric acids dissolve
uranium, but nonoxidizing acids attack the element very
slowly.[6] When finely divided, it can react with cold water; in
air, uranium metal becomes coated with a dark layer of
uranium oxide.[5] Uranium in ores is extracted chemically
and converted into uranium dioxide or other chemical forms
An induced nuclear fission event usable in industry.
involving uranium-235
Uranium was the first element that was found to be fissile.
Upon bombardment with slow neutrons, its uranium-235 isotope will most of the time
divide into two smaller nuclei, releasing nuclear binding energy and more neutrons. If these
neutrons are absorbed by other uranium-235 nuclei, a nuclear chain reaction occurs and, if
there is nothing to absorb some neutrons and slow the reaction, the reaction is explosive.
As little as 15 lb (7 kg) of uranium-235 can be used to make an atomic bomb.[8] The first
nuclear bomb used in war, Little Boy, relied on uranium fission, while the very first nuclear
explosive (The gadget) and the bomb that destroyed Nagasaki (Fat Man) were plutonium
bombs.
Uranium metal has three allotropic forms:[9]

• α (orthorhombic) stable up to 660 °C
• β (tetragonal) stable from 660 °C to 760 °C
• γ (body-centered cubic) from 760 °C to melting point—this is the most malleable and
ductile state.
Uranium 4
Applications
Military
The major application of uranium in the military sector
is in high-density penetrators. This ammunition consists
of depleted uranium (DU) alloyed with 1–2% other
elements. At high impact speed, the density, hardness,
and flammability of the projectile enable destruction of
heavily armored targets. Tank armor and the removable
armor on combat vehicles are also hardened with
depleted uranium plates. The use of DU became a
contentious political-environmental issue after the use
Depleted uranium is used by various of DU munitions by the US, UK and other countries
militaries as high-density penetrators. during wars in the Persian Gulf and the Balkans raised
questions of uranium compounds left in the soil (see
Gulf War Syndrome).[8]
Depleted uranium is also used as a shielding material in some containers used to store and
transport radioactive materials.[6] Other uses of DU include counterweights for aircraft
control surfaces, as ballast for missile re-entry vehicles and as a shielding material.[5] Due
to its high density, this material is found in inertial guidance devices and in gyroscopic
compasses.[5] DU is preferred over similarly dense metals due to its ability to be easily
machined and cast as well as its relatively low cost.[10] Counter to popular belief, the main
risk of exposure to DU is chemical poisoning by uranium oxide rather than radioactivity
(uranium being only a weak alpha emitter).
During the later stages of World War II, the entire Cold War, and to a lesser extent
afterwards, uranium has been used as the fissile explosive material to produce nuclear
weapons. Two major types of fission bombs were built: a relatively simple device that uses
uranium-235 and a more complicated mechanism that uses uranium-238-derived
plutonium-239. Later, a much more complicated and far more powerful fusion bomb that
uses a plutonium-based device in a uranium casing to cause a mixture of tritium and
deuterium to undergo nuclear fusion was built.[11]
Uranium 5
Civilian
The main use of uranium in the civilian sector is to
fuel commercial nuclear power plants; by the time it
is completely fissioned, one kilogram of
uranium-235 can theoretically produce about
20 trillion joules of energy (2 × 1013 joules); as
much energy as 1500 tonnes of coal.[4]
Commercial nuclear power plants use fuel that is

typically enriched to around 3% uranium-235.[4] The
CANDU reactor is the only commercial reactor
capable of using unenriched uranium fuel. Fuel used
for United States Navy reactors is typically highly
enriched in uranium-235 (the exact values are
classified). In a breeder reactor, uranium-238 can
also be converted into plutonium through the
following reaction:[5] 238U (n, gamma) → 239U
-(beta) → 239Np -(beta) → 239Pu.
One of the major yet-unresolved issues with

uranium nuclear fuel is the creation of large amount
of nuclear waste. Traditional nuclear reactors burn
only 1-2% of uranium fuel. However, it is worth 1oz. sample of U-238 under oil. Surface
corrosion is visible on the recently polished
noting that other designs of nuclear reactors using
surface.
alternative, liquid thorium fuel in molten salt
reactors produce virtually no long-lasting nuclear
waste.
The most visible civilian use of

uranium is as the thermal power
source used in nuclear power plants.
Uranium 6
Prior to the discovery of radiation, uranium was

primarily used in small amounts for yellow glass and
pottery glazes (such as uranium glass and in
Fiestaware).
After Marie Curie discovered radium in uranium ore, a
huge industry developed to mine uranium so as to
extract the radium, which was used to make
glow-in-the-dark paints for clock and aircraft dials.[12]
This left a prodigious quantity of uranium as a 'waste
Uranium glass used as lead-in seals in
a vacuum capacitor product', since it takes three metric tons of uranium to
extract one gram of radium. This 'waste product' was
diverted to the glazing industry, making uranium glazes very inexpensive and abundant. In
addition to the pottery glazes, uranium tile glazes accounted for the bulk of the use,
including common bathroom and kitchen tiles which can be produced in green, yellow,
mauve, black, blue, red and other colors.
Uranium was also used in photographic chemicals (esp.

uranium nitrate as a toner),[5] in lamp filaments, to
improve the appearance of dentures, and in the leather
and wood industries for stains and dyes. Uranium salts
are mordants of silk or wool. Uranyl acetate and uranyl
formate are used as electron-dense "stains" in
transmission electron microscopy, to increase the
contrast of biological specimens in ultrathin sections
and in negative staining of viruses, isolated cell
Uranium glass glowing under UV light
organelles and macromolecules.
The discovery of the radioactivity of uranium ushered in additional scientific and practical
uses of the element. The long half-life of the isotope uranium-238 (4.51 × 109 years) makes
it well-suited for use in estimating the age of the earliest igneous rocks and for other types
of radiometric dating (including uranium-thorium dating and uranium-lead dating).
Uranium metal is used for X-ray targets in the making of high-energy X-rays.[5]
History
Pre-discovery use
The use of uranium in its natural oxide form dates back to at least the year 79 CE, when it
was used to add a yellow color to ceramic glazes.[5] Yellow glass with 1% uranium oxide
was found in a Roman villa on Cape Posillipo in the Bay of Naples, Italy by R. T. Gunther of
the University of Oxford in 1912.[13] Starting in the late Middle Ages, pitchblende was
extracted from the Habsburg silver mines in Joachimsthal, Bohemia (now Jáchymov in the
Czech Republic) and was used as a coloring agent in the local glassmaking industry.[14] In
the early 19th century, the world's only known sources of uranium ores were these mines.
Uranium 7
Discovery
The discovery of the element is credited to the German
chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. While he was
working in his experimental laboratory in Berlin in
1789, Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow
compound (likely sodium diuranate) by dissolving
pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution
with sodium hydroxide.[14] Klaproth mistakenly
assumed the yellow substance was the oxide of a
yet-undiscovered element and heated it with charcoal to
Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered obtain a black powder, which he thought was the newly
the phenomenon of radioactivity by discovered metal itself (in fact, that powder was an
exposing a photographic plate to oxide of uranium).[14] [15] He named the newly
uranium (1896).
discovered element after the planet Uranus, which had
been discovered eight years earlier by William
Herschel.[16]
In 1841, Eugène-Melchior Péligot, who was Professor of Analytical Chemistry at the

Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (Central School of Arts and Manufactures) in
Paris, isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with
potassium.[14] [17] Uranium was not seen as being particularly dangerous during much of
the 19th century, leading to the development of various uses for the element. One such use
for the oxide was the aforementioned but no longer secret coloring of pottery and glass.
Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity by using uranium in 1896.[7] Becquerel

made the discovery in Paris by leaving a sample of a uranium salt on top of an unexposed
photographic plate in a drawer and noting that the plate had become 'fogged'.[18] He
determined that a form of invisible light or rays emitted by uranium had exposed the plate.
Fission research
A team led by Enrico Fermi in 1934 observed that
bombarding uranium with neutrons produces the
emission of beta rays (electrons or positrons; see beta
particle).[19] The fission products were at first mistaken
for new elements of atomic numbers 93 and 94, which
the Dean of the Faculty of Rome, Orso Mario Corbino,
Enrico Fermi (bottom left) and the rest
christened ausonium and hesperium, respectively.[20]
of the team that initiated the first
[21] [22] [23]
artificial nuclear chain reaction (1942). The experiments leading to the discovery of
uranium's ability to fission (break apart) into lighter
elements and release binding energy were conducted by Otto Hahn and Fritz
Strassmann[19] in Hahn's laboratory in Berlin. Lise Meitner and her nephew, physicist Otto
Robert Frisch, published the physical explanation in February 1939 and named the process
'nuclear fission'.[24] Soon after, Fermi hypothesized that the fission of uranium might
release enough neutrons to sustain a fission reaction. Confirmation of this hypothesis came
in 1939, and later work found that on average about 2.5 neutrons are released by each
fission of the rare uranium isotope uranium-235.[19] Further work found that the far more
common uranium-238 isotope can be transmuted into plutonium, which, like uranium-235,
Uranium 8
is also fissionable by thermal neutrons. These discoveries led numerous countries to begin
working on the development of nuclear weapons and nuclear power.
On 2 December 1942, as part of the Manhattan Project, another team led by Enrico Fermi
was able to initiate the first artificial nuclear chain reaction, Chicago Pile-1. Working in a
lab below the stands of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago, the team created the
conditions needed for such a reaction by piling together 400 tons (360 tonnes) of graphite,
58 tons (53 tonnes) of uranium oxide, and six tons (five and a half tonnes) of uranium
metal.[19]
Bombs
Two major types of atomic bomb were developed by the
United States during World War II: a uranium-based
device (codenamed "Little Boy") whose fissile material
was highly enriched uranium, and a plutonium-based
device (see Trinity test and "Fat Man") whose
plutonium was derived from uranium-238. The
uranium-based Little Boy device became the first
nuclear weapon used in war when it was detonated
over the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945.
Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes of
TNT, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed
nearly 50,000 buildings and killed approximately
75,000 people (see Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and
The mushroom cloud over Hiroshima Nagasaki).[18] Initially it was believed that uranium was
after the dropping of the relatively rare, and that nuclear proliferation could be
uranium-based atomic bomb avoided by simply buying up all known uranium stocks,
nicknamed 'Little Boy' (1945)
but within a decade large deposits of it were discovered
in many places around the world.[25]
Reactors
The X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, formerly
known as the Clinton Pile and X-10 Pile, was the world's
second artificial nuclear reactor (after Enrico Fermi's
Chicago Pile) and was the first reactor designed and
built for continuous operation. The Experimental
Breeder Reactor I at the Idaho National Laboratory
(INL) near Arco, Idaho became the first nuclear reactor
to create electricity on 20 December 1951. Initially,
Four light bulbs lit with electricity
four 150-watt light bulbs were lit by the reactor, but
generated from the first artificial
improvements eventually enabled it to power the whole electricity-producing nuclear reactor,
facility (later, the town of Arco became the first in the EBR-I (1951)
world to have all its electricity come from nuclear
power).[26] The world's first commercial scale nuclear power station, Obninsk in the Soviet
Uranium 9
Union, began generation with its reactor AM-1 on 27 June 1954. Other early nuclear power
plants were Calder Hall in England which began generation on 17 October 1956[27] and the
Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Pennsylvania which began on 26 May 1958. Nuclear
power was used for the first time for propulsion by a submarine, the USS Nautilus, in
[19]
1954.
Naturally occurring nuclear fission

Fifteen ancient and no longer active natural nuclear fission reactors were found in three
separate ore deposits at the Oklo mine in Gabon, West Africa in 1972. Discovered by
French physicist Francis Perrin, they are collectively known as the Oklo Fossil Reactors.
The ore they exist in is 1.7 billion years old; at that time, uranium-235 constituted about
three percent of the total uranium on Earth.[28] This is high enough to permit a sustained
nuclear fission chain reaction to occur, providing other conditions are right. The ability of
the surrounding sediment to contain the nuclear waste products in less than ideal
conditions has been cited by the U.S. federal government as evidence of their claim that the
Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository could safely be a repository of waste for the
nuclear power industry.[28]
Cold War legacy and waste

During the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the
United States, huge stockpiles of uranium were
amassed and tens of thousands of nuclear weapons
were created using enriched uranium and plutonium
made from uranium.
Since the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, an
estimated 600 tons (540 tonnes) of highly enriched
weapons grade uranium (enough to make 40,000
nuclear warheads) have been stored in often U.S. and USSR/Russian nuclear
inadequately guarded facilities in the Russian weapons stockpiles, 1945–2006
[8]
Federation and several other former Soviet states.
Police in Asia, Europe, and South America on at least 16 occasions from 1993 to 2005 have
intercepted shipments of smuggled bomb-grade uranium or plutonium, most of which was
from ex-Soviet sources.[8] From 1993 to 2005 the Material Protection, Control, and
Accounting Program, operated by the federal government of the United States, spent
approximately US $550 million to help safeguard uranium and plutonium stockpiles in
Russia.[8] This money was used for improvements and security enhancements at research
and storage facilities. Scientific American reported in February 2006 that some of the
facilities security consisted of chain link fences which were in severe states of disrepair.
According to an interview from the article, one facility had been storing samples of
enriched (weapons grade) uranium in a broom closet prior to the improvement project;
another had been keeping track of its stock of nuclear warheads using index cards kept in a
shoe box.[29]
Above-ground nuclear tests by the Soviet Union and the United States in the 1950s and
early 1960s and by France into the 1970s and 1980s[10] spread a significant amount of
fallout from uranium daughter isotopes around the world.[30] Additional fallout and
pollution occurred from several nuclear accidents.
Uranium 10
The Windscale fire at the Sellafield nuclear plant in 1957 spread iodine-131, a short lived
radioactive isotope, over much of Northern England.
In 1979, the Three Mile Island accident released a small amount of iodine-131. The
amounts released by the partial meltdown of the Three Mile Island power plant were
minimal, and an environmental survey found only trace amounts in a few field mice
dwelling nearby. As I-131 has a half life of slightly more than eight days, any danger posed
by the radioactive material has long since passed for both of these incidents.
However, the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was a complete core breach meltdown and partial
detonation of the reactor, which ejected iodine-131 and strontium-90 over a large area of
Europe. The 28 year half-life of strontium-90 has only recently allowed some of the
surrounding countryside around the reactor to be habitable.[10] Since this is less than one
half life after the accident, more than half of the original release of strontium-90 will still be
present.
Occurrence
Biotic and abiotic

Uranium is a naturally occurring element that can be
found in low levels within all rock, soil, and water.
Uranium is also the highest-numbered element to be
found naturally in significant quantities on earth and is
always found combined with other elements.[5] Along
with all elements having atomic weights higher than
that of iron, it is only naturally formed in
supernovas.[31] The decay of uranium, thorium, and
potassium-40 in the Earth's mantle is thought to be the
main source of heat[32] [33] that keeps the outer core
Uraninite, also known as Pitchblende, liquid and drives mantle convection, which in turn
is the most common ore mined to drives plate tectonics.
extract uranium.
Uranium's average concentration in the Earth's crust is
(depending on the reference) 2 to 4 parts per million,[6] [10] or about 40 times as abundant
as silver.[7] The Earth's crust from the surface to 25 km (15 mi) down is calculated to
contain 1017 kg (2 × 1017 lb) of uranium while the oceans may contain 1013 kg
(2 × 1013 lb).[6] The concentration of uranium in soil ranges from 0.7 to 11 parts per million
(up to 15 parts per million in farmland soil due to use of phosphate fertilizers), and its
concentration in sea water is 3 parts per billion.[10]
Uranium is more plentiful than antimony, tin, cadmium, mercury, or silver, and it is about
as abundant as arsenic or molybdenum.[5] [10] Uranium is found in hundreds of minerals
including uraninite (the most common uranium ore), carnotite, autunite, uranophane,
torbernite, and coffinite.[5] Significant concentrations of uranium occur in some substances
such as phosphate rock deposits, and minerals such as lignite, and monazite sands in
uranium-rich ores[5] (it is recovered commercially from sources with as little as 0.1%
uranium[7] ).
Uranium 11
Some organisms, such as the lichen Trapelia involuta or

microorganisms such as the bacterium Citrobacter, can
absorb concentrations of uranium that are up to 300
times higher than in their environment.[34] Citrobacter
species absorb uranyl ions when given glycerol
phosphate (or other similar organic phosphates). After
one day, one gram of bacteria can encrust themselves
with nine grams of uranyl phosphate crystals; this
Citrobacter species can have
creates the possibility that these organisms could be
concentrations of uranium in their
used in bioremediation to decontaminate bodies 300 times higher than in the
uranium-polluted water.[14] [35] surrounding environment.
In nature, uranium (VI) forms highly soluble carbonate

complexes at alkaline pH. This leads to an increase in mobility and availability of uranium
to groundwater and soil from nuclear wastes which leads to health hazards. However, it is
difficult to precipitate uranium as phosphate in the presence of excess carbonate at alkaline
pH. A Sphingomonas sp. strain BSAR-1 has been found to express a high activity alkaline
phosphatase (PhoK) that has been applied for bioprecipitation of uranium as uranyl
phosphate species from alkaline solutions. The precipitation ability was enhanced by
overexpressing PhoK protein in E. coli.[36]
Plants absorb some uranium from soil. Dry weight concentrations of uranium in plants
range from 5 to 60 parts per billion, and ash from burnt wood can have concentrations up
to 4 parts per million.[14] Dry weight concentrations of uranium in food plants are typically
lower with one to two micrograms per day ingested through the food people eat.[14]
Production and mining

The worldwide production of uranium in 2006 amounted to 39 655 tonnes, of which 25%
was mined in Canada. Other important uranium mining countries are Australia (19.1%),
Kazakhstan (13.3%), Niger (8.7%), Russia (8.6%), and Namibia (7.8%).
Uranium ore is mined in several ways: by open pit,
underground, in-situ leaching, and borehole mining (see
uranium mining).[4] Low-grade uranium ore mined in
2006 typically contains 0.01 to 0.25% uranium oxides.
Extensive measures must be employed to extract the
metal from its ore.[37] High-grade ores found in
Athabasca Basin deposits in Saskatchewan, Canada can
Yellowcake is a concentrated mixture contain up to 70% uranium oxides, and therefore must
of uranium oxides that is further
be diluted with rock prior to milling, in order to reduce
refined to extract pure uranium.
radiation exposure to workers. Uranium ore is crushed
and rendered into a fine powder and then leached with
either an acid or alkali. The leachate is subjected to one of several sequences of
precipitation, solvent extraction, and ion exchange. The resulting mixture, called
yellowcake, contains at least 75% uranium oxides. Yellowcake is then calcined to remove
impurities from the milling process prior to refining and conversion.
Commercial-grade uranium can be produced through the reduction of uranium halides with
alkali or alkaline earth metals.[5] Uranium metal can also be made through electrolysis of
Uranium 12
KU5 or UF4, dissolved in molten calcium chloride (CaCl2) and sodium chloride (NaCl)
solution.[5] Very pure uranium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of
uranium halides on a hot filament.[5]
Miners who worked in uranium filled mines have a very high incidence of cancer relative to
the rest of the United States population. Though the Navajo workers and families noticed
this in the 1950s, bureaucrats dragged their feet, and companies disregarded warnings.
The miners, especially the Navajo miners, were kept from receiving compensation for the
suffering they went through. In 1990 a law was passed known as the Radiation Exposure
Compensation Act of 1990 (RECA) (Eichstaedt, 1994). The law required $100,000 in
"compassion payments" to uranium miners diagnosed with cancer or other respiratory
ailments (Eichstaedt, 1994; Benally Sr., 1995). To qualify for compensation, a miner had to
prove that s/he had worked in the mines and was now suffering from one of the diseases on
the compensation list (Eichstaedt, 1994; Benally Sr. 1995).[38]
Resources and reserves

Current economic uranium resources will last for over 100 years at 2006 consumption
rates, while it is expected there is twice that amount awaiting discovery. With reprocessing
and recycling, the reserves are good for thousands of years.[39] It is estimated that 5.5
million tonnes of uranium ore reserves are economically viable at US$59/lb,[39] while 35
million tonnes are classed as mineral resources (reasonable prospects for eventual
economic extraction).[40] An additional 4.6 billion tonnes of uranium are estimated to be in
sea water (Japanese scientists in the 1980s showed that extraction of uranium from sea
water using ion exchangers was feasible).[41] [42]
Exploration for uranium is increasing with US$200 million being spent world wide in 2005,
a 54% increase on the previous year.[40] This trend continued through 2006, when
expenditure on exploration rocketed to over $774 million, an increase of over 250%
compared to 2004. The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency said exploration figures for 2007
would likely match those for 2006.[39]
Australia has 23% of the world's uranium ore reserves[43] and the world's largest single
uranium deposit, located at the Olympic Dam Mine in South Australia.[44] Almost all
Australia's mined uranium is exported, under strict International Atomic Energy Agency
safeguards against use in nuclear weapons.
Some nuclear fuel comes from nuclear weapons being dismantled.[45]
Supply
In 2005, seventeen countries produced concentrated
uranium oxides, with Canada (27.9% of world
production) and Australia (22.8%) being the largest
producers and Kazakhstan (10.5%), Russia (8.0%),
Namibia (7.5%), Niger (7.4%), Uzbekistan (5.5%), the
United States (2.5%), Argentina (2.1%), Ukraine (1.9%) Uranium output in 2005
and China (1.7%) also producing significant
amounts.[46] Kazakhstan continues to increase production and may become the world's
largest producer of uranium by this year (2009) with an expected production of
Uranium 13
12,826 tonnes, compared to Canada with 11,100 tonnes and Australia with 9,430 tonnes.[47]

[48]
The ultimate available uranium is believed to be sufficient for at least the next 85
years[40] although some studies indicate underinvestment in the late twentieth century may
produce supply problems in the 21st century.[49]
Some claim that production of uranium will peak similar to peak oil. Kenneth S. Deffeyes
and Ian D. MacGregor point out that uranium deposits seem to be log-normal distributed.
There is a 300-fold increase in the amount of uranium recoverable for each tenfold
decrease in ore grade."[50] In other words, there is little high grade ore and proportionately
much more low grade ore available.
Compounds
Oxidation states and oxides
Oxides
Calcined uranium yellowcake as produced in many

large mills contains a distribution of uranium oxidation
species in various forms ranging from most oxidized to
least oxidized. Particles with short residence times in a
calciner will generally be less oxidized than those with
long retention times or particles recovered in the stack
scrubber. Uranium content is usually referenced to
U3O8, which dates to the days of the Manhattan project Triuranium octaoxide (diagram
when U3O8 was used as an analytical chemistry pictured) and uranium dioxide are the
two most common uranium oxides.
reporting standard.
Phase relationships in the uranium-oxygen system are complex. The most important
oxidation states of uranium are uranium(IV) and uranium(VI), and their two corresponding
oxides are, respectively, uranium dioxide (UO2) and uranium trioxide (UO3).[51] Other
uranium oxides such as uranium monoxide (UO), diuranium pentoxide (U2O5), and uranium
peroxide (UO4•2H2O) also exist.
The most common forms of uranium oxide are triuranium octaoxide (U3O8) and UO2.[52]
Both oxide forms are solids that have low solubility in water and are relatively stable over a
wide range of environmental conditions. Triuranium octaoxide is (depending on conditions)
the most stable compound of uranium and is the form most commonly found in nature.
Uranium dioxide is the form in which uranium is most commonly used as a nuclear reactor
fuel.[52] At ambient temperatures, UO2 will gradually convert to U3O8. Because of their
stability, uranium oxides are generally considered the preferred chemical form for storage
or disposal.[52]
Aqueous chemistry
The four different oxidation states of uranium are soluble and therefore can be studied in
aqueous solutions. They are: U3+ (red), U4+ (green), UO2+ (unstable), and UO22+
(yellow).[53] A few solid and semi-metallic compounds such as UO and US exist for the
formal oxidation state uranium(II), but no simple ions are known to exist in solution for that
state. Ions of U3+ liberate hydrogen from water and are therefore considered to be highly
unstable. The UO22+ ion represents the uranium(VI) state and is known to form compounds
Uranium 14
such as carbonate, chloride and sulfate. UO22+ also forms complexes with various organic
chelating agents, the most commonly encountered of which is uranyl acetate.[53]
Carbonates
The interactions of carbonate anions with

uranium(VI) cause the Pourbaix diagram to
change greatly when the medium is changed
from water to a carbonate containing
solution. It is interesting to note that while
the vast majority of carbonates are insoluble
in water (students are often taught that all
carbonates other than those of alkali metals
are insoluble in water), uranium carbonates
are often soluble in water. This is due to the
fact that a U(VI) cation is able to bind two
terminal oxides and three or more The Pourbaix diagram for uranium in a
carbonates to form anionic complexes. non-complexing aqueous medium (eg perchloric
[54]
acid / sodium hydroxide).
The Pourbaix diagram for uranium in carbonate

[54]
solution
Uranium 15
The effect of pH
The uranium fraction diagrams in the

presence of carbonate illustrate this further:
when the pH of a uranium(VI) solution
increases, the uranium is converted to a
hydrated uranium oxide hydroxide and at
high pHs it becomes an anionic hydroxide
complex.
When carbonate is added, uranium is
converted to a series of carbonate complexes
if the pH is increased. One effect of these
reactions is increased solubility of uranium in
A diagram showing the relative concentrations of the pH range 6 to 8, a fact which has a direct
the different chemical forms of uranium in a bearing on the long term stability of spent
non-complexing aqueous medium (eg perchloric
[54] uranium dioxide nuclear fuels.
acid / sodium hydroxide).
Hydrides, carbides and nitrides

Uranium metal heated to 250 to 300 °C (482
to 572 °F) reacts with hydrogen to form
uranium hydride. Even higher temperatures
will reversibly remove the hydrogen. This
property makes uranium hydrides convenient
starting materials to create reactive uranium
powder along with various uranium carbide,
nitride, and halide compounds.[55] Two
crystal modifications of uranium hydride
exist: an α form that is obtained at low
temperatures and a β form that is created
A diagram showing the relative concentrations of when the formation temperature is above
the different chemical forms of uranium in an
[54] 250 °C.[55]
aqueous carbonate solution.
Uranium carbides and uranium nitrides are

both relatively inert semimetallic compounds that are minimally soluble in acids, react with
water, and can ignite in air to form U3O8.[55] Carbides of uranium include uranium
monocarbide (UC), uranium dicarbide (UC2), and diuranium tricarbide (U2C3). Both UC and
UC2 are formed by adding carbon to molten uranium or by exposing the metal to carbon
monoxide at high temperatures. Stable below 1800 °C, U2C3 is prepared by subjecting a
heated mixture of UC and UC2 to mechanical stress.[56] Uranium nitrides obtained by direct
exposure of the metal to nitrogen include uranium mononitride (UN), uranium dinitride
(UN2), and diuranium trinitride (U2N3).[56]
Uranium 16
Halides
All uranium fluorides are created using uranium
tetrafluoride (UF4); UF4 itself is prepared by
hydrofluorination of uranium dioxide.[55] Reduction of
UF4 with hydrogen at 1000 °C produces uranium
trifluoride (UF3). Under the right conditions of
temperature and pressure, the reaction of solid UF4
with gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF6) can form the
intermediate fluorides of U2F9, U4F17, and UF5.[55]
At room temperatures, UF6 has a high vapor pressure,

making it useful in the gaseous diffusion process to
separate uranium-235 from the common uranium-238
isotope. This compound can be prepared from uranium
dioxide and uranium hydride by the following Uranium hexafluoride is the feedstock
process:[55] used to separate uranium-235 from
natural uranium.
UO2 + 4 HF → UF4 + 2 H2O (500 °C, endothermic)
UF4 + F2 → UF6 (350 °C, endothermic)
The resulting UF6, a white solid, is highly reactive (by fluorination), easily sublimes
(emitting a nearly perfect gas vapor), and is the most volatile compound of uranium known
to exist.[55]
One method of preparing uranium tetrachloride (UCl4) is to directly combine chlorine with
either uranium metal or uranium hydride. The reduction of UCl4 by hydrogen produces
uranium trichloride (UCl3) while the higher chlorides of uranium are prepared by reaction
with additional chlorine.[55] All uranium chlorides react with water and air.
Bromides and iodides of uranium are formed by direct reaction of, respectively, bromine
and iodine with uranium or by adding UH3 to those element's acids.[55] Known examples
include: UBr3, UBr4, UI3, and UI4. Uranium oxyhalides are water-soluble and include
UO2F2, UOCl2, UO2Cl2, and UO2Br2. Stability of the oxyhalides decrease as the atomic
weight of the component halide increases.[55]
Isotopes
Natural concentrations
Natural uranium consists of three major isotopes: uranium-238 (99.28% natural
abundance), uranium-235 (0.71%), and uranium-234 (0.0054%). All three are radioactive.
Uranium-238 is the most stable isotope, with a half-life of 4.51 × 109 years (close to the age
of the Earth). Uranium-235 has a half-life of 7.13 × 108 years, and uranium-234 has a
half-life of 2.48 × 105 years.[57]
Uranium-238 is an α emitter, decaying through the 18-member uranium natural decay
series into lead-206.[7] The decay series of uranium-235 (also called actino-uranium) has 15
members that ends in lead-207.[7] The constant rates of decay in these series makes
comparison of the ratios of parent to daughter elements useful in radiometric dating.
Uranium-234 decays to lead-206 through a series of short-lived intermediaries.
Uranium-233 is made from thorium-232 by neutron bombardment;[5] its decay series ends
Uranium 17
with thallium-205.
The isotope uranium-235 is important for both nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons
because it is the only isotope existing in nature to any appreciable extent that is fissile, that
is, can be broken apart by thermal neutrons.[7] The isotope uranium-238 is also important
because it absorbs neutrons to produce a radioactive isotope that subsequently decays to
the isotope plutonium-239, which is also fissile.[19]
Enrichment
Isotope separation concentrates (enriches) the
fissionable uranium-235 for nuclear weapons and most
nuclear power plants, with the exception of gas cooled
reactors and pressurised heavy water reactors. Most
neutrons released by a fissioning atom of uranium-235
must impact other uranium-235 atoms to sustain the
nuclear chain reaction. The concentration and amount
of uranium-235 needed to achieve this is called a
'critical mass'.
Cascades of gas centrifuges are used
To be considered 'enriched', the uranium-235 fraction
to enrich uranium ore to concentrate
should be between 3% and 5%.[58] This process
its fissionable isotopes.
produces huge quantities of uranium that is depleted of
uranium-235 and with a correspondingly increased
fraction of uranium-238, called depleted uranium or 'DU'. To be considered 'depleted', the
uranium-235 isotope concentration should be no more than 0.2% to 0.3%.[59] The price of
uranium has risen since 2001, so enrichment tailings containing more than 0.35%
uranium-235 are being considered for re-enrichment, driving the price of depleted uranium
hexafluoride above $130 per kilogram in July, 2007 from $5 in 2001.[59]
The gas centrifuge process, where gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF6) is separated by the
difference in molecular weight between 235UF6 and 238UF6 using high-speed centrifuges, is
[18]
the cheapest and leading enrichment process. The gaseous diffusion process had been
the leading method for enrichment and was used in the Manhattan Project. In this process,
uranium hexafluoride is repeatedly diffused through a silver-zinc membrane, and the
different isotopes of uranium are separated by diffusion rate (since uranium 238 is heavier
it diffuses slightly slower than uranium-235).[18] The molecular laser isotope separation
method employs a laser beam of precise energy to sever the bond between uranium-235
and fluorine. This leaves uranium-238 bonded to fluorine and allows uranium-235 metal to
precipitate from the solution.[4] Another method used is liquid thermal diffusion.[6]
Precautions
Exposure
A person can be exposed to uranium (or its radioactive daughters such as radon) by
inhaling dust in air or by ingesting contaminated water and food. The amount of uranium in
air is usually very small; however, people who work in factories that process phosphate
fertilizers, live near government facilities that made or tested nuclear weapons, live or work
near a modern battlefield where depleted uranium weapons have been used, or live or work
Uranium 18
near a coal-fired power plant, facilities that mine or process uranium ore, or enrich uranium
for reactor fuel, may have increased exposure to uranium.[60] [61] Houses or structures that
are over uranium deposits (either natural or man-made slag deposits) may have an
increased incidence of exposure to radon gas.
Almost all uranium that is ingested is excreted during digestion, but up to 5% is absorbed
by the body when the soluble uranyl ion is ingested while only 0.5% is absorbed when
insoluble forms of uranium, such as its oxide, are ingested.[14] However, soluble uranium
compounds tend to quickly pass through the body whereas insoluble uranium compounds,
especially when ingested via dust into the lungs, pose a more serious exposure hazard.
After entering the bloodstream, the absorbed uranium tends to bioaccumulate and stay for
many years in bone tissue because of uranium's affinity for phosphates.[14] Uranium is not
absorbed through the skin, and alpha particles released by uranium cannot penetrate the
skin.
Effects
Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and other systems can be affected by
uranium exposure, because, in addition to being weakly radioactive, uranium is a toxic
metal.[14] [62] [63] Uranium is also a reproductive toxicant.[64] [65] Radiological effects are
generally local because alpha radiation, the primary form of U-238 decay, has a very short
range, and will not penetrate skin. Uranyl (UO2+) ions, such as from uranium trioxide or
uranyl nitrate and other hexavalent uranium compounds, have been shown to cause birth
defects and immune system damage in laboratory animals.[66] While the CDC has published
one study that no human cancer has been seen as a result of exposure to natural or
depleted uranium,[67] exposure to uranium and its decay products, especially radon, are
widely known and significant health threats.[10] Exposure to strontium-90, iodine-131, and
other fission products is unrelated to uranium exposure, but may result from medical
procedures or exposure to spent reactor fuel or fallout from nuclear weapons.[68] Although
accidental inhalation exposure to a high concentration of uranium hexafluoride has resulted
in human fatalities, those deaths were not associated with uranium itself.[69] Finely divided
uranium metal presents a fire hazard because uranium is pyrophoric; small grains will
ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature.[5]
[70] [62]
Compilation of 2004 Review Information Regarding Uranium Toxicity
Body system Human studies Animal studies In vitro
Renal Elevated levels of protein Damage to Proximal convoluted No studies

excretion, urinary catalase tubules, necrotic cells cast from
and diuresis tubular epithelium, glomerular
changes
Brain/CNS Decreased performance on Acute cholinergic toxicity; No studies

neurocognitive tests Dose-dependent accumulation in
cortex, midbrain, and vermis;
Electrophysiological changes in
hippocampus
Uranium 19
DNA Increased reports of Increased urine mutagenicity and Binucleated cells

cancers induction of tumors with micronuclei,
Inhibition of cell
cycle kinetics and
proliferation; Sister
chromatid induction,
tumorigenic
phenotype
Bone/muscle No studies Inhibition of periodontal bone No studies

formation; and alveolar wound
healing
Reproductive Uranium miners have more Moderate to severe focal tubular No studies
first born female children atrophy; vacuolization of Leydig
cells
Lungs/respiratory No adverse health effects Severe nasal congestion and No studies

reported hemorrage, lung lesions and
fibrosis, edema and swelling, lung
cancer
Gastrointestinal Vomiting, diarrhea, n/a n/a

albuminuria
Liver No effects seen at exposure Fatty livers, focal necrosis No studies

dose
Skin No exposure assessment Swollen vacuolated epidermal cells, No studies

data available damage to hair follicles and
sebaceous glands
Tissues surrounding Elevated uranium urine Elevated uranium urine No studies

embedded DU concentrations concentrations, perturbations in
fragments biochemical and
neuropsychological testing
Immune system Chronic fatigue, rash, ear No studies No studies

and eye infections, hair and
weight loss, cough. May be
due to combined chemical
exposure rather than DU
alone
Eyes No studies Conjunctivitis, irritation No studies

inflammation, edema, ulceration of
conjunctival sacs
Blood No studies Decrease in RBC count and No studies

hemoglobin concentration
Cardiovascular Myocarditis resulting from No effects No studies

the uranium ingestion,
which ended 6 months after
ingestion
Uranium 20
See also
• Nuclear engineering
• Nuclear fuel cycle
• Thorium
• Thorium fuel cycle
• Plutonium
• Nuclear physics
• K-65 residues
• List of uranium mines
• Isotopes of uranium
• Uranate, an anion of uranium
• Uranium leak
• Uranium glass
• Uranium reserves
References
Full reference information for multi-page works cited
• John Emsley (2001). "Uranium [71]". Nature's Building Blocks: An A to Z Guide to the
Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 476–82. ISBN 0-19-850340-7. http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC& printsec=frontcover.
• Glenn T. Seaborg (1968). "Uranium". The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements.
Skokie, Illinois: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 773–86. LCCCN 68-29938.
External links
• ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Uranium Toxicity [72] U.S. Department
• "Public Health Statement for Uranium [73]". CDC. http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/
toxprofiles/ phs150. html.
• Uranium Resources and Nuclear Energy [74]
• U.S. EPA: Radiation Information for Uranium [75]
• "What is Uranium?" from World Nuclear Association [76]
• Nuclear fuel data and analysis from the U.S. Energy Information Administration [77]
• Current market price of uranium [78]
• World Uranium deposit maps [79]
• Annotated bibliography for uranium from the Alsos Digital Library [80]
• NLM Hazardous Substances Databank—Uranium, Radioactive [81]
• 'Pac-Man' molecule chews up uranium contamination - earth - 17 January 2008 - New
Scientist Environment [82]
• Mining Uranium at Namibia's Langer Heinrich Mine [83]
• Uranium futures market [84]
• World Nuclear News [85]
ckb:‫مویناروی‬
Uranium 21
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License
Neptunium 1
Neptunium
uranium ← neptunium → plutonium

Pm
↑
Np
↓
(Uqt)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number neptunium, Np, 93

−1
[Rn] 5f 6d 7s
1 2
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) [1] −3

20.45 g·cm
Melting point 910 K

(637 °C, 1179 °F)

(4000 °C, 7232 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2194 2437
Atomic properties
Crystal structure 3 forms: orthorhombic,

tetragonal and cubic
Oxidation states 7, 6, 5, 4, 3
(amphoteric oxide)
Neptunium 2
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (22 °C) 1.220 µΩ·m
Main article: Isotopes of neptunium

235
Np syn 396.1 d α 5.192 231
Pa
ε 0.124 235
U
236
Np syn 1.54×10 y
5 ε 0.940 236
U
β
− 0.940 236
Pu
α 5.020 232
Pa
237
Np syn 2.144×10 y
6 SF & α 4.959 233
Pa
References
Neptunium (pronounced /nɛpˈtjuːniəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Np and

atomic number 93. A radioactive metallic element, neptunium is the first transuranic
element and belongs to the actinide series. Its most stable isotope, 237Np, is a by-product of
nuclear reactors and plutonium production and it can be used as a component in neutron
detection equipment. Neptunium is also found in trace amounts in uranium ores due to
transmutation reactions.[3]
Characteristics
Silvery in appearance, neptunium metal is fairly chemically reactive and is found in at least
three allotropes:[3]
• α-neptunium, orthorhombic, density 20.45 g/cm³
• β-neptunium (above 280 °C), tetragonal, density (313 °C) 19.36 g/cm³
• γ-neptunium (above 577 °C), cubic, density (600 °C) 18 g/cm³
Neptunium 3
Compounds
This element has four ionic oxidation states while in solution:
• Np3+ (pale purple), analogous to the rare earth ion Pm3+
• Np4+ (yellow green)
• NpO2+ (green blue)
• NpO22+ (pale pink)
Neptunium forms tri- and tetrahalides such as NpF3, NpF4, NpCl4, NpBr3, NpI3, and oxides
of the various compositions such as are found in the uranium-oxygen system, including
Np3O8 and NpO2.
Neptunium(V) fluoride, NpF5, is volatile like uranium hexafluoride.
Neptunium, like other actinides, readily forms a dioxide neptunyl core (NpO2), which
readily complexes with carbonate as well as other oxygen moieties (OH−, NO2−, NO3−, and
SO42−) to form charged complexes which tend to be readily mobile with low affinities to
soil.
• NpO2(OH)2−
• NpO2(CO3)−
• NpO2(CO3)23−
• NpO2(CO3)35−
Uses
Precursor in Plutonium-238 Production

237
Np is irradiated with neutrons to create 238Pu, an alpha emitter for radioisotope thermal
generators for spacecraft and military applications. 237Np will capture a neutron to form
238
Np and beta decay with a half life of two days to 238Pu.[4]
238
Pu also exists in sizable quantities in spent nuclear fuel but would have to be separated
from other isotopes of plutonium.
Weapons applications
Neptunium is fissionable, and could theoretically be used as fuel in a fast neutron reactor or
a nuclear weapon. In 1992, the U.S. Department of Energy declassified the statement that
Np-237 "can be used for a nuclear explosive device".[5] It is not believed that an actual
weapon has ever been constructed using neptunium. Calculations show that the critical
mass is between 50 and 60 kg.[1] As of 2009, the world production of Np-237 by commercial
power reactors was over 1000 critical masses a year, but to extract the isotope from
irradiated fuel elements would be a major industrial undertaking.
In September 2002, researchers at the University of California Los Alamos National
Laboratory created the first known nuclear critical mass using neptunium in combination
with enriched uranium, discovering that the critical mass of neptunium is around 60 kg[6] ,
showing that it "is about as good a bomb material as U-235." US officials in March 2004,
planned to move the nation's supply of separated neptunium to a site in Nevada.
Neptunium 4
Other
237
Np is used in devices detecting high-energy (MeV) neutrons.[7]
History
Neptunium (named for the planet Neptune, the next planet out from Uranus, after which
uranium was named) was first discovered by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson in the
year 1940 in Berkeley, California.[8] Initially predicted by Walter Russell's "spiral"
organization of the periodic table, it was found at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory of the
University of California, Berkeley where the team produced the neptunium isotope 239Np
(2.4 day half-life) by bombarding uranium with slow moving neutrons. It was the first
transuranium element produced synthetically and the first actinide series transuranium
element discovered.
Occurrence
Trace amounts of neptunium are found naturally as decay products from transmutation
reactions in uranium ores.[3] Artificial 237Np is produced through the reduction of 237NpF3
with barium or lithium vapor at around 1200 °C and is most often extracted from spent
nuclear fuel rods as a by-product in plutonium production.
2 NpF3 + 3 Ba → 2 Np + 3 BaF2
By weight, neptunium-237 discharges are about 5 % as great as plutonium discharges and
about 0.05 % of spent nuclear fuel discharges.[9]
Synthesis
Chemically, neptunium is prepared by the reduction of NpF3 with barium or lithium vapor
at about 1200 °C,[3] however, most Np is produced in nuclear reactions:
• When an 235U atom captures a neutron, it is converted to an excited state of 236U. About
81 % of the excited 236U nuclei undergo fission, but the remainder decay to the ground
state of 236U by emitting gamma radiation. Further neutron capture creates 237U which
has a half-life of 7 days and thus quickly decays to 237Np.
237 238
• U is also produced via an (n,2n) reaction with U. This only happens with very
energetic neutrons.
• 237Np is the product of alpha decay of 241Am.
Heavier isotopes of neptunium decay quickly, and lighter isotopes of neptunium cannot be
produced by neutron capture, so chemical separation of neptunium from cooled spent
nuclear fuel gives nearly pure 237Np.
Neptunium 5
Role in nuclear waste

Neptunium-237 is the most mobile actinide in the deep geological repository
environment.[10] This makes it and its predecessors such as americium-241 candidates of
interest for destruction by nuclear transmutation.[11] Neptunium accumulates in
commercial household ionization-chamber smoke detectors from decay of the (typically) 0.2
microgram of americium-241 initially present as a source of ionizing radiation. With a
half-life of 432 years, the americium-241 in a smoke detector includes about 5 % neptunium
after 22 years, and about 10 % after 43 years. After the 432-year americium-241 half-life, a
smoke detector's original americium would be almost half neptunium.
Due to its long half life neptunium becomes the major contributor of the total radiation in
10000 years. As it is unclear what happens to the containment in that long time span, an
extraction of the neptunium would minimize the contamination of the environment if the
[12] [13]
nuclear waste could be mobilized after several thousand years.
Isotopes
19 neptunium radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 237Np
with a half-life of 2.14 million years, 236Np with a half-life of 154,000 years, and 235Np with
a half-life of 396.1 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are
less than 4.5 days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 50 minutes.
This element also has 4 meta states, with the most stable being 236mNp (t½ 22.5 hours).
The isotopes of neptunium range in atomic weight from 225.0339 u (225Np) to 244.068 u
(244Np). The primary decay mode before the most stable isotope, 237Np, is electron capture
(with a good deal of alpha emission), and the primary mode after is beta emission. The
primary decay products before 237Np are element 92 (uranium) isotopes (alpha emission
produces element 91, protactinium, however) and the primary products after are element
94 (plutonium) isotopes.
237
Np is fissionable.[6] 237Np eventually decays to form bismuth-209, unlike most other
common heavy nuclei which decay to make isotopes of lead. This decay chain is known as
the neptunium series.
Literature
ISBN 0-19-508083-1
• Lester R. Morss, Norman M. Edelstein, Jean Fuger (Hrsg.): The Chemistry of the Actinide
and Transactinide Elements, Springer-Verlag, Dordrecht 2006, ISBN 1-4020-3555-1.
• Ida Noddack: "Über das Element 93", in: Angewandte Chemie 1934, 47, 653–655.
Neptunium 6
External links
[14]
• WebElements.com – Neptunium (also used as a reference)
• Lab builds world's first neptunium sphere [15], U.S. Department of Energy Research
News
• NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Neptunium, Radioactive [16]
• Neptunium: Human Health Fact Sheet [17]
• C&EN: It's Elemental: The Periodic Table – Neptunium [18]
pnb:‫مینوچپین‬
References
[1] Criticality of a 237Np Sphere (http:/ / typhoon. jaea. go. jp/ icnc2003/ Proceeding/ paper/ 2. 14_107. pdf)
0849304857.
[4] Lange, R (2008). "Review of recent advances of radioisotope power systems". Energy Conversion and
Management 49: 393–401. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2007.10.028 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. enconman.
2007. 10. 028).
[5] "Restricted Data Declassification Decisions from 1946 until Present" (http:/ / www. fas. org/ sgp/ othergov/
doe/ rdd-7. html), accessed Sept 23, 2006
[6] Weiss, P. (October 26, 2002). " Little-studied metal goes critical - Neptunium Nukes? (http:/ / www.
findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1200/ is_17_162/ ai_94011322)". Science News. . Retrieved 2006-09-29.
[7] D. N. Poenaru, Walter Greiner (1997). Experimental techniques in nuclear physics. Walter de Gruyter. p. 236.
ISBN 3110144670.
[8] Mcmillan, Edwin (1940). "Radioactive Element 93". Physical Review 57: 1185. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.57.1185.2
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 57. 1185. 2).
[9] " Separated Neptunium 237 and Americium (http:/ / www. isis-online. org/ publications/ fmct/ book/ New
chapter 5. pdf)" (PDF). . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[10] " Yucca Mountain (http:/ / www. fas. org/ sgp/ othergov/ doe/ lanl/ pubs/ 00818052. pdf)". . Retrieved
2009-06-06.
[11] Rodriguez, C (2003). "Deep-Burn: making nuclear waste transmutation practical". Nuclear Engineering and
Design 222: 299. doi: 10.1016/S0029-5493(03)00034-7 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0029-5493(03)00034-7).
[12] Yarris, Lynn (2005-11-29). " Getting the Neptunium out of Nuclear Waste (http:/ / newscenter. lbl. gov/
feature-stories/ 2005/ 11/ 29/ getting-the-neptunium-out-of-nuclear-waste/ )". Berkley laboratory, U.S.
Department of Energy. . Retrieved 05-12-2008.
[13] " Existing Evidence for the Fate of Neptunium in the Yucca Mountain Repository (http:/ / www. pnl. gov/
main/ publications/ external/ technical_reports/ PNNL-14307. pdf)". Pacific northwest national laboratory, U.S.
Department of Energy. January 06-2003. . Retrieved 05-12-2008.
[14] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ neptunium/
[15] http:/ / www. eurekalert. org/ features/ doe/ 2001-08/ danl-lbw060502. php
[16] http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+ @na+ @rel+ neptunium,+ radioactive
[17] http:/ / www. ead. anl. gov/ pub/ doc/ neptunium. pdf
[18] http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ neptunium. html

Neptunium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308828187 Contributors: Addshore, Ahoerstemeier, AlimanRuna, AndonicO, Andres,
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script, Daggerstab, Darrien, David Latapie, DeadEyeArrow, Deanos, Deconstructhis, Discospinster, DocWatson42, Donarreiskoffer, DragonflySixtyseven,
Edgar181, Edward J. Picardy, Egil, El C, Emperorbma, Falcanary, Farseer, Father McKenzie, Femto, Fennec, Fuzzform, Gene Nygaard, Gilliam, Give
Peace A Chance, Goldenfool, GraemeL, Grimwald13, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Hallpriest9, HazyM, Hqb, Icairns, Inter, Itinerant1, IvanLanin, JWB, JWBE, Jaraalbe,
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Shanedidona, SimonP, Sl, Spiff, Squids and Chips, Stephenb, Stone, Stratocracy, Tagishsimon, Tetracube, Trogdor57, VASANTH S.N., Versus22,
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Contributors
image:Np-TableImage.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Np-TableImage.png License: GNU Free Documentation License
License
Plutonium 1
Plutonium
neptunium ← plutonium → americium

Sm
↑
Pu
↓
(Uqq)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number plutonium, Pu, 94

−1
[Rn] 5f 7s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(639.4 °C, 1182.9 °F)

(3228 °C, 5842 °F)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1756 1953 2198 2511 2926 3499
Atomic properties
Plutonium 2
Crystal structure monoclinic
Oxidation states 7, 6, 5, 4, 3
(amphoteric oxide)
Miscellaneous

paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (0 °C) 1.460 µΩ·m

−1
·K
−1
Poisson ratio 0.21
Main article: Isotopes of plutonium

238
Pu syn 88 y SF — —
α 5.5 234
U
239
Pu syn 4
2.41 × 10 y SF — —
α 5.245 235
U
240
Pu syn 6.5 × 103 y SF — —
α 5.256 236
U
241
Pu syn 14 y β− 0.02078 241
Am
SF — —
242
Pu syn 3.73 × 105 y SF — —
α 4.984 238
U
244
Pu trace 8.08 × 107 y α 4.666 240
U
SF — —
References
Plutonium (pronounced /pluːˈtoʊniəm/, symbol Pu, atomic number—or element—94) is a

rare transuranic radioactive element. It is an actinide metal of silvery-white appearance
that tarnishes when exposed to air, forming a dull coating when oxidized. The element
Plutonium 3
normally exhibits six allotropes and four oxidation states. It reacts with carbon, halogens,
nitrogen and silicon. When exposed to moist air, it forms oxides and hydrides that expand
the sample up to 70% in volume, which in turn flake off as a powder that can spontaneously
ignite. It is also a radioactive poison that accumulates in bone marrow. These and other
properties make the handling of plutonium dangerous, although its overall toxicity is
sometimes overstated.
• Plutonium-238 has a half-life of 88 years and emits alpha particles. It is a heat source in
radioisotope thermoelectric generators, which are used to power some spacecraft.
Pu-238 is formed in several ways, but pure Pu-238 for RTGs is produced by neutron
capture on neptunium-237.
• Plutonium-239 is the most important isotope of plutonium, with a half-life of
24,100 years. Pu-239 and Pu-241 are fissile, meaning that the nuclei of its atoms can
break apart by being bombarded by slow moving thermal neutrons, releasing energy,
gamma radiation and more neutrons. It can therefore sustain a nuclear chain reaction,
leading to applications in nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors. Pu-239 is synthesized by
irradiating uranium-238 with neutrons in a nuclear reactor, then recovered via nuclear
reprocessing of the fuel. Further neutron capture produces successively heavier isotopes.
• Plutonium-240 has a high rate of spontaneous fission, raising the background neutron
radiation of plutonium containing it. Plutonium is graded by proportion of Pu-240:
weapons grade (< 7%), fuel grade (7–19%) and reactor grade (> 19%). Lower grades are
less suited for nuclear weapons and thermal reactors but can fuel fast reactors. Pu-240 is
not fissile, but is fertile material like U-238.
• Plutonium-241 is fissile, but also beta decays with a halflife of 14 years to americium-241.
• Plutonium-242 is not fissile, not very fertile (requiring 3 more neutron captures to
become fissile), has a low neutron capture cross section, and a longer halflife than any of
the lighter isotopes.
• Plutonium-244 is the most stable isotope of plutonium, with a half-life of about 80 million
years, long enough to be found in trace quantities in nature.
Element 94 was first synthesized in 1940 by a team led by Glenn T. Seaborg and Edwin
McMillan at a University of California, Berkeley laboratory by bombarding uranium-238
with deuterons. McMillan named the new element after Pluto, and Seaborg suggested the
symbol Pu as a joke. Trace amounts of plutonium were subsequently discovered in nature.
Discovery of plutonium became a classified part of the Manhattan Project to develop an
atomic bomb during World War II. The first nuclear test, "Trinity" (July 1945), and the
second atomic bomb used to destroy a city (Nagasaki, Japan, in August 1945), "Fat Man",
both had cores of Pu-239. Human radiation experiments studying plutonium were
conducted without informed consent, and a number of criticality accidents, some lethal,
occurred during and after the war. Disposal of plutonium waste from nuclear power plants
and dismantled nuclear weapons built during the Cold War is a major nuclear-proliferation,
health, and environmental concern. Other sources of plutonium in the environment are
fallout from numerous above-ground nuclear tests (now banned) and several nuclear
accidents.
Plutonium 4
Characteristics
Physical
Plutonium, like most metals, has a bright silvery appearance at first, much like nickel, but it
oxidizes very quickly to a dull gray, although yellow and olive green are also reported.[2] [3]
At room temperature plutonium is in its α form (alpha). This, the most common structural
form of the element (allotrope), is about as hard and brittle as grey cast iron unless it is
alloyed with other metals to make it soft and ductile.[2] Unlike most metals, it is not a good
conductor of heat or electricity.[2] It has a low melting point (640 °C) and an unusually high
boiling point (3,327 °C).[2]
Alpha particle emission, which is the release of high-energy helium nuclei, is the most
common form of radiation given off by plutonium.[4] Heat given off by the release of and
deceleration of these alpha particles make a mass of plutonium the size of a softball warm
to the touch while a somewhat larger mass can boil a liter of water in a few minutes,
although this varies with isotopic composition.[5] [6]
Resistivity is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. The
resistivity of plutonium at room temperature is very high for a metal, and it gets even
higher with lower temperatures, which is unusual for metals.[7] This trend continues down
to 100 K, below which resistivity rapidly decreases for fresh samples.[7] Resistivity then
begins to increase with time at around 20 K due to radiation damage, with the rate dictated
by the isotopic composition of the sample.[7]
Due to self-irradiation, a sample of plutonium fatigues throughout its crystal structure,
meaning the ordered arrangement of its atoms becomes disrupted by radiation with time.[8]
However, self-irradiation can also lead to annealing which counteracts some of the fatigue
effects as temperature increases above 100 K.[9]
Allotropes
Plutonium normally has six allotropes and forms a
seventh (zeta, ζ) at high temperature within a limited
pressure range.[10] These allotropes, which are
different structural modifications or forms of an
element, have very similar internal energies but
significantly varying densities and crystal structures.
This makes plutonium very sensitive to changes in
temperature, pressure, or chemistry, and allows for
dramatic volume changes following phase transitions
from one allotropic form to another.[8] Unlike most
materials, plutonium increases in density when it melts,
by 2.5%, but the liquid metal exhibits a linear decrease
in density with temperature.[7] Densities of the different
allotropes vary from 16.00 g/cm3 to 19.86 g/cm3.[11]
Plutonium has six allotropes at
The presence of these many allotropes makes
ambient pressure: alpha (α), beta (β),
machining plutonium very difficult, as it changes state gamma (γ), delta (δ),
[10]
delta prime (δ′), & epsilon (ε)
Plutonium 5
very readily. For example, the α form exists at room temperature in unalloyed plutonium. It
has machining characteristics similar to cast iron but changes to the plastic and malleable β
form (beta) at slightly higher temperatures.[12] The reasons for the complicated phase
diagram are not entirely understood. The α form has a low-symmetry monoclinic structure,
[10]
hence its brittleness, strength, compressibility, and poor conductivity.
Plutonium in the δ form (delta) normally exists in the 310 °C to 452 °C range but is stable
at room temperature when alloyed with a small percentage of gallium, aluminium, or
cerium, enhancing workability and allowing it to be welded.[12] The delta form has more
typical metallic character, and is roughly as strong and malleable as aluminium.[10]
Nuclear fission
Plutonium is a radioactive actinide metal whose isotope, plutonium-239 (Pu-239), is one of
the three primary fissile isotopes[13] (uranium-233 and uranium-235 are the other two).[14]
Pu-241 is also highly fissile. To be considered fissile, an isotope's atomic nucleus must be
able to break apart or fission when struck by a slow moving neutron, and to release enough
additional neutrons in the process to sustain the nuclear chain reaction by splitting further
nuclei.
Pu-239 has a multiplication factor (k) larger than one, which means
that if the metal is present in sufficient mass and with an appropriate
geometry (e.g., a compressed sphere), it can form a critical mass.[15]
During fission, a fraction of the binding energy, which holds a nucleus
together, is released as a large amount of thermal, electromagnetic
and kinetic energy; a kilogram of Pu-239 can produce an explosion
Weapons-grade equivalent to 20,000 tons of TNT.[5] It is this energy that makes
electrorefined Pu-239 useful in nuclear weapons and reactors.
plutonium
The presence of the isotope plutonium-240 (Pu-240) in a sample limits
its nuclear bomb potential, as Pu-240 has a relatively high
spontaneous fission rate (~440 fissions per second per gram—over 1,000 neutrons per
second per gram[16] ), raising the background neutron levels and thus increasing the risk of
predetonation.[17] Plutonium is identified as either weapon grade, fuel grade, or power
reactor grade based on the percentage of Pu-240 that it contains. Weapon grade plutonium
contains less than 7% Pu-240. Fuel grade plutonium contains from 7 to less than 19%, and
power reactor grade contains 19% or more Pu-240.[18] The isotope plutonium-238 (Pu-238)
is not fissile but can undergo nuclear fission easily with fast neutrons as well as alpha
decay.[5]
Isotopes and synthesis

Twenty radioactive isotopes of plutonium have been characterized.[4] The longest-lived are
Pu-244, with a half-life of 80.8 million years, Pu-242, with a half-life of 373,300 years, and
Pu-239, with a half-life of 24,110 years.[4] All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have
half-lives that are less than 7,000 years.[4] This element also has eight metastable states,
though none are stable and all have half-lives less than one second.[4]
The isotopes of plutonium range in mass number from 228 to 247.[4] The primary decay
modes of isotopes with mass numbers lower than the most stable isotope, Pu-244, are
spontaneous fission and α emission, mostly forming uranium (92 protons) and neptunium
Plutonium 6
(93 protons) isotopes as decay products (neglecting the wide range of daughter nuclei
created by fission processes).[4] The primary decay mode for isotopes with mass numbers
higher than Pu-244 is β emission, mostly forming americium (95 protons) isotopes as decay
products.[4] Pu-241 is the parent isotope of the neptunium decay series, decaying to
[5]
americium-241 via β or electron emission.
Pu-238 and Pu-239 are the most-widely synthesized isotopes.[5] Pu-239 is synthesized via
the following reaction using uranium (U) and neutrons (n) via beta decay (β−) with
neptunium (Np) as an intermediate:[19]
In other words, neutrons from the fission of U-235 are captured by U-238 nuclei to form
U-239; a beta decay converts a neutron into a proton to form Np-239 (half-life 2.36 days)
and another beta decay forms Pu-239.[20] Workers on the Tube Alloys project had predicted
this reaction theoretically in 1940.
Pu-238 is synthesized by bombarding U-238 with deuterons (D, the nuclei of heavy
hydrogen) in the following reaction:[21]
In this equation, a deuteron hitting U-238 produces two neutrons and Np-238. The Np-238
spontaneously decays by emitting negative beta particles to form Pu-238.

At room temperature, pure
plutonium is silvery in color but
gains a tarnish when oxidized.[5]
The element displays four common
ionic oxidation states in aqueous
solution and one rare one:[11]
• Pu(III), as Pu3+ (blue lavender)

• Pu(IV), as Pu4+ (yellow brown)
• Pu(V), as PuO2+ (pink?)[22]
• Pu(VI), as PuO22+ (pink orange)
• Pu(VII), as PuO53− (green)–the
heptavalent ion is rare
The color shown by plutonium
solutions depends on both the
oxidation state and the nature of Various oxidation states of Pu in solution
[23]
the acid anion. It is the acid
anion that influences the degree of complexing—how atoms connect to a central atom—of
the plutonium species.
Metallic plutonium is produced by reacting plutonium(IV) fluoride with barium, calcium or

lithium at 1200 °C.[24] It is attacked by acids, oxygen, and steam but not by alkalis and
dissolves easily in concentrated hydrochloric, hydroiodic and perchloric acids.[25] Molten
metal must be kept in a vacuum or an inert atmosphere to avoid reaction with air.[12] At
135 °C the metal will ignite in air and will explode if placed in carbon tetrachloride.[26]
Plutonium 7
Plutonium is a reactive metal. In moist air or moist

argon, the metal oxidizes rapidly, producing a mixture
of oxides and hydrides.[2] If the metal is exposed long
enough to a limited amount of water vapor, a powdery
surface coating of PuO2 is formed.[2] Also formed is
plutonium hydride but an excess of water vapor forms
only PuO2.[25]
With this coating, the metal is pyrophoric, meaning it

Plutonium pyrophoricity can cause it to
look like a glowing ember under can ignite spontaneously, so plutonium metal is usually
certain conditions. handled in an inert, dry atmosphere of nitrogen or
argon.[2] Oxygen retards the effects of moisture and
acts as a passivating agent.[2]
Plutonium reacts readily with oxygen, forming PuO and PuO2 as well as intermediate
oxides;[11] plutonium oxide fills 40% more volume than plutonium metal.[26] It reacts with
the halogens, giving rise to compounds such as PuX3 where X can be F, Cl, Br or I; PuF4 is
also seen.[11] The following oxyhalides are observed: PuOCl, PuOBr and PuOI.[11] It will
react with carbon to form PuC, nitrogen to form PuN and silicon to form PuSi2.[11]
Crucibles used to contain plutonium need to be able to withstand its strongly reducing
properties.[12] Refractory metals such as tantalum and tungsten along with the more stable
oxides, borides, carbides, nitrides and silicides can tolerate this.[12] Melting in an electric
arc furnace can be used to produce small ingots of the metal without the need for a
crucible.[12]
Plutonium can form alloys and intermediate compounds with most other metals. Exceptions
include lithium, sodium, potassium, and rubidium of the alkali metals; and magnesium,
calcium, strontium, and barium of the alkaline earth metals; and europium and ytterbium of
the rare earth metals.[25] Partial exceptions include the refractory metals chromium,
molybdenum, niobium, tantalum, and tungsten, which are soluble in liquid plutonium, but
insoluble or only slightly soluble in solid plutonium.[25]
Occurrence
Trace amounts of two plutonium isotopes (Pu-239 and Pu-244) can be found in nature.
Small traces of Pu-239, a few parts per trillion, and its decay products are naturally found
in some concentrated ores of uranium,[27] such as the natural nuclear fission reactor in
Oklo, Gabon.[28] The ratio of Pu-239 to U at the Cigar Lake Mine uranium deposit ranges
from 2.4 × 10−12 to 44 × 10−12.[29] Even smaller amounts of primordial Pu-244 occur
naturally due to its relatively long half-life of about 80 million years.[30]
Minute traces are found in the human body due to the 550 above-ground nuclear tests
which have been performed and several major nuclear accidents.[26] Most atmospheric
nuclear testing was stopped in 1963 by the Limited Test Ban Treaty but France continued
to test into the 1980s and several other nations also conducted tests after 1963. Because it
is specifically manufactured and is the result of radioactive decay of uranium ores, Pu-239
is the most abundant isotope of plutonium.[26]
Plutonium 8
History
Discovery
Enrico Fermi and a team of scientists at the University of Rome reported that they had
discovered element 94 in 1934.[31] Fermi called the element hesperium and mentioned it in
his Nobel Lecture in 1938.[32] However, the sample was actually a mixture of barium,
krypton, and other elements, but this was not known at the time because nuclear fission
had not been discovered yet.[33]
Plutonium (specifically, Pu-238) was first produced and
isolated on December 14, 1940, and chemically
identified on February 23, 1941, by Dr. Glenn T.
Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, J. W. Kennedy, Z. M.
Tatom, and A. C. Wahl by deuteron bombardment of
uranium in the 60-inch (150 cm) cyclotron at the
University of California, Berkeley.[34] In the 1940
experiment, neptunium-238 was created directly by the
bombardment but decayed by beta emission two days
later, which indicated the formation of element 94.[26]
A paper documenting the discovery was prepared by

the team and sent to the journal Physical Review in
March 1941.[26] The paper was withdrawn before
publication after the discovery that an isotope of the
Glenn T. Seaborg and his team at
new element (Pu-239) could undergo nuclear fission in Berkeley were the first to produce
a way that might be useful in an atomic bomb. plutonium.
Publication was delayed until a year after the end of
World War II due to security concerns.[13]
Edwin McMillan had recently named the first transuranium element after the planet
Neptune and suggested that element 94, being the next element in the series, be named for
what was then considered the next planet, Pluto.[5] [35] Seaborg originally considered the
name "plutium", but later thought that it did not sound as good as "plutonium."[36] He chose
the letters "Pu" as a joke, which passed without notice into the periodic table.[37]
[38]
[39]
Alternate names considered by Seaborg and others were "ultimium" or "extremium"
because of the now-discredited belief that they had found the last possible element on the
periodic table.[40]
Early research
The basic chemistry of plutonium was found to resemble uranium after a few months of
initial study.[26] Early research was continued at the secret Metallurgical Laboratory of the
University of Chicago. On August 18, 1942, a trace quantity of this element was isolated
and measured for the first time. About 50 micrograms of plutonium-239 combined with
uranium and fission products was produced and only about 1 microgram was isolated.[27]
This procedure enabled chemists to determine the new element's atomic weight.[41] [42]
In November 1943 some plutonium trifluoride was reduced to create the first sample of
plutonium metal: a few micrograms of metallic beads.[27] Enough plutonium was produced
Plutonium 9
to make it the first synthetically made element to be visible with the unaided eye.[43]
The nuclear properties of plutonium-239 were also studied; researchers found that when it
is hit by a neutron it breaks apart (fissions) by releasing more neutrons and energy. These
neutrons can hit other atoms of plutonium-239 and so on in an exponentially fast chain
reaction. This can result in an explosion large enough to destroy a city if enough of the
isotope is concentrated to form a critical mass.[26]
Production during the Manhattan Project

During World War II the U.S. government established the Manhattan Project, which was
tasked with developing an atomic bomb. The three primary research and production sites of
the project were the plutonium production facility at what is now the Hanford Site, the
uranium enrichment facilities at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and the weapons research and
design laboratory, now known as Los Alamos National Laboratory.[44]
The first production reactor that made plutonium-239
was the X-10 Graphite Reactor. It went online in 1943
and was built at a facility in Oak Ridge that later
became the Oak Ridge National Laboratory.[26] [45]
[46]
[47]
On April 5, 1944, Emilio Segrè at Los Alamos received

the first sample of reactor-produced plutonium from
Oak Ridge.[48] Within ten days, he discovered that
The Hanford B Reactor face under
construction—the first reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of
plutonium-production reactor the isotope Pu-240 than cyclotron-produced plutonium.
Pu-240 has a high spontaneous fission rate, raising the
overall background neutron level of the plutonium sample. The original gun-type plutonium
weapon, code-named "Thin Man", had to be abandoned as a result—the increased number
of spontaneous neutrons meant that nuclear pre-detonation (a fizzle) would be likely.
The entire plutonium weapon design effort at Los Alamos was soon changed to the more
complicated implosion device, code-named "Fat Man." With an implosion weapon, a solid
sphere of plutonium is compressed to a high density with explosive lenses—a technically
more daunting task than the simple gun-type design, but necessary in order to use
plutonium for weapons purposes. (Enriched uranium, by contrast, can be used with either
method.)[48]
Construction of the Hanford B Reactor, the first industrial-sized nuclear reactor for the
purposes of material production, was completed in March 1945.[49] B Reactor produced the
fissile material for the plutonium weapons used during World War II.[50]
[51]
[52]
[53]
[54]
B, D and F were the initial reactors built at Hanford, and six additional
plutonium-producing reactors were built later at the site.[49]
In 2004, a safe was discovered during excavations of a burial trench at the Hanford nuclear
site. Inside the safe were various items, including a large glass bottle containing a whitish
Plutonium 10
slurry which was subsequently identified as the oldest sample of weapons-grade plutonium
known to exist. Isotope analysis by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory indicated that
the plutonium in the bottle was manufactured in the X-10 reactor at Oak Ridge during
1944. [55] [56] [57]
Trinity and Fat Man atomic bombs

The first atomic bomb test, codenamed "Trinity" and
detonated on July 16, 1945, near Alamogordo, New
Mexico, used plutonium as its fissile material.[27] The
implosion design of "the Gadget", as the Trinity device
was code-named, used conventional explosive lenses to
compress a sphere of plutonium into a supercritical
mass, which was simultaneously showered with
neutrons from an initiator made of polonium and
beryllium (neutron source: (α, n) reaction).[26]
Together, these ensured a runaway chain reaction and
explosion. The overall weapon weighed over 4 tonnes,
although it used just 6.2 kg of plutonium in its core.[58]
About 20% of the plutonium used in the Trinity weapon
underwent fission, resulting in an explosion with an Because of the presence of Pu-240 in
energy equivalent to approximately 20,000 tons of reactor-bred plutonium, the implosion
TNT.[59] [60] design was developed for the "Fat

Man" and Trinity" weapons
[61]
[61]
An identical design was used in the "Fat Man" atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, on
August 9, 1945, killing 70,000 people and wounding another 100,000.[26] The "Little Boy"
bomb dropped on Hiroshima three days earlier used uranium-235, not plutonium. Japan
capitulated on August 15 to General Douglas MacArthur, effectively ending the war. Only
after the announcement of the first atomic bombs was the existence of plutonium made
public.
Cold War use and waste

Large stockpiles of weapons-grade plutonium were built up by both the Soviet Union and
the United States during the Cold War. The U.S. reactors at Hanford and the Savannah
River Site in South Carolina produced 103 tonnes,[62] and an estimated 170 tonnes of
military-grade plutonium was produced in Russia.[63] [64] Each year about 20 tonnes of the
element is still produced as a by-product of the nuclear power industry.[11] As much as
1000 tonnes of plutonium may be in storage with more than 200 tonnes of that either inside
or extracted from nuclear weapons.[26] SIPRI estimated the world plutonium stockpile in
2007 as about 500 tons, divided equally between weapon and civilian stocks, but all
weapon-usable..[65]
Plutonium 11
Since the end of the Cold War, these stockpiles have

become a focus of nuclear proliferation concerns. In the
U.S., some plutonium extracted from dismantled
nuclear weapons is melted to form glass logs of
plutonium oxide that weigh two tonnes.[26] The glass is
made of borosilicates mixed with cadmium and
gadolinium.[66] These logs are planned to be encased in
stainless steel and stored as much as 4 km underground
in bore holes that will be back-filled with concrete.[26] Proposed waste storage tunnel design
for the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste
As of 2008, the only facility in the U.S. that is scheduled
repository
to store plutonium in this way is the Yucca Mountain
nuclear waste repository, which is about 100 miles
(160 km) north-east of Las Vegas, Nevada.[67] Local and state opposition to this plan has
delayed efforts to store nuclear waste at Yucca Mountain.
Medical experimentation
During and after the end of World War II, scientists working on the Manhattan Project and
other nuclear weapons research projects conducted studies of the effects of plutonium on
laboratory animals and human subjects.[68] Animal studies found that a few milligrams of
plutonium per kilogram of tissue is a lethal dose.[69]
In the case of human subjects, this involved injecting solutions containing (typically) five
micrograms of plutonium into hospital patients thought to be either terminally ill, or to have
a life expectancy of less than ten years either due to age or chronic disease condition.[68]
This was reduced to one microgram in July 1945 after animal studies found that the way
plutonium distributed itself in bones was more dangerous than radium.[69]
Eighteen human test subjects were injected with plutonium without informed consent.[68]
The tests were used to create diagnostic tools to determine the uptake of plutonium in the
body in order to develop safety standards for working with plutonium.[68]
The episode is now considered to be a serious breach of medical ethics and of the
Hippocratic Oath. More sympathetic commentators have noted that while it was definitely a
breach in trust and ethics, "the effects of the plutonium injections were not as damaging to
the subjects as the early news stories painted, nor were they so inconsequential as many
scientists, then and now, believe."[70]
Plutonium 12
Applications
Explosives
The isotope Pu-239 is a key fissile component in nuclear
weapons, due to its ease of fission and availability. Encasing
the bomb's sphere of plutonium in a tamper (an optional
layer of dense material) decreases the amount of plutonium
needed to reach critical mass by reflecting escaping
neutrons back into the plutonium core. This reduces the
amount of plutonium needed to reach criticality from 16 kg
to 10 kg, which is a sphere with a diameter of about
10 centimetres (4 in).[71] This critical mass is about a third of
that for U-235.[5]
The "Fat Man"-type plutonium bombs produced during the

Manhattan Project used explosive compression of plutonium The atomic bomb dropped on
Nagasaki, Japan in 1945 had a
to obtain significantly higher densities than normal,
plutonium core.
combined with a central neutron source to begin the reaction
and increase efficiency. Thus only 6.2 kg of plutonium was
needed for an explosive yield equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT.[59] [72] (See also Nuclear
weapon design.) Hypothetically, as little as 4 kg of plutonium—and maybe even less—could
be used to make a single atomic bomb using very sophisticated assembly designs.[72]
Use of nuclear waste

PUREX (Plutonium–URanium EXtraction) reprocesses spent nuclear fuel to extract uranium
and plutonium to form a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel for reuse in nuclear reactors. Weapons
grade plutonium can be added to the fuel mix. MOX fuel is used in light water reactors and
consists of 60 kg of plutonium per tonne of fuel; after four years, three-quarters of the
plutonium is burned (turned into other elements).[26] Breeder reactors are specifically
designed to create more fissionable material than they consume.
MOX fuel has been in use since the 1980s and is widely used in Europe.[73] In September
2000, the United States and the Russian Federation signed a Plutonium Management and
Disposition Agreement by which each agreed to dispose of 34 tonnes of weapon grade
plutonium.[74] The U.S. Department of Energy plans to dispose of 34 tonnes of weapon
grade plutonium in the United States before the end of 2019 by converting the plutonium to
a MOX fuel to be used in commercial nuclear power reactors.[74]
Efficiencies are also attained through reprocessing: a fuel rod is reprocessed after three
years of use to remove waste products, which by then account for 3% of the total weight of
the rods.[26] Any uranium or plutonium isotopes produced during those three years are left
and the rod goes back into production.[75] However, the presence of up to 1% gallium per
mass in weapon grade plutonium has the potential to interfere with long-term operation of
a light water reactor.[76]
241
Am has recently been suggested for use as a denaturing agent in plutonium reactor fuel
rods to render the fuel unusable for conversion to nuclear weapons.[77]
Plutonium 13
Power and heat source

The isotope plutonium-238 (Pu-238) has a half-life of
87.5 years. It emits a large amount of thermal energy with
low levels of both gamma rays/particles and spontaneous
neutron rays/particles.[78] Being an alpha emitter, it
combines high energy radiation with low penetration and
thereby requires minimal shielding. A sheet of paper can be
used to shield against the alpha particles emitted by Pu-238
while one kilogram of the isotope can generate
238
22 million kilowatt-hours of heat energy.[5] [78] A glowing pellet of PuO2
These characteristics make it well-suited for electrical power generation for devices which
must function without direct maintenance for timescales approximating a human lifetime. It
is therefore used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators and radioisotope heater units
such as those in the Cassini, Voyager and New Horizons space probes. Earlier versions of
the same technology powered the ALSEP and EASEP systems including seismic
experiments on the Apollo 14 Moon mission.[26]
Plutonium-238 has also been used successfully to power artificial heart pacemakers, to
reduce the risk of repeated surgery.[79] [80] It has been largely replaced by lithium-based
primary cells, but as of 2003 there were somewhere between 50 and 100
plutonium-powered pacemakers still implanted and functioning in living patients.[81] Pu-238
was studied as way to provide supplemental heat to scuba diving.[82] Plutonium-238 mixed
with beryllium is used to generate neutrons for research purposes.[26]
Precautions
Toxicity
Isotopes and compounds of plutonium are toxic to highly toxic due to their radioactivity.
Contamination by plutonium oxide (spontaneously oxidized plutonium) has resulted from a
number of military nuclear accidents where nuclear weapons have burned.[83] However,
based on chemical toxicity alone, the element is less dangerous than arsenic or cyanide and
about the same as caffeine.[84] [85]
Plutonium is more dangerous when inhaled than when ingested. The risk of lung cancer
increases once the total dose equivalent of inhaled radiation exceeds 400 mSv.[86] The U.S.
Department of Energy estimates that the lifetime cancer risk for inhaling 5,000 plutonium
particles, each about 3 microns wide, to be 1% over the background U.S. average.[87] It is
not absorbed into the body efficiently when ingested; only 0.04% of plutonium oxide is
absorbed after ingestion.[26] When plutonium is absorbed into the body, it is excreted very
slowly, with a biological half-life of 200 years.[88] Plutonium has a metallic taste.[89]
The alpha radiation plutonium emits does not penetrate the skin but can irradiate internal
organs when plutonium is inhaled or ingested.[26] Particularly at risk are the skeleton,
where it is likely to be absorbed by the bone surface, and the liver, where it collects and
becomes concentrated.[25]
Considerably larger amounts may cause acute radiation poisoning and death if ingested or
inhaled; however, no human is known to have died because of inhaling or ingesting
plutonium, and many people have measurable amounts of plutonium in their bodies.[85]
Plutonium 14
Criticality potential
Toxicity issues aside, care must be taken to avoid the
accumulation of amounts of plutonium which approach
critical mass, particularly because plutonium's critical
mass is only a third of that of uranium-235.[5] A critical
mass of plutonium emits lethal amounts of neutrons and
gamma rays.[90] Plutonium in solution is more likely to
form a critical mass than the solid form due to
moderation by the hydrogen in water.[11]
Criticality accidents have occurred in the past, some of

A simulated sphere of plutonium
them with lethal consequences. Careless handling of surrounded by neutron-reflecting
tungsten carbide bricks around a 6.2 kg plutonium tungsten carbide blocks in a
sphere resulted in a fatal dose of radiation at Los re-enactment of Harry Daghlian's 1945
experiment
Alamos on August 21, 1945, when scientist Harry K.
Daghlian, Jr. received a dose estimated to be
5.1 Sievert (510 rems) and died 28 days later.[91] Nine months later, another Los Alamos
scientist, Louis Slotin, died from a similar accident involving a beryllium reflector and the
same plutonium core (the so-called "demon core") that had previously claimed the life of
Daghlian.[92] These incidents were fictionalized in the 1989 film Fat Man and Little Boy.
In December 1958, during a process of purifying plutonium at Los Alamos, a critical mass
was formed in a mixing vessel, which resulted in the death of a crane operator.[93] Other
nuclear accidents have occurred in the Soviet Union, Japan, and many other countries.[93]
Flammability
Metallic plutonium is a fire hazard, especially if the material is finely divided.[94] In a moist
environment, plutonium forms hydrides on its surface, which are pyrophoric and may ignite
in air at room temperature.[94] Plutonium expands up to 70% in volume as it oxidizes and
thus may break its container.[94] The radioactivity of the burning material is an additional
hazard. Magnesium oxide sand is probably the most effective material for extinguishing a
plutonium fire.[94] It cools the burning material, acting as a heat sink, and also blocks off
oxygen. Special precautions are necessary to store or handle plutonium in any form;
generally a dry inert gas atmosphere is required.[95] [96]
[97]
[98]
Plutonium 15
See also
• Nuclear engineering
• Nuclear fuel cycle
• Nuclear physics
References
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[4] NNDC contributors (2008). " Chart of Nuclides (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ chart/ )". in Alejandro A.
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Plutonium 16
[22] The PuO2+ ion is unstable in solution and will disproportionate into Pu4+ and PuO22+; the Pu4+ will then
oxidize the remaining PuO2+ to PuO22+, being reduced in turn to Pu3+. Thus, aqueous solutions of plutonium
tend over time towards a mixture of Pu3+ and PuO22+.
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– Criticality Safety in Material Processing Operations, Part 1 (http:/ / ncsp. llnl. gov/
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[24] Eagleson, Mary (1994). Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry. Walter de Gruyter. p. 840. ISBN 9783110114515.
[25] Miner 1968, p. 545
[26] Emsley 2001
[27] Miner 1968, p. 541
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[31] Holden, Norman E. (2001). " A Short History of Nuclear Data and Its Evaluation (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/
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[32] Fermi, Enrico (December 12, 1938). " Artificial radioactivity produced by neutron bombardment: Nobel
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[33] Darden, Lindley (1998). " The Nature of Scientific Inquiry (http:/ / www. philosophy. umd. edu/ Faculty/
LDarden/ sciinq/ )". College Park (MD): Department of Philosophy, University of Maryland. . Retrieved
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[34] LBNL contributors. " Elements 93 and 94 (http:/ / acs. lbl. gov/ Seaborg. talks/ 65th-anniv/ 14. html)".
Advanced Computing for Science Department, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. . Retrieved 2008-09-17.
[35] This was not the first time somebody suggested that an element be named "plutonium." A decade after
barium was discovered, a Cambridge University professor suggested it be renamed to "plutonium" because the
element was not (as suggested by the Greek root, barys, it was named for) heavy. He reasoned that, since it was
produced by the relatively new technique of electrolysis, its name should refer to fire. Thus he suggested it be
named for the Roman god of the underworld, Pluto. (Heiserman 1992)
[36] Clark, David L.; Hobart, David E. (2000). " Reflections on the Legacy of a Legend: Glenn T. Seaborg,
1912–1999 (http:/ / www. fas. org/ sgp/ othergov/ doe/ lanl/ pubs/ 00818011. pdf)" (PDF). Los Alamos Science
26: 56–61, on 57. . Retrieved 2009-02-15.
[37] As one article puts it, referring to information Seaborg gave in a talk: "The obvious choice for the symbol
would have been Pl, but facetiously, Seaborg suggested Pu, like the words a child would exclaim, 'Pee-yoo!'
when smelling something bad. Seaborg thought that he would receive a great deal of flak over that suggestion,
but the naming committee accepted the symbol without a word."
Clark, David L.; Hobart, David E. (2000). " Reflections on the Legacy of a Legend:
Glenn T. Seaborg, 1912–1999 (http:/ / www. fas. org/ sgp/ othergov/ doe/ lanl/ pubs/
00818011. pdf)" (PDF). Los Alamos Science 26: 56–61, on 57. . Retrieved 2009-02-15.
[40] PBS contributors (1997). " Frontline interview with Seaborg (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ pages/ frontline/
shows/ reaction/ interviews/ seaborg. html)". Frontline. Public Broadcasting Service. . Retrieved 2008-12-07.
[41] NPS contributors. " Room 405, George Herbert Jones Laboratory (http:/ / tps. cr. nps. gov/ nhl/ detail.
cfm?ResourceId=735& ResourceType=Building)". National Park Service. . Retrieved 2008-12-14.
[42] Room 405 of the George Herbert Jones Laboratory, where the first isolation of plutonium took place, was
named a National Historic Landmark in May 1967.
[43] Miner 1968, p. 540
[44] LANL contributors. " Site Selection (http:/ / www. lanl. gov/ history/ road/ siteselection. shtml)". LANL
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[45] During the Manhattan Project, plutonium was also often referred to as simply "49": the number 4 was for the
last digit in 94 (atomic number of plutonium), and 9 was for the last digit in Pu-239, the weapon-grade fissile
Plutonium 17
isotope used in nuclear bombs.
Hammel, E.F. (2000). " The taming of "49" – Big Science in little time. Recollections of
Edward F. Hammel, pp. 2-9. In: Cooper N.G. Ed. (2000). Challenges in Plutonium
Science (http:/ / www. fas. org/ sgp/ othergov/ doe/ lanl/ pubs/ 00818010. pdf)". Los
Alamos Science 26 (1): 2–9. . Retrieved 2009-02-15.
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[48] Sublette, Carey. " Atomic History Timeline 1942-1944 (http:/ / www. atomicheritage. org/ index.
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[49] Wahlen, R.K. (1989) (PDF). History of 100-B Area (http:/ / www. hanford. gov/ doe/ history/ files/
HistoryofBArea. pdf). Richland, Washington: Westinghouse Hanford Company. pp. iv, 1. WHC-EP-0273. .
[50] The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) established B Reactor as a National Historic
Mechanical Engineering Landmark in September 1976.
Wahlen, R.K. (1989) (PDF). History of 100-B Area (http:/ / www. hanford. gov/ doe/
history/ files/ HistoryofBArea. pdf). Richland, Washington: Westinghouse Hanford
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[52] In August 2008, B Reactor was designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark.
" Weekly List Actions (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/ nr/ listings/ 20080829. HTM)".
National Park Service. 2008-08-29. . Retrieved 2008-08-30.
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bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7918618. stm)". . Retrieved 2009-03-02.
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Analytical Chemistry 81 (5): 1724. doi: 10.1021/ac900093b (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ac900093b). .
[57] Schwantes, Jon M.; Matthew Douglas, Steven E. Bonde, James D. Briggs, Orville T. Farmer, Lawrence R.
Greenwood, Elwood A. Lepel, Christopher R. Orton, John F. Wacker, Andrzej T. Luksic (2009). " Nuclear
archeology in a bottle: Evidence of pre-Trinity U.S. weapons activities from a waste burial site (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1021/ ac802286a)". Analytical Chemistry 81 (4): 1297-1306. doi: 10.1021/ac802286a (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1021/ ac802286a). . Retrieved 2009-03-02.
[58] Sublette, Carey (2007-07-03). " 8.1.1 The Design of Gadget, Fat Man, and "Joe 1" (RDS-1) (http:/ /
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[59] Malik, John (September 1985). The Yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Explosions (http:/ / www. fas. org/
sgp/ othergov/ doe/ lanl/ docs1/ 00313791. pdf). Los Alamos. p. Table VI. LA-8819. . Retrieved 2009-02-15.
[60] The efficiency calculation is based on the fact that 1 kg of Pu-239 (or U-235) fissioning results in an energy
release of approximately 17 kt, leading to a rounded estimate of 1.2 kg plutonium actually fissioned to produce
the 20 kt yield. On the figure of 1 kg = 17 kt,
" Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and Materials to State and Non-State Actors: What
It Means for the Future of Nuclear Power (http:/ / www. fas. org/ rlg/ PNWM_UMich.
pdf)". University of Michigan Symposium. Federation of American Scientists.
2002-10-04. . Retrieved 2009-01-04.
[62] DOE contributors (2001). Historic American Engineering Record: B Reactor (105-B Building) (http:/ / www.
fas. org/ sgp/ othergov/ doe/ pu50yb. html#ZZ13). Richland (WA): U.S. Department of Energy. p. 110.
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[63] Cochran, Thomas B. (1997). " Safeguarding nuclear weapons-usable materials in Russia (http:/ / docs. nrdc.
org/ nuclear/ nuc_06129701a_185. pdf)". International Forum on Illegal Nuclear Traffic. Washington (DC):
Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.
[64] Much of this plutonium was used to make the fissionable cores of a type of thermonuclear weapon employing
the Teller–Ulam design. These so-called 'hydrogen bombs' are a variety of nuclear weapon that use a fission
bomb to trigger the nuclear fusion of heavy hydrogen isotopes. Their destructive yield is commonly in the
millions of tons of TNT equivalent compared with the thousands of tons of TNT equivalent of fission-only
Plutonium 18
devices.(Emsley 2001)
[65] Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (2007). SIPRI Yearbook 2007: Armaments, Disarmament,
and International Security (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2M0C6SERFG0C& pg=PA567). Oxford
University Press. p. 567. ISBN 0199230218, 9780199230211. .
[66] Gadolinium zirconium oxide (Gd2Zr2O7) has been studied because it could hold plutonium for up to 30 million
years.(Emsley 2001)
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[91] Roark, Kevin N. (2000). Criticality accidents report issued (http:/ / www. lanl. gov/ news/ index. php/
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[96] There was a major plutonium-initiated fire at the Rocky Flats Plant near Boulder, Colorado in 1969.
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• CRC contributors (2006). David R. Lide. ed. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th
ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 0849304873.
• Emsley, John (2001). "Plutonium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the
Elements. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press. pp. 324–329. ISBN 0198503407.
• Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford
(UK): Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.
• Heiserman, David L. (1992). "Element 94: Plutonium". Exploring Chemical Elements and
their Compounds. New York (NY): TAB Books. pp. 337–340. ISBN 0-8306-3018-X.
• Miner, William N.; Schonfeld, Fred W. (1968). "Plutonium". in Clifford A. Hampel (editor).
The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York (NY): Reinhold Book Corporation.
pp. 540–546. LCCN 68-29938.
• Stwertka, Albert (1998). "Plutonium". Guide to the Elements (Revised ed.). Oxford (UK):
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508083-1.
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• Sutcliffe, W.G.; et al. (1995). " A Perspective on the Dangers of Plutonium (http:/ / web.
archive. org/ web/ 20060929015050/ http:/ / www. llnl. gov/ csts/ publications/ sutcliffe/
)". Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Archived from the original (http:/ / www.
llnl. gov/ csts/ publications/ sutcliffe/ ) on 2006-09-29. http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20060929015050/ http:/ / www. llnl. gov/ csts/ publications/ sutcliffe/ .
Plutonium 20
• Johnson, C.M.; Davis, Z.S. (1997). " Nuclear Weapons: Disposal Options for Surplus
Weapons-Usable Plutonium (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ wmd/ library/ report/ crs/
97-564. htm)". CRS Report for Congress # 97-564 ENR. http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/
wmd/ library/ report/ crs/ 97-564. htm. Retrieved 2009-02-15.
• IEER contributors (2005). " Physical, Nuclear, and Chemical, Properties of Plutonium
(http:/ / www. ieer. org/ fctsheet/ pu-props. html)". IEER. http:/ / www. ieer. org/ fctsheet/
pu-props. html. Retrieved 2009-02-15.
• Samuels, D. (2005). " End of the Plutonium Age (http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 2005/
nov/ end-of-plutonium)". Discover Magazine 26 (11). http:/ / discovermagazine. com/
2005/ nov/ end-of-plutonium.
• Pike, J. (2000). " Plutonium production (http:/ / www. fas. org/ nuke/ intro/ nuke/
plutonium. htm)". Federation of American Scientists. http:/ / www. fas. org/ nuke/ intro/
nuke/ plutonium. htm. Retrieved 2009-02-15.
• Nuclear Weapon Archive contributors. " Plutonium Manufacture and Fabrication (http:/ /
nuclearweaponarchive. org/ Library/ Plutonium/ )". Nuclearweaponarchive.org. http:/ /
nuclearweaponarchive. org/ Library/ Plutonium/ .
• Ong, C. (1999). " World Plutonium Inventories (http:/ / www. nuclearfiles. org/ menu/
key-issues/ nuclear-energy/ issues/ world-plutonium-inventories-ong. htm)". Nuclear
Files.org. http:/ / www. nuclearfiles. org/ menu/ key-issues/ nuclear-energy/ issues/
world-plutonium-inventories-ong. htm. Retrieved 2009-02-15.
• LANL contributors (2000). " Challenges in Plutonium Science (http:/ / www. fas. org/ sgp/
othergov/ doe/ lanl/ pubs/ number26. htm)". Los Alamos Science I & II (26). http:/ / www.
fas. org/ sgp/ othergov/ doe/ lanl/ pubs/ number26. htm. Retrieved 2009-02-15.
• NLM contributors. " Plutonium, Radioactive (http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/
search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+ @na+ @rel+ plutonium,+ radioactive)". NLM Hazardous
Substances Databank. http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+
hsdb:@term+ @na+ @rel+ plutonium,+ radioactive. Retrieved 2009-02-15.
• Alsos contributors. " Annotated Bibliography on plutonium (http:/ / alsos. wlu. edu/
qsearch. aspx?browse=science/ Plutonium)". Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues.
http:/ / alsos. wlu. edu/ qsearch. aspx?browse=science/ Plutonium. Retrieved 2009-02-15.
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License
License 22

Americium 1
Americium
plutonium ← americium → curiumEu
↑
Am
↓
(Uqp)

95Am
Periodic table
Appearance silvery white General Name, symbol, numberElement categoryGroup, period,

PhaseDensity (near r.t.) Melting pointBoiling pointHeat of fusionSpecific heat
P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1239 1356
Atomic properties Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energiesAtomic

radiusCovalent radius Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic orderingThermal
conductivityCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of americium
241 syn 432.2 y SF - -

Am
α 5.486 237
Np
242m syn 141 y IT 0.049 242

Am Am
α 5.637 238
Np
SF - -
Americium 2
243 syn 7370 y SF - -

Am
α 5.275 239
Np
americium, Am, 95 actiniden/a, 7, f(243) g·mol−1 [Rn] 5f7 7s2 2, 8, 18, 32, 25, 8, 2 (Image)
solid 12 g·cm−3 1449 K,1176 °C,2149 °F 2880 K,2607 °C,4725 °F 14.39 kJ·mol−1 (25 °C)
62.7 J·mol−1·K−1 6, 5, 4, 3, 2
(amphoteric oxide) 1.3 (Pauling scale) 1st: 578 kJ·mol−1173 pm 180±6 pm hexagonal no
data (300 K) 10 W·m−1·K−1 7440-35-9
Americium (pronounced /ˌæməˈrɪsiəm/) is a synthetic element that has the symbol Am and
atomic number 95. A radioactive metallic element, americium is an actinide that was
obtained in 1944 by Glenn T. Seaborg who was bombarding plutonium with neutrons and
was the fourth transuranic element to be discovered. It was named for the Americas, by
analogy with europium.[1] Americium is widely used in commercial ionization chamber
smoke detectors, as well as in neutron sources and industrial gauges.
Properties
Physical
Pure americium has a silvery and white luster. At room temperatures it slowly tarnishes in
dry air. It is more silvery than plutonium or neptunium and apparently more malleable than
neptunium or uranium. Alpha emission from 241Am is approximately three times that of
radium. Gram quantities of 241Am emit intense gamma rays which creates a serious
exposure problem for anyone handling the element.
Americium is also fissile; the critical mass for an unreflected sphere of 241Am is
approximately 60 kilograms. It is unlikely that Americium would be used as a weapons
material, as its minimum critical mass is considerably larger than that of more readily
obtained plutonium or uranium isotopes.[2]
Americium 3
Chemical
Americium oxidizes to AmO in air. Similarly, reaction
with hydrogen results in AmH2 where Am is divalent.
However, the most common oxidation state of Am is +3,
especially in solutions which are colored red. It is much
harder to oxidize Am(III) to Am(IV) than it is to oxidize
Pu(III) to Pu(IV).
Americium, unlike uranium, does not readily form a

dioxide americyl core (AmO2).[3] This is because
americium is very hard to oxidise above the +3
oxidation state when it is in an aqueous solution. In the
environment, this americyl core could complex with
carbonate as well as other oxygen moieties (OH−,
NO−2, NO−3, and SO2−4) to form charged complexes
which tend to be readily mobile with low affinities to
soil: AmO2(OH)+, AmO2(OH)2+2, AmO2CO+3,
AmO2(CO3)−2 and AmO2(CO3)3−3.
Examples of americium +4 compounds are Am(OH)4

World's first sample of americium (as
the hydroxide) and AmF4. All pentavalent and hexavalent americium
compounds are complex salts such as KAmO2F2,
Li3AmO4 and Li6AmO6, Ba3AmO6, AmO2F2. Hexavalent americium is a strong oxidizing
agent and is reduced to AmO2+ in oxidation-reduction reactions.[4]
Extraction
A large amount of work has been done on the solvent extraction of americium, as it is the
case that americium and the other transplutonium elements are responsible for the
majority of the long lived radiotoxicity of spent nuclear fuel. It is thought that by removal of
the americium and curium that the used fuel will only need to be isolated from people and
the environment for a shorter time than that required for the isolation of untreated used
fuel.
One recent EU funded project on this topic was known by the codename "EUROPART".
Within this project triazines and other compounds were studied as potential extraction
agents.[5] [6] [7] [8] [9]
Isotopes
Eighteen radioisotopes of americium have been characterized, with the most stable being
243
Am with a half-life of 7370 years, and 241Am with a half-life of 432.2 years. All of the
remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 51 hours, and the majority
of these have half-lives that are less than 100 minutes. This element also has 8 meta states,
with the most stable being 242mAm (t½ 141 years). The isotopes of americium range in
atomic weight from 231.046 u (231Am) to 249.078 u (249Am).
Americium 4
History
Americium was first isolated by Glenn T. Seaborg, Leon O. Morgan, Ralph A. James, and
Albert Ghiorso in late 1944 at the wartime Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of
Chicago (now known as Argonne National Laboratory). The team created the isotope 241Am
by subjecting 239Pu to successive neutron capture reactions in a nuclear reactor. This
created 240Pu and then 241Pu which in turn decayed into 241Am via beta decay.[10]
Seaborg was granted a patent for "Element 95 and Method of Producing Said Element,"
whose unusually terse claim number 1 reads simply, "Element 95."[11] The discovery of
americium and curium was first announced informally on a children's quiz show in 1945.[12]
Applications
Americium can be produced in kilogram amounts and
has some uses, mostly involving 241Am since it is
easiest to produce relatively pure samples of this
isotope. Americium is the only synthetic element to
have found its way into the household, where one
common type of smoke detector uses 241Am in the form
of americium dioxide as its source of ionizing
radiation.[13] The amount of americium in a typical
smoke detector when new is 1 microcurie or 0.28
microgram. This amount declines slowly as the
americium decays into neptunium-237, a different
transuranic element with a much longer half-life (about
Americium-241 is used in smoke
2.14 million years). With its half-life of 432.2 years, the
detectors
americium in a smoke detector includes about 3%
neptunium after 19 years, and about 5% after 32 years.
241
Am has been used as a portable source of both gamma rays and alpha particles for a
number of medical and industrial uses. Gamma ray emissions from 241Am can be used for
indirect analysis of materials radiography and for quality control in manufacturing fixed
gauges. For example, the element has been employed to gauge glass thickness to help
create flat glass. 241Am gamma rays were also used to provide passive diagnosis of thyroid
function. This medical application is obsolete. 241Am can be combined with lighter elements
(e.g., beryllium or lithium) to become a neutron emitter. This application has found uses in
neutron radiography as well as a neutron emitting radioactive source. The most widespread
use of 241AmBe neutron sources is found in moisture/density gauges used for quality
control in highway construction. 241Am neutron sources are also critical for well logging
applications. 242mAm has been cited for use as an advanced nuclear rocket propulsion
fuel.[14] [15] This isotope is, however, extremely expensive to produce in usable quantities.
241
Am has recently been suggested for use as a denaturing agent in plutonium reactor fuel
rods to render the fuel unusable for conversion to nuclear weapons.[16]
Americium 5
Safety
Americium emits alpha and gamma radiation. The alpha decay of 241Am is three times as
active as that of radium. It is associated with 5.48 MeV alpha particles and 59 keV gamma
emission, which is a serious health hazard.[4]
See also
• Actinides in the environment
Further reading
• Nuclides and Isotopes - 14th Edition, GE Nuclear Energy, 1989.
• Gabriele Fioni, Michel Cribier and Frédéric Marie. "Can the minor actinide,
[17]
americium-241, be transmuted by thermal neutrons? ". Commissariat à l'énergie
atomique. http:/ / www. cea. fr/ var/ cea/ storage/ static/ gb/ library/ Clefs46/ pagesg/
clefs46_30. html.
ISBN 0-19-508083-1
• Gmelins Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie, System Nr. 71, Band 7 a, Transurane: Teil
A 1 I, S. 30–34; Teil A 1 II, S. 18, 315–326, 343–344; Teil A 2, S. 42–44, 164–175,
185–188; Teil B 1, S. 57–67.
External links
• WebElements.com – Americium [18]
• It's Elemental – Americium [19]
[20]
• ATSDR – Public Health Statement: Americium
• - World Nuclear Association [21]
References
[1] Seaborg, Glenn T. (1946). " The Transuranium Elements (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1675046)". Science
104 (2704): 379–386. doi: 10.1126/science.104.2704.379 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1126/ science. 104. 2704.
379). .
[2] " Fissile Materials & Nuclear Weapons: Introduction (http:/ / www. fissilematerials. org/ ipfm/ pages_us_en/
fissile/ fissile/ fissile. php)". International Panel on Fissile Materials. . Retrieved 2007-11-22.
[3] David L. Clark (2000). " The Chemical Complexities of Plutonium (http:/ / fas. org/ sgp/ othergov/ doe/ lanl/
pubs/ 00818038. pdf)" (Reprinted at fas.org). Los Alamos Science (26). .
[5] Michael J. Hudson, Michael G. B. Drew, Mark R. StJ. Foreman, Clément Hill, Nathalie Huet, Charles Madic and
Tristan G. A. Youngs (2003). "The coordination chemistry of 1,2,4-triazinyl bipyridines with lanthanide(III)
elements – implications for the partitioning of americium(III)". Dalton Trans.: 1675–1685. doi:
10.1039/b301178j (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ b301178j).
[6] Andreas Geist, Michael Weigl, Udo Müllich, Klaus Gompper (11-13 December 2000). "
Actinide(III)/Lanthanide(III) Partitioning Using n-Pr-BTP as Extractant: Extraction Kinetics and Extraction Test
in a Hollow Fiber Module (http:/ / www. nea. fr/ html/ pt/ docs/ iem/ madrid00/ Paper14. pdf)" (PDF). 6th
Information Exchange Meeting on Actinide and Fission Product Partitioning and Transmutation. OECD Nuclear
Energy Agency. .
[7] C. Hill, D. Guillaneux, X. Hérès, N. Boubals and L. Ramain (24-26 October 2000). " Sanex-BTP Process
Development Studies (http:/ / www-atalante2004. cea. fr/ home/ liblocal/ docs/ atalante2000/ P3-26. pdf)" (PDF).
Atalante 2000: Scientific Research on the Back-end of the Fuel Cycle for the 21st Century. Commissariat à
l'énergie atomique. .
Americium 6
[8] Andreas Geist, Michael Weigl and Klaus Gompper (14-16 October 2002). " Effective
Actinide(III)-Lanthanide(III) Separation in Miniature Hollow Fibre Modules (http:/ / www. nea. fr/ html/ pt/ docs/
iem/ jeju02/ session2/ SessionII-15. pdf)" (PDF). 7th Information Exchange Meeting on Actinide and Fission
Product Partitioning and Transmutation. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. .
[9] D.D. Ensor. " Separation Studies of f-Elements (http:/ / www. tntech. edu/ WRC/ pdfs/ Projects04_05/
Ens_Elem. pdf)" (PDF). Tennessee Tech University. .
[10] G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James, L. O. Morgan: "The New Element Americium (Atomic Number 95)", NNES PPR
(National Nuclear Energy Series, Plutonium Project Record), Vol. 14 B The Transuranium Elements: Research
Papers, Paper No. 22.1, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1949; Abstract (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ cgi-bin/
rd_accomplishments/ display_biblio. cgi?id=ACC0046& numPages=43& fp=N); Typoskript (Januar 1948) (http:/
/ www. osti. gov/ accomplishments/ documents/ fullText/ ACC0046. pdf).
[11] Patent US3156523 (http:/ / patft. uspto. gov/ netacgi/ nph-Parser?patentnumber=3156523) (1964-11-10)
Glenn T. Seaborg, Element 95 and Method of Producing Said Element.
[12] Rachel Sheremeta Pepling. " It's Elemental: The Periodic Table: Americium (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/
americium. html)". Chemical & Engineering News. .
[13] Americium dioxide is used in smoke detectors. (Internet Archive) (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
19960101-re_/ http:/ / www. uic. com. au/ nip35. htm)
[14] " Extremely Efficient Nuclear Fuel Could Take Man To Mars In Just Two Weeks (http:/ / www. sciencedaily.
com/ releases/ 2001/ 01/ 010103073253. htm)". ScienceDaily. 2001-01-03. . Retrieved 2007-11-22.
[15] Terry Kammash, David L. Galbraith, and Ta-Rong Jan (January 10, 1993). "An americium-fueled gas core
nuclear rocket". Tenth symposium on space nuclear power and propulsion. AIP Conf. Proc.. 271. pp. 585-589.
[16] " BGU combats nuclear proliferation (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ servlet/ Satellite?cid=1235898328437&
pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ ShowFull)". . Retrieved 2009-03-05.
[17] http:/ / www. cea. fr/ var/ cea/ storage/ static/ gb/ library/ Clefs46/ pagesg/ clefs46_30. html
[18] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Am/ index. html
[21] http:/ / world-nuclear. org/ info/ inf57. html

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License
Curium 1
Curium
This article is about the chemical element Curium; for the ancient city also called
Curium (located in Cyprus), see Kourion
americium ← curium → berkelium

Gd
↑
Cm
↓
(Uqh)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number curium, Cm, 96
Appearance silvery

−1
[Rn] 5f 6d 7s
1 2
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3

(1340 °C, 2444 °F)

(3110 °C, 5630 °F)
Heat of fusion ? 15 kJ·mol−1
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1788 1982
Atomic properties
Crystal structure hexagonal close-packed
(amphoteric oxide)

Curium 2
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering no data
Main article: Isotopes of curium

242
Cm syn 160 days SF - -
α 6.1 238
Pu
243
Cm syn 29.1 y α 6.169 239
Pu
ε 0.009 243
Am
SF - -
244
Cm syn 18.1 y SF - -
α 5.902 240
Pu
245
Cm syn 8500 y SF - -
α 5.623 241
Pu
246
Cm syn 4730 y α 5.475 242
Pu
SF - -
247
Cm syn 1.56×10 y
7 α 5.353 243
Pu
248
Cm syn 3.40×10 y
5 α 5.162 244
Pu
SF - -
250
Cm syn 9000 y SF - -
α 5.169 246
Pu
β− 0.037 250
Bk
References
Curium (pronounced /ˈkjuːriəm/) is a synthetic chemical element with the symbol Cm and
atomic number 96. A radioactive metallic transuranic element of the actinide series, curium
is produced by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles (helium ions) and was named for
Marie Curie and her husband Pierre.
Curium 3
Characteristics
The isotope curium-248 has been synthesized only in milligram quantities, but curium-242
and curium-244 are made in multigram amounts, which allows for the determination of
some of the element's properties. Curium-244 can be made in quantity by subjecting
plutonium to neutron bombardment. Curium does not occur in nature. There are few
commercial applications for curium but it may one day be useful in radioisotope
thermoelectric generators. Curium bio-accumulates in bone tissue where its radiation
destroys bone marrow and thus stops red blood cell creation.
A rare earth homolog, curium is somewhat chemically similar to gadolinium but with a
more complex crystal structure. Chemically reactive, its metal is silvery-white in color and
the element is more electropositive than aluminium (most trivalent curium compounds are
slightly yellow).
Curium has been studied greatly as a potential fuel for radioisotope thermoelectric
generators (RTG). Curium-242 can generate up to 120 watts of thermal energy per gram
(W/g); however, its very short half-life makes it undesirable as a power source for long-term
use. Curium-242 can decay by alpha emission to plutonium-238 which is the most common
fuel for RTGs. Curium-244 has also been studied as an energy source for RTGs having a
maximum energy density ~3 W/g,[1] but produces a large amount of neutron radiation from
spontaneous fission. Curium-243 with a ~30 year half-life and good energy density of ~1.6
W/g would seem to make an ideal fuel, but it produces significant amounts of gamma and
beta radiation from radioactive decay products.
Compounds
Some compounds are:
• curium dioxide (CmO2)
• curium trioxide (Cm2O3)
• curium bromide (CmBr3)
• curium chloride (CmCl3)
• curium tetrafluoride (CmF4)
• curium iodide (CmI3)
History
Curium was first synthesized at the University of California, Berkeley by Glenn T. Seaborg,
Ralph A. James, and Albert Ghiorso in 1944.[2] The team named the new element after
Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who are famous for discovering radium and for their
work in radioactivity. It was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory (now
Argonne National Laboratory) at the University of Chicago. It was actually the third
transuranium element to be discovered even though it is the fourth in the series.
Curium-242 (half-life 163 days) and one free neutron were made by bombarding alpha
particles onto a plutonium-239 target in the 60-inch cyclotron at Berkeley.[3]
23994Pu + 42He → 24296Cm + 10n
Due to the fact that the discovery of the new elements, curium and americium, was closely
related to the Manhattan Project the results were confidential and publication was
impossible. Seaborg announced the discovery of the elements on the radio show for kids,
the Quiz Kids, five days before the official presentation at an American Chemical Society
Curium 4
meeting on November 11, 1945.[4] Seaborg also patented the synthesis of the new
elements.[5]
Louis Werner and Isadore Perlman created a visible sample of curium-242 hydroxide at the
University of California in 1947 by bombarding americium-241 with neutrons.[6] Curium
was made in its elemental form in 1951 for the first time.[7] [8]
Isotopes
19 radioisotopes of curium have been characterized, with the most stable being Cm-247
with a half-life of 1.56 × 107 years, Cm-248 with a half-life of 3.40 × 105 years, Cm-250 with
a half-life of 9000 years, and Cm-245 with a half-life of 8500 years. All of the remaining
radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 30 years, and the majority of these
have half-lives that are less than 33 days. This element also has 4 meta states, with the
most stable being Cm-244m (t½ 34 ms). The isotopes of curium range in atomic weight from
233.051 u (Cm-233) to 252.085 u (Cm-252).
Nuclear fuel cycle
[9]
Transmutation flow between 238Pu and 244Cm in LWR.
Fission percentage is 100 minus shown percentages.
Total rate of transmutation varies greatly by nuclide.
245
Cm–248Cm are long-lived with negligible decay.
Thermal neutron cross sections
242 243 244 245 246 247

Cm Cm Cm Cm Cm Cm
Fission 5 617 1.04 2145 0.14 81.90
Capture 16 130 15.20 369 1.22 57
C/F ratio 3.20 0.21 14.62 0.17 8.71 0.70

Curium 5
[10]
LEU spent fuel 20 years after 53 MWd/kg burnup
3 common isotopes 51 3700 390
[11]
Fast reactor MOX fuel (avg 5 samples, burnup 66-120GWd/t)
27.64% 70.16% 2.166% 0.0376% 0.000928%

Total curium 3.09 × 10-3%
The odd-mass number isotopes are fissile, the even-mass number isotopes are not and can
only capture neutrons, but very slowly. Therefore in a thermal reactor the even-mass
isotopes accumulate as burnup increases.
The MOX which is to be used in power reactors should contain little or no curium as the
neutron activation of 248Cm will create californium which is a strong neutron emitter. The
californium would pollute the back end of the fuel cycle and increase the dose to workers.
Hence if the minor actinides are to be used as fuel in a thermal neutron reactor, the curium
should be excluded from the fuel or placed in special fuel rods where it is the only actinide
present.
Applications
The Curium isotopes 244Cm and 242Cm are strong alpha emitters with a halflife in the
months to years range and produce considerable heat during this process. These properties
make them useful for applications as alpha particle source and as heat generator in
radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG).
A 244Curium source is used for the Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer on board several
American and European space missions, for example the Mars Exploration Rover[12] and
the Rosetta/Philae. The use in RTG is proposed for several future missions.[13] [14]
Literature
ISBN 0-19-508083-1.
External links
• Los Alamos National Laboratory - Curium [15]
• It's Elemental – Curium [16]
• Human Health Fact Sheet on Curium [17]
• WebElements.com – Curium [18]
[19]
• NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Curium, Radioactive
References
[1] Gmelins Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie, System Nr. 71, Band 7 a, Transurane, Teil A 2, p. 289.
[2] Hall, Nina (2000). The New Chemistry: A Showcase for Modern Chemistry and Its Applications (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=U4rnzH9QbT4C). Cambridge University Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 9780521452243. .
[3] G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James, A. Ghiorso: "The New Element Curium (Atomic Number 96)", NNES PPR (National
Nuclear Energy Series, Plutonium Project Record), Vol. 14 B, The Transuranium Elements: Research Papers,
Paper No. 22.2, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1949; Abstract (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ cgi-bin/
rd_accomplishments/ display_biblio. cgi?id=ACC0049& numPages=13& fp=N); Typoskript (January 1948)
(http:/ / www. osti. gov/ accomplishments/ documents/ fullText/ ACC0049. pdf).
Curium 6
[4] PEPLING, RACHEL SHEREMETA (2003). " Chemical & Engineering News: It's Elemental: The Periodic Table –
Americium (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ americium. html)". . Retrieved 07-12-2008.
[5] Patent Nr. 3161462 bei Google Patents (http:/ / www. google. de/ patents?id=MSRXAAAAEBAJ&
dq=3161462).
[6] L. B. Werner, I. Perlman: "Isolation of Curium", NNES PPR (National Nuclear Energy Series, Plutonium Project
Record), Vol. 14 B, The Transuranium Elements: Research Papers, Paper No. 22.5, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
New York, 1949.
[7] Wallmann, J. C.; Crane, W. W. T.; Cunningham, B. B. (1951). "The Preparation and Some Properties of Curium
Metal". Journal of the American Chemical Society 73 (1): 493–494. doi: 10.1021/ja01145a537 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1021/ ja01145a537).
[8] Werner, L. B., L. B. last =Werner; Perlman, I. (1951). "First Isolation of Curium"". Journal of the American
[9] Sasahara, Akihiro (April 2004). " Neutron and Gamma Ray Source Evaluation of LWR High Burn-up UO2 and
MOX Spent Fuels (http:/ / www. jstage. jst. go. jp/ article/ jnst/ 41/ 4/ 448/ _pdf)". Journal of NUCLEAR
SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY 41 (4): 448–456. doi: 10.3327/jnst.41.448 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 3327/ jnst. 41.
448). .
[10] " Limited Proliferation-Resistance Benefits from Recycling Unseparated Transuranics and Lanthanides from
Light-Water Reactor Spent Fuel (http:/ / www. princeton. edu/ ~globsec/ publications/ pdf/ 13_3 Kang
vonhippel. pdf)" (PDF). p. 4. .
[11] " Analysis of Curium Isotopes in Mixed Oxide Fuel Irradiated in Fast Reactor (http:/ / wwwsoc. nii. ac. jp/ aesj/
publication/ JNST2001/ No. 10/ 38_912-914. pdf)" (PDF). .
[12] R. Rieder, R. Gellert, J. Brückner, G. Klingelhöfer, G. Dreibus, A. Yen, S. W. Squyres (2003). "The new Athena
alpha particle X-ray spectrometer for the Mars Exploration Rovers". J. Geophysical Research 108: 8066. doi:
10.1029/2003JE002150 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1029/ 2003JE002150).
[13] Miskolczy, G.; Lieb, D.P. (1990). "Radioisotope Thermionic Converters for Space Applications". Energy
Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC-90) 1: 222–226. doi: 10.1109/IECEC.1990.716874 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1109/ IECEC. 1990. 716874).
[14] O’Brien,, R.C.; Ambrosi, R. M.; Bannister, N.P.; Howe S.D.; Atkinso, H. V. (2008). "Safe radioisotope
thermoelectric generators and heat sources for space applications". Journal of Nuclear Materials 377 (3):
506–521. doi: 10.1016/j.jnucmat.2008.04.009 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. jnucmat. 2008. 04. 009).
[17] http:/ / www. ead. anl. gov/ pub/ doc/ curium. pdf
[18] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Cm/ index. html
[19] http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+ @na+ @rel+ curium,+ radioactive

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License
Berkelium 1
Berkelium
curium ← berkelium → californiumTb
↑
Bk
↓
(Uqs)

97Bk
Periodic table
Appearance silvery General Name, symbol, numberElement categoryGroup, period,

PhaseDensity (near r.t.) Density (near r.t.) Melting point Atomic properties Oxidation states
ElectronegativityIonization energiesAtomic radius Miscellaneous Crystal structureMagnetic
orderingThermal conductivityCAS registry number Most stable isotopes Main article:
Isotopes of berkelium
245 syn 4.94 d ε 0.810 245

Bk Cm
α 6.455 241
Am
246 syn 1.8 d α 6.070 242

Bk Am
ε 1.350 246
Cm
247 syn 1380 y α 5.889 243

Bk Am
248 syn >9 y α 5.803 244

Bk Am
Berkelium 2
249 syn 330 d α 5.526 245

Bk Am
SF - -
0.125
β− 249
Cf
berkelium, Bk, 97 actiniden/a, 7, f(247) g·mol−1 [Rn] 5f9 7s2 2, 8, 18, 32, 27, 8, 2 (Image)
solid (alpha) 14.78 g·cm−3 (beta) 13.25 g·cm−3 (beta) 1259 K,986 °C,1807 °F3, 4 1.3
(Pauling scale) 1st: 601 kJ·mol−1 170 pm hexagonal close-packed no data (300 K)
10 W·m−1·K−1 7440-40-6
Berkelium (pronounced /bərˈkiːli.əm/, less commonly English pronunciation: /ˈbɜrkli.əm/) is a
synthetic element with the symbol Bk and atomic number 97. A radioactive metallic
element in the actinide series, berkelium was first synthesized by bombarding americium
with alpha particles (helium ions) and was named after the University of California,
Berkeley. Berkelium was the fifth transuranic element to be synthesized.
249
Weighable amounts of Bk (half-life 330 days) make it
possible to determine some of its properties using
macroscopic quantities. It is a silvery metal that would
easily oxidize in air at elevated temperatures and would
be soluble in dilute mineral acids.
X-ray diffraction techniques have been used to identify
various berkelium compounds such as berkelium
University of California, Berkeley dioxide (BkO2), berkelium fluoride (BkF3), berkelium
oxychloride (BkOCl), and berkelium trioxide (BkO3).[1]
In 1962 visible amounts of berkelium chloride (BkCl3)
were isolated that weighed 3 billionths of a gram. The
first time visible amounts of a pure berkelium
compound were produced in 1958.[2]
Like other actinides, berkelium bio-accumulates in

skeletal tissue. This element has no known uses outside
of basic research and plays no biological role.
History
60-Inch-Cyclotron
Berkelium was first synthesized by Glenn T. Seaborg,
Albert Ghiorso, Stanley G. Thompson, and Kenneth
Street, Jr. at the University of California, Berkeley in December 1949. The team used a
cyclotron to bombard a milligram-sized target of 241Am with alpha particles to produce
243
Bk (half-life 4.5 hours) and two free neutrons.[3] [4] [5] [6]
24195Am + 42He → 24397Bk +2 10n
One of the longest lived isotopes of the element, 249Bk (half-life 330 days), was later
synthesized by subjecting a 244Cm target to an intense beam of neutrons.
Berkelium 3
Isotopes
19 radioisotopes of berkelium have been characterized, with the most stable being 247Bk
with a half-life of 1380 years, 248Bk with a half-life of >9 years, and 249Bk with a half-life of
330 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 5 days,
and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 5 hours. This element also has 2
meta states, with the most stable being 248mBk (t½ 23.7 hours). The isotopes of berkelium
range in atomic weight from 235.057 u (235Bk) to 254.091 u (254Bk).
Nuclear fuel cycle

In the nuclear fuel cycle, berkelium is produced by beta decay of curium. The first curium
isotope to undergo beta decay is Cm-249 with a half-life of just over an hour, so Bk-249 is
the only isotope of berkelium produced in significant quantities in nuclear reactors.
Production of Bk-249 requires 11 successive neutron captures on uranium-238 without
nuclear fission or alpha decay, so it is only produced in small amounts.
249
Bk has a moderately large neutron capture cross section of 710 barns for thermal
neutrons, 1200 barns resonance integral, but very low fission cross section for thermal
neutrons. If still in a thermal reactor, much of it will therefore be converted to 250Bk which
quickly decays to californium-250, but some alpha decays to curium-245.
Toxicity
Berkelium accumulates in the skeletal system. The radiation can cause damage to red blood
cells. The maximum permissible body burden reported for the isotope Bk–249 in the human
skeleton is 0.4 ng. [7]
External links
• WebElements.com - Berkelium [8]
[9]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory - Berkelium
• It's Elemental - Berkelium [10]
[11]
• Berkeley Science Review - An Elementary Problem
References
[1] "The Solution Absorption Spectrum of Bk3+ and the Crystallography of Berkelium Dioxide, Sesquioxide,
Trichloride, Oxychloride, and Trifluoride", Ph.D. Thesis, Joseph Richard Peterson, October 1967, U. S. Atomic
Energy Commission Document Number UCRL-17875(1967).
[2] S. G. Thompson, B. B. Cunningham: "First Macroscopic Observations of the Chemical Properties of Berkelium
and Californium", supplement to Paper P/825 presented at the Second Intl. Conf., Peaceful Uses Atomic Energy,
Geneva, 1958.
[3] S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, G. T. Seaborg: "Element 97", Physical Review 1950, 77 (6), 838–839; doi:
10.1103/PhysRev.77.838.2 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 77. 838. 2).
[4] S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, G. T. Seaborg: "The New Element Berkelium (Atomic Number 97)", Physical
Review 1950, 80 (5), 781–789; doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.80.781 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 80. 781);
Abstract (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ cgi-bin/ rd_accomplishments/ display_biblio. cgi?id=ACC0045&
numPages=38& fp=N); Typoscript (26. April 1950) (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ accomplishments/ documents/
fullText/ ACC0045. pdf).
[5] Stanley G. Thompson, Glenn T. Seaborg: "Chemical Properties of Berkelium"; doi: 10.2172/932812 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 2172/ 932812); Abstract (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ energycitations/ product. biblio. jsp?query_id=0&
page=0& osti_id=932812); Typoscript (24. February 1950) (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ bridge/ servlets/ purl/
932812-Rk9Mcq/ 932812. PDF).
Berkelium 4
[6] S. G. Thompson, B. B. Cunningham, G. T. Seaborg: "Chemical Properties of Berkelium", J. Am. Chem. Soc.
1950, 72 (6), 2798–2801; doi: 10.1021/ja01162a538 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ja01162a538).
[7] Pradyot Patnaik. Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. McGraw-Hill, 2002, ISBN 0070494398
[8] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Bk/ index. html
[11] http:/ / sciencereview. berkeley. edu/ articles. php?issue=1& article=elementary

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License
Californium 1
Californium
berkelium ← californium → einsteinium

Dy
↑
Cf
↓
(Uqo)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number californium, Cf, 98
Appearance silvery

−1
Electron configuration [Rn] 5f

10
7s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3

(900 °C, 1652 °F)

(1470 °C, 2678 °F)
Atomic properties
Miscellaneous
Californium 2
Main article: Isotopes of californium

248
Cf syn 333.5 d SF - -
α 6.361 244
Cm
249
Cf syn 351 y SF - -
α 6.295 245
Cm
250
Cf syn 13.08 y α 6.128 246
Cm
SF - -
251
Cf syn 898 y α 6.176 247
Cm
252
Cf syn 2.645 y α 6.217 248
Cm
SF - -
253
Cf syn 17.81 d β
− 0.285 253
Es
α 6.124 249
Cm
254
Cf syn 60.5 d SF - -
α 5.926 250
Cm
References
Californium (pronounced /ˌkælɨˈfɔrniəm/) is a metallic chemical element with the symbol

Cf and atomic number 98. A radioactive transuranic element, californium is used in starting
nuclear reactors, optimizing coal-fired power plants and cement production facilities (via
online analyzers), medical treatment of cancer, and oil exploration via down hole well
logging. It was first produced by bombarding curium with alpha particles (helium ions).
History
Californium was first synthesized at the University of
California, Berkeley by researchers Stanley G.
Thompson, Kenneth Street, Jr., Albert Ghiorso and
Glenn T. Seaborg in 1950. It was the sixth transuranium
element to be discovered and the team announced their
discovery on March 17, 1950.[1] [2] [3] They named it
after the U.S. state of California and the University of
California, Berkeley. Unlike the names for the elements
95 to 97, this name did not reflect the chemical
60 Inch Cyclotron homology of element 98 to its corresponding
sixth-period element, dysprosium (No. 66).[2]
To produce element 98, the team bombarded a microgram-sized target of 242Cm with 35
MeV alpha particles in the 60-inch (1.52 m) Berkeley cyclotron, which produced atoms of
245
Cf (half-life 44 minutes) and a free neutron.
24296Cm + 42He → 24598Cf + 10n
Californium 3
Weighable quantities of califorinium were first

produced by long-duration irradiation of plutonium
targets at the Materials Testing Reactor.[4] The high
spontaneous fission rate of Cf-252 was observed in
these samples.
In the 1960s, reactors at Savannah River and the High
Flux Isotope Reactor(HFIR) started producing batches
of californium regularly. The U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission began selling and loaning californium
sources to industrial and academic customers in 1970
for $10 per microgram. By the 1990s, Oak Ridge was
producing 300-400 mg of Cf, mostly Cf-252, every two
years.
Milligram-quantities of californium can only be made in

specialized high-flux reactors; there are only two
reactors operating that can efficiently produce it, the
Elutioncurves: High Flux Isotope Reactor in the U.S. and Research
chromatographic separation of Dy, Tb,
[2] Institute of Atomic Reactors in Dimitrovgrad, Russia,
Gd, Eu and Cf, Bk, Cm, Am.
with HFIR filling about 2/3 of the world market of about
90 mg / year. Between 1960 and 1995, the HFIR
produced only 8 grams of californium, peaking at about 200 mg per year.[5]
Plutonium supplied by the United Kingdom to the U.S. under the 1958 US-UK Mutual
Defence Agreement was used for californium production.[6]
Isotopes
Twenty radioisotopes of californium have been characterized, the most stable being 251Cf
with a half-life of 898 years, 249Cf with a half-life of 351 years, and 250Cf with a half-life of
13 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 2.7
years, and the majority of these have half-lives shorter than 20 minutes. The isotopes of
californium range in atomic weight from 237.062 u (237Cf) to 256.093 u (256Cf).
Californium 4
252
Cf has a half life of 2.645 years. 252Cf undergoes
α-decay 96.9% of the time while the remaining 3.1% of
decays are spontaneous fission. Each spontaneous
fission decay emits an average of 3.77 neutrons per
254
fission. Cf decays nearly quantitatively by
spontaneous fission with a half-life of 60.5 days. Both
materials can be used as a neutron source.
Occurrence
Natural occurrence
Although californium does not occur naturally on Earth,
the element and its decay products occur elsewhere in
the universe. Their electromagnetic emissions are Energy spectrum of neutrons emitted
[7]
regularly observed in the spectra of supernovae.[8] [9] by 252Cf.
[10] [11]
Fallout
On November 1, 1952, the fallout of the United States hydrogen bomb test Ivy Mike
contained plutonium, californium, einsteinium, and other transuranium elements. The
isotopes 249Cf, 252Cf, 253Cf, and 254Cf were observed for the first time in the debris from
the explosion.[12]
Characteristics
Weighable amounts of californium make it possible to determine some of its properties
using macroscopic quantities.
252
Cf (2.645-year half-life) is a very strong neutron emitter and is thus extremely
radioactive and harmful.[13] [14] [15] [16] [17] One microgram spontaneously emits
2,314 million neutrons per second[18] and one gram emits 39 watts of heat[19] . 249Cf is
formed from the beta decay of 249Bk and most other californium isotopes are made by
subjecting berkelium to intense neutron radiation in a nuclear reactor.
Californium has no biological role and only a few californium compounds have been made
and studied. Included among these are californium oxide (Cf2O3), californium trichloride
(CfCl3) and californium oxychloride (CfOCl). The only californium ion that is stable in
aqueous solution is the californium(III) cation.
Nuclear fuel cycle

Actinides Halflife Fission products
244 241 10–30 y

Pu f 250 243
Cmf 137 90 85
Cm Cf Cs Sr Kr
Californium 5
232 f is for 69–90 y

U f 238 151
Pu Sm nc➔
fissile
4n 249 141–351
Cf f 242
Amf No fission product
has halflife 102
241 251 431–898
Am Cf f to 2×105 years
240 229 246 243 5–7 ky

Pu Th Cm Am
4n 245 8–24 ky
Cmf 250 239
Cm Pu f
233 32–160
U f 230 231
Th Pa
4n+1 234 4n+3 211–290 99 126 79

U Tc Sn Se
248 242 340–373 Long-lived fission products

Cm Pu
237 4n+2 1–2 my 93 135

Np Zr Cs nc➔
236 4n+1 247 6–23

Cmf 107 129
U Pd I
244 80 my >7% >5% >1% >.1%

Pu
232 238 235 fission product yield

Th U U f .7–12by
Californium is produced by neutron capture on berkelium-249. Three californium isotopes

with significant halflives are produced, requiring a total of 12 to 14 neutron captures on
uranium-238 without nuclear fission or alpha decay. Their neutron cross sections are:
Capture Fission HL
Th RI Th RI (a)
250 2000 12000 13.08

Cf
251 2900 1600 4800 5500 898

Cf
252 20 44 32 1100 2.645

Cf
Thus 250Cf and 251Cf will be transmuted fairly quickly, with the majority fissioning at mass
251, but with a large fraction surviving to become 252Cf. The 252Cf will not be transmuted
or destroyed quickly in a well-thermalized reactor, but has a short decay halflife. These
isotopes decay into long-lived isotopes of curium.
252
Cf has a relatively high rate of spontaneous fission. Although still much less likely than
alpha decay, this makes californium a significant neutron radiation emitter. MOX fuel
containing enough curium would likely contain enough californium after use to preclude
manual handling of the spent fuel or its nuclear reprocessing products with a glove box that
protects against alpha and beta radiation but not against gamma radiation and especially
neutron radiation.
Californium 6
Applications
General
252
Cf has a number of specialized applications as a strong neutron emitter. Each milligram
of fresh californium produces 2.3 x 109 neutrons / second. Some of its uses are:[5] [20] [21]
• neutron startup source for some nuclear reactors, calibrating instrumentation

• treatment of certain cervical and brain cancers where other radiation therapy is
ineffective
• radiography of aircraft to detect metal fatigue
• airport neutron-activation detectors of explosives
• portable (non-reactor based) neutron sources for neutron activation analysis
• portable metal detectors[22]
• neutron moisture gauges used to find water and petroleum layers in oil wells
• portable neutron source for gold and silver prospecting for on-the-spot analysis
• 252Cf is used to detect ground water movement.[23]
In October 2006 it was announced that three atoms ununoctium (element 118) had been
identified at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna as the product of
bombardment of californium-249 with calcium-48 ,[24] [25] [26] making this the heaviest
element ever synthesized.
Military
251
Cf is famous for having a very small critical mass of 5 kg,[27] high lethality, and short
period of toxic environmental irradiation relative to radioactive elements commonly used
for radiation explosive weaponry, creating speculation about possible use in pocket nukes.
Other weaponry uses, such as showering an area with californium, are not impossible but
are seen as inhumane and are subject to inclement weather conditions and porous terrain
considerations.
Literature
ISBN 0-19-508083-1
External links
• WebElements.com - Californium [28]
• NuclearWeaponArchive.org - Californium [29]
• It's Elemental - Californium [30]
[31]
• Hazardous Substances Databank – Californium, Radioactive
Californium 7
References
[1] S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso, G. T. Seaborg (1950). " Element 98 (http:/ / repositories. cdlib. org/
cgi/ viewcontent. cgi?article=7072& context=lbnl)". Physical Review 78: 298. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.78.298.2
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 78. 298. 2). .
[2] S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso, G. T. Seaborg (1950). " The New Element Californium (Atomic
Number 98) (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ accomplishments/ documents/ fullText/ ACC0050. pdf)". Physical Review
80: 790. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.80.790 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 80. 790). .
[3] K. Street, Jr., S. G. Thompson, G. T. Seaborg (1950). " Chemical Properties of Californium (http:/ / handle. dtic.
mil/ 100. 2/ ADA319899)". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 72: 4832. doi: 10.1021/ja01166a528 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/
ja01166a528). .
[4] * Diamond, H. (1954). "Identification of Californium Isotopes 249, 250, 251, and 252 from Pile-Irradiated
Plutonium". Phys Rev 94 (4): 1083. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.94.1083 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 94.
1083).
[5] Osborne-Lee, I.W. and Alexander, C. W. (1995). " Californium-252: A remarkable versatile radioisotope (http:/ /
www. osti. gov/ bridge/ product. biblio. jsp?query_id=1& page=0& osti_id=205871)". Oak Ridge Technical
Report ORNL/TM-12706. .
[6] " Plutonium and Aldermaston - an historical account (http:/ / www. mod. uk/ NR/ rdonlyres/
B31B4EF0-A584-4CC6-9B14-B5E89E6848F8/ 0/ plutoniumandaldermaston. pdf)". UK Ministry of Defence.
2001-09-04. . Retrieved 2007-03-15.
[7] K. Anderson, J. Pilcher, H. Wu, E. van der Bij, Z. Meggyesi, J. Adams (1999). " Neutron Irradiation Tests of an
S-LINK-over-G-link System (http:/ / hep. uchicago. edu/ atlas/ tilecal/ rad/ Glink_radtest. pdf)". .
[8] G. R. Burbidge et al. (1956). " PDF Californium-254 and Supernovae (http:/ / authors. library. caltech. edu/
6553/ 1/ BURpr56. pdf)". Physical Review 103: 1145. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.103.1145 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1103/ PhysRev. 103. 1145). PDF.
[9] W. Baade, G. R. Burbidge, F. Hoyle, E. M. Burbidge, R. F. Christy, W. A. Fowler (1956). "Supernovae and
Californium 254". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 68: 296url = http:/ / adsabs. harvard.
edu/ cgi-bin/ nph-data_query?bibcode=1956PASP. . . 68. . 296B& link_type=ARTICLE& db_key=AST&
high=14365.
[10] St. Temesváry (1957). "Das Element Californium-254 und die Lichtkurven der Supernovae von Typ I. Ein
Beitrag zur Frage der Synthese schwerer Elemente im Kosmos". Die Naturwissenschaften 44: 321. doi:
10.1007/BF00630928 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF00630928)..
[11] E. Anders (1959). " Californium-254, Iron-59, and Supernovae of Type I (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ cgi-bin/
nph-data_query?bibcode=1959ApJ. . . 129. . 327A& link_type=ARTICLE& db_key=AST& high=14365)". The
Astrophysical Journal 129: 327–346. doi: 10.1086/146624 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1086/ 146624). .
[12] P. R. Fields et al. (1956). "Transplutonium Elements in Thermonuclear Test Debris". Physical Review 102 (1):
[13] D. A. Hicks et al. (1955). "Multiplicity of Neutrons from the Spontaneous Fission of Californium-252".
Physical Review 97 (2): 564–565. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.97.564 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 97.
564).
[14] D. A. Hicks et al. (1955). "Spontaneous-Fission Neutrons of Californium-252 and Curium-244". Physical
Review 98 (5): 1521–1523. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.98.1521 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 98. 1521).
[15] E. Hjalmar, H. Slätis, S.G. Thompson (1955). "Energy Spectrum of Neutrons from Spontaneous Fission of
Californium-252"". Physical Review 100 (5): 1542–1543. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.100.1542 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1103/ PhysRev. 100. 1542).
[16] United States Patent 7118524: "Dosimetry for californium-252 (252Cf) neutron-emitting brachytherapy
sources and encapsulation, storage, and clinical delivery thereof" bei www.freepatentsonline.com (http:/ / www.
freepatentsonline. com/ 7118524. html).
[17] Michael B. Dillon, Ronald L. Baskett, Kevin T. Foster, and Connee S. Foster (2004-03-18). " The NARAC
Emergency Response Guide to Initial Airborne Hazard Estimates (https:/ / narac. llnl. gov/ uploads/
Dillon2004_NARACEmergencyResponseGuide_202990_xchnw. pdf)". National Atmospheric Release Advisory
Center. . Retrieved 2008-11-14.
[18] R. C. Martin, J. B. Knauer, P. A. Balo (2000, Pages 785–792). " PDF Production, Distribution, and Applications
of Californium-252 Neutron Sources (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ bridge/ servlets/ purl/ 15053-AE6cnN/ native/
15053. pdf)". Applied Radiation and Isotopes 53. doi: 10.1016/S0969-8043(00)00214-1 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1016/ S0969-8043(00)00214-1). PDF.
[19] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 603220/ transuranium-element/ 81185/ Nuclear-properties
[20] R. C. Martin and J. H. Miller. " Applications of Californium-252 Neutron Sources in Medicine, Research, and
Industry (http:/ / anes. fiu. edu/ Pro/ s7Mar. pdf)" (PDF). . Retrieved 2008-11-14.
Californium 8
[21] R. C. Martin (2000). " Applications and Availability of Californium-252 Neutron Sources for Waste
Characterization (http:/ / www. ornl. gov/ ~webworks/ cpr/ pres/ 107270_. pdf)" (PDF). . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[22] " Will you be 'mine'? Physics key to detection (http:/ / www. pnl. gov/ news/ 2000/ 00-43. htm)". Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory. 2000-10-25. . Retrieved 2007-03-21.
[23] S. N. Davis et al. (2006). "Ground-Water Tracers — A Short Review". Ground Water 18 (1): 14–23. doi:
[24] Yu. Ts. Oganessian et al. (2006). "Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the 249Cf and
245
Cm+48Ca fusion reactions". Physical Review C 74: 044602–044611. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602 (http:/
/ dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 74. 044602)..
[25] K. Sanderson (2006-10-17). " Heaviest element made - again (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ 2006/ 061016/
full/ 061016-4. html)". nature@news.com (Nature (journal)). . Retrieved 2006-10-19.
[26] Phil Schewe and Ben Stein (2006-10-17). " Elements 116 and 118 Are Discovered (http:/ / www. aip. org/ pnu/
2006/ 797. html)". Physics News Update. American Institute of Physics. . Retrieved 2006-10-19.
[27] " Evaluation of nuclear criticality safety data and limits for actinides in transport (http:/ / europa. eu. int/
comm/ energy/ nuclear/ transport/ doc/ irsn_sect03_146. pdf)" (PDF). Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté
Nucléaire. p. 16. .
[28] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Cf/ index. html
[29] http:/ / www. nuclearweaponarchive. org/ Nwfaq/ Nfaq6. html#nfaq6. 2
[31] http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+ @rel+ @na+ californium,radioactive

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Einsteinium 1
Einsteinium
californium ← einsteinium → fermium

Ho
↑
Es
↓
(Uqe)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number einsteinium, Es, 99
Appearance [1]
silver-coloured

−1

11
7s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

−3

(860 °C, 1580 °F)
Atomic properties
Miscellaneous
Einsteinium 2
Main article: Isotopes of einsteinium

252
Es syn 471.7 d α 6.760 248
Bk
ε 1.260 252
Cf
β− 0.480 252
Fm
253
Es syn 20.47 d SF - -
α 6.739 249
Bk
254
Es syn 275.7 d ε 0.654 254
Cf
β
− 1.090 254
Fm
α 6.628 250
Bk
255
Es syn 39.8 d β
− 0.288 255
Fm
α 6.436 251
Bk
SF - -
References
Einsteinium (pronounced /aɪnˈstaɪniəm/) is a metallic synthetic element. On the periodic

table, it is represented by the symbol Es and atomic number 99. It is the seventh
transuranic element, and an actinoid. It was named in honor of Albert Einstein.[1]
Properties
Its position on the periodic table indicates that its chemical and physical properties are
similar to other metals. Though only small amounts have been made, it has been
determined to be silver-colored.[1] According to tracer studies conducted at Los Alamos
National Laboratory using the isotope 253Es, this element has chemical properties typical of
a heavy trivalent, actinide element.[2]
Like all synthetic elements, isotopes of einsteinium are extremely radioactive, and are
considered highly toxic.
Production
Einsteinium does not occur naturally in any measurable quantities. The modern process of
creating the element starts with the irradiation of plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor for
several years. The resulting plutonium-242 isotope (in the form of the compound
plutonium(IV) oxide) is mixed with aluminium and formed into pellets. The pellets are then
further irradiated for approximately one year in a nuclear reactor. Another four months of
irradiation is required in a different reactor. The result is a mixture of californium and
einsteinium, which can then be separated.[2]
Einsteinium 3
Uses
Aside from basic scientific research (like being a step in the production of other elements[3]
), einsteinium has no known uses.[4]
History
Einsteinium was first identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso along with co-workers
at the University of California, Berkeley.[2] He was examining debris from the first hydrogen
bomb test of November 1952 (see Operation Ivy).[1] [5] He discovered the isotope 253Es
(half-life 20.5 days) that was made by the neutron capture of 15 neutrons with 238U (which
then went through seven beta decays). These findings were kept secret until 1955 due to
Cold War tensions.[6] [7]
Isotopes of einsteinium were produced shortly afterward at the University of California

Radiation Laboratory in a nuclear fusion reaction between 14N and 238U[8] and later by
intense neutron irradiation of plutonium in the Materials Testing Reactor.[9]
In 1961, enough einsteinium was synthesized to prepare a microscopic amount of 253Es.
This sample weighed about 0.01 mg and was measured using a special balance. The
material produced was used to produce mendelevium. Further einsteinium has been
produced at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory's High Flux Isotope Reactor in Tennessee
by bombarding 239Pu with neutrons. Around 3 milligrams were created over a four year
program of irradiation and then chemical separation from a starting 1 kg of plutonium
isotope.
Isotopes
Nineteen radioisotopes of einsteinium have been characterized,[10] with the most stable
being 252Es with a half-life of 471.7 days. 254Es has a half-life of 275.7 days, 255Es 39.8 days
and 253Es 20.47 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less
than 40 hours, the majority of these having half-lives that are less than 30 minutes. This
element also has three meta states, with the most stable being 254mEs (t½ 39.3 hours). The
isotopes of einsteinium range in atomic mass from 240.069 u (240Es) to 258.100 u (258Es).
The longest-lived isotope is 252Es.
Known compounds
The following is a list of all known compounds of einsteinium:[11]
• EsBr3 einsteinium(III) bromide
• EsCl2 einsteinium(II) chloride
• EsCl3 einsteinium(III) chloride
• EsF3 einsteinium(III) fluoride
• EsI2 einsteinium(II) iodide
• EsI3 einsteinium(III) iodide
• Es2O3 einsteinium(III) oxide
Einsteinium 4
Literature
• Stwertka, Albert (1996). A Guide to the Elements. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0195080831.
External links
[12]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory - Einsteinium
• It's Elemental - The Element Einsteinium [13]
• WebElements.com - Einsteinium [14]
• Albert Ghiorso about the discovery [15]
References
[1] Einsteinium - National Research Council Canada (http:/ / www. nrc-cnrc. gc. ca/ eng/ education/ elements/ el/
es. html). Retrieved 2 December 2007.
[2] Einsteinium - Los Alamos National Laboratory (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 99. html). Retrieved 2
December 2007.
[3] See Mendelevium#History
[4] It's Elemental - The Element Einsteinium (http:/ / education. jlab. org/ itselemental/ ele099. html). Retrieved 2
December 2007.
[5] Albert Ghiorso (2003). " Einsteinium and Fermium (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ einsteiniumfermium.
html)". Chemical and Engineering News. .
[6] Ghiorso, A. and Thompson, S. G. and Higgins, G. H. and Seaborg, G. T. and Studier, M. H. and Fields, P. R. and
Fried, S. M. and Diamond, H. and Mech, J. F. and Pyle, G. L. and Huizenga, J. R. and Hirsch, A. and Manning,
W. M. and Browne, C. I. and Smith, H. L. and Spence, R. W. (1955). "New Elements Einsteinium and Fermium,
Atomic Numbers 99 and 100". Phys. Rev. 99: 1048–1049. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.99.1048 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1103/ PhysRev. 99. 1048).
[7] P. R. Fields, M. H. Studier, H. Diamond, J. F. Mech, M. G. Inghram, G. L. Pyle, C. M. Stevens, S. Fried, W. M.
Manning (Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois); A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, G. H. Higgins, G. T.
Seaborg (University of California, Berkeley, California): "Transplutonium Elements in Thermonuclear Test
Debris", in: Physical Review 1956, 102 (1), 180–182; doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.102.180 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1103/ PhysRev. 102. 180).
[8] Ghiorso, Albert and Rossi, G. Bernard and Harvey, Bernard G. and Thompson, Stanley G. (1954). "Reactions of
U-238 with Cyclotron-Produced Nitrogen Ions". Physical Review 93: 257. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.93.257 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 93. 257).
[9] Thompson, S. G. and Ghiorso, A. and Harvey, B. G. and Choppin, G. R. (1954). "Transcurium Isotopes Produced
in the Neutron Irradiation of Plutonium". Physical Review 93: 908. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.93.908 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 93. 908).
[10] Table of Isotopes decay data - LBNL Isotopes Project - LUNDS Universitet (http:/ / ie. lbl. gov/ toi/ listnuc.
asp?sql=& Z=99). Retrieved 25 November 2007.
[11] Chemistry : Periodic Table : einsteinium : compounds information - WebElements (http:/ / www. webelements.
com/ compounds/ einsteinium). Retrieved 29 December 2008.
[14] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Es/ index. html
[15] http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ einsteiniumfermium. html

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Spiesr, Squids and Chips, Stifynsemons, Storm Rider, Stratocracy, SymlynX, Tagishsimon, Tempodivalse, ThomasK, Tide rolls, Uannis, Ucbearcatfan007,
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Fermium 1
Fermium
einsteinium ← fermium → mendelevium

Er
↑
Fm
↓
(Upn)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number fermium, Fm, 100
Appearance unknown, probably silvery

white or metallic gray

−1

12
7s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(1527 °C, 2781 °F)
Atomic properties
Miscellaneous
Fermium 2
Main article: Isotopes of fermium

252
Fm syn 25.39 h SF - -
α 7.153 248
Cf
253
Fm syn 3d ε 0.333 253
Es
α 7.197 249
Cf
255
Fm syn 20.07 h SF - -
α 7.241 251
Cf
257
Fm syn 100.5 d α 6.864 253
Cf
SF - -
References
Fermium (pronounced /ˈfɜrmiəm/) is a synthetic element with the symbol Fm and atomic
number 100. A highly radioactive metallic transuranic element of the actinide series,
fermium is made by bombarding plutonium with neutrons and is named after nuclear
physicist Enrico Fermi. Fermium is the eighth transuranic element.
Characteristics
Only small amounts of fermium have ever been
produced or isolated. Thus relatively little is known
about its chemical properties. Only the (III) oxidation
state of the element appears to exist in aqueous
solution. 254Fm and heavier isotopes can be synthesized
by intense neutron bombardment of lighter elements
(especially uranium and plutonium). During this,
successive neutron captures mixed with beta decays
build the fermium isotope. The intense neutron
bombardment conditions needed to create fermium
exist in thermonuclear explosions and can be replicated
in the laboratory (such as in the High Flux Isotope
Electron shell diagram of fermium Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory). The
synthesis of element 102 (nobelium) was confirmed
250
when Fm was chemically identified. Like all synthetic elements is it extremely
radioactive and highly toxic.
Fermium 3
Uses
There are no known uses of fermium outside of basic research.
History
Fermium (after Enrico Fermi) was first discovered by a team led by Albert Ghiorso in 1952.
The team found 255Fm in the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion (see Operation
Ivy). That isotope was created when 238U combined with 17 neutrons in the intense
temperature and pressure of the explosion (eight beta decays also occurred to create the
element). The work was overseen by the University of California Radiation Laboratory,
Argonne National Laboratory, and Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. All these findings were
kept secret until 1955 due to Cold War tensions.[1] Samples of sea coral impacted from the
first thermonuclear explosion of November 1952 were used.[2]
In late 1953 and early 1954 a team from the Nobel Institute of Physics in Stockholm
bombarded a 238U target with 16O ions, producing an alpha-emitter with an atomic weight
of ~250 and with 100 protons (in other words, element 250100).[3] The Nobel team did not
claim discovery until 1954. The isotope they produced was later positively identified as
250
Fm.
Isotopes
17 radioisotopes of fermium have been characterized, with the most stable being 257Fm
with a half-life of 100.5 days, 253Fm with a half-life of 3 days, 252Fm with a half-life of 25.39
hours, and 255Fm with a half-life of 20.07 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes
have half-lives that are less than 5.4 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are
less than 3 minutes. This element also has 1 meta state, 250mFm (t½ 1.8 seconds). The
isotopes of fermium range in atomic weight from 242.073 u (242Fm) to 259.101 u (259Fm).
References
[1] Ghiorso, A.; Thompson, S. G.; Higgins, G. H. ; Seaborg, G. T.; Studier, M. H.; Fields, P. R.; Fried, S. M.;
Diamond, H.; Mech, J. F.; Pyle, G. L.; Huizenga, J. R.; Hirsch, A.; Manning, W. M.; Browne, C. I.; Smith, H. L.;
Spence, R. W. (1955). " New Elements Einsteinium and Fermium, Atomic Numbers 99 and 100 (http:/ / prola.
aps. org/ abstract/ PR/ v99/ i3/ p1048_1)". Physical Review 99: 1048–1049. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.99.1048
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 99. 1048). .
[2] Albert Ghiorso (2003). " Einsteinium and Fermium (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ einsteiniumfermium.
html)". Chemical and Engineering News. .
[3] Atterling, Hugo; Forsling, Wilhelm; Holm, Lennart W.; Melander, Lars; Åström, Björn (1954). "Element 100
Produced by Means of Cyclotron-Accelerated Oxygen Ions". Physical Review 95: 585–586. doi:
10.1103/PhysRev.95.585.2 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRev. 95. 585. 2).
• Los Alamos National Laboratory - Fermium (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 100.
html)
ISBN 0-19-508083-1
• It's Elemental - Fermium (http:/ / education. jlab. org/ itselemental/ ele100. html)
Fermium 4
External links
• WebElements.com - Fermium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/
text/ Fm/ index. html)

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Beetstra, Bentley4, Bkell, BlueEarth, Brian Huffman, Bryan Derksen, Carnildo, ChemNerd, Chris Roy, Conversion script, Darrien, David Latapie, Dina,
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Kwamikagami, Lainex, Looxix, Mav, Mdf, Mimihitam, Nergaal, Nick Y., PierceG, Polonium, Poolkris, Pras, Remember, Rjwilmsi, Roberta F., Sandman,
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License
Mendelevium 1
Mendelevium
fermium ← mendelevium → nobelium

Tm
↑
Md
↓
(Upu)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number mendelevium, Md, 101


−1

13
7s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid

(827 °C, 1521 °F)
Atomic properties
Miscellaneous
Mendelevium 2
Main article: Isotopes of mendelevium

257
Md syn 5.52 h ε 0.406 257
Fm
α 7.558 253
Es
SF - -
258
Md syn 51.5 d ε 1.230 258
Fm
260
Md syn 31.8 d SF - -
α 7.000 256
Es
ε - 260
Fm
β
− 1.000 260
No
References
Mendelevium (pronounced /ˌmɛndəˈlɛviəm/ or /ˌmɛndəˈliːviəm/) is a synthetic element with

the symbol Md (formerly Mv) and the atomic number 101. A metallic radioactive
transuranic element of the actinides, mendelevium is synthesized by bombarding
einsteinium with alpha particles and was named after Dmitri Mendeleev, who was
responsible for the Periodic Table.
Characteristics
Researchers have shown that mendelevium has a moderately stable dipositive (II) oxidation
state in addition to the more characteristic (for actinide elements) tripositive (III) oxidation
state, the latter being the more dominantly exhibited state in an aqueous solution
(Chromatography being the process used). Sometimes, Mendelevium can even be shown to
exhibit a monopositive (I) state. [1] 256Md has been used to find out some of the chemical
properties of this element while in an aqueous solution. There are no other known uses of
mendelevium and only trace amounts of the element have ever been produced. Other
isotopes of Mendelevium, all radioactive have been discovered, with 258Md being the most
stable with a two-month half-life (about 55 days). [2] Other isotopes range from 248 to 258
mass numbers and half-lives from a few seconds to about 55 days. The original 256Md had a
half-life of 76 minutes. [3] It is assumed that Mendelevium's standard state is solid at 298K
and its classification is metallic. [4]
History
Mendelevium (for Dmitri Mendeleev, surname commonly transliterated into Latin script as
Mendeleev, Mendeleyev, Mendeléef, or even Mendelejeff, and first name sometimes
transliterated as Dmitry or Dmitriy) was first synthesized by Albert Ghiorso (team leader),
Glenn T. Seaborg, Gregory R. Choppin, Bernard G. Harvey, and Stanley G. Thompson in
early 1955 at the University of California, Berkeley. The team produced 256Md (half-life of
76 minutes) when they bombarded an 253Es target with alpha particles (helium nuclei) in
the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory's 60-inch cyclotron (256Md was the first element to be
synthesized one-atom-at-a-time). Element 101 was the ninth transuranic element
Mendelevium 3
synthesized. The first 17 atoms of this element were created and analyzed using the
ion-exchange adsorption-elution method. During the process, Mendelevium behaved very
much like Thulium, its naturally-occurring homologue. [5]
Isotopes
15 radioisotopes of mendelevium have been characterized, with the most stable being
258
Md with a half-life of 51.5 days, 260Md with a half-life of 31.8 days, and 257Md with a
half-life of 5.52 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less
than 97 minutes, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 5 minutes. This
element also has 1 meta state, 258mMd (t½ 57 minutes). The isotopes of mendelevium range
in atomic weight from 245.091 u (245Md) to 260.104 u (260Md).
References
[6]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory - Mendelevium
ISBN 0-19-508083-1
• It's Elemental - Mendelevium [7]
[1] http:/ / www. answers. com/ topic/ mendelevium
[2] http:/ / library. eb. co. uk/ eb/ article-9051976
[3] http:/ / www. answers. com/ topic/ mendelevium
[4] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ mendelevium/
[5] http:/ / library. eb. co. uk/ eb/ article-9051976
External links
• WebElements.com - Mendelevium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/
elements/ text/ Md/ index. html)
• Environmental Chemistry- Md info (http:/ / environmentalchemistry. com/ yogi/ periodic/
Md. html)

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Benbest, Bill, Bonzostar, Brian Huffman, Bryan Derksen, Carnildo, ClanCC, Conversion script, Darrien, David Latapie, Edgar181, El C, Emperorbma,
Femto, Gdommett, Glenn4pr, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Hede2000, Hqb, Ideyal, Infinite.08, Jaan513, Jaraalbe, Jiang, Joanjoc, John beaker, Karl-Henner, Kelovy,
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PeepP, Polonium, Poolkris, Pras, Pstanton, Remember, Reza kalani, Roberta F., Roentgenium111, Romanm, Saperaud, Schneelocke, SimonP, Sl, Squids
and Chips, Stifynsemons, Stratocracy, Tagishsimon, Tasc, ThaddeusB, Uannis, VASANTH S.N., Vcelloho, Videogamer344, Vsmith, Wiwaxia, Writtenright,
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Nobelium 1
Nobelium
mendelevium ← nobelium → lawrencium

Yb
↑
No
↓
(Upb)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number nobelium, No, 102
Appearance unknown, probably metallic

−1

14
7s
2
Physical properties
Phase solid
Atomic properties
Electronegativity (Pauling scale)
2nd: 1254.3 kJ/mol
3rd: 2605.1 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous
Nobelium 2
Main article: Isotopes of nobelium

262
No syn 5 ms SF
260
No syn 106 ms SF
259
No syn 58m 75% α 7.69,7.61,7.53.... 255
Fm
25% ε 259
Md
258
No syn 1.2 ms SF
257
No syn 25 s α 8.32,8.22 253
Fm
256
No syn 2.91 s 99.5% α 8.45,8.40 252
Fm
0.5% f
255
No syn 3.1 m 61% α 8.12,8.08,7.93 251
Fm
39% ε 2.012 255

Md
254
No
m2 syn 198 µs γ 254
No
m1
254
No
m1 syn 275 ms γ 250
No
g
254
No
g syn 51 s
253
No
m syn 43.5 µs γ 253
No
g
253
No syn 1.62 m α 8.14,8.06,8.04,8.01 249
Fm
252
No
m syn 110 ms
252
No
g syn 2.44 s 75% α 8.42,8.37 248
Fm
25% SF
251
No syn 0.76 s α 8.62,8.58 247
Fm
250
Nom syn 43 µs SF
250
Nog syn 3.7 µs SF
References
Nobelium (pronounced /noʊˈbɛliəm/ or /noʊˈbiːliəm/) is a synthetic element with the symbol

No and atomic number 102. It was first correctly identified in 1956 by scientists at the
Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia. Little is known about the element
but limited chemical experiments have shown that it forms a stable divalent ion in solution
as well as the predicted trivalent ion that is associated with its presence as one of the
actinoids.
Nobelium 3
Discovery profile
The discovery of element 102 was first announced by physicists at the Nobel Institute in
Sweden in 1957. The team reported that they created an isotope with a half-life of 10
minutes, decaying by emission of an 8.5 MeV alpha particle, after bombarding 244Cm with
13
C nuclei. The activity was assigned to 251102 or 253102. The scientists proposed the name
nobelium (No) for the new element. Later they retracted their claim and associated the
activity to background effects.
The synthesis of element 102 was then claimed in April 1958 at the University of California,
Berkeley by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, John R. Walton and Torbjørn Sikkeland. The
team used the new heavy-ion linear accelerator (HILAC) to bombard a curium target (95%
244
Cm and 5% 246Cm) with 13C and 12C ions. They were unable to confirm the 8.5 MeV
activity claimed by the Swedes but were instead able to detect decays from 250Fm,
supposedly the daughter of 254102, which had an apparent half-life of ~3 s. In 1959 the
team continued their studies and claimed that they were able to produce an isotope that
decayed predominantly by emission of an 8.3 MeV alpha particle, with a half-life of 3 s with
an associated 30% spontaneous fission branch. The activity was initially assigned to 254No
but later changed to 252No. The Berkeley team decided to adopt the name nobelium for the
element.
*
24496Cm + 126C → 256102No → 252102No +4 10n
Further work in 1961 on the attempted synthesis of element 103 (see lawrencium)
produced evidence for a Z=102 alpha activity decaying by emission of an 8.2 MeV particle
with a half-life of 15 s, and assigned to 255No.
Following initial work between 1958-1964, in 1966, a team at the Flerov Laboratory of
Nuclear Reactions (FLNR) reported that they had been able to detect 250Fm from the decay
of a parent nucleus (254No) with a half-life of ~50s, in contradiction to the Berkeley claim.
Furthermore, they were able to show that the parent decayed by emission of 8.1 MeV alpha
particles with a half-life of ~35 s.
*
23892U + 2210Ne → 260102No → 254102No +6 10n
In 1969, the Dubna team carried out chemical experiments on element 102 and concluded
that it behaved as the heavier homologue of Ytterbium. The Russian scientists proposed the
name joliotium (Jo) for the new element.
Later work in 1967 at Berkeley and 1971 at Oak Ridge fully confirmed the discovery of
element 102 and clarified earlier observations.
In 1992, the IUPAC-IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) assessed the claims of
discovery and concluded that only the Dubna work from 1966 correctly detected and
assigned decays to Z=102 nuclei at the time. The Dubna team are therefore officially
recognised as the discoverers of nobelium although it is possible that it was detected at
Berkeley in 1959.
Nobelium 4
Naming
Element 102 was first named nobelium (No) by its claimed discoverers in 1957 by scientists
at the Nobel Institute in Sweden. The name was later adopted by Berkeley scientists who
claimed its discovery in 1959.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) officially recognised the
name nobelium following the Berkeley results.
In 1994, and subsequently in 1997, the IUPAC ratified the name nobelium (No) for the
element on the basis that it had become entrenched in the literature over the course of 30
years and that Alfred Nobel should be commemorated in this fashion.
Electronic structure
Nobelium is element 102 in the Periodic Table. The two forms of the projected electronic
structure are:
Bohr model 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 8, 2
Quantum
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f14
mechanical model
Physical properties
The appearance of this element is unknown, however it is most likely silvery-white or gray
and metallic. If sufficient amounts of nobelium were produced, it would pose a radiation
hazard. Some sources quote a melting point of 827°C for nobelium but this cannot be
substantiated from an official source and seems implausible regarding the requirements of
such a measurement. However, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd ionization energies have been
measured. In addition, an electronegativity value of 1.3 is also sometimes quoted. This is
most definitely only an estimate since a true value can only be determined using a chemical
compound of the element and no such compounds exist for nobelium.
Experimental chemistry
Aqueous phase chemistry

First experiments involving nobelium assumed that it predominantly formed a +III state
like earlier actinoids. However, it was later found that nobelium forms a stable +II state in
solution, although it can be oxidised to an oxidising +III state.[1] A reduction potential of
-1.78 V has been measured for the No3+ ion. The hexaaquanobelium(II) ion has been
determined to have an ionic radius of 110 pm.
Nobelium 5
Summary of compounds and (complex) ions
Formula Names(s)
hexaaquanobelium(III)
[No(H2O)6]3+
hexaaquanobelium(II)
[No(H2O)6]2+
Isotopes
Seventeen radioisotopes of nobelium have been characterized, with the most stable being
259
No with a half-life of 58 minutes. Longer half-lives are expected for the as-yet-unknown
261
No and 263No. An isomeric level has been found in 253No and K-isomers have been found
in 250No, 252No and 254No to date.
Synthesis of isotopes as decay products

Isotopes of nobelium have also been identified in the decay of heavier elements.
Observations to date are summarised in the table below:
Evaporation Residue Observed No isotope
262 262
Lr No
269 265 261 257

Hs, Sg, Rf No
267 263 259 255

Hs, Sg, Rf No
254 254
Lr No
261 257 253

Sg, Rf No
264 260 256 252

Hs, Sg, Rf No
255 251
Rf No
Chronology of isotope discovery
Isotope Year discovered Discovery reaction
250 2001
Nom 204
Pb(48Ca,2n)
250 2006
Nog 204
Pb(48Ca,2n)
251 1967 244

No Cm(12C,5n)
252 1959
Nog 244
Cm(12C,4n)
252 ~2002
Nom 206
Pb(48Ca,2n)
253 1967
Nog 242
Pu(16O,5n),239Pu(18O,4n)
253 1971 [2]

Nom 249
Cf(12C,4n)
254 1966 243

Nog Am(15N,4n)
254 1967? 246

Nom1 Cm(13C,5n),246Cm(12C,4n)
Nobelium 6
254 ~2003 208

Nom2 Pb(48Ca,2n)
255 1967 246

No Cm(13C,4n),248Cm(12C,5n)
256 1967 248

No Cm(12C,4n),248Cm(13C,5n)
257 1961? , 1967 248

No Cm(13C,4n)
258 1967 248

No Cm(13C,3n)
259 1973 248

No Cm(18O,α3n)
260 ? 254 22
No Es + Ne,18O,13C - transfer
261 unknown
No
262 1988 254 22 262

No Es + Ne - transfer (EC of Lr)
Isomerism in nobelium nuclides

254
No The study of K-isomerism was recently studied by physicists at the University of
Jyväskylä physics laboratory (JYFL). They were able to confirm a previously reported
K-isomer and detected a second K-isomer. They assigned spins and parities of 8- and 16+ to
the two K-isomers.
253
No In 1971, Bemis et al. was able to determine an isomeric level decaying with a half-life
of 31 µs from the decay of 257Rf. This was confirmed in 2003 at the GSI by also studying the
decay of 257Rf. Further support in the same year from the FLNR appeared with a slightly
higher half-life of 43.5 µs, decaying by M2 gamma emission to the ground state.
252
No In a recent study by the GSI into K-isomerism in even-even isotopes, a K-isomer with
a half-life of 110 ms was detected for 252No. A spin and parity of 8- was assigned to the
isomer.
250
No In 2003, scientists at the FLNR reported that they had been able to synthesise 249No
which decayed by SF with a half-life of 54µs. Further work in 2006 by scientists at the ANL
showed that the activity was actually due to a K-isomer in 250No. The ground state isomer
was also detected with a very short half-life of 3.7µs.
Chemical yields of isotopes
Cold fusion
The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for cold fusion reactions
producing nobelium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.
Projectile Target CN 1n 2n 3n 4n
48 208 256 254

Ca Pb No No: 2050 nb ;
22.3 MeV
48 207 255 253

Ca Pb No No: 1310 nb ;
22.4 MeV
48 206 254 253 252 251 250

Ca Pb No No: 58 nb ; No: 515 nb ; 23.3 No: 30 nb ; No: 260 pb ;
23.6 MeV MeV 30.7 MeV 43.9 MeV
Nobelium 7
48 204 252 250

Ca Pb No No:13.2 nb ; 23.2
MeV
Hot fusion
The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for hot fusion reactions
producing nobelium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
26 232 258 254 253 252

Mg Th No No:1.6 nb No:9 nb No:8 nb
22 238 260 256 255 254

Ne U No No:40 nb No:200 nb No:15 nb
22 236 258 254 253 252

Ne U No No:7 nb No:25 nb No:15 nb
Retracted isotopes
In 2003, scientists at the FLNR claimed to have discovered the lightest known isotope of
nobelium. However, subsequent work showed that the 54 µs activity was actually due to
250
No and the isotope 249No was retracted.
Notes
[3]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory - Nobelium
ISBN 0-19-508083-1
• It's Elemental - Nobelium [4]
External links
[5]
• WebElements.com - Nobelium
References
[1] Toyoshima, Atsushi (2009). "Oxidation of Element 102, Nobelium, with Flow Electrolytic Column
Chromatography on an Atom-at-a-Time Scale". Journal of the American Chemical Society: 090610145759060.
doi: 10.1021/ja9030038 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ ja9030038). edit (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/
Template:cite_doi/ 10. 1021. 2fja9030038)
[2] see rutherfordium
[5] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ No/ index. html

Nobelium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308809697 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Alfio, AlimanRuna, Andres, Atjesse, Bender235,
Black-Velvet, Bobo192, BostonMA, Brian Huffman, Bryan Derksen, CO, Carnildo, ChemNerd, Conversion script, Darrien, David Latapie, DesertAngel,
Discospinster, Drjezza, Edgar181, Emperorbma, Everyking, Fangfufu, Femto, Glenn4pr, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Hede2000, IRP, Ideyal, J.delanoy, J04n, Jaraalbe,
Jiang, Joanjoc, John, Karelj, Karl-Henner, Kwamikagami, LA2, LeaveSleaves, LizardWizard, Marc9510000, Mav, Mdf, Mimihitam, Miquonranger03, Miss
Madeline, Mmxx, Montrealais, Nergaal, Nihiltres, Polonium, Poolkris, Pras, PrimeCupEevee, Remember, Renrenren, Reza kalani, Roberta F.,
Roentgenium111, Rursus, Santăr, Saperaud, Schneelocke, Seegoon, Skater, Sl, Snigbrook, Stifynsemons, Swalot, Tagishsimon, Tetracube, Tom harrison,
Uannis, Undead warrior, VASANTH S.N., Van helsing, Vsmith, Vuo, Warut, Watch37264, Yekrats, Yyy, 90 anonymous edits

Contributors
image:No-TableImage.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:No-TableImage.png License: GNU Free Documentation License
License
Lawrencium 1
Lawrencium
nobelium ← lawrencium → rutherfordium

Lu
↑
Lr
↓
(Upt)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number lawrencium, Lr, 103
Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, d


−1

14 2
7s 7p
1
Physical properties
Phase presumably a solid
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 3
2nd: 1428.0 kJ/mol
3rd: 2219.1 kJ/mol
Miscellaneous
Lawrencium 2
Main article: Isotopes of lawrencium

262
Lr syn 3.6 h EC 262
No
261
Lr syn 44 m SF/EC?
260
Lr syn 2.7 m alpha 8.04 256
Md
259
Lr syn 6.2 s 78% alpha 8.44 255
Md
22% SF
258
Lr syn 4.1 s alpha 8.68,8.65,8.62,8.59 254
Md
257
Lr syn 0.65 s alpha 8.86,8.80 253
Md
256
Lr syn 27 s alpha 8.62,8.52,8.32... 252
Md
255
Lr syn 21.5 s alpha 8.43,8.37 251
Md
254
Lr syn 13 s 78% alpha 8.46,8.41 250
Md
22% EC 254
No
253
Lr
m syn 0.57 s alpha 8.79 249
Md
253
Lr
g syn 1.49 s 92% alpha 8.72 249
Md
8% SF
252
Lr syn 0.36 s alpha 9.02,8.97 248
Md
References
Lawrencium (pronounced /ləˈrɛnsiəm/) is a radioactive synthetic element with the symbol

Lr (formerly Lw) and atomic number 103.
Its most stable known isotope is 262Lr, with a half-life of approximately 3.6 hours. Little is
known of the chemistry but there is strong evidence for the formation of a trivalent ion in
aqueous solution, confirming lawrencium's place as the last member of the actinoids.
Although lawrencium is often placed as the last member of the 5f-block, it can also be
regarded as the first member of the 6d-block (see extended periodic table).
Official discovery
Lawrencium was made by Albert Ghiorso, Torbjørn Sikkeland, Almon Larsh, and Robert M.
Latimer on February 14, 1961 at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now called Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory) on the University of California, Berkeley campus. It was
produced by bombarding a three milligram target composed of three isotopes of
californium with boron-10 and B-11 ions in the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (HILAC).
The Berkeley team reported that the isotope 257103 was detected in this manner and
decayed by emitting an 8.6 MeV alpha particle with a half-life of ~8 seconds. The
assignment was later corrected to 258Lr.
25298Cf + 115B → 263−x103Lr → 258103Lr +5 10n
Lawrencium 3
The team suggested the name lawrencium (Lw) for the new element.
In 1967, researchers in Dubna, Russia reported that they were not able to confirm an alpha
emitter with a half-life of 8 seconds as 257103. This assignment has since been changed to
258
Lr. Instead, they reported a 45s activity assigned to 256Lr.
24395Am + 188O → 261−x103Lr → 256103Lr +5 10n
Further work in 1969 indicated an actinoid chemistry for the new element founded by
Travis Anselm in 8B. In 1971, the team at the University of California performed a whole
series of experiments aimed at measuring the decay properties of lawrencium isotopes with
mass numbers from 255-260.
In 1992, The IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) officially recognised the
Dubna and Berkeley teams as co-discoverers of lawrencium.
Naming
The origin of the name, preferred by the American Chemical Society, is in reference to
Ernest O. Lawrence, inventor of the cyclotron. The symbol Lw originally was used but in
1963 it was changed to Lr. In August 1997 the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) ratified the name lawrencium and symbol Lr during a meeting in
Geneva.
Lawrencium has also been referred to as eka-lutetium.
Lawrencium is element 103 in the Periodic Table. The two forms of the projected electronic
structure are:
Bohr model 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 9, 2
Quantum
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d1
mechanical model
There has been a suggestion that the electron configuration could be [Rn]7s25f147p1
instead. Direct measurement is impossible, however, and calculations have given
conflicting results.[1]
Physical characteristics
The appearance of this element is unknown, however it is most likely silvery-white or gray
and metallic. If sufficient amounts of lawrencium were produced, it would pose a radiation
hazard. Contrary to some sources, bulk properties of this element, such as the melting
point, have not been possible to measure to date. However, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd ionization
energies have been measured.
Lawrencium 4
Periodic classification
A strict correlation between periodic table blocks and electron configuration for neutral
atoms would describe lawrencium as a transition metal because it should be classed as a
d-block element. However, it is classified as an actinoid according to IUPAC
recommendations.[2]
Gas phase chemistry

The first gas phase studies were reported in 1969 by a team at the Flerov Laboratory of
Nuclear Reactions (FLNR). They used the reaction 243Am+18O to produce lawrencium
nuclei which reacted with a stream of chlorine gas to form a volatile chloride component.
The product was assigned to 256LrCl3 and confirmed that lawrencium was a typical
actinide.

The first liquid phase studies were reported in 1970 by the team at the LBNL. They used
the reaction 249Cf+11B to produce lawrencium nuclei. They were able to show that
lawrencium formed a trivalent ion, similar to other actinides but in stark contrast to
nobelium. Further work in 1988 confirmed the formation of a trivalent lawrencium(III) ion
using anion-exchange chromatography using α-hydroxyisobutyrate (α-HIB) complex.
Comparison of the elution time with other actinides allowed a determination of 88.6 pm for
the ionic radius for Lr3+. Attempts to reduce Lr(III) to Lr(I) using the potent reducing agent
hydroxylamine hydrochloride were unsuccessful.
Summary of compounds and complex ions
Formula Names(s)
LrCl3 lawrencium trichloride ; lawrencium(III) chloride
Isotopes
Twelve isotopes of lawrencium have been synthesized with 262Lr being the longest-lived
and heaviest, with a half-life of 216 minutes. 252Lr is the lightest isotope known to date.
Lawrencium 5
History of synthesis of isotopes by cold fusion

205
Tl(50Ti,xn)255-xLr (x=2?)
This reaction was studied in a series of experiments in 1976 by Yuri Oganessian and his
team at the FLNR. Evidence was provided for the formation of 253Lr in the 2n exit channel.
203
Tl(50Ti,xn)253-xLr
team at the FLNR.
208
Pb(48Ti,pxn)255-xLr (x=1?)
This reaction was reported in 1984 by Yuri Oganessian at the FLNR. The team was able to
detect decays of 246Cf, a descendant of 254Lr.
208
Pb(45Sc,xn)253-xLr
team at the FLNR. Results are not readily available.
209
Bi(48Ca,xn)257-xLr (x=2)
This reaction has been used to study the spectroscopic properties of 255Lr. The team at
GANIL used the reaction in 2003 and the team at the FLNR used it between 2004-2006 to
provide further information for the decay scheme of 255Lr. The work provided evidence for
an isomeric level in 255Lr.
History of synthesis of isotopes by hot fusion

243
Am(18O,xn)261-xLr (x=5)
This reaction was first studied in 1965 by the team at the FLNR. They were able to detect a
45s activity assigned to 256Lr or 257Lr. Later work suggests an assignment to 256Lr. Further
studies in 1968 produced an 8.35-8.60 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of 35s. This
activity was also initially assigned to 256Lr or 257Lr and later to solely 256Lr.
243
Am(16O,xn)259-xLr (x=4)
This reaction was studied in 1970 by the team at the FLNR. They were able to detect an
8.38 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of 20s. This was assigned to 255Lr.
Lawrencium 6
248
Cm(15N,xn)263-xLr (x=3,4,5)
This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL in their large study of
lawrencium isotopes. They were able to assign alpha activities to 260Lr,259Lr and 258Lr from
the 3-5n exit channels.
248
Cm(18O,pxn)265-xLr (x=3,4)
This reaction was studied in 1988 at the LBNL in order to assess the possibility of
producing 262Lr and 261Lr without using the exotic 254Es target. It was also used to attempt
to measure an EC branch in 261mRf from the 5n exit channel. After extraction of the Lr(III)
component, they were able to measure the spontaneous fission of 261Lr with an improved
half-life of 44 minutes. The production cross-section was 700 pb. On this basis, a 14% EC
branch was calculated if this isotope was produced via the 5n channel rather than the p4n
channel. A lower bombarding energy (93 MeV c.f. 97 MeV) was then used to measure the
production of 262Lr in the p3n channel. The isotope was successfully detected and a yield of
240 pb was measured. The yield was lower than expected compared to the p4n channel.
However, the results were judged to indicate that the 261Lr was most likely produced by a
p3n channel and an upper limit of 14% for the EC branch of 261mRf was therefore
suggested.
246
Cm(14N,xn)260-xLr (x=3?)
This reaction was studied briefly in 1958 at the LBNL using an enriched 244Cm target (5%
246
Cm). They observed a ~9 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of ~0.25 seconds. Later
results suggest a tentative assignment to 257Lr from the 3n channel
244
Cm(14N,xn)258-xLr
This reaction was studied briefly in 1958 at the LBNL using an enriched 244Cm target (5%
246
Cm). They observed a ~9 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of ~0.25s. Later results
suggest a tentative assignment to 257Lr from the 3n channel with the 246Cm component. No
activities assigned to reaction with the 244Cm component have been reported.
249
Bk(18O,αxn)263-xLr (x=3)
This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL in their large study of
lawrencium isotopes. They were able to detect an activity assigned to 260Lr. The reaction
was further studied in 1988 to study the aqueous chemistry of lawrencium. A total of 23
alpha decays were measured for 260Lr, with a mean energy of 8.03 MeV and an improved
half-life of 2.7 minutes. The calculated cross-section was 8.7 nb.
252
Cf(11B,xn)263-xLr (x=5,7??)
This reaction was first studied in 1961 at the University of California by Albert Ghiorso by
using a californium target (52% 252Cf). They observed three alpha activities of 8.6 MeV, 8.4
MeV and 8.2 MeV, with half-lives of ~8s and 15s, respectively. The 8.6 MeV activity was
tentatively assigned to 257Lr. Later results suggest a reassignment to 258Lr, resulting from
the 5n exit channel. The 8.4 MeV activity was also assigned to 257Lr. Later results suggest a
reassignment to 256Lr. This is most likely from the 33% 250Cf component in the target
rather than from the 7n channel. The 8.2 MeV was subsequently associated with nobelium.
Lawrencium 7
252
Cf(10B,xn)262-xLr (x=4,6)
This reaction was first studied in 1961 at the University of California by Albert Ghiorso by
using a californium target (52% 252Cf). They observed three alpha activities of 8.6 MeV, 8.4
MeV and 8.2 MeV, with half-lives of ~8s and 15s, respectively. The 8.6 MeV activity was
tentatively assigned to 257Lr. Later results suggest a reassignment to 258Lr. The 8.4 MeV
activity was also assigned to 257Lr. Later results suggest a reassignment to 256Lr. The 8.2
MeV was subsequently associated with nobelium.
250
Cf(14N,αxn)260-xLr (x=3)
This reaction was studied in 1971 at the LBNL. They were able to identify a 0.7s alpha
activity with two alpha lines at 8.87 and 8.82 MeV. This was assigned to 257Lr.
249
Cf(11B,xn)260-xLr (x=4)
This reaction was first studied in 1970 at the LBNL in an attempt to study the aqueous
chemistry of lawrencium. They were able to measure a Lr3+ activity. The reaction was
repeated in 1976 at Oak Ridge and 26s 256Lr was confirmed by measurement of coincident
X-rays.
249
Cf(12C,pxn)260-xLr (x=2)
This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL. They were able to detect an
activity assigned to 258Lr from the p2n channel.
249
Cf(15N,αxn)260-xLr (x=2,3)
This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL. They were able to detect an
activities assigned to 258Lr and 257Lr from the α2n and α3n and channels. The reaction was
repeated in 1976 at Oak Ridge and the synthesis of 258Lr was confirmed.
254
Es + 22Ne - transfer
This reaction was studied in 1987 at the LLNL. They were able to detect new SF activities
assigned to 261Lr and 262Lr, resulting from transfer from the 22Ne nuclei to the 254Es
target. In addition, a 5 ms SF activity was detected in delayed coincidence with nobelium K
X-rays and was assigned to 262No, resulting from the EC of 262Lr.

Isotopes of lawrencium have also been identified in the decay of heavier elements.
Evaporation Residue Observed Lr isotope
267 263 259

Bh, Db Lr
278 274 270 266 262 258

Uut, Rg, Mt, Bh, Db Lr
261 257
Db Lr
272 268 264 260 256

Rg, Mt, Bh, Db Lr
259 255
Db Lr
Lawrencium 8
266 262 258 254

Mt, Bh, Db Lr
261 257
Dbg,m 253
Bh, Lrg,m
260 256 252

Bh , Db Lr

Isotope Year discovered discovery reaction
252 2001 209

Lr Bi(50Ti,3n)
253 1985
Lrg 209
Bi(50Ti,2n)
253 2001
Lrm 209
Bi(50Ti,2n)
254 1985 209

Lr Bi(50Ti,n)
255 1970 243

Lr Am(16O,4n)
256 1961? 1965? 1968? 1971 252

Lr Cf(10B,6n)
257 1958? 1971 249

Lr Cf(15N,α3n)
258 1961? 1971 249

Lr Cf(15N,α2n)
259 1971 248

Lr Cm(15N,4n)
260 1971 248

Lr Cm(15N,3n)
261 1987 254 22

Lr Es + Ne
262 1987 254 22

Lr Es + Ne
Isomerism in lawrencium nuclides

255
Lr
Recent work on the spectroscopy of 255Lr formed in the reaction 209
Bi(48Ca,2n)255Lr has
provided evidence for an isomeric level.
253
Lr
A study of the decay properties of 257Db (see dubnium) in 2001 by Hessberger et al. at the
GSI provided some data for the decay of 253Lr. Analysis of the data indicated the population
of two isomeric levels in 253Lr from the decay of the corresponding isomers in 257Db. The
ground state was assigned spin and parity of 7/2-, decaying by emission of an 8794 KeV
alpha particle with a half-life of 0.57s. The isomeric level was assigned spin and parity of
1/2-, decaying by emission of an 8722 KeV alpha particle with a half-life of 1.49s.
Lawrencium 9
Cold fusion
producing rutherfordium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
Projectile Target CN 1n 2n 3n
48 209 257
Ca Bi Lr
Notes
[3]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory's Chemistry Division: Periodic Table - Lawrencium
ISBN 0-19-508083-1
External links
[4]
• WebElements.com - Lawrencium
References
[1] Nugent, L.J.; Vander Sluis, K.L.; Fricke, Burhard; Mann, J.B.. " Electronic configuration in the ground state of
atomic lawrencium (https:/ / kobra. bibliothek. uni-kassel. de/ bitstream/ urn:nbn:de:hebis:34-2008091523764/
1/ Fricke_electronic_1974. pdf)". Phys. Rev. A 9 (6): 2270–72. .
[2] IUPAC "Provisional Recommendations for the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (2004)" (http:/ / www.
iupac. org/ reports/ provisional/ abstract04/ connelly_310804. html)
[4] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Lr/ index. html

Lawrencium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308809203 Contributors: 03jmgibbens, A new name 2008, Adashiel, Ahoerstemeier,
AlimanRuna, ApsbaMd2, Ascidian, Beetstra, Bigtimepeace, Bkell, Bryan Derksen, Burubuz, CJ, Carnildo, Chimneyfreak, Christian List, Conversion script,
D6, Dajwilkinson, Darrien, Dave6, David Shay, Dirt palace, Drjezza, Edgar181, Eltomo11, Emperorbma, Enchanter, Enviroboy, Femto, Flying Jazz,
Francs2000, Gogo Dodo, Granf, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Hqb, Icairns, Imdwalrus, J.delanoy, J04n, JLaTondre, Jaan513, JackSchmidt, Jamesontai, Jaraalbe, Jiang,
John, Karl-Henner, Kgf0, Kingdon, Kingpin13, Kwamikagami, Larryincinci, Lowe4091, Mav, Mdf, Metal Militia, Mimihitam, Naddy, Nergaal, Nihiltres,
Nikai, PeterJeremy, Philip Trueman, Physchim62, Polonium, Poolkris, Pras, Psyche825, Remember, Roberta F., Roentgenium111, Romanskolduns,
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Rutherfordium 1
Rutherfordium
lawrencium ← rutherfordium → dubnium

Hf
↑
Rf
↓
(Upq)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number rutherfordium, Rf, 104

−1

14 2
6d 7s
2
Physical properties
Phase Unknown
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 4
Miscellaneous
Rutherfordium 2
Main article: Isotopes of rutherfordium

267
Rf syn 1.3 h SF
263m
Rf syn ~15 m SF
α 7.90 ?
263g
Rf syn 8s SF
262
Rf syn 2.1 s ? 50 ms ? SF
261m
Rf syn 1.1 m α 8.28 257
No
261g
Rf syn 3.0 s 91% SF
9% α 8.51 257
No
260
Rf syn 20 ms SF
259
Rf syn 3.1 s 93% α 8.87,8.77 255
No
7% SF
258
Rf syn 13 ms SF
257m
Rf syn 4.0 s α 9.02,8.97 253
No
257g
Rf syn 3.5 s 89% α 8.90,8.78,8.52,8.28 253
No
11% ε 257
Lr
256
Rf syn 6.2 ms 99.7% SF
0.3% α 8.79 252

No
255
Rf syn 1.8 s ~50% α 8.81,8.77,8.74,8.71 251
No
~50% SF
254
Rf syn 0.022 ms SF
253
Rf syn 0.048 ms SF
References
Rutherfordium (pronounced /ˌrʌðərˈfɔrdiəm/) is a chemical element in the periodic table

that has the symbol Rf and atomic number 104. This is a radioactive synthetic element
whose most stable known isotope is 267Rf with a half-life of approximately 1.3 hours.
Chemistry experiments have confirmed that rutherfordium behaves as the heavier
homologue to hafnium in group 4 (see below).
Rutherfordium 3
History
Discovery
Element 104 was reportedly first detected in 1966 at the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research
at Dubna (then in U.S.S.R.). Researchers there bombarded 242Pu with accelerated 22Ne
ions and separated the reaction products by gradient thermochromatography after
conversion to chlorides by interaction with ZrCl4. The team identified a spontaneous fission
activity contained within a volatile chloride portraying eka-hafnium properties. Although a
half-life was not accurately determined, later calculations indicated that the product was
most likely 259Rf:[1]
24294Pu + 2210Ne → 264-x104Rf → 264-x104RfCl
4
In 1969 researchers at the University of California, Berkeley conclusively synthesized the
element by bombarding a californium-249 target with carbon-12 ions and measured the
alpha decay of 257104, correlated with the daughter decay of 253102. [2]
24998Cf + 126C → 257104Rf +4n
The American synthesis was independently confirmed in 1973 and secured the
identification of element 104 as the parent by the observation of K X-rays in the elemental
signature of the daughter 253No. [3]
Naming controversy
The Russian scientists proposed the name Kurchatovium for the new element. The
American scientists proposed the name Rutherfordium for the new element.
In 1992 the IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) assessed the claims of
discovery and concluded that both teams provided contemporaneous evidence to the
synthesis of element 104 and that credit should be shared between the two groups.[1]
The American group wrote a scathing response to the findings of the TWG, stating that they
had given too much emphasis on the results from the Dubna group. In particular they
pointed out that the Russian group had altered the details of their claims several times over
a period of 20 years, a fact which the Russian team do not deny. They also stressed that the
TWG had given too much credence to the chemistry experiments performed by the Russians
and accused the TWG of not having appropriately qualified personnel on the committee.
The TWG responded by saying that this was not the case and having assessed each point
raised by the American group said that they found no reason to alter their conclusion
regarding priority of discovery. [4] It should be said that IUPAC finally used the name
suggested by the American team (rutherfordium) which may in some way reflect a change
of opinion.[5]
As a consequence of the initial competing claims of discovery, an element naming
controversy arose. Since the Soviets claimed to have first detected the new element they
suggested the name kurchatovium, Ku, in honor of Igor Vasilevich Kurchatov (1903-1960),
former head of Soviet nuclear research. This name had been used in books of the Soviet
Bloc as the official name of the element. The Americans, however, proposed rutherfordium
(Rf) for the new element to honor Ernest Rutherford, who is known as the "father" of
nuclear physics. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted
unnilquadium , Unq, as a temporary, systematic element name, derived from the Latin
names for digits 1, 0, and 4. In 1994, IUPAC suggested the name dubnium to be used since
Rutherfordium 4
rutherfordium was suggested for element 106 and IUPAC felt that the Dubna team should
be rightly recognised for their contributions. However, there was still a dispute over the
names of elements 104-107. However in 1997 the teams involved resolved the dispute and
adopted the current name rutherfordium.[5]
Newer discoveries
Gist of:
• isotope synthesis history
• nuclear properties
• chemical reactions
Future experiments
The team at GSI are planning to perform first detailed spectroscopic studies on the isotope
259
Rf. It will be produced in the new reaction:
23892U + 2412Mg → 259104Rf +3n
Isotopes and nuclear properties
Nucleosynthesis

Isotope Discovered Reaction
253 1994 204 [6]

Rf Pb(50Ti,n)
254 1994 206 [6]

Rf Pb(50Ti,2n)
255 1974? 1985 207

Rf Pb(50Ti,2n)
256 1974? 1985 208

Rf Pb(50Ti,2n)
257 1969 [2]

Rfg,m 249
Cf(12C,4n)
258 1969 249 [2]

Rf Cf(13C,4n)
259 1969 249 [2]

Rf Cf(13C,3n)
260 1969 248

Rf Cm(16O,4n)
261 1970 [7]

Rfm 248
Cm(18O,5n)
261 1996 [8]

Rfg 208
Pb(70Zn,n)
262 1996 244 [9]

Rf Pu(22Ne,4n)
263 1990?
Rfm 248
Cm(18O,3n)
263 2004 [10]

Rfg 248
Cm(26Mg,3n)
264 unknown
Rf
265 unknown
Rf
266 2006? 237 [11]

Rf Np(48Ca,3n)
Rutherfordium 5
267 2003/2004 238 [8]

Rf U(48Ca,3n)
268 2003? 243 [12]

Rf Am(48Ca,3n)
Cold fusion
208
Pb(50Ti,xn)258-xRf (x=1,2,3)
This reaction was first studied in 1974 by the team at Dubna. They measured a spontaneous
fission activity assigned to 256Rf. [13] The reaction was further studied in 1985 by the GSI
team who measured the decay properties of the isotopes 257Rf and 256Rf. The team were
able to determine some initial spectroscopic properties of 257Rf and found that the alpha
decay pattern was very complicated. [14]
After an upgrade of their facilities, they repeated the reaction in 1994 with much higher
sensitivity and detected some 1100 atoms of 257Rf and 1900 atoms of 256Rf along with 255Rf
in the measurement of the 1n,2n and 3n excitation functions. The large amount of decay
data for 257Rf allowed the detection of an isomeric level and the construction of a partial
decay level structure which confirmed the very complicated alpha decay pattern. They also
found evidence for an isomeric level in 255Rf. [6] The GSI team continued in 2001 with the
measurement of the 3n excitation function. In 2002, scientists at the Argonne University in
Illinois began their first studies of translawrencium elements with the synthesis and
alpha-gamma spectroscopy of 257Rf.[15] In 2004, the GSI began their spectroscopic studies
of the 257Rf isotope.
207
Pb(50Ti,xn)257-xRf (x=2)
This reaction was first studied in 1974 by the team
at Dubna. They measured a spontaneous fission
activity assigned to 255Rf. The reaction was further
studied in 1985 by the GSI team who measured the
decay properties of the isotope 255Rf. A further
spectroscopic study was reported in 2000 which led
to a first decay level scheme for the isotope.[16] The
isomeric level proposed in 1994 was not found. In
2006, the spectroscopy was continued and the
decay scheme was confirmed and improved. [17]
206
Pb(50Ti,xn)256-xRf (x=1,2)
The team at GSI first studied this reaction in 1994 Currently suggested decay level scheme for
255
in an effort to study neutron deficient isotopes of Rf from the study reported in 2007 by
Hessberger et al. at GSI
rutherfordium. They were able to detect 255Rf and
144 atoms of the new isotope 254Rf, which decayed
by spontaneous fission.[6]
204
The team at GSI first studied this reaction in 1994 in an effort to study neutron deficient
isotopes of rutherfordium. They were able to detect 14 atoms of the new isotope 253Rf,
which decayed by spontaneous fission.[6]
208
Rutherfordium 6
In 2006, as part of a program looking at the effect of isospin on the mechanism of cold
fusion, the team at LBNL studied this reaction. They measured the 1n excitation function
and determined that the change of a Ti-50 projectile to a Ti-48 one significantly reduced the
yield, in agreement with predictions. [18]
124
Sn(136Xe,xn)260-xRf
In an important study, in May 2004, the team at GSI attempted the symmetric synthesis of
rutherfordium by attempting to fuse two fission fragments. Theory suggests that there may
be an enhancement of the yield. No product atoms were detected and a limit of 1000 pb
was calculated.
Hot fusion
238
U(26Mg,xn)264-xRf (x=3,4,5,6)
The hot fusion reaction using a uranium target was first reported in 2000 by Yuri Lazarev
and the team at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions (FLNR). They were able to
observe decays from 260Rf and 259Rf in the 4n and 5n channels. [19] They measured yields of
240 pb in the 4n channel and 1.1 nb in the 5n channel. In 2006, as part of their program on
the study of uranium targets in hot fusion reactions, the team at LBNL measured the 4n,5n
and 6n excitation functions for this reaction and observed 261Rf in the 3n exit channel.[20]
[21]
244
Pu(22Ne,xn)266-xRf (x=4,5)
This reaction was reported in 1996 at LBNL in an attempt to study the fission
characteristics of 262Rf. The team were able to detect the SF of 262Rf and determine its
half-life as 2.1 s, in contrast to earlier reports of a 47 ms activity. It was suggested that the
two half-lives may be related to different isomeric states. [9] The reaction was further
studied in 2000 by Yuri Lazarev and the team at Dubna. They were able to observe 69 alpha
decays from 261Rf and spontaneous fission of 262Rf. [22] Later work on hassium has allowed
a reassignment of the 5n product to 261mRf.
242
Pu(22Ne,xn)264-xRf (x=3,4?,5?)
The synthesis of element 104 was first attempted in 1964 by the team at Dubna using this
reaction. The first study produced evidence for a 0.3 s spontaneous fission (SF) activity
tentatively assigned to 260104 or 259104 and an unidentified 8 s SF activity. The former
activity was later retracted and the latter activity associated with the now-known 259104.[1]
In 1966, in their discovery experiment, the team repeated the reaction using a chemical
study of volatile chloride products. The group was able to identify a volatile chloride
decaying by short spontaneous fission with eka-hafnium properties. This gave strong
evidence for the formation of [104]Cl4 and the team suggested the name kurchatovium.
Although a half-life was not accurately measured, later evidence suggested that the product
was most likely 259104. [1] In 1968, the team searched for alpha decay from 260104 but
were unable to detect such activity. In 1970, the team repeated the reaction once again and
confirmed the ~0.2 s SF activity. They also repeated the chemistry experiment and
obtained identical results to their 1966 experiment and calculated a likely half-life of ~0.5
seconds for the SF activity. In 1971, the reaction was repeated again and 0.1 s and 4.5 s SF
activities were found. The 4.5 s activity was correctly assigned to 259104.[1] A chemistry
experiment in the same year reaffirmed the formation of a 0.3 SF activity for an
eka-hafnium product.[1] Later, the 0.1-0.3 s SF activity was retracted as belonging to a
kurchatovium isotope but the observation of eka-hafnium reactivity remained and was the
Rutherfordium 7
basis of their successful claim to discovery.[1] The reaction was further studied in 2000 by
Yuri Lazarev at Dubna. They were able to observe 261Rf in the 3n channel, later reassigned
to 261mRf.
242
Pu(20Ne,xn)262-xRf
This reaction was first studied in 1964 to assist in the assignments using the analogous
reaction with a Ne-22 beam. The Dubna team were unable to detect any 0.3 s spontaneous
fission activities.[1] The reaction was later studied in 2003 at the Paul Scherrer Institute
(PSI) in Bern, Switzerland. They detected some spontaneous fission activities but were
unable to confirm the formation of 259Rf.[23]
248
Cm(22Ne,αxn)266-xRf (x=3?)
This reaction was studied in 1999 at the University of Bern, Switzerland in order to search
for the new isotope 263Rf. A rutherfordium fraction was separated and several SF events
with long lifetimes and alpha decays with energy 7.8 MeV and 7.9 MeV were observed. A
second experiment using a study of the fluoride of rutherfordium products also produced
7.9 MeV alpha decays.[24]
248
Cm(18O,xn)266-xRf (x=3?,5)
This reaction was first studied in 1970 by Albert Ghiorso at the Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory (LBNL). The team identified 261Rf in the 5n channel using the method of
correlation of genetic parent-daughter decays. A half-life of 65 s was determined. [7] A
repeat later that year using cation exchange chromatography indicated that the product did
not form a +2 or +3 cation and behaved as eka-hafnium. A study of the properties of
rutherfordium isotopes was performed in 1981 at the LBNL. In a series of reactions, a 1.5 s
SF activity was identified and assigned to a fermium descendant although later evidence
indicates a possible assignment to 262Rf. In contrast, in a subsequent review of isotope
properties by Somerville et al. at LBNL in 1985, a 47 ms SF activity was assigned to 262Rf.
This assignment has not been verified. [25] The reaction was further studied in 1991 by
Czerwinski et al. at the LBNL. In this experiment, spontaneous fission activities with long
lifetimes were observed in rutherfordium fractions and tentatively assigned to 263Rf. In
1996, chemical studies on the chloride of rutherfordium was published by the LBNL. In this
experiment, the half-life was improved to 78 s. A repeat of the experiment in 2000 assessing
the volatility of the bromide further refined the half-life to 75 s.
248
Cm(16O,xn)264-xRf (x=4)
This reaction was studied in 1969 by Albert Ghiorso at the University of California. The aim
was to detect the 0.1-0.3 s SF activity reported at Dubna, assigned to 260104. They were
unable to do so, only observing a 10-30 ms SF activity, correctly assigned to 260104. The
failure to observe the 0.3 s SF activity identified by Dubna gave the Americans the incentive
to name this element rutherfordium.[1]
246
Cm(18O,xn)264-xRf
In an attempt to unravel the properties of spontaneous fission activities in the formation of
rutherfordium isotopes, this reaction was performed in 1976 by the FLNR. They observed
an 80 ms SF activity. Subsequent work led to the complete retraction of the 0.3s - 0.1s - 80
ms SF activities observed by the Dubna team and associated with background signals.[1]
249
Bk(15N,xn)264-xRf (x=4)
This reaction was studied in 1977 by the team in Dubna. They were able to confirm the
detection of a 76 ms SF activity. The assignment to rutherfordium isotopes was later
Rutherfordium 8
retracted. The LBNL re-studied the reaction in 1980 and in 1981 they reported that they
were unable to confirm the ~80 ms SF activity. The Dubna team were able to measure a 28
ms SF activity in 1985 and assigned the isotope correctly to 260104.[1]
249
Cf(13C,xn)262-xRf (x=4)
This use of californium-249 as a target was first studied by Albert Ghiorso and the team at
the University of California in 1969. They were able to observe a 11 ms SF activity which
they correctly assigned to 258104.[2]
249
Cf(12C,xn)261-xRf (x=3,4)
In their 1969 discovery experiments, the team at
University of California also used a C-12 beam to
irradiate a Cf-249 target. They were able to confirm
the 11 ms SF activity found with a C-13 beam and
again correctly assigned to 258104. The actual
discovery experiment was the observation of alpha
decays genetically linked to 253102 and therefore
positively identified as 257104.[2] In 1973, Bemis and
his team at Oak Ridge confirmed the discovery by
measuring coincident X-rays from the daughter
253
102.[3]
Currently suggested decay level scheme for

As decay product 257 g,m
Rf from the study performed in 2004
[6]
by Hessberger et al. at GSI
Isotopes of rutherfordium have also been identified
in the decay of heavier elements. Observations to
date are summarised in the table below:
Evaporation Residue Observed Rf isotope
288 268 268

115 Rf (possible EC of Db)
291 287 283 267

116 , 114 , 112 Rf
282 266 266

113 Rf (EC of Db)
271 263g
Hs Rf
263 263m 263

Db Rf (EC of Db)
266 266m 262 262m

Sg (possibly Sg) Rf (possibly Rf)
277 273 269 265 261m 261

112 , Ds , Hs , Sg Rf , Rf
271 267 263 259

Ds , Hs , Sg Rf
269 265 261 257

Ds , Hs , Sg Rf
264 260 256

Hs , Sg Rf
259 255
Sg Rf
Rutherfordium 9
Unconfirmed and retracted isotopes

268
Rf
In the synthesis of ununpentium, the isotope 288115 has been observed to decay to 268Db
which undergoes spontaneous fission with a half life of 29 hours. Given that the electron
capture of 268Db cannot be detected, these SF events may in fact be due to the SF of 268Rf,
in which case the half-life of this isotope cannot be extracted. [12]
266
Rf
In the synthesis of ununtrium, the isotope 282113 has been observed to decay to 266Db
which undergoes spontaneous fission with a half life of 22 minutes. Given that the electron
capture of 266Db cannot be detected, these SF events may in fact be due to the SF of 266Rf,
in which case the half-life of this isotope cannot be extracted. [11]
265
Rf
In 1999, American scientists at the University of California, Berkeley, announced that they
has succeeded in synthesizing three atoms of 293118. These parent nuclei successively
emitted seven alpha particles to form 265Rf nuclei. Their claim was retracted in 2001. As
such, this rutherfordium isotope is unconfirmed or unknown.[26]
255m
Rf
A detailed spectroscopic study of the production of 255Rf nuclei using the reaction
206
Pb(50Ti,n)255Rf allowed the tentative identification of an isomeric level in 255Rf. A more
detailed study later confirmed that this was not the case.
Nuclear isomerism
263
Rf
Initial work on the synthesis of rutherfordium isotopes by hot fusion pathways focused on
the synthesis of 263Rf. Several studies have indicated that this nuclide decays primarily by
spontaneous fission with a long half-life of 10–20 minutes. Alpha particles with energy
7.8-7.9 MeV have also been associated with this nucleus. More recently, a study of hassium
isotopes allowed the synthesis of an atom of 263Rf decaying by spontaneous fission with a
short half-life of 8 seconds. These two different decay modes must be associated with two
isomeric states. Specific assignments are difficult due to the low number of observed
events. It is reasonable to tentatively assign the long life to a meta-stable state, namely
263m
Rf, and the shorter life to the ground state, namely 263gRf. Further studies are required
to allow a definite assignment.
261
Rf
Early research on the synthesis of rutherfordium isotopes utilised the 244Pu(22Ne,5n)261Rf
reaction. The product was found to undergo exclusive 8.28 MeV alpha decay with a half-life
of 78 seconds. Later studies by the GSI team on the synthesis of element 112 and hassium
isotopes produced conflicting data. In this case, 261Rf was found to undergo 8.52 MeV alpha
decay with a short half-life of 4 seconds. Later results indicated a predominant fission
branch. These contradictions led to some doubt on the discovery of element 112. However,
it is now understood that the first nucleus belongs to an isomeric meta-stable state, namely
261m
Rf and the latter to the ground state isomer, namely 261gRf. [27] The discovery and
confirmation of 261gRf provided proof for the discovery of ununbium in 1996.
257
Rf
Rutherfordium 10
A detailed spectroscopic study of the production of 257Rf nuclei using the reaction
208
Pb(50Ti,n)257Rf allowed the identification of an isomeric level in 257Rf. The work
confirmed that 257gRf has a very complicated spectrum with as many as 15 alpha lines. A
level structure diagram was calculated for both isomers.
Cold fusion
50 208 258 38.0 nb , 17.0 MeV 12.3 nb , 21.5 MeV 660 pb , 29.0 MeV
Ti Pb Rf
50 207 257 4.8 nb

Ti Pb Rf
50 206 256 800 pb , 21.5 MeV 2.4 nb , 21.5 MeV

Ti Pb Rf
50 204 254 190 pb , 15.6 MeV

Ti Pb Rf
48 208 256 380 pb , 17.0 MeV

Ti Pb Rf
Hot fusion
26 238 264 240 pb 1.1 nb

Mg U Rf
22 244 266 + 4.0 nb

Ne Pu Rf
18 248 266 + 13.0 nb

O Cm Rf
Chemical properties
Rutherfordium is element 104 in the Periodic Table. The two forms of the projected
electronic structure are:
Bohr model 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 10, 2
Quantum mechanical model 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s23d104p6 5s24d105p6 6s24f145d106p6 7s25f146d2
Rutherfordium 11
Extrapolated properties
Oxidation states
Element 104 is projected to be the first member of the 6d series of transition metals and
the heaviest member of group IV in the Periodic Table, below titanium, zirconium and
hafnium. It may also be named eka-hafnium or dvi-zirconium and some of its properties
may be extrapolated from the group trends of elements. The IV oxidation state is the only
stable state for the latter two elements and therefore rutherfordium should also portray a
stable +4 state.
Chemistry
In an analogous manner to zirconium and hafnium, rutherfordium is projected to form a
very stable, high melting point oxide, RfO2. It should also react with halogens to form
tetrahalides, RfX4, which hydrolyse on contact with water to form oxyhalides RfOX2. The
tetrahalides should be volatile solids existing as monomeric tetrahedral molecules in the
vapour phase.
In the aqueous phase, the Rf4+ ion should hydrolyse less than titanium(IV) and to a similar
extent to zirconium and hafnium, thus leading to the rutherfordyl oxyion, RfO22+.
Treatment of the halides with halide ions promotes the formation of complex ions. The use
of chloride and bromide ion should form the hexahalide complexes RfCl62− and RfBr62−.
For the fluoride complexes, zirconium and hafnium tend to form hepta- and octa-
complexes. Thus, for the larger rutherfordium ion, the complexes RfF62−, RfF73− and
RfF84− are possible.

Formula Names(s)
RfCl4 rutherfordium tetrachloride ; rutherfordium(IV) chloride
RfBr4 rutherfordium tetrabromide ; rutherfordium(IV) bromide
RfOCl2 rutherfordium oxychloride ; rutherfordyl(IV) chloride;

rutherfordium(IV) dichloride oxide
hexachlororutherfordate(IV)
[RfCl6]2-
hexafluororutherfordate(IV)
[RfF6]2−
K2[RfCl6] potassium hexachlororutherfordate(IV)
Gas phase
Early work on the study of the chemistry of rutherfordium focused on gas
thermochromatography and measurement of relative deposition temperature adsorption
curves. The initial work was carried out at Dubna in an attempt to reaffirm their discovery
of the element. Recent work is more reliable regarding the identification of the parent
rutherfordium radioisotopes. The isotope 261mRf has been used for these studies. The
experiments relied on the expectation that rutherfordium would begin the new 6d series of
elements and should therefore from a volatile tetrachloride due to the tetrahedral nature of
the molecule:
Rutherfordium 12
As series of experiments have confirmed that rutherfordium behaves

as a typical member of group 4 forming a tetravalent chloride (RfCl4)
and bromide (RfBr4) as well as an oxychloride (RfOCl2).[28]
Aqueous phase
Rutherfordium is expected to have the electron configuration [Rn]5f14

The tetrahedral
molecule RfCl4 6d2 7s2 and therefore behave as the heavier homologue of hafnium in
group 4 of the Periodic Table. It should therefore readily form a
4+
hydrated Rf ion in strong acid solution and should readily form complexes in hydrochloric
acid, hydrobromic or hydrofluoric acid solutions.
The most conclusive aqueous chemistry studies of rutherfordium have been performed by
the Japanese team at JAERI using the radioisotope 261mRf. Extraction experiments from
hydrochloric acid solutions using isotopes of rutherfordium, hafnium, zirconium and
thorium have proved a non-actinide behaviour. A comparison with its lighter homologues
placed rutherfordium firmly in group 4 and indicated the formation of a
hexachlororutherfordate complex in chloride solutions, in a manner similar to hafnium and
zirconium. [29]
261m
Rf4+ + 6 Cl− → [261mRfCl6]2−
Very similar results were observed in hydrofluoric acid solutions. Differences in the
extraction curves were interpreted as a weaker affinity for fluoride ion and the formation of
the hexafluororutherfordate ion, whereas hafnium and zirconium ions complex seven or
eight fluoride ions at the concentrations used:
261m
Rf4+ + 6 F− → [261mRfF6]2−
References
[1] Barber, R. C.; Greenwood, N. N.; Hrynkiewicz, A. Z.; Jeannin, Y. P.; Lefort, M.; Sakai, M.; Ulehla, I.; Wapstra,
A. P.; Wilkinson, D. H. (1993). " Discovery of the transfermium elements. Part II: Introduction to discovery
profiles. Part III: Discovery profiles of the transfermium elements (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/
65/ 8/ 1757/ )". Pure and Applied Chemistry 65 (8): 1757–1814. doi: 10.1351/pac199365081757 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1351/ pac199365081757). .
[2] Ghiorso, A.; Nurmia, M.; Harris, J.; Eskola, K.; Eskola, P. (1969). " Positive Identification of Two
Alpha-Particle-Emitting Isotopes of Element 104 (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v22/ i24/ p1317_1)".
Physical Review Letters 22: 1317–1320. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.1317 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/
PhysRevLett. 22. 1317). .
[3] Bemis, C. E. C. E. Bemis, Jr., Silva, R. J.; Hensley, D. C.; Keller Jr., O. L.; Tarrant, J. R.; Hunt, L. D.; Dittner,P.
F.; Hahn, R. L.; Goodman, C. D. (1973). "X-Ray Identification of Element 104". Physical Review Letters 31:
647–650. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.31.647 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevLett. 31. 647).
[4] Ghiorso, A.; Seaborg, G. T.; Organessian, Yu. Ts.; Zvara, I.; Armbruster, P.; Hessberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.;
Leino, M.; Munzenberg, G.; Reisdorf W.; Schmidt, K.-H. (1993). " Responses on 'Discovery of the transfermium
elements' by Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, California; Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna; and
Gesellschaft fur Schwerionenforschung, Darmstadt followed by reply to responses by the Transfermium
Working Group (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1993/ pdf/ 6508x1815. pdf)". Pure and Applied
Chemistry 65 (8): 1815–1824. doi: 10.1351/pac199365081815 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/
pac199365081815). .
[5] " Names and symbols of transfermium elements (IUPAC Recommendations 1997) (http:/ / www. iupac. org/
publications/ pac/ 1997/ pdf/ 6912x2471. pdf)". Pure and Applied Chemistry 69 (12): 2471–2474. 1997. doi:
10.1351/pac199769122471 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/ pac199769122471). .
[6] Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A.
K.; Yeremin, A. V. ; Andreyev, A. N.; Saro, S. (1997). "Spontaneous fission and alpha-decay properties of
neutron deficient isotopes 257-253104 and 258106". Zeitschrift für Physik a Hadrons and Nuclei 359: 415. doi:
10.1007/s002180050422 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s002180050422).
Rutherfordium 13
[7] Ghiorso, A.; Nurmia, M.; Eskola, K.; Eskola P. (1970). "261Rf; new isotope of element 104". Physics Letters B
32 (2): 95–98. doi: 10.1016/0370-2693(70)90595-2 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0370-2693(70)90595-2).
[8] see ununbium
[9] M. R. Lane, K. E. Gregorich, D. M. Lee, M. F. Mohar, M. Hsu, C. D. Kacher, B. Kadkhodayan, M. P. Neu, N. J.
Stoyer, E. R. Sylwester, J. C. Yang, and D. C. Hoffman (1996). "Spontaneous fission properties of 104262Rf".
Physical Review C 53 (6): 2893–2899. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.53.2893 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC.
53. 2893).
[10] see hassium
[11] see ununtrium
[12] see ununpentium
[13] Oganessian, Yu.Ts.; Demin, A. G.; Il'inov, A. S.; Tret'yakova, S. P.; Pleve, A. A.; Penionzhkevich, Yu. É.; Ivanov
M. P.; Tret'yakov, Yu. P. (1975). " Experiments on the synthesis of neutron-deficient kurchatovium isotopes in
reactions induced by 50Ti Ions (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ m87v320736564810/ )". Nuclear
Physics A 38 (6): 492–501. doi: 10.1016/0375-9474(75)91140-9 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/
0375-9474(75)91140-9). .
[14] Heßberger, F. P.; Münzenberg, G.; Hofmann, S.; Reisdorf, W.; Schmidt, K. H.; Schött, H. J.; Armbruster, P.;
Hingmann, R.; Thuma, B.; Vermeulen, D. (1985). "Study of evaporation residues produced in reactions of
207 208
, Pb with 50Ti". Zeitschrift für Physik a Atoms and Nuclei 321: 19–26. doi: 10.1007/BF01493453 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF01493453).
[15] Qian, J.; Heinz, A.; Winkler, R.; Vinson, J.; Janssens, R. V. F.; Peterson, D.; Seweryniak, D.; Back, B.;
Carpenter, M. P.; Savard, G.; Hecht, A. A.; Jiang, C. L.; Khoo, T. L.; Kondev, F. G.; Lauritsen, T.; Lister, C. J.;
Robinson, A.; Wang, X.; Zhu, S.; Gansworthy, A. B.; Asai, M.. " Alpha decay of 257Rf (http:/ / adsabs. harvard.
edu/ abs/ 2007APS. . DNP. JG010Q)". American Physical Society, 2007 Annual Meeting of the Division of
Nuclear Physics: JG.010. .
[16] Heßberger, F.P.; Hofmann, S.; Ackermann, D.; Ninov, V.; Leino, M.; Münzenberg, G.; Saro, S.; Lavrentev, A.;
Popeko, A.G.; Yeremin, A.V.; Stodel, Ch. (2001).
"[http://www.edpsciences.org/articles/epja/abs/2001/09/epja1103/epja1103.html Decay properties of
neutron-deficient isotopes 256,257Db, 255Rf, 252,253Lr"]]". European Physical Journal A 12: 57–67. http:/ / www.
edpsciences. org/ articles/ epja/ abs/ 2001/ 09/ epja1103/ epja1103. html.
[17] Heßberger, F.P.; Hofmann, S.; Ackermann, D.; Antalic, S.; Kindler, B.; Kojouharov, I.; Kuusiniemi, P.; Leino,
M.; Lommel, B.;Mann, R.; Nishio K.; Popeko, A. G.; Sulignano B.; Saro, S.; Streicher, B.; Venhart, M.; Yeremin,
A. V. (2006). " Alpha-gamma decay studies of 255Rf, 251No and 247Fm (http:/ / www. edpsciences. org/ articles/
epja/ abs/ 2006/ 15/ 10050_2006_Article_100239/ 10050_2006_Article_100239. html)". European Physical
Journal A 30: 561–569. .
[18] Dragojević, I.; Gregorich, K. E.; Düllmann, Ch.E.; Garcia, M.A. (2005). " Measurement of 208Pb(48Ti,n)255Rf
excitation function (http:/ / rnc. lbl. gov/ nsd/ annualreport2005/ contributions/ Dragojevic_LE. pdf)". LBNL
annual report. . Retrieved 2008-02-29.
[19] Lazarev, Yu. A.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Polyakov, A. N.; Rigol,
J.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; Iliev, S.; Subbotin, V. G.; Sukhov, A. M.; Buklanov, G. V.; Mezentsev, A.
N.;Subotic, K.; Moody, K. J.; Stoyer, N. J.; Wild, J. F.; Lougheed, R. W. (2000). " Decay properties of 257No, 261Rf,
and 262Rf (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v62/ i6/ e064307)". Physical Review C 62 (6): 064307. doi:
10.1103/PhysRevC.62.064307 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 62. 064307). .
[20] Gregorich, K.E.; Ch.E. Düllmann, C.M. Folden III, R. Sudowe, S.L. Nelson, J.M. Gates, I. Dragojević, M.A.
Garcia, Y.H. Chung, R. Eichler, G.K. Pang, A. Türler, A. Yakushev, D.C. Hoffman, H. Nitsche (2005). "
Systematic Study of Heavy Element Production in Compound Nucleus Reactions with 238U Targets (http:/ / rnc.
lbl. gov/ nsd/ annualreport2005/ contributions/ Gregorich_LE. pdf)". LBNL annual report. . Retrieved
2008-02-29.
[21] J. M. Gates, M. A. Garcia, K. E. Gregorich, Ch. E. Düllmann, I. Dragojević, J. Dvorak, R. Eichler, C. M. Folden
III, W. Loveland, S. L. Nelson, G. K. Pang, L. Stavsetra, R. Sudowe, A. Türler, and H. Nitsche (2008). "Synthesis
of rutherfordium isotopes in the 238U(26Mg,xn)264-xRf reaction and study of their decay properties". Physical
Review C 77: 034603. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.77.034603 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 77. 034603).
[22] Yu. A. Lazarev , Yu. V. Lobanov, Yu. Ts. Oganessian, V. K. Utyonkov, F. Sh. Abdullin, A. N. Polyakov, J. Rigol,
I. V. Shirokovsky, Yu. S. Tsyganov, S. Iliev, V. G. Subbotin, A. M. Sukhov, G. V. Buklanov, A. N. Mezentsev, and
K. Subotic K. J. Moody, N. J. Stoyer, J. F. Wild, and R. W. Lougheed (1996). "Decay properties of 257No, 261Rf,
and 262Rf". Physical Review C 62 (6): 064307. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.62.064307 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/
PhysRevC. 62. 064307).
[23] " 20Ne On 244Pu - First Preliminary Results (http:/ / lch. web. psi. ch/ pdf/ anrep03/ 03. pdf)". .
[24] "An EC-branch in the decay of 27-s 263Db: Evidence for the new isotope 263Rf" (http:/ / www. ulrich-rieth. de/
publikationen/ RCA0301_059. PDF), Kratz et al., GSI Annual report 2001. Retrieved on 2008-02-29
Rutherfordium 14
[25] Somerville, L. P.; M. J. Nurmia, J. M. Nitschke, and A. Ghiorso E. K. Hulet and R. W. Lougheed (1985). "
Spontaneous fission of rutherfordium isotopes (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v31/ i5/ p1801_1)".
31. 1801). .
[26] see ununoctium
261
[27] "EVIDENCE FOR ISOMERIC STATES IN Rf" (http:/ / lch. web. psi. ch/ pdf/ anrep01/ B-02heavies. pdf),
Dressler et al., PSI Annual Report 2001. Retrieved on 2008-01-29
[28] http:/ / lch. web. psi. ch/ pdf/ TexasA& M/ TexasA& M. pdf (Gas Chem 2007 Review)
[29] Yuichi Nagame, ; K. Tsukada, ; M. Asai, ; A. Toyoshima, ; K. Akiyama, ; Y. Ishii, ; T. Kaneko- Sato, ; M. Hirata,
; I. Nishinaka, ; S. Ichikawa, ; H. Haba, ; Shuichi Enomoto (2005). " (Rf aqueous chem JAERI) Chemical studies
on rutherfordium (Rf) at JAERI (http:/ / wwwsoc. nii. ac. jp/ jnrs/ paper/ JN62/ jn6202. pdf)". Radiochimica Acta
93: 519. doi: 10.1524/ract.2005.93.9-10.519 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1524/ ract. 2005. 93. 9-10. 519). (Rf
aqueous chem JAERI).
External links
• WebElements.com - Rutherfordium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/
elements/ text/ Rf/ index. html)

Rutherfordium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=300776541 Contributors: Achaemenes, Ahoerstemeier, AlimanRuna, Altenmann,
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License
Dubnium 1
Dubnium
rutherfordium ← dubnium → seaborgium

Ta
↑
Db
↓
(Upp)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number dubnium, Db, 105


−1

14 3
6d 7s
2
Physical properties
Density (near r.t.) unknown g·cm

−3
Atomic properties
Crystal structure unknown
Oxidation states 5
Atomic radius (calc.) unknown pm
Covalent radius unknown pm
Miscellaneous
Dubnium 2
Main article: Isotopes of dubnium

268 syn [1] SF
Db 16h
ε? 268
Rf
267
Db syn 1.2 h SF
266
Db syn 22 m ε 266
Rf
263
Db syn 27 s 56% SF
41% α 8.36 259

Lr
3% ε 263m
Rf
262
Db syn 34 s 67% α 8.66,8.45 258
Lr
33% SF
261
Db syn 1.8 s α 8.93 257
Lr
260
Db syn 1.5 s α 9.13,9.08,9.05 256
Lr
259
Db syn 0.5 s α 9.47 255
Lr
258
Db syn 4.4 s 67% α 9.17,9.08,9.01 254
Lr
33% ε 258
Rf
257m
Db syn 0.76 s α 9.16 253
Lr
257g
Db syn 1.50 s α 9.07,8.97 253
Lr
256
Db syn 1.6 s 70% α 9.12,9.08,9.01,8.89 253
Lr
30% ε 256
Rf
References
Dubnium (pronounced /ˈduːbniəm/) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the
symbol Db and atomic number 105.
This is a radioactive synthetic element whose most stable isotope is 268Db with a half life of
28 hours[1] . An element of with a half-life as long as this would be much easier to work
with, than some other elements such as Element 118 which has a half-life of 3 milliseconds.
This is the longest lived transactinide isotope and is a reflection of the stability of the
Z = 108 and N = 162 closed shells and the effect of odd particles in nuclear decay.
Chemistry experiments have provided sufficient evidence to confidently place dubnium in
group 5 of the Periodic Table.
Dubnium 3
Discovery profile
Element 105 was first reported by Russian scientists, in 1968-1970 at the Joint Institute for
Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia. The 1968 work was based on the detection of
correlated decays of element 105 to known daughter nuclei using the reaction
243
Am(22Ne,xn). They reported a 9.40 MeV and a 9.70 MeV alpha-activity and assigned the
decays to the isotopes 260105 or 261105.
In 1970 they expanded their work by the application of thermal gradient chromatography
and detection by spontaneous fission. They observed a 2.2 s SF activity in a fraction
portraying niobium-like characteristics and assigned the activity to 261DbCl5.
In late April 1970 researchers led by Albert Ghiorso working at the University of California,
Berkeley published a convincing synthesis of 260Db in the reaction:
24998Cf + 157N → 260105Db +4n
The team claimed that 260Db decayed by 9.10 MeV alpha-emission with a half-life of 1.6
seconds to 256Lr. Decay data for 256Lr agreed with the literature values and provided
strong support to their claim.
These results by the Berkeley scientists did not confirm the Soviet findings regarding the
9.40 MeV or 9.70 MeV alpha-decay of 260Db.
In 1971, the Russian team repeated their reaction using an improved set-up and were able
to confirm the decay data for 260Db using the reaction:
243 22 260
Am + Ne → Db + 5 n
In 1976, the Russian team continued their study of the reaction using thermal gradient
chromatography and were able to identify the product 260DbBr5.
In 1977, all doubt was dispelled by the L X-ray elemental detection of lawrencium isotopes
from the reaction:
249 15 260
Cf + N→ Db + 4 n
In 1992 the TWG assessed the claims of the two groups and concluded that confidence in
the discovery grew from results from both laboratories and the claim of discovery should be
shared.[2]
Proposed names
Historically element 105 has been called eka-tantalum, reflecting Mendeleev's placeholder
terminology.
The American team proposed that the new element should be named hahnium (Ha), in
honor of the late German physicist Otto Hahn. Consequently this was the name that most
American and Western European scientists used and appears in many papers published at
the time.
The Russian team proposed the name nielsbohrium (Ns) in honor of the Danish nuclear
physicist Niels Bohr.
An element naming controversy erupted between the two groups. The International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) thus adopted unnilpentium (Unp) as a temporary,
systematic element name. Attempting to resolve the issue, in 1994, the IUPAC proposed the
name joliotium (Jl), after the French physicist Frédéric Joliot-Curie. The two principal
claimants still disagreed about the names of elements 104-106. However in 1997 they
Dubnium 4
resolved the dispute and adopted the current name, dubnium (Db), after the city that
contains the Russian Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. It was argued by IUPAC that the
Berkeley laboratory had already been recognized several times in the naming of elements
(i.e., berkelium, californium, americium) and that the acceptance of the names
rutherfordium and seaborgium for elements 104 and 106 should be offset by recognizing
the contributions of the Russian team to the discovery of elements 104,105 and 106.[3] [4]
Dubnium is element 105 in the Periodic Table. The two forms of the projected electronic
structure are:
Bohr model 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2
Quantum
mechanical model
Extrapolated chemical properties of

eka-tantalum/dvi-niobium
Oxidation states
Element 105 is projected to be the second member of the 6d series of transition metals and
the heaviest member of group V in the Periodic Table, below vanadium, niobium and
tantalum. All the members of the group readily portray their oxidation state of +5 and the
state becomes more stable as the group is descended. Thus dubnium is expected to form a
stable +5 state. For this group, +4 and +3 states are also known for the heavier members
and dubnium may also form these reducing oxidation states.
Chemistry
In an extrapolation of the chemistries from niobium and tantalum, dubnium should react
with oxygen to form an inert pentoxide, Db2O5. In alkali, the formation of an orthodubnate
complex, DbO43−, is expected. Reaction with the halogens should readily form the
pentahalides, DbX5. The pentachlorides of niobium and tantalum exist as volatile solids or
monomeric trigonal bipyramidal molecules in the vapour phase. Thus, DbCl5 is expected to
be a volatile solid. Similarly, the pentafluoride, DbF5, should be even more volatile.
Hydrolysis of the halides is known to readily form the oxyhalides, MOX3. Thus the halides
DbX5 should react with water to form DbOX3. The reaction with fluoride ion is also well
known for the lighter homologues and dubnium is expected to form a range of
fluoro-complexes. In particular, reaction of the pentafluoride with HF should form a
hexafluorodubnate ion, DbF6–. Excess fluoride should lead to DbF72– and DbOF52–. If
eka-tantalum properties are portrayed, higher concentrations of fluoride should ultimately
form DbF83– since NbF83– is not known.
Dubnium 5
Gas phase chemistry

The chemistry of dubnium has been studied for several years using gas
thermochromatography. The experiments have studied the relative adsorption
characteristics of isotopes of niobium, tantalum and dubnium radioisotopes. The results
have indicated the formation of typical group 5 halides and oxyhalides, namely DbCl5,
DbBr5, DbOCl3 and DbOBr3. Reports on these early experiments usually refer to dubnium
as hahnium.
Formula Names(s)
DbCl5 dubnium pentachloride ; dubnium(V) chloride
DbBr5 dubnium pentabromide ; dubnium(V) bromide
DbOCl3 dubnium oxychloride ; dubnium(V) trichloride oxide ; dubnyl(V) chloride
DbOBr3 dubnium oxybromide ; dubnium(V) tribromide oxide ; dubnyl(V) bromide

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of dubnium by so-called "cold" fusion
reactions. These are processes which create compound nuclei at low excitation energy
(~10-20 MeV, hence "cold"), leading to a higher probability of survival from fission. The
excited nucleus then decays to the ground state via the emission of one or two neutrons
only.
209
Bi(50Ti,xn)259-xDb (x=1,2,3)
The first attempts to synthesise element 105 using cold fusion reactions were performed in
1976 by the team at FLNR, Dubna using the above reaction. They were able to detect a 5 s
spontaneous fission (SF) activity which they assigned to 257105. This assignment was later
corrected to 258105. In 1981, the team at GSI studied this reaction using the improved
technique of correlation of genetic parent-daughter decays. They were able to positively
identify 258Db, the product from the 1n neutron evaporation channel.[5] In 1983, the team
at Dubna revisited the reaction using the method of identification of a descendant using
chemical separation. They succeeded in measuring alpha decays from known descendants
of the decay chain beginning with 258105. This was taken as providing some evidence for
the formation of element 105 nuclei. The team at GSI revisited the reaction in 1985 and
were able to detect 10 atoms of 257Db.[6] After a significant upgrade of their facilities in
1993, in 2000 the team measured 120 decays of 257Db, 16 decays of 256Db and decay of
258
Db in the measurement of the 1n, 2n and 3n excitation functions. The data gathered for
257
Db allowed a first spectroscopic study of this isotope and identified an isomer, 257mDb,
and a first determination of a decay level structure for 257Db.[7] The reaction was used in
spectroscopic studies of isotopes of mendelevium and einsteinium in 2003-2004.[8]
Dubnium 6
209
Bi(49Ti,xn)258-xDb (x=2?)
This reaction was studied by Yuri Oganessian and the team at Dubna in 1983. They
observed a 2.6 s SF activity tentatively assigned to 256Db. Later results suggest a possible
reassignment to 256Rf, resulting from the ~30% EC branch in 256Db.
209
Bi(48Ti,xn)257-xDb (x=1?)
This reaction was studied by Yuri Oganessian and the team at Dubna in 1983. They
observed a 1.6 s activity with a ~80% alpha branch with a ~20% SF branch. The activity
was tentatively assigned to 255Db. Later results suggest a reassignment to 256Db.
208
Pb(51V,xn)259-xDb (x=1,2)
The team at Dubna also studied this reaction in 1976 and were again able to detect the 5 s
SF activity, first tentatively assigned to 257Db and later to 258Db. In 2006, the team at
LBNL reinvestigated this reaction as part of their odd-Z projectile program. They were able
to detect 258Db and 257Db in their measurement of the 1n and 2n neutron evaporation
channels. [9]
207
Pb(51V,xn)258-xDb
The team at Dubna also studied this reaction in 1976 but this time they were unable to
detect the 5 s SF activity, first tentatively assigned to 257Db and later to 258Db. Instead,
they were able to measure a 1.5 s SF activity, tentatively assigned to 255Db.
205
Tl(54Cr,xn)259-xDb (x=1?)
The team at Dubna also studied this reaction in 1976 and were again able to detect the 5 s
SF activity, first tentatively assigned to 257Db and later to 258Db.

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of dubnium by so-called "hot" fusion
reactions. These are processes which create compound nuclei at high excitation energy
(~40-50 MeV, hence "hot"), leading to a reduced probability of survival from fission and
quasi-fission. The excited nucleus then decays to the ground state via the emission of 3-5
neutrons.
232
Th(31P,xn)263-xDb (x=5)
There are very limited reports that this rare reaction using a P-31 beam was studied in
1989 by Andreyev et al. at the FLNR. One source suggests that no atoms were detected
whilst a better source from the Russians themselves indicates that 258Db was synthesised in
the 5n channel with a yield of 120 pb.
Dubnium 7
238
U(27Al,xn)265-xDb (x=4,5)
In 2006, as part of their study of the use of uranium targets in superheavy element
synthesis, the LBNL team led by Ken Gregorich studied the excitation functions for the 4n
and 5n channels in this new reaction.[10]
236
U(27Al,xn)263-xDb (x=5,6)
This reaction was first studied by Andreyev et al. at the FLNR, Dubna in 1992. They were
able to observe 258Db and 257Db in the 5n and 6n exit channels with yields of 450 pb and 75
pb, respectively.[11]
243
Am(22Ne,xn)265-xDb (x=5)
The first attempts to synthesis element 105 were performed in 1968 by the team at the
Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions (FLNR) in Dubna,Russia. They observed two alpha
lines which they tentatively assigned to 261105 and 260105. They repeated their experiment
in 1970 looking for spontaneous fission. They found a 2.2 s SF activity which they assigned
to 261105. In 1970, the Dubna team began work on using gradient thermochromatography
in order to detect element 105 in chemical experiments as a volatile chloride. In their first
run they detected a volatile SF activity with similar adsorption properties to NbCl5 and
unlike HfCl4. This was taken to indicate the formation of nuclei of dvi-niobium as [105]Cl5.
In 1971, they repeated the chemistry experiment using higher sensitivity and observed
alpha decays from an dvi-niobium component, taken to confirm the formation of 260105. The
method was repeated in 1976 using the formation of bromides and obtained almost
identical results, indicating the formation of a volatile, dvi-niobium-like [105]Br5.
241
Am(22Ne,xn)263-xDb (x=4,5)
In 2000, Chinese scientists at the Institute of Modern Physics (IMP), Lanzhou, announced
the discovery of the previously unknown isotope 259Db formed in the 4n neutron
evaporation channel. They were also able to confirm the decay properties for 258Db.[12]
248
Cm(19F,xn)267-xDb (x=4,5)
This reaction was first studied in 1999 at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) in order to
produce 262Db for chemical studies. Just 4 atoms were detected with a cross section of 260
pb.[13] Japanese scientists at JAERI studied the reaction further in 2002 and determined
yields for the isotope 262Db during their efforts to study the aqueous chemistry of
dubnium.[14]
249
Bk(18O,xn)267-xDb (x=4,5)
Following from the discovery of 260Db by Albert Ghiorso in 1970 at the University of
California (UC), the same team continued in 1971 with the discovery of the new isotope
262
Db. They also observed an unassigned 25 s SF activity, probably associated with the
now-known SF branch of 263Db.[15] In 1990, a team led by Kratz at LBNL definitively
discovered the new isotope 263Db in the 4n neutron evaporation channel.[16] This reaction
has been used by the same team on several occasions in order to attempt to confirm an
electron capture (EC) branch in 263Db leading to long-lived 263Rf (see rutherfordium).[17]
Dubnium 8
249
Bk(16O,xn)265-xDb (x=4)
Following from the discovery of 260Db by Albert Ghiorso in 1970 at the University of
California (UC), the same team continued in 1971 with the discovery of the new isotope
261
Db.[15]
250
Cf(15N,xn)265-xDb (x=4)
Following from the discovery of 260Db by Ghiorso in 1970 at LBNL, the same team
continued in 1971 with the discovery of the new isotope 261Db.[15]
249
Cf(15N,xn)264-xDb (x=4)
In 1970, the team at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) studied this
reaction and identified the isotope 260105 in their discovery experiment. They used the
modern technique of correlation of genetic parent-daughter decays to confirm their
assignment.[18] In 1977, the team at Oak Ridge repeated the experiment and were able to
confirm the discovery by the identification of K X-rays from the daughter lawrencium.[19]
254
Es(13C,xn)267-xDb
In 1988, scientists as the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) used the
asymmetric hot fusion reaction with an einsteinium-254 target to search for the new
nuclides 264Db and 263Db. Due to the low sensitivity of the experiment caused by the small
Es-254 target,they were unable to detect any evaporation residues (ER).

Isotopes of dubnium have also been identified in the decay of heavier elements.
Evaporation Residue Observed Db isotope
288 268
115 Db
287 267
115 Db
282 266
113 Db
267 263
Bh Db
278 266 262

113 , Bh Db
265 261
Bh Db
272 260
Rg Db
266 262 258

Mt , Bh Db
261 257
Bh Db
260 256
Bh Db
Dubnium 9

256 1983? , 2000 209

Db Bi(50Ti,3n)
257 1985
Dbg 209
Bi(50Ti,2n)
257 2000
Dbm 209
Bi(50Ti,2n)
258 1976? , 1981 209

Db Bi(50Ti,n)
259 2001 241

Db Am(22Ne,4n)
260 1970 249

Db Cf(15N,4n)
261 1971 249

Db Bk(16O,4n)
262 1971 249

Db Bk(18O,5n)
263 1971? , 1990 249

Db Bk(18O,4n)
264 unknown
Db
265 unknown
Db
266 2006 237

Db Np(48Ca,3n)
267 2003 243

Db Am(48CaCa,4n)
268 2003 243

Db Am(48Ca,3n)
Isomerism in dubnium nuclides

260
Db
Recent data on the decay of 272Rg has revealed that some decay chains continue through
260
Db with extraordinary longer life-times than expected. These decays have been linked to
an isomeric level decaying by alpha decay with a half-life of ~19 s. Further research is
required to allow a definite assignment.
258
Db
Evidence for an isomeric state in 258Db has been gathered from the study of the decay of
266
Mt and 262Bh. It has been noted that those decays assigned to an electron capture (EC)
branch has a significantly different half-life to those decaying by alpha emission. This has
been taken to suggest the existence of an isomeric state decaying by EC with a half-life of
~20 s. Further experiments are required to confirm this assignment.
257
Db
A study of the formation and decay of 257Db has proved the existence of an isomeric state.
Initially, 257Db was taken to decay by alpha emission with energies 9.16,9.07 and 8.97 MeV.
A measurement of the correlations of these decays with those of 253Lr have shown that the
9.16 MeV decay belongs to a separate isomer. Analysis of the data in conjunction with
theory have assigned this activity to a meta stable state, 257mDb. The ground state decays
Dubnium 10
257m,g
by alpha emission with energies 9.07 and 8.97 MeV. Spontaneous fission of Db was
not confirmed in recent experiments.
Spectroscopic decay level schemes for dubnium isotopes

257
Db
Retracted isotopes
255
Db
In 1983, scientists at Dubna
carried out a series of
supportive experiments in
their quest for the discovery of
element 107. In two such
experiments, they claimed
they had detected a ~1.5 s
spontaneous fission activity
from the reactions
207 51
Pb( V,xn) and
209 48
Bi( Ti,xn). The activity was
assigned to 255Db. Later
research suggested that the
assignment should be changed
to 256Db. As such, the isotope
255
Db is currently not
This is the currently suggested decay level scheme for 257Dbg,m from
recognised on the chart of the study performed in 2001 by Hessberger et al. at GSI
radionuclides and further
research is required to confirm this isotope.
Cold fusion
producing dubnium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
51 208 259 1.54 nb , 15.6 MeV 1.8 nb , 23.7 MeV

V Pb Db
50 209 259 4.64 nb , 16.4 MeV 2.4 nb , 22.3 MeV 200 pb , 31.0 MeV
Ti Bi Db
Dubnium 11
Hot fusion
producing dubnium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
27 238 265 + +
Al U Db
22 241 263 1.6 nb 3.6 nb

Ne Am Db
22 243 265 + +
Ne Am Db
19 248 267 1.0 nb

F Cm Db
18 249 267 10.0 nb 6.0 nb

O Bk Db
External links
[20]
• WebElements.com - Dubnium
References
[1] Data from XU_187225_1.ens (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ useroutput/ XU_187225_1. html)
[2] " TWG report (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1993/ pdf/ 6508x1757. pdf)". . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[3] " IUPAC 1994 recomm (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1994/ pdf/ 6612x2419. pdf)". . Retrieved
2009-05-06.
[4] " IUPAC 1997 recomm (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1997/ pdf/ 6912x2471. pdf)". . Retrieved
2009-05-05.
[5] Munzenberg et al. (1981). " Identification of element 107 by α correlation chains (http:/ / www. springerlink.
com/ content/ tlx33361417u3n26/ )". Z. Phys. A. 300: 1. doi: 10.1007/BF01412623 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1007/ BF01412623). .
[6] Hessberger et al. (1985). " The new isotopes 258105,257105,254Lr and 253Lr" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/
content/ j04846712485p483/ )". Z. Phys A. 322: 4. doi: 10.1007/BF01415134 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/
BF01415134). .
[7] F. P. Hessberger et al. (2001). " Decay properties of neutron-deficient isotopes 256,257Db, 255Rf, 252,253Lr (http:/
/ www. edpsciences. org/ articles/ epja/ abs/ 2001/ 09/ epja1103/ epja1103. html)". Eur. Phys. J. A 12: 57-67. .
[8] F. P. Hessberger et al. (2005). Eur. Phys. J A. 26: 2. doi: Energy systematics of low-lying Nilsson levels in
odd-mass einsteinium isotopes (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ Energy+ systematics+ of+ low-lying+ Nilsson+ levels+ in+
odd-mass+ einsteinium+ isotopes). http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ 7n66l7650112m776/ .
[9] Gates et al. (2005). " Measurement of the 208Pb(51V, xn)259-xDb Excitation Function (http:/ / rnc. lbl. gov/ nsd/
annualreport2005/ contributions/ Gates1_LE. pdf)". LBNL Annual Report. .
[10] " 238U studies (http:/ / rnc. lbl. gov/ nsd/ annualreport2005/ contributions/ Gregorich_LE. pdf)". . Retrieved
2009-05-05.
[11] A. N. Andreyev et al. (1992). " Investigation of the fusion reaction 27Al + 236U → 263105 at excitation energies
of 57 MeV and 65 MeV (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ p47303w3887q36r7/ )". Z. Phys. A. 344: 2.
doi: 10.1007/BF01291709 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ BF01291709). .
[12] Z. G. Gan et al. (2001). " A new alpha-particle-emitting isotope 259Db (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/
content/ gflp9qfdqp0l9r1u/ )". Eur. Phys. J. A 10: 1. doi: 10.1007/s100500170140 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/
s100500170140). .
[13] R. Dressler et al. (1999). " Production of 262Db (Z=105) in the reaction 248Cm(19F, 5n) (http:/ / prola. aps. org/
abstract/ PRC/ v59/ i6/ p3433_1)". Phys. Rev. C 59: 3433 - 3436. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.59.3433 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 59. 3433). .
[14] Y. Nagame et al. (2002). " Production Cross Sections of 261Rf and 262Db in Bombardments of 248Cm with 18O
and 19F Ions (http:/ / sciencelinks. jp/ j-east/ article/ 200219/ 000020021902A0652005. php)". J. Nucl.
Radiochem. Sci 3: 85-88. .
Dubnium 12
[15] A. Ghiorso et al. (1971). " Two New Alpha-Particle Emitting Isotopes of Element 105, 261Ha and 262Ha (http:/ /
prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v4/ i5/ p1850_1)". Phys. Rev. C 4: 1850 - 1855. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.4.1850
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 4. 1850). .
[16] J. V. Kratz et al. (1992). " New nuclide 263Ha (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v45/ i3/ p1064_1)". Phys.
Rev. C 45: 1064 - 1069. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.45.1064 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 45. 1064). .
[17] " EC of 263Db (http:/ / www. ulrich-rieth. de/ publikationen/ RCA0301_059. PDF)". . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[18] A. Ghiorso et al. (1970). " New Element Hahnium, Atomic Number 105 (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/
v24/ i26/ p1498_1)". Phys. Rev. Lett. 24: 1498 - 1503. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.24.1498 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1103/ PhysRevLett. 24. 1498). .
[19] C. E. Bemis et al. (1977). " Production, L x-ray identification, and decay of the nuclide 260105 (http:/ / prola.
aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v16/ i3/ p1146_1)". Phys. Rev. C 16: 1146 - 1158. .
[20] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Db/ index. html

Dubnium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=306272502 Contributors: Adashiel, Aesopos, Ahoerstemeier, Alan Liefting, AlimanRuna,
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Contributors
image:Db-TableImage.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Db-TableImage.png License: GNU Free Documentation License
Contributors: Ahoerstemeier
Image:257Db decay scheme.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:257Db_decay_scheme.png License: Public Domain
License
Seaborgium 1
Seaborgium
dubnium ← seaborgium → bohrium

W
↑
Sg
↓
(Uph)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number seaborgium, Sg, 106


−1
Electron configuration [Rn] 7s 5f

2 14
6d
4
Physical properties
Density (near r.t.) unknown g·cm

−3
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 6
Atomic radius (calc.) unknown pm
Covalent radius unknown pm
Miscellaneous
Seaborgium 2
Main article: Isotopes of seaborgium

271
Sg syn 1.9 min 67% α 8.54 267
Rf
33% SF
267
Sg syn 1.4 min 17% α 8.20 263
Rf
83% SF
266
Sg syn 0.36 s SF
265b
Sg syn 16.2 s α 8.70 261g
Rf
265a
Sg syn 8.9 s α 8.90,8.84,8.76 261
Rf
264
Sg syn 68 ms SF
263m
Sg syn 0.9 s 87% α 9.25 259
Rf
13% SF
263g
Sg syn 0.3 s α 9.06 259
Rf
262
Sg syn 15 ms SF
261
Sg syn 0.18 s 98.1% α 9.62,9.55,9.47,9.42,9.37 257g
Rf
1.3% ε 261
Db
0.6% SF
260
Sg syn 3.6 ms 26% α 9.81,9.77,9.72 256
Rf
74% SF
259
Sg syn 0.48 s α 9.62,9.36,9.03 255
Rf
258
Sg syn 2.9 ms SF
References
Seaborgium (pronounced /siːˈbɔrɡiəm/) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has
the symbol Sg and atomic number 106.
Seaborgium is a synthetic element whose most stable isotope 271Sg has a half-life of 1.9
minutes. Chemistry experiments with seaborgium have firmly placed it in group 6 as a
heavier homologue to tungsten.
Proposed names
(main article: Element naming controversy)
The Berkeley team suggested the name seaborgium (Sg) to honor the American chemist
Glenn T. Seaborg credited as a member of the American group in recognition of his
participation in the discovery of several other actinides. The name selected by the team
became controversial (see element naming controversy). The IUPAC adopted unnilhexium
(symbol Unh) as a temporary, systematic element name. In 1994 a committee of IUPAC
Seaborgium 3
recommended that element 106 be named rutherfordium and adopted a rule that no
element can be named after a living person.[1] This ruling was fiercely objected to by the
American Chemical Society. Critics pointed out that a precedent had been set in the naming
of einsteinium during Albert Einstein's life and a survey indicated that chemists were not
concerned with the fact that Seaborg was still alive. In 1997, as part of a compromise
involving elements 104 to 108, the name seaborgium for element 106 was recognized
internationally.[2]
Seaborgium is element 106 in the Periodic Table. The two forms of the projected electronic
structure are:
Bohr model 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 12, 2
Quantum
mechanical model

eka-tungsten/dvi-molybdenum
Oxidation states
Element 106 is projected to be the third member of the 6d series of transition metals and
the heaviest member of group 6 in the Periodic Table, below chromium, molybdenum and
tungsten. All the members of the group readily portray their group oxidation state of +6
and the state becomes more stable as the group is descended. Thus seaborgium is expected
to form a stable +6 state. For this group, stable +5 and +4 states are well represented for
the heavier members and the +3 state is known but reducing, except for chromium(III).
Chemistry
Much seaborgium chemical behavior is predicted by extrapolation from its lighter cogeners
molybdenum and tungsten. Molybdenum and tungsten readily form stable trioxides MO3, so
seaborgium should form SgO3. The oxides MO3 are soluble in alkali with the formation of
oxyanions, so seaborgium should form a seaborgate ion, SgO42−. In addition, WO3 reacts
with acid, suggesting similar amphotericity for SgO3. Molybdenum oxide, MoO3, also reacts
with moisture to form a hydroxide MoO2(OH)2, so SgO2(OH)2 is also feasible. The heavier
homologues readily form the volatile, reactive hexahalides MX6 (X=Cl,F). Only tungsten
forms the unstable hexabromide, WBr6. Therefore, the compounds SgF6 and SgCl6 are
predicted, and "eka-tungsten character" may show itself in increased stability of the
hexabromide, SgBr6. These halides are unstable to oxygen and moisture and readily form
volatile oxyhalides, MOX4 and MO2X2. Therefore SgOX4 (X=F,Cl) and SgO2X2 (X=F,Cl)
should be possible. In aqueous solution, a variety of anionic oxyfluoro-complexes are formed
with fluoride ion, examples being MOF5− and MO3F33−. Similar seaborgium complexes are
expected.
Seaborgium 4
Gas phase chemistry

Initial experiments aiming at probing the chemistry of seaborgium focused on the gas
thermochromatography of a volatile oxychloride. Seaborgium atoms were produced in the
reaction 248Cm(22Ne,4n)266Sg, thermalised, and reacted with an O2/HCl mixture. The
adsorption properties of the resulting oxychloride were measured and compared with those
of molybdenum and tungsten compounds. The results indicated that seaborgium formed a
volatile oxychloride akin to those of the other group 6 elements:
Sg + O2 + 2 HCl → SgO2Cl2 + H2
In 2001, a team continued the study of the gas phase chemistry of seaborgium by reacting
the element with O2 in a H2O environment. In a manner similar to the formation of the
oxychloride, the results of the experiment indicated the formation of seaborgium oxide
hydroxide, a reaction well known among the lighter group 6 homologues.[3]
2 Sg + 3 O2 → 2 SgO3
SgO3 + H2O → SgO2(OH)2

In its aqueous chemistry, seaborgium has been shown to resemble its lighter homologues
molybdenum and tungsten, forming a stable +6 oxidation state. Seaborgium was eluted
from cation exchange resin using a HNO3/HF solution, most likely as neutral SgO2F2 or the
anionic complex ion [SgO2F3]−. In contrast, in 0.1 M HNO3, seaborgium does not elute,
unlike Mo and W, indicating that the hydrolysis of [Sg(H2O)6]6+ only proceeds as far as the
cationic complex [Sg(OH)5(H2O)]+.
Summary of investigated compounds and complex ions
Formula Names(s)
SgO2Cl2 seaborgium oxychloride ; seaborgium(VI) dioxide dichloride ; seaborgyl dichloride
SgO2F2 seaborgium oxyfluoride ; seaborgium(VI) dioxide difluoride ; seaborgyl difluoride
SgO3 seaborgium oxide ; seaborgium(VI) oxide ; seaborgium trioxide
SgO2(OH)2 seaborgium oxide hydroxide ; seaborgium(VI) dioxide dihydroxide
trifluorodioxoseaborgate(VI)
[SgO2F3]−
aquapentahydroxyseaborgium(VI)
[Sg(OH)5(H2O)]+
Seaborgium 5

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of seaborgium by so-called "cold" fusion
only.
208
Pb(54Cr,xn)262-xSg (x=1,2,3)
The first attempt to synthesise element 106 in cold fusion reactions was performed in
September 1974 by a Soviet team led by G. N. Flerov at the Joint Institute for Nuclear
Research at Dubna. They reported producing a 0.48 s spontaneous fission (SF) activity
which they assigned to the isotope 259106. Based on later evidence it was suggested that
the team most likely measured the decay of 260Sg and its daughter 256Rf. The TWG
concluded that, at the time, the results were insufficiently convincing.[4]
The Dubna team revisited this problem in 1983-1984 and were able to detect a 5 ms SF
activity assigned directly to 260Sg.[4]
The team at GSI studied this reaction for the first time in 1985 using the improved method
of correlation of genetic parent-daughter decays. They were able to detect 261Sg (x=1) and
260
Sg and measured a partial 1n neutron evaporation excitation function. [5]
In December 2000, the reaction was studied by a team at GANIL, France and were able to
detect 10 atoms of 261Sg and 2 atoms of 260Sg to add to previous data on the reaction.
After a facility upgrade, the GSI team measured the 1n excitation function in 2003 using a
metallic lead target. Of significance, in May 2003, the team successfully replaced the
lead-208 target with more resistant lead(II) sulfide targets (PbS) which will allow more
intense beams to be used in the future. They were able to measure the 1n,2n and 3n
excitation functions and performed the first detailed alpha-gamma spectroscopy on the
isotope 261Sg. They detected ~1600 atoms of the isotope and identified new alpha lines as
well as measuring a more accurate half-life and new EC and SF branchings. Furthermore,
they were able to detect the K X-rays from the daughter rutherfordium element for the first
time. They were also able to provide improved data for 260Sg, including the tentative
observation of an isomeric level. The study was continued in September 2005 and March
2006. The accumulated work on 261Sg was published in 2007. [6] Work in September 2005
also aimed to begin spectroscopic studies on 260Sg.
207
Pb(54Cr,xn)261-xSg (x=1,2)
The team at Dubna also studied this reaction in 1974 with identical results as for their first
experiments with a Pb-208 target. The SF activities were first assigned to 259Sg and later to
260
Sg and/or 256Rf. Further work in 1983-1984 also detected a 5 ms SF activity assigned to
the parent 260Sg.[4]
The GSI team studied this reaction for the first time in 1985 using the method of correlation
of genetic parent-daughter decays. They were able to positively identify 259Sg as a product
from the 2n neutron evaporation channel.[5]
The reaction was further used in March 2005 using PbS targets to begin a spectroscopic
study of the even-even isotope 260Sg.
Seaborgium 6
206
Pb(54Cr,xn)260-xSg
This reaction was studied in 1974 by the team at Dubna. It was used to assist them in their
assignment of the observed SF activities in reactions using Pb-207 and Pb-208 targets. They
were unable to detect any SF, indicating the formation of isotopes decaying primarily by
alpha decay.[4]
208
Pb(52Cr,xn)260-xSg (x=1,2)
The team at Dubna also studied this reaction in their series of cold fusion reactions
performed in 1974. Once again they were unable to detect any SF activities.[4] The reaction
was revisited in 2006 by the team at LBNL as part of their studies on the effect of the
isospin of the projectile and hence the mass number of the compound nucleus on the yield
of evaporation residues. They were able to identify 259Sg and 258Sg in their measurement of
the 1n excitation function.[7]
209
Bi(51V,xn)260-xSg (x=2)
The team at Dubna also studied this reaction in their series of cold fusion reactions
performed in 1974. Once again they were unable to detect any SF activities.[4] In 1994, the
synthesis of seaborgium was revisited using this reaction by the GSI team, in order to study
the new even-even isotope 258Sg. Ten atoms of 258Sg were detected and decayed by
spontaneous fission.

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of seaborgium by so-called "hot" fusion
neutrons.
238
U(30Si,xn)268-xSg (x=3,4,5,6)
This reaction was first studied by Japanese scientists at the Japan Atomic Energy Research
Institute (JAERI) in 1998. They detected a spontaneous fission activity which they
tentatively assigned to the new isotope 264Sg or 263Db, formed by EC of 263Sg.[8] In 2006,
the teams at GSI and LBNL both studied this reaction using the method of correlation of
genetic parent-daughter decays. The LBNL team measured an excitation function for the
4n,5n and 6n channels, whilst the GSI team were able to observe an additional 3n
activity.[9] [10] [11] Both teams were able to identify the new isotope 264Sg which decayed
with a short lifetime by spontaneous fission.
248
Cm(22Ne,xn)270-xSg (x=4?,5)
In 1993, at Dubna, Yuri Lazarev and his team announced the discovery of long-lived 266Sg
and 265Sg produced in the 4n and 5n channels of this nuclear reaction following the search
for seaborgium isotopes suitable for a first chemical study. It was announced that 266Sg
decayed by 8.57 MeV alpha-particle emission with a projected half-life of ~20 s, lending
strong support to the stabilising effect of the Z=108,N=162 closed shells.[12] This reaction
was studied further in 1997 by a team at GSI and the yield, decay mode and half-lives for
Seaborgium 7
266
Sg and 265Sg have been confirmed, although there are still some discrepancies. In the
recent synthesis of 270Hs (see hassium), 266Sg was found to undergo exclusively SF with a
short half-life (TSF = 360 ms). It is possible that this is the ground state, (266gSg) and that
the other activity, produced directly, belongs to a high spin K-isomer, 266mSg, but further
results are required to confirm this.
A recent re-evaluation of the decay characteristics of 265Sg and 266Sg has suggested that
all decays to date in this reaction were in fact from 265Sg, which exists in two isomeric
forms. The first, 265aSg has a principal alpha-line at 8.85 MeV and a calculated half-life of
8.9 s, whilst 265bSg has a decay energy of 8.70 MeV and a half-life of 16.2 s. Both isomeric
levels are populated when produced directly. Data from the decay of 269Hs indicates that
265b
Sg is produced during the decay of 269Hs and that 265bSg decays into the shorter-lived
261g
Rf isotope. This means that the observation of 266Sg as a long-lived alpha emitter is
retracted and that it does indeed undergo fission in a short time.
Regardless of these assignments, the reaction has been successfully used in the recent
attempts to study the chemistry of seaborgium (see below).
249
Cf(18O,xn)267-xSg (x=4)
The synthesis of element 106 was first attempted in 1974 by the team at LBNL. In their
discovery experiment, they were able to apply the new method of correlation of genetic
parent-daughter decays to identify the new isotope 263Sg. In 1975, the team at Oak Ridge
were able to confirm the decay data but were unable to identify coincident X-rays in order
to prove that seaborgium as produced. In 1979, the team at Dubna studied the reaction by
detection of SF activities. In comparison with data from Berkeley, they calculated a 70% SF
branching for 263Sg. The synthesis and discovery reaction was confirmed in 1994 by a
different team at LBNL. [13]

Isotopes of seaborgium have also been observed in the decay of heavier elements.
Evaporation Residue Observed Sg isotope
291 287 283 271

116 , 114 , 112 Sg
271 267
Hs Sg
270 266
Hs Sg
277 273 269 265

Uub , Ds , Hs Sg
271 267 263

Ds , Ds Sg
270 262
Ds Sg
269 265 261

Ds , Hs Sg
264 260
Hs Sg
Seaborgium 8

258 1994 209

Sg Bi(51V,2n)
259 1985 207

Sg Pb(54Cr,2n)
260 1985 208

Sg Pb(54Cr,2n)
261 1985 208

Sg Pb(54Cr,n)
262 2001 207 [14]

Sg Pb(64Ni,n)
263 1974
Sgm 249
Cf(18O,4n)
263 1994 [14]

Sgg 208
Pb(64Ni,n)
264 2006 238

Sg U(30Si,4n)
265 1993 248

Sg Cm(22Ne,5n)
266 2004 248

Sg Cm(26Mg,4n)
267 2004 248 [15]

Sg Cm(26Mg,3n)
268 unknown
Sg
269 unknown
Sg
270 unknown
Sg
271 2003 242 [16]

Sg Pu(48Ca,3n)
Isotopes
There are 11 known isotopes of seaborgium (excluding meta-stable and K-spin isomers).
The longest-lived is 271Sg which decays through alpha decay and spontaneous fission. It has
a half-life of 1.9 minutes. The shortest-lived isotope is 258Sg which also decays through
alpha decay and spontaneous fission. It has a half-life of 2.9 ms.
Isomerism in seaborgium nuclides

266
Sg
Initial work identified an 8.63 MeV alpha-decaying activity with a half-life of ~21s and
assigned to the ground state of 266Sg. Later work identified a nuclide decaying by 8.52 and
8.77 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of ~21s, which is unusual for an even-even nuclide.
Recent work on the synthesis of 270Hs identified 266Sg decaying by SF with a short 360 ms
half-life. The recent work on 277112 and 269Hs has provided new information on the decay
of 265Sg and 261Rf. This work suggested that the initial 8.77 MeV activity should be
reassigned to 265Sg. Therefore the current information suggests that the SF activity is the
ground state and the 8.52 MeV activity is a high spin K-isomer. Further work is required to
confirm these assignments. A recent re-evaluation of the data has suggested that the 8.52
MeV activity should be associated with 265Sg and that 266Sg only undergoes fission.
Seaborgium 9
265
Sg
The recent direct synthesis of 265Sg resulted in four alpha-lines at 8.94,8.84,8.76 and 8.69
MeV with a half-life of 7.4 seconds. The observation of the decay of 265Sg from the decay of
277
112 and 269Hs indicated that the 8.69 MeV line may be associated with an isomeric level
with an associated half-life of ~ 20 s. It is plausible that this level is causing confusion
between assignments of 266Sg and 265Sg since both can decay to fissioning rutherfordium
isotopes.
A recent re-evaluation of the data has indicated that there are indeed two isomers, one with
a principal decay energy of 8.85 MeV with a half-life of 8.9 s, and a second isomer which
decays with energy 8.70 MeV with a half-life of 16.2 s.
263
Sg
The discovery synthesis of 263Sg resulted in an alpha-line at 9.06 MeV. Observation of this
nuclide by decay of 271gDs, 271mDs and 267Hs has confirmed an isomer decaying by 9.25
MeV alpha emission. The 9.06 MeV decay was also confirmed. The 9.06 MeV activity has
been assigned to the ground state isomer with an associated half-life of 0.3 s. The 9.25 MeV
activity has been assigned to an isomeric level decaying with a half-life of 0.9 s.
Recent work on the synthesis of 271g,mDs was resulted in some confusing data regarding
the decay of 267Hs. In one such decay, 267Hs decayed to 263Sg which decayed by alpha
emission with a half-life of ~ 6 s. This activity has not yet been positively assigned to an
isomer and further research is required.
Seaborgium 10
Spectroscopic decay schemes for seaborgium isotopes

261
Sg
Retracted isotopes
269
Sg
In the claimed synthesis of
293
118 in 1999 the isotope
269
Sg was identified as a
daughter product. It decayed
by 8.74 MeV alpha emission
with a half-life of 22 s. The
claim was retracted in 2001
and thus this seaborgium
isotope is currently unknown
or unconfirmed.[17]
Chemical yields of
isotopes
Cold fusion
The table below provides This is the currently accepted decay scheme for 261Sg from the study
cross-sections and excitation by Streicher et al. at GSI in 2003-2006
energies for cold fusion

reactions producing seaborgium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived
from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.
54 207 261
Cr Pb Sg
54 208 262 4.23 nb , 13.0 MeV 500 pb 10 pb

Cr Pb Sg
51 209 260 38 pb , 21.5 MeV

V Bi Sg
52 208 260 281 pb , 11.0 MeV

Cr Pb Sg
Seaborgium 11
Hot fusion
producing seaborgium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
30 238 268 + 9 pb, 40.0 ~ 80 pb , 51.0 MeV ~30 pb , 58.0 MeV

Si U Sg
22 248 270 ~25 pb ~250 pb

Ne Cm Sg
18 249 267 +
O Cf Sg
External links
[18]
• WebElements.com - Seaborgium
References
[1] http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1994/ pdf/ 6612x2419. pdf (IUPAC 1994 recomm)
[3] "Physico-chemical characterization of seaborgium as oxide hydroxide" (http:/ / www-w2k. gsi. de/ kernchemie/
images/ pdf_Artikel/ Radiochim_Acta_89_737_2001. pdf), Huebener et al., Radiochim. Acta, 89, 737–741
(2001).Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[4] http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1993/ pdf/ 6508x1757. pdf (TWG report)
[5] "The isotopes 259106,260106, and 261106" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ kw84567751181537/ ),
Munzenberg et al., Z. Phys. A, 1985, 322, 2.Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[6] "Alpha-Gamma Decay Studies of 261Sg" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2007AcPPB. . 38. 1561S),
Streicher et al., Acta Physica Polonica B, vol. 38, Issue 4, p.1561, 2007. Retrieved on 2008-03-04
[7] "Measurement of the 208Pb(52Cr,n)259Sg Excitation Function" (http:/ / rnc. lbl. gov/ nsd/ annualreport2005/
contributions/ Folden_LE. pdf), Folden et al., LBNL Annual Report 2005. Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[8] "First evidence for a new spontaneous fission decay produced in the reaction 30Si +238U" (http:/ / www.
springerlink. com/ content/ wbcq11tfp6dmg486/ ), Ikezoe et al., Eur. Phys. J. A., 1998, 2, 4. Retrieved on
2008-02-29
[9] "Production of seaborgium isotopes in the reaction of 30Si + 238U" (http:/ / www. gsi. de/ informationen/ wti/
library/ scientificreport2006/ PAPERS/ NUSTAR-SHE-05. pdf), Nishio et al., GSI Annual Report 2006.
Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[10] "Measurement of evaporation residue cross-sections of the reaction 30Si + 238U at subbarrier energies"
(http:/ / publish. edpsciences. org/ articles/ epja/ abs/ 2006/ 12/ 10050_2006_Article_100226/
10050_2006_Article_100226. html), Nishio et al., Eur. Phys. J. A, 29, 281-287 (2006). Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[11] "New isotope 264Sg and decay properties of 262-264Sg" (http:/ / repositories. cdlib. org/ cgi/ viewcontent.
cgi?article=5547& context=lbnl), Gregorich et al., LBNL repositories. Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[12] "Discovery of Enhanced Nuclear Stability near the Deformed Shells N=162 and Z=108" (http:/ / prola. aps.
org/ abstract/ PRL/ v73/ i5/ p624_1), Lazarev et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., 73, 624-627 (1994).Retrieved on
2008-02-29
[13] "First confirmation of the discovery of element 106" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v72/ i10/
p1423_1), Gregorich et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 72, 1423-1426 (1994). Retrieved on 2008-03-04
[14] see darmstadtium
[15] see hassium
[16] see ununquadium
[17] see ununoctium
[18] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Sg/ index. html

Seaborgium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=306272376 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, AlimanRuna, Andre Engels, Andres,
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Davewild, David Shay, Drjezza, EPO, Edgar181, Emperorbma, Encyclopedia77, Epbr123, Eras-mus, Eric119, Femto, Firien, Gamma, Giftlite, Glenn4pr,
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Kingdon, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, LiDaobing, LilHelpa, Madame Sosostris, Matts computer, Mav, Mercury, Micothemagic, Miss Madeline, Nergaal, Nick,
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Bohrium 1
Bohrium
seaborgium ← bohrium → hassium

Re
↑
Bh
↓
(Ups)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number bohrium, Bh, 107

−1

14 5
6d 7s
2
Physical properties
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 7
Miscellaneous
Bohrium 2
Main article: Isotopes of bohrium

272
Bh syn 9.8 s α 9.02 268
Db
271
Bh syn α 267
Db
270
Bh syn 61 s α 8.93 266
Db
267
Bh syn 17 s α 8.83 263
Db
266
Bh syn 0.9 s α 9.77,9.04 262
Db
265
Bh syn 0.9 s α 9.24 261
Db
264
Bh syn 0.97 s α 9.62,9.48 260
Db
262m
Bh syn 9.6 ms α 10.37,10.24 258
Db
262g
Bh syn 84 ms α 10.08,9.94,9.82,9.74,9.66 258
Db
261
Bh syn 11.8 ms α 10.40,10.10,10.03 257
Db
260
Bh syn 35 ms α 10.16 256
Db
References
Bohrium (pronounced /ˈbɔəriəm/ ( listen)) is a chemical element in the periodic table that
has the symbol Bh and atomic number 107.
It is a synthetic element whose most stable isotope, 270Bh, has a half-life of 61 seconds.
Chemical experiments confirmed bohrium's predicted position as a member of group 7 of
the periodic table, as a heavier homologue to rhenium.[1]
Official discovery
The first convincing synthesis was in 1981 by a German research team led by Peter
Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung
(Institute for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt using the Dubna reaction.
20983Bi + 5424Cr → 262107Bh +n
In 1989, the GSI team successfully repeated the reaction during their efforts to measure an
excitation function. During these experiments, 261Bh was also identified in the 2n
evaporation channel and it was confirmed that 262Bh exists as two states - a ground state
and an isomeric state.
The IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) report in 1992 officially recognised
the GSI team as discoverers of element 107.
Bohrium 3
Proposed names
Historically element 107 has been referred to as eka-rhenium.
The Germans suggested the name nielsbohrium with symbol Ns to honor the Danish
physicist Niels Bohr. The Soviets had suggested this name be given to element 105 (which
was finally called dubnium) and the German team wished to recognise both Bohr and the
fact that the Dubna team had been the first to propose the cold fusion reaction.
There was an element naming controversy as to what the elements from 104 to 106 were to
be called; the IUPAC adopted unnilseptium (symbol Uns) as a temporary, systematic
element name for this element. In 1994 a committee of IUPAC rejected the name
nielsbohrium since there was no precedence for using a scientist's complete name in the
naming of an element and thus recommended that element 107 be named bohrium.[2] This
was opposed by the discoverers who were adamant that they had the right to name the
element. The matter was handed to the Danish branch of IUPAC who voted in favour of the
name bohrium. There was some concern however that the name might be confused with
boron and in particular the distinguishing of the names of their respective oxo-ions bohrate
and borate. Despite this, the name bohrium for element 107 was recognized internationally
in 1997.[3] The IUPAC subsequently decided that bohrium salts should be called bohriates.
Bohrium is element 107 in the Periodic Table. The two forms of the projected electronic
structure are:
Bohr model 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2
Quantum
mechanical model

eka-rhenium/dvi-technetium
Oxidation states
Element 107 is projected to be the fourth member of the 6d series of transition metals and
the heaviest member of group VII in the Periodic Table, below manganese, technetium and
rhenium. All the members of the group readily portray their group oxidation state of +7 and
the state becomes more stable as the group is descended. Thus bohrium is expected to form
a stable +7 state. Technetium also shows a stable +4 state whilst rhenium exhibits stable
+4 and +3 states. Bohrium may therefore show these lower states as well.
Chemistry
The heavier members of the group are known to form volatile heptoxides M2O7, so bohrium
should also form the volatile oxide Bh2O7. The oxide should dissolve in water to form
perbohric acid, HBhO4. Rhenium and technetium form a range of oxyhalides from the
halogenation of the oxide. The chlorination of the oxide forms the oxychlorides MO3Cl, so
BhO3Cl should be formed in this reaction. Fluorination results in MO3F and MO2F3 for the
heavier elements in addition to the rhenium compounds ReOF5 and ReF7. Therefore,
oxyfluoride formation for bohrium may help to indicate eka-rhenium properties.
Bohrium 4
Industrial and commercial use

Like seaborgium and hassium, its neighbours, bohrium has no industrial or commercial use
due to its extremely short half-life. Few atoms have ever been made, but if enough were
found in one area, bohrium would constitute a radiation hazard.[4]
Gas phase chemistry

In 2000, a team at the PSI conducted a chemistry reaction using atoms of 267Bh produced
in the reaction between Bk-249 and Ne-22 ions. The resulting atoms were thermalised and
reacted with a HCl/O2 mixture to form a volatile oxychloride. The reaction also produced
isotopes of its lighter homologues, technetium (as 108Tc) and rhenium (as 169Re). The
isothermal adsorption curves were measured and gave strong evidence for the formation of
a volatile oxychloride with properties similar to that of rhenium oxychloride. This placed
bohrium as a typical member of group 7.[1]
2 Bh + 3 O2 + 2 HCl → 2 BhO3Cl + H2
Summary of compounds
Formula Names(s)
BhO3Cl bohrium oxychloride ; bohrium(VII) chloride trioxide

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of bohrium by so-called "cold" fusion
only.
209
Bi(54Cr,xn)263-xBh (x=1,2)
The synthesis of element 107 was first attempted in 1976 by scientists at the Joint Institute
for Nuclear Research at Dubna using this cold fusion reaction. Analysis was by detection of
spontaneous fission (SF). They discovered two SF activities, one with a 1-2 ms half-life and
one with a 5 s activity. Based on the results of other cold fusion reactions, they concluded
that they were due to 261107 and 257105 respectively. However, later evidence gave a much
lower SF branching for 261107 reducing confidence in this assignment. The assignment of
the element 105 activity was later changed to 258105, presuming that the decay of element
107 was missed. The 2 ms SF activity was assigned to 258Rf resulting from the 33% EC
branch.[5] The GSI team studied the reaction in 1981 in their discovery experiments. Five
atoms of 262Bh were detected using the method of correlation of genetic parent-daughter
decays.[6] In 1987, an internal report from Dubna indicated that the team had been able to
detect the spontaneous fission of 261107 directly. The GSI team further studied the reaction
in 1989 and discovered the new isotope 261Bh during the measurement of the 1n and 2n
excitation functions but were unable to detect an SF branching for 261Bh.[7] They continued
their study in 2003 using newly developed bismuth(III) fluoride (BiF3) targets, used to
Bohrium 5
provide further data on the decay data for 262Bh and the daughter 258Db. The 1n excitation
function was remeasured in 2005 by the team at LBNL after some doubt about the accuracy
of previous data. They observed 18 atoms of 262Bh and 3 atoms of 261Bh and confirmed the
two isomers of 262Bh. [8]
209
Bi(53Cr,xn)262-xBh
The team at Dubna studied this reaction in 1976 in order to assist in their assignments of
the SF activities from their experiments with a Cr-54 beam. They were unable to detect any
such activity, indicating the formation of different isotopes decaying primarily by alpha
decay.
209
Bi(52Cr,xn)261-xBh (x=1)
This reaction was studied for the first time in 2007 by the team at LBNL to search for the
lightest bohrium isotope 260Bh. The team successfully detected 8 atoms of 260Bh decaying
by correlated 10.16 MeV alpha particle emission to 256Db. The alpha decay energy
indicates the continued stabilising effect of the N=152 closed shell.[9]
208
Pb(55Mn,xn)263-xBh (x=1)
The team at Dubna also studied this reaction in 1976 as part of their newly established cold
fusion approach to new elements. As for the reaction using a Bi-209 target, they observed
the same SF activities and assigned them to 261107 and 257105. Later evidence indicated
that these should be reassigned to 258105 and 258104 (see above). In 1983, they repeated
the experiment using a new technique: measurement of alpha decay from a descendant
using chemical separation. The team were able to detect the alpha decay from a descendant
of the 1n evaporation channel, providing some evidence for the formation of element 107
nuclei. This reaction was later studied in detail using modern techniques by the team at
LBNL. In 2005 they measured 33 decays of 262Bh and 2 atoms of 261Bh, providing a 1n
excitation function and some spectroscopic data of both 262Bh isomers. The 2n excitation
function was further studied in a 2006 repeat of the reaction. [10] [11] The team found that
this reaction had a higher 1n cross section than the corresponding reaction with a Bi-209
target, contrary to expectations. Further research is required to understand the reasons.
Synthesis of isotopes by hot fusion

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of bohrium by so-called "hot" fusion
neutrons.
238
Am(31P,xn)269-xBh (x=5?)
This reaction was first studied in 2006 at the LBNL as part of their systematic study of
fusion reactions using 238U targets. Results have not been published but preliminary results
appear to indicate the observation of spontaneous fission, possibly from 264Bh.[12]
Bohrium 6
243
Am(26Mg,xn)269-xBh (x=3,4,5)
Recently, the team at the Institute of Modern Physics (IMP), Lanzhou, have studied the
nuclear reaction between americium-243 and magnesium-26 ions in order to synthesise the
new isotope 265Bh [13] and gather more data on 266Bh. In two series of experiments, the
team has measured partial excitation functions of the 3n,4n and 5n evaporation channels.
248
Cm(23Na,xn)271-xBh (x=5)
This reaction was studied for the first time in 2008 by the team at RIKEN, Japan, in order to
study the decay properties of 266Bh, which is a decay product in their claimed decay chains
of ununtrium.[14]
249
Bk(22Ne,xn)271-xBh (x=4,5)
The first attempts to synthesize element 107 by hot fusion pathways were performed in
1979 by the team at Dubna. The reaction was repeated in 1983. In both cases, they were
unable to detect any spontaneous fission from nuclei of element 107. More recently, hot
fusions pathways to bohrium have been re-investigated in order to allow for the synthesis of
more long-lived, neutron rich isotopes to allow a first chemical study of bohrium. In 1999,
the team at LBNL announced the discovery of long-lived 267Bh (5 atoms) and 266Bh (1
atom).[15] In the following year, the same team attempted to confirm the synthesis and
decay of 266Bh. However, they were unable to do so and the identification of 266Bh in the
first experiment is questionable. The team at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) in Bern,
Switzerland later synthesised 6 atoms of 267Bh in the first definitive study of the chemistry
of bohrium (see below).
254
Es(16O,xn)270-xBh
As an alternative means of producing long-lived bohrium isotopes suitable for a chemical
study, the synthesis of 267Bh and 266Bh were attempted in 1995 by the team at GSI using
the highly asymmetric reaction using an einsteinium-254 target. They were unable to detect
any product atoms.

Isotopes of bohrium have also been detected in the decay of heavier elements. Observations
to date are shown in the table below:
Evaporation Residue Observed Bh isotope
288 272
115 Bh
287 271
115 Bh (missed)
282 270
113 Bh
278 266
113 Bh
272 264
Rg Bh
266 262
Mt Bh
Bohrium 7

260 2007 209

Bh Bi(52Cr,n)
261 1989 209

Bh Bi(54Cr,2n)
262 1981
Bhg,m 209
Bh(54Cr,n)
263 unknown
Bh
264 1994 209

Bh Bi(64Ni,n)
265 2004 243

Bh Am(26Mg,4n)
266 2004 209

Bh Bi(70Zn,n)
267 2000 249

Bh Bk(22Ne,5n)
268 unknown
Bh
269 unknown
Bh
270 2006 237 [16]

Bh Np(48Ca,3n)
271 unknown
Bh
272 2003 243 [17]

Bh Am(48Ca,3n)
Isomerism in bohrium nuclides

262
Bh
The only confirmed example of isomerism in bohrium is for the isotope 262Bh. Direct
production populates two states, a ground state and an isomeric state. The ground state is
confirmed as decaying by alpha emission with alpha lines at 10.08,9.82 and 9.76 MeV with
a revised half life of 84 ms. The excited state decays by alpha emission with lines at 10.37
and 10.24 MeV with a revised half-life of 9.6 ms.
Cold Fusion
producing bohrium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
55 208 263 590 pb , 14.1 MeV ~35 pb

Mn Pb Bh
54 209 263 510 pb , 15.8 MeV ~50 pb

Cr Bi Bh
52 209 261 59 pb , 15.0 MeV

Cr Bi Bh
Bohrium 8
Hot Fusion
producing bohrium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
26 243 271 + + +
Mg Am Bh
22 249 271 ~96 pb +

Ne Bk Bh
External links
• WebElements.com - Bohrium [18]
• Apsidium - Bohrium [19]
[20]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory - Bohrium
• Properties of BhO3Cl [21]
References
[1] "GAS CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF BOHRIUM (Bh, ELEMENT 107)" (http:/ / www. gsi. de/ informationen/
wti/ library/ scientificreport2000/ Chemistry/ 9/ r_eichler_jb2000. pdf), Eichler et al.., GSI Annual Report 2000.
[4] http:/ / www. nrc-cnrc. gc. ca/ eng/ education/ elements/ el/ bh. html
[5] http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1993/ pdf/ 6508x1757. pdf (TWG report)
[6] "Identification of element 107 by α correlation chains" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/
tlx33361417u3n26/ ), Munzenberg et al., Z. Phys. A., 1981, 300, 1. Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[7] "Element 107" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ xw1511792061371x/ ), Munzenberg et al., Z. Phys.
A., 1989, 333, 2. Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[8] "Entrance Channel Effects in the Production of 262,261Bh" (http:/ / rnc. lbl. gov/ nsd/ annualreport2005/
contributions/ Nelson_LE. pdf), Nelson et al., LBNL repositories 2005. Retrieved on 2008-03-04
[9] "Lightest Isotope of Bh Produced Via the 209Bi(52Cr,n)260Bh Reaction" (http:/ / repositories. cdlib. org/ cgi/
viewcontent. cgi?article=5987& context=lbnl), Nelson et al., LBNL repositories, May 7, 2007. Retrieved on
2008-02-29
[10] "Excitation function for the production of 262Bh (Z=107) in the odd-Z-projectile reaction 208Pb(55Mn, n)"
(http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal&
id=PRVCAN000073000001014611000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes), Folden et al., Phys. Rev. C, 73, 014611
(2006). Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[11] "Excitation function for the production of 262Bh (Z=107) in the odd-Z-projectile reaction 208Pb(55Mn, n)"
(http:/ / repositories. cdlib. org/ cgi/ viewcontent. cgi?article=3948& context=lbnl), Folden et al., LBNL
repositories, May 19, 2005. Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[12] http:/ / www-wnt. gsi. de/ tasca06/ images/ contributions/ TASCA_06_Gates. pdf
[13] "New isotope 265Bh" (http:/ / www. ingentaconnect. com/ content/ klu/ 10050/ 2004/ 00000020/ 00000003/
art00006), Gan et al., Eur. Phys. J. A., 2004, 20, 3, 385-387. Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[14] http:/ / xxx. lanl. gov/ PS_cache/ arxiv/ pdf/ 0904/ 0904. 1093v1. pdf
[15] "Evidence for New Isotopes of Element 107: 266Bh and 267Bh" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v85/ i13/
p2697_1), Wilk et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., 85, 2697-2700 (2000).Retrieved on 2008-02-29
[16] see ununtrium
[17] see ununpentium
[18] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Bh/ index. html
[19] http:/ / www. apsidium. com/ elements/ 107. htm
[21] http:/ / bh-bohrium. info/ properties. html

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Hassium 1
Hassium
bohrium ← hassium → meitnerium

Os
↑
Hs
↓
(Upo)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number hassium, Hs, 108


−1

14 6
6d 7s
2
Physical properties
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 8
Hassium 2
Main article: Isotopes of hassium

277
Hs ? syn 16.5 min SF
275
Hs syn 0.15 s α 9.30 271
Sg
271
Hs syn 40# s α 9.27,9.13 267
Sg
270
Hs syn 7.9 s α 9.02,8.88 266
Sg
269
Hs syn 9.7 s α 9.21,9.10,8.97 265
Sg
267m
Hs syn 0.8 s α 9.83 263
Sg
267
Hs syn 52 ms α 9.87 263
Sg
266
Hs syn 2.3 ms α 10.18 262
Sg
265m
Hs syn 0.75 ms α 261
Sg
265
Hs syn 2.0 ms α 261
Sg
264
Hs syn ~0.8 ms .5 α 10.43 260
Sg
.5 SF
263
Hs syn 0.74 ms α 10.89,10.72,10.57 259
Sg
References
Hassium (pronounced /ˈhæsi.əm/ ( listen) or English pronunciation: /ˈhɑːsi.əm/[1] ) is a synthetic

element in the periodic table that has the symbol Hs and atomic number 108. Its most
stable isotope is 277Hs, with a half-life of 16.5 minutes.
Official discovery
Hassium was first synthesized in 1984 by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster
and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für
Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt. The team bombarded a lead target with 58Fe nuclei
to produce 3 atoms of 265Hs in the reaction:
20882Pb + 5826Fe → 265108Hs +n
The IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) recognised the GSI collaboration as
official discoverers in their 1992 report. [2]
Hassium 3
Naming
Element 108 has historically been known as eka-osmium. During the period of controversy
over the names of the elements (see element naming controversy) IUPAC adopted
unniloctium (symbol Uno) as a temporary element name for this element.
The name hassium was proposed by the officially recognised German discoverers in 1992,
derived from the Latin name for the German state of Hesse where the institute is located
(L. hassia German Hessen).
In 1994 a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 108 be named hahnium (Hn)[3] ,
in spite of the long-standing convention to give the discoverer the right to suggest a name.
After protests from the German discoverers, the name hassium (Hs) was adopted
internationally in 1997.[4]
Eka-osmium
Eka-osmium was a temporary name used to refer to the element that goes under osmium
in the periodic table. The name "eka" was used in the same way as in Mendeleev's
predicted elements. During the first half of the 20th century, eka-osmium referred to
plutonium, because the actinide concept, which postulates the actinides form an inner
transition series similar to the lanthanides, had not been proposed yet. Once the actinide
concept became widely accepted, eka-osmium started to refer to element 108, now called
Hassium, which was discovered in 1984.
Hassium has 6 full shells, 7s+5p+3d+2f=17 full subshells, and 108 orbitals:
Bohr model 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2
Quantum
mechanical model
Extrapolated chemical properties of Hassium
Oxidation states
Element 108 is projected to be the fifth member of the 6d series of transition metals and
the heaviest member of group VIII in the Periodic Table, below iron, ruthenium and
osmium. The latter two members of the group readily portray their group oxidation state of
+8 and this state becomes more stable as the group is descended. Thus hassium is
expected to form a stable +8 state. Osmium also shows stable +5, +4 and +3 states with
the +4 state the most stable. For ruthenium, the +6, +5 and +3 states are stable with the
+3 state being the most stable. Hassium is therefore expected to also show other stable
lower oxidation states.
Hassium 4
Chemistry
The group VIII elements show a very distinctive oxide chemistry which allows facile
extrapolations to be made for hassium. All the lighter members have known or hypothetical
tetroxides, MO4. The oxidising power decreases as one descends the group such that
FeO4[5] is not known due to an extraordinary electron affinity which results in the formation
of the well-known oxo-ion ferrate(VI), FeO42−. Ruthenium tetroxide, RuO4, formed by
oxidation of ruthenium(VI) in acid, readily undergoes reduction to ruthenate(VI), RuO42−.
Oxidation of ruthenium metal in air forms the dioxide, RuO2. In contrast, osmium burns to
form the stable tetroxide, OsO4, which complexes with hydroxide ion to form an
osmium(VIII) -ate complex, [OsO4(OH)2]2−. Therefore, eka-osmium properties for hassium
should be demonstrated by the formation of a volatile tetroxide HsO4, which undergoes
complexation with hydroxide to form a hassate(VIII), [HsO4(OH)2]2−.
Gas phase chemistry

Hassium is expected to have the electron configuration [Rn]5f14 6d6 7s2 and thus behave as
the heavier homolog of osmium (Os). As such, it should form a volatile tetroxide, HsO4, due
to the tetrahedral shape of the molecule.
The first chemistry experiments were performed using gas thermochromatography in 2001,
using 172Os as a reference. During the experiment, 5 hassium atoms were detected using
the reaction 248Cm(26Mg,5n)269Hs. The resulting atoms were thermalized and oxidized in a
He/O2 mixture to form the oxide.
269108Hs + 2 O2 → 269108HsO
4
The measured deposition temperature indicated that hassium(VIII) oxide is less volatile
than osmium tetroxide, OsO4, and places hassium firmly in group 8.[6] [7]
In order to further probe the chemistry of hassium, scientists decided to assess the reaction
between hassium tetroxide and sodium hydroxide to form sodium hassate(VIII), a reaction
well-known with osmium. In 2004, scientists announced that they had succeeded in
carrying out the first acid-base reaction with a hassium compound:[8]
HsO4 + 2 NaOH → Na2[HsO4(OH)2]
Formula Names(s)
HsO4 hassium tetroxide; hassium(VIII) oxide
Na2[HsO4(OH)2] sodium hassate(VIII); disodium dihydroxytetraoxohassate(VIII)

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of hassium by so-called "cold" fusion
only.
Hassium 5
136
Xe(136Xe,xn)272−xHs
Important future experiments will involve the attempted synthesis of hassium isotopes in
this symmetric reaction using the fission fragments. This reaction was carried out at Dubna
in 2007 but no atoms were detected, leading to a cross section limit of 1 pb.[9] If confirmed,
this would indicate that such symmetric fusion reactions should be modelled as 'hot fusion'
reactions rather than 'cold fusion' ones, as first suggested. This would indicate that such
reactions will unfortunately have limited use in the synthesis of superheavy elements.
198
Pt(70Zn,xn)268−xHs
This reaction was performed in May 2002 at the GSI. Unfortunately, the experiment was
cut short due to a failure of the zinc-70 beam.
208
Pb(58Fe,xn)266−xHs (x=1,2)
This reaction was first reported in 1978 by the team at Dubna. In a later experiment in
1984, using the rotating drum technique, they were able to detect a spontaneous fission
activity assigned to 260Sg, daughter of 264Hs. [10] In a repeat experiment in the same year,
they applied the method of chemical identification of a descendant to provide support to the
synthesis of element 108. They were able to detect several alpha decays of 253Es and
253
Fm, descendants of 265108.
In the official discovery of the element in 1984, the team at GSI studied the reaction using
the alpha decay genetic correlation method. They were able to positively identify 3 atoms of
265
Hs. [11] After an upgrade of their facilities in 1993, the team repeated the experiment in
1994 and detected 75 atoms of 265Hs and 2 atoms of 264Hs, during the measurement of a
partial excitation function for the 1n neutron evaporation channel.[12] The maximum of the
1n channel was measured as 69 pb in a further run in late 1997 in which a further 20 atoms
were detected.[13]
The discovery experiment was successfully repeated in 2002 at RIKEN (10 atoms) and in
2003 at GANIL (7 atoms).
The team at RIKEN further studied the reaction in 2008 in order to conduct first
spectroscopic studies of the even-even nucleus 264Hs.
207
Pb(58Fe,xn)265−xHs (x=1)
The use of a Pb-207 target was first used in 1984 at Dubna. They were able to detect the
same SF activity as observed in the Pb-208 run and once again assigned it to 260Sg,
daughter of 264Hs.[2] The team at GSI first studied the reaction in 1986 using the method of
correlation of genetic alpha decays and identified a single atom of 264Hs with a cross
section of 3.2 pb.[14] The reaction was repeated in 1994 and the team were able to measure
both alpha decay and spontaneous fission for 264Hs.
This reaction was studied in 2008 at RIKEN in order to conduct first spectrscopic studies of
the even-even nucleus 264Hs.
Hassium 6
208
This reaction was studied for the first time in 2008 by the team at LBNL. They were able to
produce and identify 6 atoms of the new isotope 263Hs.[15] A few months later, the RIKEN
team also published their results on the same reaction.[16]
206
This reaction was studied for the first time in 2008 by the team at RIKEN. They were able
to identify the new isotope 263Hs.[17]
209
Bi(55Mn,xn)264−xHs
First attempts to synthesise nuclei of element 108 were performed using this reaction by
the team at Dubna in 1983. Using the rotating drum technique, they were able to detect a
spontaneous fission activity assigned to 255Rf, descendant of the 263108 decay chain.
Identical results were measured in a repeat run in 1984.[2] In a subsequent experiment in
1983, they applied the method of chemical identification of a descendant to provide support
to the synthesis of element 108. They were able to detect alpha decays from fermium
isotopes, assigned as descendants of the decay of 262108. This reaction has not been tried
since and 262Hs is currently unconfirmed.[2]

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of hassium by so-called "hot" fusion
neutrons.
226
Ra(48Ca,xn)274−xHs (x=4)
This reaction was reportedly first studied in 1978 by the team at the Flerov Laboratory of
Nuclear Reactions (FLNR) under the leadership of Yuri Oganessian. However, results are
not available in the literature.[2] The reaction was repeated at the FLNR in June 2008 and
results show that the 4 atoms of the isotope 270Hs were detected with a yield of 9 pb. The
decay data for the recently discovered isotope was confirmed, although the alpha energy
was slightly higher.[18] In Jan 2009, the team repeated the experiment and a further 2
atoms of 270Hs were detected.[19]
232
Th(40Ar,xn)272−xHs
This reaction was first studied at Dubna in 1987. Detection was by spontaneous fission and
no activities were found leading to a calculated cross section limit of 2 pb.[2]
238
U(36S,xn)274−xHs (x=4)
This reaction with the rare and expensive 36S isotope was conducted at the GSI in
April-May 2008. Preliminary results show that a single atom of 270Hs was detected with a
yield of 0.8 pb. The data confirms the decay properties of 270Hs and 266Sg.[20]
Hassium 7
238
U(34S,xn)272−xHs (x=5)
In March 1994, the team at Dubna led by the late Yuri Lazerev announced the detection of
3 atoms of 267Hs from the 5n neutron evaporation channel. [21] The decay properties was
confirmed by the team at GSI in their simultaneous study of element 110.
248
Cm(26Mg,xn)274−xHs (x=3,4,5)
Most recently, a GSI-PSI collaboration has studied the nuclear reaction of curium-248 with
magnesium-26 ions. Between May 2001 and August 2005, the team has studied the
excitation function of the 3n, 4n, and 5n evaporation channels leading to 269Hs, 270Hs, and
271
Hs.[22] [23] The synthesis of the important isotope 270Hs was published in December
2006 by the team of scientists from the Technical University of Munich.[24] It was reported
that this isotope decayed by emission of an alpha-particle with an energy of 8.83 MeV and a
+ + 266
projected half-life of ~22 s, assuming a 0 to 0 ground state decay to Sg using the
Viola-Seaborg equation.
248
Cm(25Mg,xn)273−xHs
This new reaction was studied at the GSI in July-August 2006 in a search for the new
isotope 268Hs. They were unable to detect any atoms from neutron evaporation and
calculated a cross section limit of 1 pb.
249
Cf(22Ne,xn)271−xHs
The team at Dubna studied this reaction in 1983 using detection by spontaneous fission
(SF). Several short SF activities were found indicating the formation of nuclei of element
108. [2]

The tables below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for reactions producing
hassium isotopes directly. Data in bold represent maxima derived from excitation function
measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.
Cold fusion
58 208 266 69 pb, 13.9 MeV 4.5 pb

Fe Pb Hs
58 207 265 3.2 pb

Fe Pb Hs
Hot fusion
48 226 274 9.0 pb

Ca Ra Hs
36 238 274 0.8 pb

S U Hs
34 238 272 2.5 pb, 50.0 MeV

S U Hs
Hassium 8
26 248 274 2.5 pb 3.0 pb 7.0 pb

Mg Cm Hs
Isomerism in hassium isotopes

269
Hs
The direct synthesis of 269Hs has resulted in three alpha lines at 9.21, 9.10, and 8.94 MeV.
In the decay of 277112, only 9.21 MeV 269Hs alpha decays have been observed indicating
that this decay occurs from an isomeric level. Further research is required to confirm this.
267
Hs
The decay of 267Hs is known to occur by alpha decay with three alpha lines at 9.88, 9.83,
and 9.75 MeV and a half-life of 52 ms. In the recent syntheses of 271m,gDs additional
activities have been observed. A .94ms activity decaying by 9.83 MeV alpha emission has
been observed in addition to longer lived ~.8 s and ~6.0 s activities. Each of these is
currently not assigned and confirmed and further research is required to positively identify
them.
265
Hs
The synthesis of 265Hs has also provided evidence for two levels. The ground state decays
by 10.30 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of 2.0 ms. The isomeric state is placed at 300
keV above the ground state and decays by 10.57 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of .75
ms.

263 2008 208

Hs Pb(56Fe,n)
264 1986 207

Hs Pb(58Fe,n)
265 1984 208

Hs Pb(58Fe,n)
266 2000 207 [25]

Hs Pb(64Ni,n)
267 1995 238

Hs U(34S,5n)
268 unknown
Hs
269 1996 208 [26]

Hs Pb(70Zn,n)
270 2004 248

Hs Cm(26Mg,4n)
271 2004 248

Hs Cm(26Mg,3n)
272 unknown
Hs
273 unknown
Hs
274 unknown
Hs
275 2003 242 [27]

Hs Pu(48Ca,3n)
Hassium 9
276 unknown
Hs
277 1999? 244 [27]

Hs Pu(48Ca,3n)
270
Hs: prospects for a deformed doubly-magic nucleus
According to macroscopic-microscopic (MM) theory, Z=108 is a deformed proton magic
number. This means that such nuclei are permanently deformed in their ground state but
have high, narrow fission barriers to further deformation and hence relatively-long SF
partial half-lives. The SF half-lives in this region are typically reduced by a factor of 109 in
comparison with those in the vicinity of the spherical doubly-magic nucleus 298114, caused
by an increase in the probability of barrier penetration by quantum tunnelling, due to the
narrower fission barrier. In addition, N=162 has been calculated as a deformed neutron
magic number and hence the nucleus 270Hs has promise as a deformed doubly-magic
nucleus. Experimental data from the decay of Z=110 isotopes 271Ds and 273Ds, provides
strong evidence for the magic nature of the N=162 sub-shell. The recent synthesis of 269Hs,
270
Hs, and 271Hs also fully support the assignment of N=162 as a magic closed shell.
Evidence for the Z=108 deformed proton shell

Evidence for the effect of the Z=108 closed shell in the vicinity of the N=162 shell is limited
at this moment in time. This is caused by the low production yields of the isotopes in
question and thus poor statistics regarding SF partial half-lives resulting from branching of
the decay mode. In the case of the isotonic pair 264Hs and 262Sg (N=156 isotones), the
lifetimes and decay modes do not support the stabilizing effect of Z=108 but this is most
likely due to a retreat from the N=162 shell. More conclusive evidence would come from
the measurement of SF partial half-lives for 266Hs (vs. 264Sg), 268Hs (vs. 266Sg), and
especially 270Hs itself (vs 268Sg and 266Rf), although 268Sg and 268Hs are currently
unknown and 266Rf has not been produced via alpha decay (which would provide TSF for
this N=162 isotone). Analysis of partial SF half-lives of nuclei with Z>108 (e.g. 272Ds)
would also help to confirm the Z=108 closed shell. It should be noted that whilst 270Hs is
expected to be a doubly-magic nucleus, it is not expected to have the longest half-life in this
region of the periodic table. The reason is that whilst the N=162 shell staves off fission,
alpha decay will predominate. As an example, the nucleus 268Sg (Z=106,N=162) is
calculated to have a halflife of the order of two hours. However, recent data from the decay
of 264Sg (TSF = 70 ms) and 266Sg (TSF = 360 ms) indicate that the influence of the N=162
shell for seaborgium isotopes against fission is some 1–2 orders of magnitude
overestimated, so 268Sg may in fact decay by SF will a short half life of ~5 s. The
recently-synthesized nucleus 268Db (TSF = 29 h) has such a long half-life because the
presence of both the odd proton and odd neutron hinder SF, relative to neighbouring
even-even nuclei.
Hassium 10
Unconfirmed isotopes
277
Hs
An isotope assigned to 277Hs has been observed on two occasions decaying by SF with a
long half-life of ~12 minutes. The isotope is not observed in the decay of ground state 281Ds
but is observed in the decay from an unconfirmed isomeric level. The half-life is very long
for the ground state and it is possible that it belongs to an isomeric level in 277Hs. Further
research is required to confirm this result.
Retracted isotopes
273
Hs
The claimed synthesis of element 118 by LBNL in 1999 involved the intermediate 273Hs.
This isotope was claimed to decay by 9.78 and 9.47 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of
1.2 s. The claim to discovery of 293118 was retracted and this hassium isotope is currently
unknown.
Theoretical calculations on evaporation cross sections

The below table contains various targets-projectile combinations for which calculations
have provided estimates for cross section yields from various neutron evaporation channels.
The channel with the highest expected yield is given.
DNS = Di-nuclear system ; σ = cross section
Target Projectile CN Channel (product) ~σ Model Ref

max
136 136 272 DNS

Xe Xe Hs 1-4n (271-268Hs) 10-6 pb [28]
238 34 272 10 pb DNS

U S Hs 4n (268Hs) [28]
Current experiments
The team at GSI studied the synthesis of hassium isotopes by hot fusion in Jan-Feb 2009,
using the reaction 238U(34S,xn).[29] Results are not yet available.
Future experiments
Spectroscopy
Scientists at the GSI are planning to search for K-isomers in 270Hs using the reaction
226
Ra(48Ca,4n) in 2010. They will use the new TASISpec method developed alongside the
introduction of the new TASCA facility at the GSI.[30]
In addition, they also hope to study the spectroscopy of 269Hs, 265Sg and 261Rf, using the
reaction 248Cm(26Mg,5n) or 226Ra(48Ca,5n). This will allow them to determine the level
structure in 265Sg and 261Rf and attempt to give spin and parity assignments to the various
proposed isomers.[31]
Hassium 11
Chemistry
The team from the universität Mainz are planning to study the electrodeposition of hassium
atoms using TASCA at the GSI. The current aim is to use the reaction
226
Ra(48Ca,4n)270Hs.[32]
In addition, scientists at the GSI are hoping to utilize the new TASCA facility to study the
synthesis and properties of the hassium(II) compound, hassocene, Hs(cp)2 using the
reaction 226Ra(48Ca,xn).[33]
External links
[34]
• WebElements.com: Hassium
• Apsidium: Hassium 108 [35]
References
[1] hassium at Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ hassium)
[2] "Discovery of the transfermium elements" (http:/ / iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1993/ pdf/ 6508x1757. pdf),
IUPAC Technical report, Pure & Appl. Chem., Vol. 65, No. 8, pp. 1757-1814,1993. Retrieved on 2008-03-07
[3] http:/ / iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1994/ pdf/ 6612x2419. pdf (IUPAC 1994 recomm)
[4] http:/ / iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1997/ pdf/ 6912x2471. pdf (IUPAC 1997 recomm)
[5] "FeO4: A unique example of a closed-shell cluster mimicking a superhalogen" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/
PRA/ v59/ i5/ p3681_1), Gutsev et al., Phys. Rev. A , 59, 3681- 3684 (1999). Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[6] http:/ / lch. web. psi. ch/ pdf/ anrep01/ B-03heavies. pdf (Investigation of Hassium)
[7] " "Chemistry of Hassium" (http:/ / www. gsi. de/ documents/ DOC-2003-Jun-29-2. pdf)" (PDF). Gesellschaft für
Schwerionenforschung mbH. 2002. . Retrieved 2007-01-31.
[8] http:/ / www. gsi. de/ informationen/ wti/ library/ scientificreport2003/ files/ 172. pdf (CALLISTO result)
[9] http:/ / www1. jinr. ru/ Reports/ 2007/ english/ 06_flnr_e. pdf
[10] "On the stability of the nuclei of element 108 with A=263–265" (http:/ / springerlink. com/ content/
p1107209h687r205/ ), Oganessian et al.., Z. Phys. A., 1984, 319, 2. Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[11] "The identification of element 108" (http:/ / springerlink. com/ content/ n752260210006404/ ), Munzenberg
et al., Z. Phys. A., 1984, 317, 2. Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[12] "New elements-approaching Z=114" (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ abstract/ 0034-4885/ 61/ 6/ 002),
S.Hoffmann, Rep. Prog. Phys.,1998, 61, 639-689.Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[13] "Excitation function for the production of 265108 and 266109" (http:/ / springerlink. com/ content/
b0lj7nyrvh6ugujy/ ), Hofmann et al.., Z. Phys. A., 1997, 358, 4. Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[14] "Evidence for 264108, the heaviest known even-even isotope" (http:/ / springerlink. com/ content/
rn11r8qh66660jnp/ ), Munzenberg et al., Z. Phys. A., 1986, 324, 4. Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[15] Dragojevic et al., "New Isotope 263108" (http:/ / link. aps. org/ doi/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 79. 011602), Phys.
Rev. C 2009, 79, 011602, 2008-03-24.
[16] Kaji et al., "Production and Decay Properties of 263108" (http:/ / jpsj. ipap. jp/ link?JPSJ/ 78/ 035003), J. Phys.
Soc. Jpn. 2009, 78, 035003, 2008-03-24.
[17] http:/ / 159. 93. 28. 88/ linkc/ flnr_presentations/ Mendeleev%20simposium/ Morita. ppt
[19] http:/ / www. np. ph. bham. ac. uk/ iop09/ iop_talks/ 07_04_09_Parallel_2/ Y%20Tsyganov. ppt
[20] http:/ / www. gsi. de/ informationen/ wti/ library/ scientificreport2008/ PAPERS/ NUSTAR-SHE-02. pdf
[21] "New Nuclide 267108 Produced by the 238U + 34S Reaction" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v75/ i10/
p1903_1), Lazarev et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., 75, 1903-1906 (1995). Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[22] "Decay properties of 269Hs and evidence for the new nuclide 270Hs" (http:/ / lch. web. psi. ch/ pdf/ anrep01/
B-01heavies. pdf), Turler et al., GSI Annual Report 2001. Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[23] http:/ / www2. ha. physik. uni-muenchen. de/ heaviest_atoms/ talks/ Dvorak. pdf (269-271Hs)
[24] "Doubly magic 270Hs" (http:/ / www. gsi. de/ informationen/ wti/ library/ scientificreport2006/ PAPERS/
NUSTAR-SHE-06. pdf), Turler et al.., GSI report, 2006. Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[25] see darmstadtium
[26] see ununbium
[28] http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ 0904. 2994
Hassium 12
[29] http:/ / www. gsi. de/ documents/ DOC-2007-Mar-178-1. pdf (238U + 34S proposal)
[30] http:/ / www-win. gsi. de/ tasca08/ contributions/ TASCA08_Cont_Andersson. pdf
[31] http:/ / www-win. gsi. de/ tasca08/ contributions/ TASCA08_Cont_Yakushev2. pdf
[32] http:/ / www-win. gsi. de/ tasca08/ contributions/ TASCA08_Cont_Kratz. pdf
[33] http:/ / www-win. gsi. de/ tasca08/ contributions/ TASCA08_Cont_Duellmann1. pdf
[34] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Hs/ index. html

Hassium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308003681 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Alechemista, Alex43223, AlimanRuna,
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Meitnerium 1
Meitnerium
hassium ← meitnerium → darmstadtium

Ir
↑
Mt
↓
(Upe)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number meitnerium, Mt, 109
Appearance probably light silver green metallic

−1
perhaps [Rn] 5f 6d 7s
7 2
(guess based on iridium)
Meitnerium 2
Main article: Isotopes of meitnerium

279
Mt syn 6 min (est.)
278
Mt syn 30 min (est.)
277
Mt syn 1 min (est.)
276
Mt syn 0.72 s α 9.71 272
Bh
275
Mt syn 9.7 ms α 10.33 271
Bh
274
Mt syn 0.44 s α 9.76 270
Bh
270m
Mt ? syn 1.1 s α 266
Bh
270g
Mt syn 5 ms α 10.03 266
Bh
268
Mt syn 42 ms α 10.26,10.10 264
Bh
266
Mt syn 1.7 ms α 11.00 262
Bh
References
[1]
Meitnerium (pronounced /maɪtˈnɜriəm/ ( listen)) is a chemical element in the periodic
table that has the symbol Mt and atomic number 109.
Mt is a synthetic element whose most stable known isotope is Mt-276, with a half-life of a
0.7 s.
Discovery profile
Meitnerium was first synthesized on August 29, 1982 by a German research team led by
Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research
(Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt.[2] The team bombarded a target of
bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of iron-58 and detected a single atom of the isotope
meitnerium-266:
20983Bi + 5826Fe → 266109Mt +n
Naming
Historically, element 109 has been referred to as eka-iridium.
The name meitnerium (Mt) was suggested in honor of the Austrian physicist Lise Meitner.
In 1997, the name was officially adopted by the IUPAC.
Meitnerium is element 109 in the Periodic Table. The two forms of the projected electronic
structure are:
Bohr model 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 15, 2

Meitnerium 3
Quantum 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d7
mechanical
[3]
model
Extrapolated chemical properties of meitnerium
Physical properties
Mt should be a very heavy metal with a density around 30 g/cm3 (Co: 8.9, Rh: 12.5, Ir: 22.5)
and a high melting point around 2600-2900°C (Co: 1480, Rh: 1966, Ir: 2454). It should be
very corrosion resistant more than Ir which is already the most corrosion resistant metal.
Oxidation states
Meitnerium is projected to be the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals and the
heaviest member of group 9 in the Periodic Table, below cobalt, rhodium and iridium. This
group of transition metals is the first to show lower oxidation states and the +9 state is not
known. The latter two members of the group show a maximum oxidation state of +6, whilst
the most stable states are +4 and +3 for iridium and +3 for rhodium. Meitnerium is
therefore expected to form a stable +3 state but may also portray stable +4 and +6 states.
Chemistry
The +VI state in group 9 is known only for the fluorides which are formed by direct
reaction. Therefore, meitnerium should form a hexafluoride, MtF6. This fluoride is expected
to be more stable than iridium(VI) fluoride, as the +6 state becomes more stable as the
group is descended.
In combination with oxygen, rhodium forms Rh2O3 whilst iridium is oxidised to the +4 state
in IrO2. Meitnerium may therefore show a dioxide, MtO2, if eka-iridium reactivity is shown.
The +3 state in group 9 is common in the trihalides (except fluorides) formed by direct
reaction with halogens. Meitnerium should therefore form MtCl3, MtBr3 and MtI3 in an
analogous manner to iridium.
History of synthesis of isotopes in cold fusion

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of meitnerium by so-called "cold" fusion
only.
209
Bi(58Fe,xn)267-xMt (x=1)
The first success in this reaction was in 1982 by the GSI team in their discovery experiment
with the identification of a single atom of 266Mt in the 1n neutron evaporation channel.[2]
The GSI team used the parent-daughter correlation technique. After an initial failure in
1983, in 1985 the team at the FLNR, Dubna, observed alpha decays from the descendant
246
Cf indicating the formation of meitnerium. The GSI synthesised a further 2 atoms of
266
Mt in 1988 and continued in 1997 with the detection of 12 atoms during the
measurement of the 1n excitation function. [4] [5]
Meitnerium 4
208
Pb(59Co,xn)267-xMt (x=1)
This reaction was first studied in 1985 by the team in Dubna. They were able to detect the
alpha decay of the descendant 246Cf nuclei indicating the formation of meitnerium atoms.
In 2007, in a continuation of their study of the effect of odd-Z projectiles on yields of
evaporation residues in cold fusion reactions, the team at LBNL synthesised 266Mt and
were able to correlate the decay with known daughters.[6]
181
Ta(86Kr,xn)267-xMt
There are indications that this cold fusion reaction using a tantalum target was attempted
in August 2001 at the GSI. No details can be found suggesting that no atoms of meitnerium
were detected.
History of synthesis by hot fusion reactions

238
U(37Cl,xn)275-xMt
In 2002-2003, the team at LBNL attempted the above reaction in order to search for the
isotope 271Mt with hope that it may be sufficiently stable to allow a first study of the
chemical properties of meitnerium. Unfortunately, no atoms were detected and a cross
section limit of 1.5 pb was measured for the 4n channel at the projectile energy used. [7]
254
Es(22Ne,xn)276-xMt
Attempts to produce long-living isotopes of meitnerium were first performed by Ken Hulet
at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in 1988 using the asymmetric hot
fusion reaction above. They were unable to detect any product atoms and established a
cross section limit of 1 nb.[8]

Isotopes of meitnerium have also been detected in the decay of heavier elements.
Observations to date are shown in the table below:
Evaporation Residue Observed Mt isotope
288 276
115 Mt
287 275
115 Mt
282 274
113 Mt
278 270
113 Mt
272 268
Rg Mt
Meitnerium 5

266 1982 209 [2]

Mt Bi(58Fe,n)
267 unknown
Mt
268 1994 209 [9]

Mt Bi(64Ni,n)
269 unknown
Mt
270 2004 209 [10]

Mt Bi(70Zn,n)
271 unknown
Mt
272 unknown
Mt
273 unknown
Mt
274 2006 237 [10]

Mt Np(48Ca,3n)
275 2003 243 [11]

Mt Am(48Ca,4n)
276 2003 243 [11]

Mt Am(48Ca,3n)
Cold Fusion
producing meitnerium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
58 209 267 7.5 pb

Fe Bi Mt
59 208 267 2.6 pb , 14.9 MeV

Co Pb Mt
Isomerism in meitnerium nuclides

270
Mt
Two atoms of 270Mt have been identified in the decay chains of 278113. The two decays
have very different lifetimes and decay energies and are also produced from two apparently
different isomers in 274Rg. The first isomer decays by emission of an 10.03 MeV alpha
particle with a lifetime 7.2 ms. The other decays by emitting an alpha particle with a
lifetime of 1.63 s. An assignment to specific levels is not possible with the limited data
available. Further research is required.
Meitnerium 6
268
Mt
The alpha decay spectrum for 268Mt appears to be complicated from the results of several
experiments. Alpha lines of 10.28,10.22 and 10.10 MeV have been observed. Half-lives of
42 ms, 21 ms and 102 ms have been determined. The long-lived decay is associated with
alpha particles of energy 10.10 MeV and must be assigned to an isomeric level. The
discrepancy between the other two half-lives has yet to be resolved. An assignment to
specific levels is not possible with the data available and further research is required.
Future Experiments
248
The team at RIKEN, Japan, have indicated that as part of their ongoing studies using Cm
targets, they may study the new reaction 248Cm(27Al,xn) in the future.
External links
[12]
• WebElements.com - Meitnerium
• Apsidium - Meitnerium [13]
References
[1] Prof S.Hofmann (private communication)
[2] "Observation of one correlated α-decay in the reaction 58Fe on 209Bi→267109" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/
content/ q4p6m31747740541/ ), Gottfried Munzenberg et al., Z. Phys. A., 1982, 309, 1. Retrieved on
2008-03-01
[3] "Dirac-Hartree-Fock studies of X-ray transitions in meitnerium" (http:/ / epja. edpsciences. org/ index.
php?option=article& access=standard& Itemid=129& url=/ articles/ epja/ abs/ 2008/ 05/
10050_2008_Article_100707/ 10050_2008_Article_100707. html), Christian Thierfelder, Peter
Schwerdtfeger, Fritz Peter Heßberger and Sigurd Hofmann , Eur. Phys. J. A, 2008, 36 227 Retrieved on
2008-05-16
[4] "New results on element 109" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ x54725101x21h263/ ), Gottfried
Munzenberg et al., Z. Phys. A., 1988, 330, 4. Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[5] "Excitation function for the production of 265108 and 266109" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/
b0lj7nyrvh6ugujy/ ), Sigurd Hofmann et al., Z. Phys. A., 1997, 358, 4. Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[6] Nelson et al. (2009). " Comparison of complementary reactions in the production of Mt (http:/ / scitation. aip.
org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=PRVCAN000079000002027605000001& idtype=cvips&
gifs=yes)". Physical Rev. C 79: 027605. .
[7] "The search for 271Mt via the reaction 238U + 37Cl" (http:/ / www. gsi. de/ informationen/ wti/ library/
scientificreport2003/ files/ 2. pdf), Zielinski et al.., GSI Annual report, 2003. Retrieved on 2008-03-01
[8] see reference 4 for reference to an internal report from LLNL
[9] see roentgenium for details
[10] see ununtrium for details
[11] see ununpentium for details
[12] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Mt/ index. html

Meitnerium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308534433 Contributors: AKM, Ahoerstemeier, AlimanRuna, Andres, Beetstra,
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License
Darmstadtium 1
Darmstadtium
meitnerium ← darmstadtium → roentgenium

Pt
↑
Ds
↓
(Uhn)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number darmstadtium, Ds, 110


−1
perhaps [Rn] 5f 6d 7s
9 1
(in analogy to platinum)
Darmstadtium 2
Main article: Isotopes of darmstadtium

281
Ds syn 11 s SF
279
Ds syn 0.20 s 10% α 9.70 275
Hs
90% SF
273
Ds syn 170 ms α 11.14 269
Hs
271m
Ds syn 69 ms α 10.71 267
Hs
271g
Ds syn 1.63 ms α 10.74,10.69 267
Hs
270m
Ds syn 6 ms α 12.15,11.15,10.95 266
Hs
270g
Ds syn 0.10 ms α 11.03 266
Hs
269
Ds syn 0.17 ms α 11.11 265
Hs
267
Ds ? syn 0.004 ms
References
[1]
Darmstadtium (pronounced /dɑrmˈʃtætiəm/ ( listen)), formerly known as ununnilium, is
a chemical element with the symbol Ds and atomic number 110. This synthetic element is
one of the so-called super-heavy atoms. It decays quickly: Heavier isotopes of darmstadtium
have half-lives on the order of ten seconds.
Official discovery
Darmstadtium was first created on November 9, 1994 at the Gesellschaft für
Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Arheilgen, a northern suburb of Darmstadt, Germany by
Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg, under the direction of professor Sigurd
Hofmann. Four atoms of it were detected by a nuclear fusion reaction caused by
bombarding a lead-208 target with nickel-62 ions: [2]
20882Pb + 6228Ni → 269110Ds + 10n
In the same series of experiments, the same team also carried out the reaction using
heavier nickel-64 ions. During two runs, 9 atoms of 271Ds were convincingly detected by
correlation with known daughter decay properties: [3]
20882Pb + 6428Ni → 271110Ds + 10n
The IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party (JWP) recognised the GSI team as discoverers in
their 2001 report.[4]
Darmstadtium 3
Proposed names
Element 110 was first given the temporary name ununnilium (/ˌjuːnəˈnɪliəm/ or
/ˌʌnəˈnɪliəm/[5] , symbol Uun). Once recognized as discoverers, the team at GSI considered
the names darmstadtium (Ds) and wixhausium (Wi) for element 110. They decided on the
former and named the element after the city near the place of its discovery, Darmstadt and
not the suburb Wixhausen itself. The new name was officially recommended by IUPAC on
August 16, 2003.
The element has also earned the nickname of policium, because the telephone number of
the police is 110 within Germany.
Darmstadtium is element 110 in the Periodic Table. The two forms of the projected
electronic structure are:
Bohr model 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 17, 1
Quantum
mechanical model

eka-platinum/dvi-palladium
Oxidation states
Element 110 is projected to be the eighth member of the 6d series of transition metals and
the heaviest member of group 10 in the Periodic Table, below nickel, palladium and
platinum. The highest confirmed oxidation state of +6 is shown by platinum whilst the +4
state is stable for both elements. Both elements also possess a stable +2 state.
Darmstadtium is therefore predicted to show oxidation states +6, +4 and +2.
Chemistry
High oxidation states are expected to become more stable as the group is descended, so
darmstadtium is expected to form a stable hexafluoride, DsF6, in addition to DsF5 and DsF4.
Halogenation should result in the formation of the tetrahalides, DsCl4, DsBr4 and DsI4.
Like other Group 10 elements, darmstadtium can be expected to have notable hardness and
catalytic properties.
Darmstadtium 4

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of darmstadtium by so-called "cold" fusion
only.
208
Pb(64Ni,xn)272-xDs (x=1)
This reaction was first studied by scientists at GSI in 1986, without success. A cross section
limit of 12 pb was calculated. After an upgrade of their facilities, they successfully detected
9 atoms of 271Ds in two runs in 1994 as part of their discovery experiments on element
110.[3] This reaction was successfully repeated in 2000 by GSI (4 atoms), in 2000 [6] [7] and
2004 [8] [9] by LBNL (9 atoms in total) and in 2002 by RIKEN (14 atoms).[10] The summation
of the data allowed a measurement of the 1n neutron evaporation excitation function.
207
In addition to the official discovery reactions, in October-November 2000, the team at GSI
also studied the reaction using a Pb-207 target in order to search for the new isotope 270Ds.
They succeeded in synthesising 8 atoms of 270Ds, relating to a ground state isomer, 270gDs,
and a high-spin K-isomer, 270mDs. [11]
208
The GSI team studied this reaction in 1994 as part of their discovery experiment. Three
atoms of 269Ds were detected.[2] A fourth decay chain was measured but subsequently
retracted.
209
Bi(59Co,xn)268-xDs
This reaction was first studied by the team at Dubna in 1986. They were unable to detect
any product atoms and measured a cross section limit of 1 pb. In 1995, the team at LBNL
reported that they had succeeded in detecting a single atom of 267Ds from the 1n neutron
evaporation channel. However, several decays were missed and further research is
required to confirm this discovery. [12]

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of darmstadtium by so-called "hot" fusion
(~40-50 MeV, hence "hot"), leading to a reduced probability of survival from fission. The
excited nucleus then decays to the ground state via the emission of 3-5 neutrons. Fusion
reactions utilizing 48Ca nuclei usually produce compound nuclei with intermediate
excitation energies (~30-35 MeV) and are sometimes referred to as "warm" fusion
reactions. This leads, in part, to relatively high yields from these reactions.
Darmstadtium 5
232
Th(48Ca,xn)280-xDs
The synthesis of element 110 by hot fusion pathways was first attempted in 1986 by the
team at Dubna. Using the method of detection of spontaneous fission, they were unable to
measure any SF activities and calculated a cross section limit of 1 pb for the decay mode. In
three separate experiments between November 1997 and October 1998, the same team
re-studied this reaction as part of their new 48Ca program on the synthesis of superheavy
elements. Several SF activities with relatively long half-lives were detected and tentatively
assigned to decay of the daughters 269Sg or 265Rf, with a cross section of 5 pb. These
observations have not been confirmed and the results are taken as only an indication for
the synthesis of darmstadtium in this reaction.
232
Th(44Ca,xn)276-xDs
This reaction was attempted in 1986 and 1987 by the Dubna team. In both experiments, a
10 ms SF activities was measured and assigned to 272Ds, with a calculated cross section of
10 pb. This activity is currently not thought to be due to a darmstadtium isotope.
238
U(40Ar,xn)278-xDs
This reaction was first attempted by the Dubna team in 1987. Only spontaneous fission
from the transfer products 240mfAm and 242mfAm were observed and the team calculated a
cross section limit of 1.6 pb. The team at GSI first studied this reaction in 1990. Once again,
no atoms of element 110 could be detected. In August 2001, the GSI repeated reaction,
without success, and calculated a cross section limit of 1.0 pb.
236
U(40Ar,xn)276-xDs
This reaction was first attempted by the Dubna team in 1987. No spontaneous fission was
observed.
235
U(40Ar,xn)275-xDs
This reaction was first attempted by the Dubna team in 1987. No spontaneous fission was
observed. It was further studied in 1990 by the GSI team. Once again, no atoms were
detected and a cross section limit of 21 pb was calculated.
233
U(40Ar,xn)273-xDs
This reaction was first studied in 1990 by the GSI team. No atoms were detected and a
cross section limit of 21 pb was calculated.
244
Pu(34S,xn)278-xDs (x=5)
In September 1994 the team at Dubna detected a single atom of 273Ds, formed in the 5n
neutron evaporation channel. The measured cross section was just 400 fb. [13]

Isotopes of darmstadtium have also been detected in the decay of heavier elements.
Observations to date are shown in the table below:
Evaporation Residue Observed Ds isotope

Darmstadtium 6
293 289 281

116 , 114 Ds
291 287 283 279

116 , 114 , 112 Ds
277 273
112 Ds
In some experiments, the decay of 293116 and 289114 produced an isotope of darmstadtium
decaying by emission of an 8.77 MeV alpha particle with a half life of 3.7 minutes. Although
unconfirmed, it is highly possible that this activity is associated with a meta-stable isomer,
namely 281mDs.
Spectroscopy of darmstadtium isotopes

270
Ds
This is the current partial decay level scheme for 270Ds proposed
following the work of Hofmann et al. in 2000 at GSI

267 1994 209

Ds ?? Bi(59Co,n)
268 unknown
Ds
269 1994 208

Ds Pb(62Ni,n)
270 2000
Dsg,m 207
Pb(64Ni,n)
Darmstadtium 7
271 1994
Dsg,m 208
Pb(64Ni,n)
272 unknown
Ds
273 1996 244

Ds Pu(34S,5n)
274 unknown
Ds
275 unknown
Ds
276 unknown
Ds
277 1997 232

Ds ?? Th(48Ca,3n)
278 unknown
Ds
279 2002 244 [14]

Ds Pu(48Ca,5n)
280 unknown
Ds
281a 1999 244 [14]

Ds Pu(48Ca,3n)
281b 1999 244 [14]

Ds ? Pu(48Ca,3n)
Cold fusion
producing darmstadtium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
62 208 270 3.5 pb

Ni Pb Ds
64 208 272 15 pb , 9.9 MeV

Ni Pb Ds
Isomerism in darmstadtium nuclides

281
Ds
The production of 281Ds by the decay of 289114 or 293116 has produced two very conflicting
decay modes. The most common and readily confirmed mode is SF with a half-life of 11 s. A
much rarer and hitherto unconfirmed mode is alpha decay by emission of an 8.77 MeV
alpha particle with an observed half-life of ~3.7 m. This decay is associated with a unique
decay pathway from the parent nuclides and must be assigned to an isomeric level. The
half-life suggests that it must be assigned to an isomeric state but further research is
required to confirm these reports.
Darmstadtium 8
271
Ds
Decay data from the direct synthesis of 271Ds clearly indicates the presence of two alpha
groups. The first has alpha lines at 10.74 and 10.69 MeV with a half-life of 1.63 ms. The
other has a single alpha line at 10.71 MeV with a half-life of 69 ms. The first has been
assigned to the ground state and the latter to an isomeric level. It has been suggested that
the closeness of the alpha decay energies indicates that the isomeric level may decay
primarily by delayed gamma emission to the ground state, resulting in an identical
measured alpha energy and a combined half-life for the two processes.
270
Ds
The direct production of 270Ds has clearly identified two alpha groups belonging to two
isomeric levels. The ground state decays into the ground state of 266Hs by emitting an
11.03 MeV alpha particle with a half-life of 0.10 ms. The isomeric level decays by alpha
emission with alpha lines at 12.15,11.15 and 10.95 MeV with a half-life of 6 ms. The 12.15
MeV has been assigned as decay into the ground state of 266Hs indicating that this high
spin K-isomer lies at 1.12 MeV above the ground state.
Retracted isotopes
280
Ds
The first synthesis of element 114 resulted in two atoms assigned to 288114, decaying to the
280
Ds which underwent spontaneous fission. The assignment was later changed to 289114
and the darmstadtium isotope to 281Ds. Hence, 280Ds is currently unknown.
277
Ds
In the claimed synthesis of 293118 in 1999, the isotope 277Ds was identified as decaying by
10.18 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of 3.0 ms. This claim was retracted in 2001 and
thus this darmstadtium isotope is currently unknown or unconfirmed.[15]
273m
Ds
In the synthesis of 277112 in 1996 by GSI (see ununbium), one decay chain proceeded via
273
Ds which decayed by emission of a 9.73 MeV alpha particle with a lifetime of 170 ms.
This would have been assigned to an isomeric level. This data could not be confirmed and
thus this isotope is currently unknown or unconfirmed.
272
Ds
In the first attempt to synthesise element 110, a 10 ms SF activity was assigned to 272Ds in
the reaction 232Th(44Ca,4n). Given current understanding regarding stability, this isotope
has been retracted from the Table of Isotopes.
Darmstadtium 9
Theoretical calculations on decay characteristics

Theoretical calculation in a quantum tunneling model reproduces the experimental alpha
decay half live data.[16] [17] It also predicts that the isotope 294110 would have alpha decay
half life of the order of 311 years.[18] [19]
Fission of compound nuclei with Z=110

Experiments have been performed in 2004 at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in
Dubna studying the fission characteristics of the compound nucleus 280Ds. The nuclear
reaction used is 232Th+48Ca. The result revealed how nuclei such as this fission
predominantly by expelling closed shell nuclei such as 132Sn (Z=50, N=82).[20]


max
208 64 272 10 pb DNS

Pb Ni Ds 1n (271Ds) [21]
232 48 280 0.2 pb DNS

Th Ca Ds 4n (276Ds) [22]
230 48 278 1 pb DNS

Th Ca Ds 4n (274Ds) [22]
238 40 278 2 pb DNS

U Ar Ds 4n (274Ds) [22]
Future Experiments
The team at the HIRFL, Lanzhou, China are planning to restudy the reaction 238U(40Ar,xn)
after recent calculations indicated a measurable yield in the 4n evaporation channel,
leading to the new nuclide 274Ds.
At the FLNR, scientists will study the new reaction 226Ra(50Ti,xn) in order to compare the
yield with that obtained using 48Ca projectiles in order to ascertain the viability of using
50
Ti projectiles in SHE synthesis.
See also
• Island of stability
External links
• Darmstadtium.com [23]
• WebElements.com - Darmstadtium [24]
[25]
• IUPAC: Element 110 is named darmstadtium
• Apsidium - darmstadtium [26]
Darmstadtium 10
References
[2] "Production and decay of 269110" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ j51g8342h311x460/ ), Hofmann
et al., Z. Phys. A., 1995, 350, 4. Retrieved on 2008-03-02
[3] "New elements-approaching Z=114" (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ abstract/ 0034-4885/ 61/ 6/ 002), S.Hoffman,
Rep. Prog. Phys.,1998, 61, 639-689. Retrieved on 2008-03-02
[4] http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 2001/ pdf/ 7306x0959. pdf
[5] ununnilium - Definitions from Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ ununnilium)
[6] "Confirmation of production of element 110 by the 208Pb(64Ni,n) reaction" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/
PRC/ v67/ i6/ e064609), Ginter et al., Phys. Rev. C, 67, 064609 (2003). Retrieved on 2008-03-02
[7] "Confirmation of production of element 110 by the 208Pb(64Ni,n) reaction" (http:/ / repositories. cdlib. org/ cgi/
viewcontent. cgi?article=5446& context=lbnl), Ginter et al., LBNL repositories. Retrieved on 2008-03-02
[8] "Development of an Odd-Z-Projectile Reaction for Heavy Element Synthesis: 208Pb(64Ni,n)271Ds and
208
Pb(65Cu,n)272111" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v93/ i21/ e212702), Folden et al., Phys. Rev. Lett.,
93, 212702 (2004). Retrieved on 2008-03-02
208
Pb(65Cu,n)272111" (http:/ / repositories. cdlib. org/ cgi/ viewcontent. cgi?article=2704& context=lbnl),
Folden et al., LBNL repositories. Retrieved on 2008-03-02
[10] "Production and decay of the isotope 271Ds (Z = 110)" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/
74kn9nq0l28lmlge), Morita et al., Eur. Phys. J. A., 2004, 21, 2. Retrieved on 2008-03-02/
[11] "The new isotope 270110 and its decay products 266Hs and 262Sg" (http:/ / www. dnp. fmph. uniba. sk/ etext/
68/ text/ Hofmann_et_al_EPJ_A10_(2001)_5. pdf), Hofmann et al., Eur. Phys. J. A., 10, 5-10 (2001). Retrieved
on 2008-03-02
[12] "Evidence for the possible synthesis of element 110 produced by the 59Co+209Bi reaction" (http:/ / prola. aps.
org/ abstract/ PRC/ v51/ i5/ pR2293_1), Ghiorso et al., Phys. Rev. C, 51, R2293-R2297 (1995). Retrieved on
2008-03-02
[13] "α decay of 273110: Shell closure at N=162" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v54/ i2/ p620_1), Lazarev
et al., Phys. Rev. C, 54, 620-625 (1996). Retrieved on 2008-03-02
[15] see ununoctium
[16] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (26 January 2006). " α decay half-lives of new superheavy
elements (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal&
id=PRVCAN000073000001014612000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes)". Phys. Rev. C 73: 014612. doi:
[17] C. Samanta, P. Roy Chowdhury and D.N. Basu (2007). " Predictions of alpha decay half lives of heavy and
superheavy elements (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6TVB-4NF4F0Y-2&
_urlVersion=0& _userid=2806701& md5=3f680654b5659191d67f31681a4cfc83)". Nucl. Phys. A 789: 142–154.
doi: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2007.04.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2007. 04. 001). .
[18] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). " Search for long lived heaviest nuclei beyond the
valley of stability (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal&
[19] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). " Nuclear half-lives for α -radioactivity of elements
with 100 ≤ Z ≤ 130 (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6WBB-4S26JRX-1&
_user=2806701& _coverDate=03/ 14/ 2008& _alid=740505626& _rdoc=6& _fmt=high& _orig=search&
_cdi=6706& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _ct=211& _acct=C000058844& _version=1& _urlVersion=0&
_userid=2806701& md5=dc85a3a8a2ac1faa38c3804f16f86c13)". At. Data & Nucl. Data Tables. .
[20] see Flerov lab annual report 2004 inclusive http:/ / www1. jinr. ru/ Reports/ Reports_eng_arh. html
[23] http:/ / www. darmstadtium. com
[24] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Ds/ index. html
[25] http:/ / www. iupac. org/ news/ archives/ 2003/ naming110. html

Darmstadtium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=309171166 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, AlimanRuna, Andres, Anger22, Beetstra,
Blackoutjr, BlueEarth, Bobbob155, Borislav Dopudja, BrittanyP!, Bryan Derksen, CUSENZA Mario, Cameron Nedland, Carbuncle, CatherineMunro, Chris
73, Confederateman08, Cytokid101, DOSGuy, Danny, Darrien, David Gerard, Devleenasamanta, DopefishJustin, Drjezza, EPO, Eclecticology, Edgar181,
El C, Emperorbma, Eras-mus, Eric119, Femto, Fonzy, Fpbecker, Gadfium, Gellersen, Greatpatton, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Halobeast, Hh, Hokanomono, Icairns,
Ingolfson, JPisano, Jake Wartenberg, Joanjoc, John, Kachyna, Kaihsu, Kelovy, Kingdon, Ksbrown, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, Mav, Menchi, Mortdefides,
Mysid, Neitherday, Nergaal, Noisy, Nozzleman, Olessi, Oliver Pereira, Pascal666, PiMaster3, PierreAbbat, Pol098, PookeyMaster, Poolkris, Pras,
Quiddity, Remember, Rfc1394, Rifleman 82, Romanskolduns, Rursus, Sakus, Saperaud, Sceptre, Schneelocke, Scott3, Shell Kinney, Shogunzhu, Sionus,
SirJibby, Sl, Smokefoot, Steffen1983, Stifynsemons, Stormwriter, Tagishsimon, Tetracube, The Anome, The Epopt, Timmy12, Tomchiukc, Try her
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Image:270Ds decay scheme.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:270Ds_decay_scheme.png License: Public Domain
License
Roentgenium 1
Roentgenium
darmstadtium ← roentgenium → ununbium

Au
↑
Rg
↓
(Uhu)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number roentgenium, Rg, 111
Appearance unknown

−1
Electron configuration predicted [Rn] 5f

14 9
6d 7s
2
Main article: Isotopes of roentgenium
283
Rg syn 10 min (est.)
282
Rg syn 4 min (est.)
281
Rg syn 1 min (est.)
280
Rg syn 3.6 s α 9.75 276
Mt
279
Rg syn 170 ms α 10.37 275
Mt
278
Rg syn 4.2 ms α 10.69 274
Mt
274
Rg syn 15 ms α 11.23 270
Mt
272
Rg syn 1.6 ms α 11.02,10.82 268
Mt
References
Roentgenium 2
[1]
Roentgenium (pronounced /rʌntˈgɛniəm/ ( listen)) is a chemical element in the periodic
table that has the symbol Rg and atomic number 111.
Roentgenium is a radioactive synthetic element whose most stable known isotope has a
mass number of 280 and a half-life of a 3.6 s.
Official discovery
Roentgenium was officially discovered by Peter Armbruster, Gottfried Münzenberg, and
their team working at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt,
Germany on December 8, 1994.[2] Only three atoms of it were observed (all 272Rg), by the
cold fusion between Nickel ions and a Bismuth target in a linear accelerator:
20983Bi + 6428Ni → 272111Rg + 10n
In 2001, the IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party (JWP) concluded that there was insufficient
evidence for the discovery at that moment in time.[3] The GSI team repeated their
experiment in 2000 and detected a further 3 atoms.[4] [5] In their 2003 report, the JWP
decided that the GSI team should be acknowledged as the discoverers.[6]
Naming
The name roentgenium (Rg) was proposed by the GSI team[7] in honor of the German
physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, and was accepted as a permanent name on November
1, 2004.[8] Previously the element was known under the temporary IUPAC systematic
element name unununium, Uuu.
Relativistic electronic structure

The stable group 11 elements, copper, silver, and gold all have an outer electron
configuration nd10(n+1)s1. For each of these elements, their first excited state has a
configuration nd9(n+1)s2. Due to spin-orbit coupling between the s electrons, this state is
split into a pair of energy levels. For copper, the difference in energy between the ground
state and lowest excited state causes the metal to appear reddish. For silver, the energy
gap widens and it become silvery. However, as Z increases, the excited levels are stabilised
by relativistic effects and in gold the energy gap decreases again and it appears gold. For
roentgenium, calculations indicate that the 6d97s2 level is stabilised to such an extent that
it becomes the ground state. The resulting energy difference between the new ground state
and the first excited state is similar to that of silver and roentgenium is expected to be
silvery in appearance.[9]
Extrapolated chemical properties of eka-gold
Oxidation states
Element 111 is projected to be the ninth member of the 6d series of transition metals and
the heaviest member of group 11 (IB) in the Periodic Table, below copper, silver, and gold.
Each of the members of this group show different stable states. Copper forms a stable +2
state, whilst silver is predominantly found as silver(I) and gold as gold(III). Copper(I) and
silver(II) are also relatively well-known. Roentgenium is therefore expected to
predominantly form a stable +3 state.
Roentgenium 3
Chemistry
The heavier members of this group are well known for their lack of reactivity or noble
character. Silver and gold are both inert to oxygen. They are both however attacked by the
halogens. In addition, silver is attacked by sulfur and hydrogen sulfide, highlighting its
higher reactivity compared to gold. Roentgenium is expected to be even more noble than
gold and can be expected to be inert to oxygen and halogens. The most-likely reaction is
with fluorine to form a trifluoride, RgF3.

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of roentgenium by so-called "cold" fusion
only.
209
Bi(64Ni,xn)273−xRg (x=1)
First experiments to synthesize element 111 were performed by the Dubna team in 1986
using this cold fusion reaction. No atoms were identified that could be assigned to atoms of
element 111 and a production cross-section limit of 4 pb was determined. After an upgrade
of their facilities, the team at GSI successfully detected 3 atoms of 272Rg in their discovery
experiment.[2] A further 3 atoms were synthesized in 2000.[4] The discovery of roentgenium
was confirmed in 2003 when a team at RIKEN measured the decays of 14 atoms of 272Rg
during the measurement of the 1n excitation function.[10]
208
Pb(65Cu,xn)273−xRg (x=1)
In 2004, as part of their study of odd-Z projectiles in cold fusion reactions, the team at
LBNL detected a single atom of 272Rg in this new reaction.[11] [12]
History of synthesis of isotopes as decay products

Isotopes of roentgenium have also been observed in the decay of heavier elements.
Observations to date are outlined in the table below:
Evaporation residue Observed Rg isotope
288 280 [13]

115 Rg
287 279 [13]

115 Rg
282 278 [14]

113 Rg
278 274 [14]

113 Rg
Roentgenium 4

Isotope Year discovered Discoverer reaction
272 1994 209

Rg Bi(64Ni,n)
273 unknown
Rg
274 2004 209 [14]

Rg Bi(70Zn,n)
275 unknown
Rg
276 unknown
Rg
277 unknown
Rg
278 2006 237 [14]

Rg Np(48Ca,3n)
279 2003 243 [13]

Rg Am(48Ca,4n)
280 2003 243 [13]

Rg Am(48Ca,3n)
Cold fusion
producing roentgenium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
64 209 273 3.5 pb, 12.5 MeV

Ni Bi Rg
65 208 273 1.7 pb, 13.2 MeV

Cu Pb Rg
Isotopes
Five isotopes of roentgenium are known. The longest-lived of these is 280Rg, which decays
through alpha decay and has a halflife of 3.6 seconds. The shortest-lived isotope is 272Rg,
which decays through alpha decay and has a halflife of 1.6 ms.
Isomerism in roentgenium nuclides

274
Rg
Two atoms of 274Rg have been observed in the decay chains starting with 278Uut. The two
events occur with different energies and with different lifetimes. In addition, the two entire
decay chains appear to be different. This suggests the presence of two isomeric levels but
further research is required.
Roentgenium 5
272
Rg
The direct production of 272Rg has provided four alpha lines at 11.37, 11.03, 10.82, and
10.40 MeV. The GSI measured a half-life of 1.6 ms whilst recent data from RIKEN has given
a half-life of 3.8 ms. The conflicting data may be due to isomeric levels but the current data
are insufficient to come to any firm assignments.
See also
External links
• WebElements.com: Roentgenium [15]
[16]
• IUPAC: Proposal of name roentgenium for element 111
• IUPAC: Element 111 is named roentgenium [17]
• Apsidium: Roentgenium 111 [18]
• Unununium Element At Chemicalelements.com [19]
• RSC.org: Roentgenium [20]
References
[2] Hofmann, S. (1995). "The new element 111". Zeitschrift für Physik a Hadrons and Nuclei 350: 281. doi:
[3] Karol et al. (2001). " On the discovery of the elements 110–112 (http:/ / iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 2001/
pdf/ 7306x0959. pdf)". Pure Appl. Chem. 73 (6): 959–967. doi: 10.1351/pac200173060959 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1351/ pac200173060959). .
[4] Hofmann, S. (2002). "New results on elements 111 and 112". The European Physical Journal A 14: 147. doi:
10.1140/epja/i2001-10119-x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1140/ epja/ i2001-10119-x).
[5] Hofmann et al.. " New results on element 111 and 112 (http:/ / www. gsi. de/ informationen/ wti/ library/
scientificreport2000/ Nuc_St/ 7/ ar-2000-z111-z112. pdf)". GSI report 2000. . Retrieved 2008-03-02.
[6] " Karol et al. (http:/ / iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 2003/ pdf/ 7510x1601. pdf)". Pure Appl. Chem. 75 (10):
1601–1611. 2003. .
[7] Corish et al.. " Name and symbol of the element with atomic number 111 (http:/ / iupac. org/ reports/
provisional/ abstract04/ Corish_pr111. pdf)". IUPAC Provisional Recommendations. . Retrieved 2008-03-02.
[8] Corish et al. (2004). " Name and symbol of the element with atomic number 111 (http:/ / iupac. org/
publications/ pac/ 2004/ pdf/ 7612x2101. pdf)". Pure Appl. Chem. 76 (12): 2101–2103. doi:
10.1351/pac200476122101 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/ pac200476122101). .
[9] Turler, A. (2004). " Gas Phase Chemistry of Superheavy Elements (http:/ / wwwsoc. nii. ac. jp/ jnrs/ paper/
JN52/ j052Turler. pdf)". Journal of Nuclear and Radiochemical Sciences 5 (2): R19–R25. .
[10] Morita, K (2004). "Status of heavy element research using GARIS at RIKEN". Nuclear Physics A 734: 101.
doi: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2004.01.019 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2004. 01. 019).
[11] Folden, C. M. (2004). "Development of an Odd-Z-Projectile Reaction for Heavy Element Synthesis:
^{208}Pb(^{64}Ni,n)^{271}Ds and ^{208}Pb(^{65}Cu,n)^{272}111". Physical Review Letters 93: 212702.
doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.93.212702 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevLett. 93. 212702).
208
Pb(65Cu,n)272111" (http:/ / repositories. cdlib. org/ cgi/ viewcontent. cgi?article=2704& context=lbnl),
Folden et al., LBNL repositories. Retrieved on 2008-03-02
[13] see ununpentium for details
[14] see ununtrium for details
[15] http:/ / webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Rg/ index. html
[16] http:/ / iupac. org/ reports/ provisional/ abstract04/ corish_311004. html
[17] http:/ / iupac. org/ news/ archives/ 2004/ naming111. html
[19] http:/ / www. chemicalelements. com/ elements/ uuu. html
Roentgenium 6
[20] http:/ / www. rsc. org/ chemsoc/ visualelements/ pages/ roentgenium. html

Roentgenium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=306270507 Contributors: 1337sword, AAP52, ABF, Ahoerstemeier, AlimanRuna,
Allison Connors, Altenmann, AmateurHistorian, Andres, Andros 1337, AySz88, Badgermont, Beetstra, Benjamintchip, BigT27, Bilbo pingouin, Bkell,
BlueEarth, Bogdangiusca, Boo516, Bryan Derksen, Cameron Nedland, Captain-tucker, Chris 73, Ctachme, DOSGuy, DabMachine, Darrien, Dblecros,
Djr32, DopefishJustin, Dr Debug, Drjezza, Dungodung, ESkog, Edgar181, Emperorbma, Eoghanacht, Eric119, Excirial, Fabrictramp, Femto, Feneeth of
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Materialscientist, MathStuf, Mav, Mbenzdabest, Mhking, Michael Zimmermann, Minghong, Mxn, N-true, NapoliRoma, Natalie Erin, NawlinWiki,
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Redvers, Remember, Rknasc, Roentgenium111, Romanskolduns, RoryReloaded, Rursus, Saperaud, Schneelocke, Scyphiform, Sengkang, Shimgray,
Sidonuke, SkE, SkyLined, Sl, Snowdog, SomeKindOfCamel, Sportzplyr9090, Stone, Tagishsimon, Tarry, TedE, Tetracube, The Obento Musubi, The
Ronin, TheAmber, Timc, Tlogmer, Tobyc75, Tomchiukc, TwoOneTwo, Typhlosion, Ukexpat, Until It Sleeps, Vanisheduser12345, Versus22, Vezhlys, Vuo,
Whkoh, WhoopeeDoo, X!, 180 anonymous edits

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License
Ununbium 1
Ununbium
roentgenium ← ununbium → ununtrium

Hg
↑
Uub
↓
(Uhb)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number ununbium, Uub, 112
Appearance unknown

−1

14
6d
10
7s
2
Phase unknown
Main article: Isotopes of ununbium
285
Uub syn 29 s α 9.15,9.03? 281
Ds
285b
Uub ? syn 8.9 m α 8.63 281b
Ds ?
284
Uub syn 97 ms SF
283
Uub syn 4s ~80% α 9.53,9.32,8.94 279
Ds
~20% SF
283b
Uub ?? syn ~ 7.0 m 100% SF
282
Uub syn 0.8 ms SF
277
Uub syn 0.7 ms α 11.45,11.32 273
Ds
References
Ununbium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uub
and the atomic number 112. "Ununbium" (commonly pronounced /juːˈnʌnbiəm/,[1] officially
Ununbium 2
[2]
English pronunciation: /uːˈnuːnbiəm/ ( listen) ) is a IUPAC systematic element name, used
until the element gets an accepted name.
Ununbium was first created by the GSI in 1996, who have proposed the permanent name
[3]
copernicium English pronunciation: /koʊpərˈniːsiəm/ ( listen) and the symbol Cp.[4] It is the
highest-numbered superheavy element to be officially recognised by IUPAC. This name is
expected to be officially endorsed by IUPAC in January 2010, after six months for
discussion.[5]
The most stable isotope discovered to date is 285Uub with a half-life of ~30 s. In total, about
75 atoms of ununbium have been detected using various nuclear reactions.[6] An
unconfirmed isotope, 285bUub, has a possible half-life of ~9 minutes, and would be one of
the longest-lived superheavy isotopes known to date.
Recent experiments strongly suggest that ununbium behaves as a typical member of group
12, demonstrating properties consistent with a volatile metal.[7]
Official discovery
Ununbium was first created on February 9, 1996 at the Gesellschaft für
Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany by Sigurd Hofmann, Victor Ninov et
al.[8] This element was created by firing accelerated zinc-70 nuclei at a target made of
lead-208 nuclei in a heavy ion accelerator. A single atom (the second has subsequently been
dismissed) of ununbium was produced with a mass number of 277.[8]
20882Pb + 7030Zn → 278112Uub → 277112Uub + 10n
In May 2000, the GSI successfully repeated the experiment to synthesise a further atom of
Uub-277.[9] [10] This reaction was repeated at RIKEN using the GARIS set-up in 2004 to
synthesise two further atoms and confirm the decay data reported by the GSI team.[11]
The IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party (JWP) assessed the claim of discovery by the GSI
team in 2001[12] and 2003.[13] In both cases, they found that there was insufficient evidence
to support their claim. This was primarily related to the contradicting decay data for the
known isotope 261Rf. However, between 2001-2005, the GSI team studied the reaction
248
Cm(26Mg,5n)269Hs, and were able to confirm the decay data for 269Hs and 261Rf. It was
found that the existing data on 261Rf was for an isomer,[14] now designated 261a Rf.
In May 2009, the JWP reported on the claims of discovery of element 112 again and
officially recognised the GSI team as the discoverers of element 112.[15] This decision was
based on recent confirmation of the decay properties of daughter nuclei as well as the
confirmatory experiments at RIKEN.[16]
Naming
The element with Z=112 is historically known as eka-mercury. Ununbium is a temporary
IUPAC systematic element name. Research scientists usually refer to the element simply as
element 112 (or just E112).
After acknowledging their discovery, the IUPAC has asked the discovery team at GSI to
suggest a permanent name for ununbium.[17] On the 14th July 2009, they proposed
"copernicium" with the element symbol "Cp", after Nicolaus Copernicus "to honor an
outstanding scientist, who changed our view of the world."[18] IUPAC has not yet officially
recognized this name, pending the results of a six month discussion period among the
scientific community.[5]
Ununbium 3
Some news articles have referred to the suggested name as "copernicum" in error.[19]
However, the IUPAC only allows the suffix -ium for new elements. Alternative spellings
have been suggested to Hofmann, namely "copernicum", "copernium", and "kopernikium"
(Kp), and Hofmann has said that the team had discussed the possibility of "copernicum" or
"kopernikum", but that they had agreed on "copernicium" in order to comply with current
IUPAC rules.[20]
Extrapolated chemical properties
Oxidation states
Element 112 is projected to be the last member of the 6d series of transition metals and the
heaviest member of group 12 (IIB) in the Periodic Table, below zinc, cadmium and mercury.
Each of the members of this group show a stable +2 oxidation state. In addition,
mercury(I), Hg2+2, is also well known. Element 112 is therefore expected to form a stable
+2 state.
Chemistry
The known members of group 12 all react with oxygen and sulfur directly to form the
oxides and sulfides, MO and MS, respectively. Mercury(II) oxide, HgO, can be decomposed
by heat to the liquid metal. Mercury also has a well known affinity for sulfur. Therefore,
element 112 should form an analogous oxide UubO and sulfide UubS. In their halogen
chemistry, all the metals form the ionic difluoride MF2 upon reaction with fluorine. The
other halides are known but for mercury, the soft nature of the Hg(II) ion leads to a high
degree of covalency and HgCl2, HgBr2 and HgI2 are low-melting, volatile solids. Therefore,
element 112 is expected to form an ionic fluoride, UubF2, but volatile halides, UubCl2,
UubBr2 and UubI2. In addition, mercury is well known for its alloying properties, with the
concomitant formation of amalgams, especially with gold and silver. It is also a volatile
metal and is monatomic in the vapour phase. Element 112 is therefore also predicted to be
a volatile metal which readily combines with gold to form a Au-Uub metal-metal bond.
Atomic gas phase

Ununbium is expected to have the ground state electron configuration [Rn]5f14 6d10 7s2 and
thus belong to group 12 of the Periodic Table. As such, it should behave as the heavier
homologue of mercury (Hg) and form strong binary compounds with noble metals like gold.
Experiments probing the reactivity of ununbium have focused on the adsorption of atoms of
element 112 onto a gold surface held at varying temperatures, in order to calculate an
adsorption enthalpy. Due to possible relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons, leading to
radon-like properties, experiments were performed with the simultaneous formation of
mercury and radon radioisotopes, allowing a comparison of adsorption characteristics.
The first experiments were conducted using the 238U(48Ca,3n)283112 reaction. Detection
was by spontaneous fission of the claimed 5 min parent isotope. Analysis of the data
indicated that ununbium was more volatile than mercury and had noble-gas properties.
However, the confusion regarding the synthesis of 283112 has cast some doubt on these
experimental results.
Ununbium 4
Given this uncertainty, between April-May 2006 at the JINR, a FLNR-PSI team conducted
experiments probing the synthesis of this isotope as a daughter in the nuclear reaction
242
Pu(48Ca,3n)287114. In this experiment, two atoms of 283112 were unambiguously
identified and the adsorption properties indicated that ununbium is a more volatile
homologue of mercury, due to formation of a weak metal-metal bond with gold, placing it
firmly in group 12.
In April 2007 this experiment was repeated and a further 3 atoms of 283112 were positively
identified. The adsorption property was confirmed and indicated that element 112 has
adsorption properties completely in agreement with being the heaviest member of group
12.[21]

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of ununbium by so-called "cold" fusion
only.
208
Pb(70Zn,xn)278-xUub (x=1)
The team at GSI first studied this reaction in 1996 and detected two decay chains of
277
Uub.[8] In a review of the data in 2000, the first decay chain was retracted. In a repeat of
the reaction in 2000 they were able to synthesise a further atom. They attempted to
measure the 1n excitation function in 2002 but suffered from a failure of the Zn-70 beam.
The unofficial discovery of 277Uub was confirmed in 2004 at RIKEN who detected a further
2 atoms of the isotope and were able to confirm the decay data for the entire chain.
208
Pb(68Zn,xn)276-x112
Following the successful synthesis of 277Uub, the GSI team performed a reaction using a
68
Zn projectile in 1997 in an effort to study the effect of isospin (neutron richness) on the
chemical yield. The experiment was initiated following the discovery of a yield
enhancement during the synthesis of darmstadtium isotopes using 62Ni and 64Ni ions. No
decay chains of 275112 were detected leading to a cross section limit of 1.2 pb. However,
the revision of the yield for the 70Zn reaction to 0.5 pb does not rule out a similar yield for
this reaction.
184
W(88Sr,xn)272-x112
In 1990, after some early indications for the formation of isotopes of element 112 in the
irradiation of a tungsten target with multi-GeV protons, a collaboration between GSI and
the University of Jerusalem studied the above reaction. They were able to detect some
spontaneous fission activity and a 12.5 MeV alpha decay, both of which they tentatively
assigned to the radiative capture product 272112 or the 1n evaporation residue 271112.
Both the TWG and JWP have concluded that a lot more research is required to confirm
these conclusions.
Ununbium 5

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of ununbium by so-called "hot" fusion
neutrons. Fusion reactions utilizing 48Ca nuclei usually produce compound nuclei with
intermediate excitation energies (~30-35 MeV) and are sometimes referred to as "warm"
fusion reactions. This leads, in part, to relatively high yields from these reactions.
238
U(48Ca,xn)286-x112 (x=3,4)
In 1998, the team at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Research began a research program
using Ca-48 nuclei in "warm" fusion reactions leading to superheavy elements (SHE's). In
March 1998, they claimed to have synthesised the element (2 atoms) in this reaction. The
product, 283Uub, had a claimed half-life of 5 min, decaying by spontaneous fission (SF).[22]
The long lifetime of the product initiated first chemical experiments on the gas phase
atomic chemistry of element 112. In 2000, Yuri Yukashev at Dubna repeated the experiment
but was unable to observe any spontaneous fission from 5 min activities. The experiment
was repeated in 2001 and an accumulation of 8 SF fragments were found in the low
temperature section, indicating that ununbium had radon-like properties. However, there is
now some serious doubt about the origin of these results.
In order to confirm the synthesis, the reaction was successfully repeated by the same team
in Jan 2003, confirming the decay mode and half life. They were also able to calculate an
estimate of the mass of the SF activity to ~285 lending support to the assignment.[23]
The team at LBNL entered the debate and performed the reaction in 2002. They were
unable to detect any SF activities and calculated a cross section limit of 1.6 pb for the
detection of a single event.[24]
The reaction was repeated in 2003-2004 by the team at Dubna using a slightly different
set-up, the Dubna Gas Filled Recoil Separator (DGFRS). This time, 283Uub was found to
decay by emission of a 9.53 MeV alpha-particle with a half-life of 4 seconds. 282Uub was
also observed in the 4n channel.[25]
In 2003, the team at GSI entered the debate and performed a search for the 5 minute SF
activity in chemical experiments. Like the Dubna team, they were able to detect 7 SF
fragments in the low temperature section. However, these SF events were uncorrelated,
suggesting they were not from actual direct SF of element 112 nuclei and raised doubts
about the original indications for radon-like properties.[26] After the announcement from
Dubna of different decay properties for 283112, the GSI team repeated the experiment in
September 2004. They were unable to detect any SF events and calculated a cross section
limit of ~ 1.6 pb for the detection of one event, not in contradiction with the reported 2.5
pb yield by Dubna.
In May 2005, the GSI performed a physical experiment and identified a single atom of
283
112 decaying by SF with a short lifetime suggesting a previously unknown SF branch.[27]
However, initial work by Dubna had detected several direct SF events but had assumed
that the parent alpha decay had been missed. These results indicated that this was not the
case.
Ununbium 6
In 2006, the new decay data on 283112 was confirmed by a joint PSI-FLNR experiment
aimed at probing the chemical properties of ununbium. Two atoms of 283Uub were
observed in the decay of the parent 287Uuq nuclei. The experiment indicated that contrary
to previous experiments, element 112 behaves as a typical member of group 12,
[7]
demonstrating properties of a volatile metal.
Finally, the team at GSI successfully repeated their physical experiment in Jan 2007 and
detected 3 atoms of 283112, confirming both the alpha and SF decay modes. [28]
As such, the 5 min SF activity is still unconfirmed and unidentified. It is possible that it
refers to an isomer, namely 283bUub, whose yield is obviously dependent upon the exact
production methods.
233
U(48Ca,xn)281-x112
The team at FLNR studied this reaction in 2004. They were unable to detect any atoms of
element 112 and calculated a cross section limit of 600 fb. The team concluded that this
indicated that the neutron mass number for the compound nucleus had an effect on the
yield of evaporation residues. [25]

Element 112 has also been observed as decay products of elements 114, 116 and 118 (see
ununoctium).
Evaporation Residue Observed Uub isotope
293 289 285

116 , 114 112
292 288 284

116 , 114 112
291 287 283

116 , 114 112
294 290 286 282

118 , 116 , 114 112
282
As an example, in May 2006, the Dubna team (JINR) identified Uub as a final product in
the decay of ununoctium via the alpha decay sequence:
294118Uuo → 290116Uuh → 286114Uuq → 282112Uub
It was found that the final nucleus undergoes spontaneous fission.[29]

277 1996 208

Uub Pb(70Zn,n)
278 unknown
Uub
279 unknown
Uub
280 unknown
Uub
281 unknown
Uub
282 2004 238

Uub U(48Ca,4n)
Ununbium 7
283 2002 244

Uub Pu(48Ca,5n)
283b 1998 238

Uub ?? U(48Ca,3n)
284 2002 244

Uub Pu(48Ca,4n)
285 1999 244

Uub Pu(48Ca,3n)
285b 1999 244

Uub ? Pu(48Ca,3n)
Cold fusion
producing ununbium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
70 208 278 0.5 pb , 10.0;12.0 MeV

Zn Pb Uub
68 208 276 < 1.2 pb , 11.3;12.8 MeV

Zn Pb Uub
Hot fusion
producing ununbium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
48 238 286 2.5 pb , 35.0 MeV 0.6 pb

Ca U Uub
48 233 281 < 0.6 pb , 34.9 MeV

Ca U Uub
Isomerism in ununbium nuclides

285a,b
112
In the synthesis of 289114 and 293116, a 8.63 MeV alpha-decaying activity has been
detected with a half-life of 8.9 minutes. Although unconfirmed in recent experiments, it is
highly possible that this is associated with an isomer, namely 285b112.
283a,b
112
First experiments on the synthesis of 283112 produced a SF activity with half-life ~5 min.
This activity was also observed from the alpha decay of 287114. The decay mode and
half-life were also confirmed in a repeat of the first experiment. However, more
recently,283112 has been observed to undergo 9.52 MeV alpha decay and SF with a half-life
of 3.9 s. These results suggest the assignment of the two activities to two different isomeric
levels in 283112, creating 283a112 and 283b112. Further research is required to address
these discrepancies.
Ununbium 8
Retracted isotopes
281
112
In the claimed synthesis of 293118 in 1999 (see ununoctium) the isotope 281112 was
idenitified as decaying by emission of a 10.68 MeV alpha particle with half-life 0.90 ms. The
claim was retracted in 2001 and hence this ununbium isotope is currently unknown or
unconfirmed.

Several experiments have been performed between 2001-2004 at the Flerov Laboratory of
Nuclear Reactions in Dubna studying the fission characteristics of the compound nucleus
286
112. The nuclear reaction used is 238U+48Ca. The results have revealed how nuclei such
as this fission predominantly by expelling closed shell nuclei such as 132Sn (Z=50, N=82). It
was also found that the yield for the fusion-fission pathway was similar between 48Ca and
58
Fe projectiles, indicating a possible future use of 58Fe projectiles in superheavy element
formation.[30]


max
208 70 278 1.5 pb DNS

Pb Zn 112 1n (277112) [31]
208 67 275 2 pb DNS

Pb Zn 112 1n (274112) [31]
238 48 286 0.2 pb DNS

U Ca 112 4n (282112) [32]
244 40 284 0.1 pb DNS

Pu Ar 112 4n (280112) [32]
250 36 286 5 pb DNS

Cm S 112 4n (282112) [32]
252 30 282 10 pb DNS

Cf Si 112 3n (279112) [32]
Ununbium 9
See also
• Polonium
External links
[33]
• WebElements.com: Copernicium
References
[1] " ununbium (http:/ / reference. aol. com/ columbia/ _a/ ununbium/ 20051207161909990010)". Columbia
Encyclopedia. .
[2] http:/ / media. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1979/ pdf/ 5102x0381. pdf
[3] Prof. S. Hofmann (private communication)
[4] " 'Copernicium' proposed as name for newly discovered element 112 (http:/ / www. physorg. com/
news166791177. html)", PhysOrg.com, 2009-07-14, , retrieved 2009-07-14
[5] New element named 'copernicium' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 8153596. stm), BBC News, Thu
16 July 2009
[6] see references in this article relating to 277112, 282112 and 283112, as well as references in ununquadium,
ununhexium and ununoctium regarding observed daughter nuclei
[7] R. Eichler, et al. (2007). "Chemical Characterization of Element 112". Nature 447: 72–75. doi:
10.1038/nature05761 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ nature05761).
[8] S. Hofmann, et al. (1996). "The new element 112". Zeitschrift für Physik: A Hadrons and Nuclei 354 (1):
[9] Hofmann et al. (2002). "New Results on Element 111 and 112". European Physical Journal A Hadrons and
Nuclei 14 (2): 147–57. doi: 10.1140/epja/i2001-10119-x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1140/ epja/ i2001-10119-x).
[10] Hofmann et al. (2000). " New Results on Element 111 and 112 (http:/ / www. gsi. de/ informationen/ wti/
library/ scientificreport2000/ Nuc_St/ 7/ ar-2000-z111-z112. pdf)". GSI Scientific Report 2000. .
[11] K. Morita (2004). "Decay of an Isotope 277112 produced by 208Pb + 70Zn reaction". Exotic Nuclei
(EXON2004). Proceedings of the International Symposium. World Scientific. pp. 188-191. doi:
10.1142/9789812701749_0027 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1142/ 9789812701749_0027).
[12] P. J. Karol; H. Nakahara; B. W. Petley; E. Vogt (2001). " On the Discovery of the Elements 110—112 (http:/ /
www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 2001/ pdf/ 7306x0959. pdf)" (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure Appl. Chem.
73 (6): 959–967. doi: 10.1351/pac200173060959 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/ pac200173060959). .
[13] P. J. Karol; H. Nakahara; B. W. Petley; E. Vogt (2003). " On the Claims for Discovery of Elements 110, 111,
112, 114, 116 and 118 (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 2003/ pdf/ 7510x1601. pdf)" (IUPAC
Technical Report). Pure Appl. Chem. 75 (10): 1061–1611. doi: 10.1351/pac200375101601 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1351/ pac200375101601). .
[14] R. Dressler; A. Türler (2001). " Evidence for Isomeric States in 261Rf (http:/ / lch. web. psi. ch/ pdf/ anrep01/
B-02heavies. pdf)". Annual Report 2001. Paul Scherrer Institute. .
[15] http:/ / www. gsi. de/ portrait/ Pressemeldungen/ 10062009-1_e. html
[16] R.C.Barber; H.W.Gaeggeler;P.J.Karol;H. Nakahara; E.Vardaci; E. Vogt (2009). " Discovery of the element with
atomic number 112 (http:/ / media. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ asap/ pdf/ PAC-REP-08-03-05. pdf)" (IUPAC
Technical Report). Pure Appl. Chem.. doi: 10.1351/PAC-REP-08-03-05 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/
PAC-REP-08-03-05). .
[17] New Chemical Element In The Periodic Table (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 06/
090611210039. htm), www.sciencedaily.com
[18] [http://www.gsi.de/portrait/Pressemeldungen/14072009_e.html July 14, 2009 - Element 112 shall be named
“copernicium”, www.gsi.de
[19] http:/ / www. popsci. com/ scitech/ article/ 2009-07/ element-112-named-copernicum
[20] private email from Hofman
[21] H. W. Gäggeler (2007). " Gas Phase Chemistry of Superheavy Elements (http:/ / lch. web. psi. ch/ pdf/
TexasA& M/ TexasA& M. pdf)". Paul Scherrer Institute. .
[22] Oganessian et al. (1999). "Search for new isotopes of element 112 by irradiation of 238U with 48Ca". Eur.
Phys. J. A 5 (1): 63–68. doi: 10.1007/s100500050257 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s100500050257).
[23] Yu Ts Oganessian et al. (2004). "Second Experiment at VASSILISSA separator on the synthesis of the element
112". Eur. Phys. J. A 19 (1): 3–6. doi: 10.1140/epja/i2003-10113-4 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1140/ epja/
Ununbium 10
i2003-10113-4).
[24] W. Loveland, K. E. Gregorich, J. B. Patin, D. Peterson, C. Rouki, P. M. Zielinski, and K. Aleklett (2002).
"Search for the production of element 112 in the 48Ca+238U reaction". Phys. Rev. C 66 (4): 044617. doi:
10.1103/PhysRevC.66.044617 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 66. 044617).
[25] Yu. Ts. Oganessian et al. (2004). "Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of
233,238 242 248 48
elements 112, 114, and 116 produced in the fusion reactions U, Pu , and Cm+ Ca"]". Phys. Rev. C
70: 064609. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.70.064609 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 70. 064609).
[26] S. Soverna (2003). Indication for a gaseous element 112 (http:/ / www. gsi. de/ informationen/ wti/ library/
scientificreport2003/ files/ 167. pdf). 2003. GSI Scientific Report. pp. 187. .
[27] S. Hofmann, et al. (2005). Search for Element 112 Using the Hot Fusion Reaction 48Ca + 238U (http:/ / www.
gsi. de/ informationen/ wti/ library/ scientificreport2005/ PAPERS/ NUSTAR-SHE-PHYS-01. pdf). 2005. GSI
Scientific Report. pp. 191. .
[28] S. Hofmann et al. (2007). "The reaction 48Ca + 238U -> 286112* studied at the GSI-SHIP". Eur. Phys. J. A 32
(3): 251–260. doi: 10.1140/epja/i2007-10373-x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1140/ epja/ i2007-10373-x).
[29] Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; et al. (2006-10-09). "Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the 249Cf and
245
Cm+48Ca fusion reactions". Physical Review C 74 (4): 044602. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602 (http:/ / dx.
doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 74. 044602).
[30] see Flerov lab annual reports 2001-2004 inclusive http:/ / www1. jinr. ru/ Reports/ Reports_eng_arh. html
[33] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ copernicium/

Ununbium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308752456 Contributors: 04redsox07, 84user, Ahoerstemeier, AlimanRuna, Altenmann,
Alway Arptonshay, Andre Engels, Arakunem, Bagel7, Beetstra, Bigguy03j, Blackcat0030, BlueEarth, BlueNovember, Bondegezou, Brett Dunbar, Bryan
Derksen, CBDunkerson, CYD, Cacahueten, Carbuncle, Chris 73, Coemgenus, Cosmium, Cryptic C62, DMacks, Dagonweb, Dajwilkinson, Danny, Darrien,
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PierreAbbat, Plau, Poolkris, Potatoswatter, Prnkap, Propaniac, QYV, Rcsheets, RedAndr, Redrose64, Remember, Reyk, Rhoppenrath-, Rich Farmbrough,
RickK, Rifleman 82, Roentgenium111, Romanskolduns, Rursus, Saperaud, Schneelocke, Sesshomaru, Shimgray, SimonP, Siroxo, Sl, Stevey7788,
Stismail, Stone, StuffOfInterest, Sugarfish, Sugarpine, Svante, Tagishsimon, Teetaweepo, Tetracube, Textangel, The Hokkaido Crow, The wub, Tim Q.
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Contributors
image:Uub-TableImage.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uub-TableImage.png License: GNU Free Documentation License
Contributors: Daniel Mayer and Arnaud Gaillard
License
Ununtrium 1
Ununtrium
ununbium ← ununtrium → ununquadium

Tl
↑
Uut
↓
(Uht)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number ununtrium, Uut, 113
Element category presumably poor metals
Appearance possibly light or dark element

−1
Electron configuration 14 10
perhaps [Rn] 5f 6d 7s 7p
2 1
(guess based on thallium)
Main article: Isotopes of ununtrium
284
Uut syn 0.49 s α 10.00 280
Rg
283
Uut syn 0.10 s α 10.12 279
Rg
282
Uut syn 73 ms α 10.63 278
Rg
278
Uut syn 0.34 ms α 11.68 274
Rg
References
Ununtrium (pronounced /juːˈnʌntriəm/; officially, the two initial u's are to be pronounced
[1]
English pronunciation: /uː/ ( listen) ) is the temporary name of a synthetic element in the
periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uut and has the atomic number 113.
It has been synthesised directly in both "cold" and "warm" fusion reactions. It was first
observed in the decay of ununpentium. Only eight atoms of ununtrium have been observed
to date. Following periodic trends it is expected to be a soft, silvery metal.
Ununtrium 2
Discovery profile
The first report of ununtrium was in August 2003 when it was identified as a decay product
of ununpentium. These results were published on February 1, 2004, by a team composed of
Russian scientists at Dubna (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research), and American scientists
at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.[2] [3]
On July 23, 2004, a team of Japanese scientists at RIKEN detected a single atom of 278Uut
using the cold fusion reaction between Bismuth-209 and zinc-70. They published their
results on September 28, 2004.[4]
Support for their claim appeared in 2004 when scientists at the Institute of Modern Physics
(IMP) identified 266Bh as decaying with identical properties to their single event (see
bohrium).
The RIKEN team produced a further atom on April 2, 2005, although the decay data was
different from the first chain, and may be due to the formation of a meta-stable isomer.
The Dubna-Livermore collaboration has strengthened their claim for the discovery of
ununtrium by conducting chemical experiments on the decay daughter 268Db. In
experiments in Jun 2004 and Dec 2005, the Dubnium isotope was successfully identified by
milking the Db fraction and measuring any SF activities. Both the half-life and decay mode
were confirmed for the proposed 268Db which lends support to the assignment of Z=115
and Z=113 to the parent and daughter nuclei.[5] [6]
Theoretical estimates of alpha-decay half-lives of alpha-decay chains from element 113 are
in good agreement with the experimental data.[7]
Naming
The element with Z=113 is historically known as eka-thallium. Ununtrium (Uut) is a
temporary IUPAC systematic element name. Research scientists usually refer to the
element simply as element 113 (E113).
Proposed names by claimants

Claims to the discovery of element 113 have been put forward by Dmitriev of the Dubna
team and Morita of the RIKEN team. The JWP will decide to whom the right to suggest a
name will be given. The IUPAC have the final say on the official adoption of a name. The
table below gives the names that the teams above have suggested and which can be
verified by press interviews.
Group Proposed Name Derivation
RIKEN [8] Japan - country of group claimants

Japonium
RIKEN [8] RIKEN - institute of group claimants

Rikenium
Ununtrium 3
Extrapolated chemical properties of eka-thallium
Oxidation states
Element 113 is projected to be the first member of the 7p series of non-metals and the
heaviest member of group 13 (IIIA) in the Periodic Table, below thallium. Each of the
members of this group show the group oxidation state of +III. However, thallium has a
tendency to form only a stable +I state due to the "inert pair effect", explained by the
relativistic stabilisation of the 7s-orbitals, resulting in a higher ionisation potential and
weaker tendency to participate in bonding.
Chemistry
Element 113 should portray eka-thallium chemical properties and should therefore form a
monoxide, Uut2O, and monohalides, UutF, UutCl, UutBr and UutI. If the +III state is
accessible, it is likely that it is only possible in the oxide, Uut2O3, and fluoride, UutF3.

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of ununtrium by so-called "cold" fusion
only.
209
Bi(70Zn,xn)279-x113 (x=1)
The synthesis of element 113 was first attempted in 1998 by the team at GSI using the
above cold fusion reaction. In two separate runs, they were unable to detect any atoms and
calculated a cross section limit of 900 fb.[9] They repeated the experiment in 2003 and
lowered the limit further to 400 fb.[9] In late 2003, the emerging team at RIKEN using their
efficient apparatus GARIS attempted the reaction and reached a limit of 140 fb. In
December 2003-August 2004, they resorted to 'brute force' and performed an
eight-month-long irradiation in which they increased the sensitivity to 51 fb. They were able
to detect a single atom of 278113.[4] They repeated the reaction in several runs in 2005 and
were able to synthesize a second atom. They calculated a record-low 31 fb for the cross
section for the 2 atoms.

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of ununtrium by so-called "hot" fusion
Ununtrium 4
237
Np(48Ca,xn)285-x113 (x=3)
In June 2006, the Dubna-Livermore team synthesised ununtrium directly in the "warm"
fusion reaction between neptunium-237 and calcium-48 nuclei. Two atoms of 282Uut were
detected with a cross section of 900 fb.[10]

278 2004 209 [4]

Uut Bi(70Zn,n)
279 unknown
Uut
280 unknown
Uut
281 unknown
Uut
282 2006 237 [10]

Uut Np(48Ca,3n)
283 2003 243 [2]

Uut Am(48Ca,4n)
284 2003 243 [2]

Uut Am(48Ca,3n)
Yields of isotopes
Cold fusion
producing ununtrium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
70 209 279 31 fb
Zn Bi Uut
Hot Fusion
producing ununtrium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from
48 237 285 [10]

Ca Np Uut 0.9 pb , 39.1 MeV
Ununtrium 5


max
209 70 279 30 fb DNS

Bi Zn 113 1n (278113) [11]
237 48 285 0.4 pb DNS

Np Ca 113 3n (282113) [12]
See also
• Isotopes of ununtrium
External links
• WebElements.com - Uut [13]
[14]
• Uut and Uup Add Their Atomic Mass to Periodic Table
• Apsidium - Ununtrium [15]
• Discovery of Elements 113 and 115 [16]
• Superheavy elements [17]
References
[2] "Experiments on the synthesis of element 115 in the reaction 243Am(48Ca,xn)291-x115" (http:/ / www. jinr. ru/
publish/ Preprints/ 2003/ 178(E7-2003-178). pdf), Oganessian et al.., JINR Preprints, 2003. Retrieved on
2008-03-03
[3] "Experiments on the synthesis of element 115 in the reaction 243Am(48Ca,xn)291-x115" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/
abstract/ PRC/ v69/ i2/ e021601), Oganessian et al., Phys. Rev. C 69, 021601 (2004). Retrieved on 2008-03-03
[4] "Experiment on the Synthesis of Element 113 in the Reaction 209Bi(70Zn, n)278113" (http:/ / jpsj. ipap. jp/
link?JPSJ/ 73/ 2593/ ), Morita et al.., J. Phys. Soc. Jpn., 2004, 73, 10. Retrieved on 2008-03-03
[5] "RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT ON CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF Db AS A DECAY PRODUCT OF
ELEMENT 115" (http:/ / www. jinr. ru/ publish/ Preprints/ 2004/ 157(e12-2004-157). pdf), Oganessian et al.,
JINR preprints, 2004. Retrieved on 2008-03-03
[6] "Synthesis of elements 115 and 113 in the reaction 243Am + 48Ca" (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/
GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=PRVCAN000072000003034611000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes),
Oganessian et al., Phys. Rev. C72, 034611 (2005). Retrieved on 2008-03-03
[7] P. Roy Chowdhury, D. N. Basu and C. Samanta (2007). " α decay chains from element 113 (http:/ / scitation.
aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=PRVCAN000075000004047306000001&
idtype=cvips& gifs=yes)". Phys. Rev. C 75: 047306. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.75.047306 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1103/ PhysRevC. 75. 047306). .
[8] " RIKEN NEWS November 2004 (http:/ / www. riken. go. jp/ engn/ r-world/ info/ release/ news/ 2004/ nov/
index. html)". . Retrieved 2008-02-09.
[9] "Search for element 113" (http:/ / www. gsi. de/ informationen/ wti/ library/ scientificreport2003/ files/ 1. pdf),
Hofmann et al., GSI report 2003. Retrieved on 2008-03-03
[10] "Synthesis of the isotope 282113 in the 237Np+48Ca fusion reaction" (http:/ / nrv. jinr. ru/ pdf_file/
PhysRevC_76_011601. pdf), Oganessian et al., Phys. Rev. C76, 011601(R) (2007). Retrieved on 2009-08-17
[13] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Uut/ index. html
Ununtrium 6
[14] http:/ / www. radiochemistry. org/ periodictable/ elements/ 115. html

[16] http:/ / www-cms. llnl. gov/ e113_115/ images. html
[17] http:/ / physicsweb. org/ articles/ world/ 17/ 7/ 7

Ununtrium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308459660 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Alfio, AlimanRuna, Allen3, Anoop.m,
Attackman7171, BlueEarth, Brett Dunbar, Bryan Derksen, Bubbha, Cacahueten, Carbuncle, Crystal whacker, Daniel bg, Darrien, David Shay, Db099221,
Devleenasamanta, Dogposter, Doulos Christos, Drjezza, Edgar181, Emperorbma, Eric119, Feeeshboy, Femto, Ferengi, Flying Jazz, Fonzy, Fukumoto,
Fvw, Gveret Tered, Harro5, Hashar, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Iwoelbern, Jeltz, Joanjoc, John, KJS77, Kelovy, Kingdon, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, Leapmark, Liltibs,
Mav, Mellery, Merovingian, Nergaal, Netdragon, NewEnglandYankee, Nick Levine, Nozzleman, Ortolan88, Pascal666, Poohbee13666, Poolkris, Pras,
Rathlan, Reddi, Remember, Reyk, Rich Farmbrough, RickK, Rickjpelleg, Rifleman 82, Roentgenium111, Romanskolduns, Rufty, Rursus, Saperaud,
Schneelocke, ShaunMacPherson, Shimgray, SimonP, Siroxo, Skatebiker, Sl, Snoyes, Tagishsimon, Tetracube, Timc, Trollminator, Vicki Rosenzweig,
Xoloz, Xtreambar, Zinc90, 60 anonymous edits

Contributors
image:Uut-TableImage.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uut-TableImage.png License: GNU Free Documentation License
Contributors: Kwamikagami, Saperaud
License
Ununquadium 1
Ununquadium
ununtrium ← ununquadium → ununpentium

Pb
↑
Uuq
↓
(Uhq)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number ununquadium, Uuq, 114
Element category Unknown, suspected to be a noble gas
Appearance unknown

−1
2 2
(guess based on lead)
Phase unknown
Main article: Isotopes of ununquadium
289
Uuq syn 2.6 s α 9.82,9.48 285
Uub
289b
Uuq ? syn 1.1 m α 9.67 285b
Uub ?
288
Uuq syn 0.8 s α 9.94 284
Uub
287
Uuq syn 0.48 s α 10.02 283
Uub
287b
Uuq ?? syn 5.5 s α 10.29 283b
Uub ??
286
Uuq syn 0.13 s 40% α 10.19 282
Uub
60% SF
References
Ununquadium (pronounced /ˌjuːnənˈkwɒdiəm/;[1] officially, the two initial u's are to be

[2]
pronounced English pronunciation: /uː/ ( listen) ) is the temporary name of a radioactive
Ununquadium 2
chemical element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uuq and has the
atomic number 114.
About 80 decays of atoms of ununquadium have been observed to date, 50 directly and 30
from the decay of the heavier elements ununhexium and ununoctium. All decays have been
assigned to the four neighbouring isotopes with mass numbers 286-289. The longest-lived
isotope currently known is 289114 with a half-life of ~2.6 s, although there is evidence for
an isomer, 289b114, which has a half-life of ~66 s, which would represent one of the
longest-lived nuclei in the superheavy element region.
Recent chemistry experiments have strongly indicated that element 114 possesses
non-'eka'-lead properties and appears to behave as the first superheavy element that
portrays noble-gas-like properties due to relativistic effects.[3]
De facto discovery
In December 1998, scientists at Dubna (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research) in Russia
bombarded a Pu-244 target with Ca-48 ions. A single atom of element 114, decaying by 9.67
MeV alpha-emission with a half-life of 30 s, was produced and assigned to 289114. This
observation was subsequently published in January 1999.[4] However, the decay chain
observed has not been repeated and the exact identity of this activity is unknown although
it is possible that it is due to a meta-stable isomer, namely 289m114.
In March 1999, the same team replaced the Pu-244 target with a Pu-242 one in order to
produce other isotopes. This time two atoms of element 114 were produced, decaying by
10.29 MeV alpha-emission with a half-life of 5.5 s. They were assigned as 287114.[5] Once
again, this activity has not been seen again and it is unclear what nucleus was produced. It
is possible that it was a meta-stable isomer, namely 287m114.
The now-confirmed discovery of element 114 was made in June 1999 when the Dubna team
repeated the Pu-244 reaction. This time, two atoms of element 114 were produced decaying
by emission of 9.82 MeV alpha particles with a half life of 2.6 s.[6]
This activity was initially assigned to 288114 in error, due to the confusion regarding the
above observations. Further work in Dec 2002 has allowed a positive reassignment to
289
114.[7]
*
24494Pu + 4820Ca → 292114Uuq → 289114Uuq +3 10n
Theoretical estimation of the alpha decay half lives of the isotopes of the element 114
supports the experimental data.[8] [9] The fission-survived isotope 298114 is predicted to
have alpha decay half life around 17 days.[10] [11]
In May 2009, the JWP published a report on the discovery of element 112 ununbium in
which they acknowledged the discovery of the isotope 283112.[12] This therefore implies the
de facto discovery of element 114, from the acknowledgment of the data for the synthesis of
287
114 and 291116 (see below), relating to 283112, although this may not be determined as
the first synthesis of the element. An impending report by the JWP will discuss these issues.
288 289
The discovery of element 114, as 114 and 114, was successfully confirmed in July
2009 at the GSI (see section 6).
Ununquadium 3
Naming
Current names
Ununquadium (Uuq) is a temporary IUPAC systematic element name. Research scientists
usually refer to the element simply as element 114.

According to IUPAC recommendations, the discoverer(s)of a new element has the right to
suggest a name.[13] No naming suggestions have yet been given by the (claimant)
discoverers.
Extrapolated chemical properties of eka-lead
Oxidation states
Element 114 is projected to be the second member of the 7p series of non-metals and the
heaviest member of group 14 (IVA) in the Periodic Table, below lead. Each of the members
of this group show the group oxidation state of +IV and the latter members have an
increasing +II chemistry due to the onset of the inert pair effect. Tin represents the point at
which the stability of the +II and +IV states are similar. Lead, the heaviest member,
portrays a switch from the +IV state to the +II state. Element 114 should therefore follow
this trend and a possess an oxidising +IV state and a stable +II state.
Chemistry
Element 114 should portray eka-lead chemical properties and should therefore form a
monoxide, UuqO, and dihalides, UuqF2, UuqCl2, UuqBr2, and UuqI2. If the +IV state is
accessible, it is likely that it is only possible in the oxide, UuqO2, and fluoride, UuqF4. It
may also show a mixed oxide, Uuq3O4, analogous to Pb3O4.
Some studies also suggest that the chemical behaviour of element 114 might in fact be
closer to that of the noble gas radon, than to that of lead.[3]
Atomic gas phase

Two experiments were performed in April-May 2007 in a joint FLNR-PSI collaboration
aiming to study the chemistry of element 112. The first experiment involved the reaction
242
Pu(48Ca,3n)287114 and the second the reaction 244Pu(48Ca,4n)288114. The adsorption
properties of the resultant atoms on a gold surface were compared with those of radon. The
first experiment allowed detection of 3 atoms of 283112 (see ununbium) but also seemingly
detected 1 atom of 287114. This result was a surprise given the transport time of the
product atoms is ~2 s, so element 114 atoms should decay before adsorption. In the second
reaction, 2 atoms of 288114 and possibly 1 atom of 289114 were detected. Two of the three
atoms portrayed adsorption characteristics associated with a volatile, noble-gas-like
element, which has been suggested but is not predicted by more recent calculations. These
experiments did however provide independent confirmation for the discovery of elements
112, 114, and 116 via comparison with published decay data. Further experiments were
Ununquadium 4
performed in 2008 to confirm this important result and a single atom of 289114 was
detected which gave data in agreement with previous data in support of element 114
having a noble-gas-like interaction with gold.[14]

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of ununquadium by so-called "cold" fusion
only.
208
Pb(76Ge,xn)284−x114
The first attempt to synthesise element 114 in cold fusion reactions was performed at
GANIL, France in 2003. No atoms were detected providing a yield limit of 1.2 pb.

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of ununquadium by so-called "hot" fusion
244
Pu(48Ca,xn)292−x114 (x=3,4,5)
The first experiments on the synthesis of element 114 were performed by the team in
Dubna in November 1998. They were able to detect a single, long decay chain, assigned to
289
114.[4] The reaction was repeated in 1999 and a further 2 atoms of element 114 were
288 [6]
detected. The products were assigned to 114. The team further studied the reaction in
2002. During the measurement of the 3n, 4n, and 5n neutron evaporation excitation
functions they were able to detect 3 atoms of 289114, 12 atoms of the new isotope 288114,
and 1 atom of the new isotope 287114. Based on these results, the first atom to be detected
was tentatively reassigned to 290114 or 289m114, whilst the two subsequent atoms were
reassigned to 289114 and therefore belong to the unofficial discovery experiment.[7] In an
attempt to study the chemistry of element 112 as the isotope 285112, this reaction was
repeated in April 2007. Surprisingly, a PSI-FLNR directly detected 2 atoms of 288114
forming the basis for the first chemical studies of element 114. In June 2008, the
experiment was repeated in order to further assess the chemistry of the element using the
289
114 isotope. A single atom was detected seeming to confirm the noble-gas-like
properties of the element. During May-July 2009, the team at GSI studied this reaction for
the first time, as a first step towards the synthesis of element 117.[15] . The team were able
to confirm the synthesis and decay data for 288114 and 289114.[16]
Ununquadium 5
242
Pu(48Ca,xn)290−x114 (x=2,3,4)
The team at Dubna first studied this reaction in March-April 1999 and detected two atoms
of element 114, assigned to 287114.[5] The reaction was repeated in September 2003 in
order to attempt to confirm the decay data for 287114 and 283112 since conflicting data for
283
112 had been collected (see ununbium). The Russian scientists were able to measure
decay data for 288114,287114 and the new isotope 286114 from the measurement of the 2n,
3n, and 4n excitation functions. [17] [18] In April 2006, a PSI-FLNR collaboration used the
reaction to determine the first chemical properties of element 112 by producing 283112 as
an overshoot product. In a confirmatory experiment in April 2007, the team were able to
detect 287114 directly and therefore measure some initial data on the atomic chemical
properties of element 114.

The isotopes of ununquadium have also been observed in the decay of elements 116 and
118 (see ununoctium for decay chain).
Evaporation residue Observed Uuq isotope
293 289 [19] [18]

116 114
292 288 [18]

116 114
291 287 [7]

116 114
294 290 286 [20]

118, 116 114

286 2002 249 [20]

Uuq Cf(48Ca,3n)
287a 2002 244

Uuq Pu(48Ca,5n)
287b 1999 242

Uuq ?? Pu(48Ca,3n)
288 2002 244

Uuq Pu(48Ca,4n)
289a 1999 244

Uuq Pu(48Ca,3n)
289b 1998 244

Uuq ? Pu(48Ca,3n)
Ununquadium 6
Yields of isotopes
The tables below provide cross-sections and excitation energies for fusion reactions
producing ununquadium isotopes directly. Data in bold represent maxima derived from
Cold fusion
76 208 284 < 1.2 pb

Ge Pb Uuq
Hot fusion
48 242 290 0.5 pb, 32.5 MeV 3.6 pb, 40.0 4.5 pb, 40.0 <1.4 pb , 45.0 MeV
Ca Pu Uuq
MeV MeV
48 244 292 1.7 pb, 40.0 5.3 pb, 40.0 1.1 pb, 52.0 MeV
Ca Pu Uuq
MeV MeV
Isomerism in ununquadium isotopes

289
114
In the first claimed synthesis of element 114, an isotope assigned as 289114 decayed by
emitting a 9.71 MeV alpha particle with a lifetime of 30 seconds. This activity was not
observed in repetitions of the direct synthesis of this isotope. However, in a single case
from the synthesis of 293116, a decay chain was measured starting with the emission of a
9.63 MeV alpha particle with a lifetime of 2.7 minutes. All subsequent decays were very
similar to that observed from 289114, presuming that the parent decay was missed. This
strongly suggests that the activity should be assigned to an isomeric level. The absence of
the activity in recent experiments indicates that the yield of the isomer is ~20% compared
to the supposed ground state and that the observation in the first experiment was a
fortunate (or not as the case history indicates). Further research is required to resolve
these issues.
287
114
In a manner similar to those for 289114, first experiments with a 242Pu target identified an
isotope 287114 decaying by emission of a 10.29 MeV alpha particle with a lifetime of 5.5
seconds. The daughter spontaneously fissioned with a lifetime in accord with the previous
synthesis of 283112. Both these acitivities have not been observed since (see ununbium).
However, the correlation suggests that the results are not random and are possible due to
the formation of isomers whose yield is obviously dependent on production methods.
Further research is required to unravel these discrepancies.
Ununquadium 7
Retracted isotopes
285
114
In the claimed synthesis of 293118 in 1999, the isotope 285114 was identified as decaying by
11.35 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of 0.58 ms. The claim was retracted in 2001 and
hence this ununquadium isotope is currently unknown or unconfirmed.

Several experiments have been performed between 2000-2004 at the Flerov Laboratory of
292
114. The nuclear reaction used is 244Pu+48Ca. The results have revealed how nuclei
such as this fission predominantly by expelling closed shell nuclei such as 132Sn (Z=50,
N=82). It was also found that the yield for the fusion-fission pathway was similar between
48
Ca and 58Fe projectiles, indicating a possible future use of 58Fe projectiles in superheavy
element formation.[21]
Target-Projectile Combinations leading to Z=114

compound nuclei
The below table contains various combinations of targets and projectiles which could be
used to form compound nuclei with Z=114. A indicates a successful reaction, a
indicates a failure to date and a indicates a reaction yet to be attempted.
Target-projectile combinations leading to Z=116 nuclei

Target Projectile CN Attempted?
208 76 284
Pb Ge 114
232 54 286
Th Cr 114
238 50 288
U Ti 114
244 48 292
Pu Ca 114
242 48 290
Pu Ca 114
239 48 287
Pu Ca 114
248 40 288
Cm Ar 114
249 36 285
Cf S 114
Ununquadium 8

DNS = Dinuclear system ; σ = cross section

max
208 76 284 60 fb DNS

Pb Ge 114 1n (283114) [22]
208 73 281 0.2 pb DNS

Pb Ge 114 1n (280114) [22]
238 50 288 60 fb DNS

U Ti 114 2n (286114) [23]
244 48 292 5 pb DNS

Pu Ca 114 4n (288114) [23]
242 48 290 0.4 pb DNS

Pu Ca 114 4n (286114) [23]
298
In search for the island of stability: 114
According to macroscopic-microscopic (MM) theory, Z=114 is the next spherical magic
number. This means that such nuclei are spherical in their ground state and should have
high, wide fission barriers to deformation and hence long SF partial half-lives.
In the region of Z=114, MM theory indicates that N=184 is the next spherical neutron
magic number and puts forward the nucleus 298114 as a strong candidate for the next
spherical doubly magic nucleus, after 208Pb (Z=82, N=126). 298114 is taken to be at the
centre of a hypothetical ‘island of stability’. However, other calculations using relativistic
mean field (RMF) theory propose Z=120, 122, and 126 as alternative proton magic
numbers depending upon the chosen set of parameters. It is possible that rather than a
peak at a specific proton shell, there exists a plateau of proton shell effects from
Z=114–126.
It should be noted that calculations suggest that the minimum of the shell-correction
energy and hence the highest fission barrier exists for 297115, caused by pairing effects.
Due to the expected high fission barriers, any nucleus within this island of stability will
exclusively decay by alpha-particle emission and as such the nucleus with the longest
half-life is predicted to be 298114. The expected half-life is unlikely to reach values higher
than about 10 minutes, unless the N=184 neutron shell proves to be more stabilising than
predicted, for which there exists some evidence. In addition, 297114 may have an
even-longer half-life due to the effect of the odd neutron, creating transitions between
similar Nilsson levels with lower Qalpha values.
In either case, an island of stability does not represent nuclei with the longest half-lives but
those which are significantly stabilized against fission by closed-shell effects.
Evidence for Z=114 closed proton shell

Whilst evidence for closed neutron shells can be deemed directly from the systematic
variation of Qalpha values for ground-state to ground-state transitions, evidence for closed
proton shells comes from (partial) spontaneous fission half-lives. Such data can sometimes
be difficult to extract due to low production rates and weak SF branching. In the case of
Z=114, evidence for the effect of this proposed closed shell comes from the comparison
Ununquadium 9
between the nuclei pairings 282112 (TSF1/2 = 0.8 ms) and 286114 (TSF1/2 = 130 ms), and
284
112 (TSF = 97 ms) and 288114 (TSF >800 ms). Further evidence would come from the
measurement of partial SF half-lives of nuclei with Z>114, such as 290116 and 292118 (both
N=174 isotones). The extraction of Z=114 effects is complicated by the presence of a
dominating N=184 effect in this region.
Difficulty of synthesis of 298114

The direct synthesis of the nucleus 298114 by a fusion-evaporation pathway is impossible
since no known combination of target and projectile can provide 184 neutrons in the
compound nucleus.
It has been suggested that such a neutron-rich isotope can be formed by the quasifission
(partial fusion followed by fission) of a massive nucleus. Such nuclei tend to fission with the
formation of isotopes close to the closed shells Z=20/N=20 (40Ca), Z=50/N=82 (132Sn) or
Z=82/N=126 (208Pb/209Bi). If Z=114 does represent a closed shell, then the hypothetical
reaction below may represent a method of synthesis:
20480Hg + 13654Xe → 298114Uuq + 4020Ca +2 10n
298
It is also possible that 114 can be synthesized by the alpha decay of a massive nucleus.
Such a method would depend highly on the SF stability of such nuclei, since the alpha
half-lives are expected to be very short. The yields for such reactions will also most likely be
extremely small. One such reaction is:
24494Pu(9640Zr, 2n) → 338134Utq →→ 298114Uuq + 10 42He
Currently running experiments

In February 2009, it was indicated that the team at LBNL may have detected an atom of
element 114 using the previously-studied reaction 242Pu + 48Ca.[24] Confirmation is not yet
available.
In addition, in April 2009, the PSI-FLNR collaboration carried out another study of the
chemistry of element 114. Results are not yet available.
Future experiments
The team at RIKEN have indicated plans to study the cold fusion reaction:
*
20882Pb + 7632Ge → 284114Uuq →?
The TASCA collaboration based at the GSI will perform their first chemistry experiments on
E114 starting in August 2009, following their successful production of the element in April
2009.
The FLNR have future plans to study light isotopes of element 114, formed in the reaction
between 239Pu and 48Ca.
Ununquadium 10
See also
• Island of stability: Ununquadium–Unbinilium–Unbihexium
• Lead
• Periodic table (extended)
• Isotopes of ununquadium
External links
• WebElements.com: Uuq [25]
[26]
• First postcard from the island of nuclear stability
• Second postcard from the island of stability [27]
References
[1] ununquadium (http:/ / reference. aol. com/ columbia/ _a/ ununquadium/ 20051207161909990014)
[3] Gas Phase Chemistry of Superheavy Elements (http:/ / lch. web. psi. ch/ files/ lectures/ TexasA& M/ TexasA&
M. pdf), lecture by Heinz W. Gäggeler, Nov. 2007. Last accessed on Dec. 12, 2008.
[4] "Synthesis of Superheavy Nuclei in the 48Ca + 244Pu Reaction" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v83/ i16/
p3154_1), Oganessian et al.., Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 3154 - 3157 (1999).Retrieved on 2008-03-03
[5] "Synthesis of nuclei of the superheavy element 114 in reactions induced by 48Ca" (http:/ / www. nature. com/
nature/ journal/ v400/ n6741/ abs/ 400242a0. html), Oganessian et al., Nature 400, 242-245 (15 July 1999).
[6] "Synthesis of superheavy nuclei in the 48Ca+244Pu reaction: 288114" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/
v62/ i4/ e041604), Oganessian et al.., Phys. Rev. C 62, 041604 (2000). Retrieved on 2008-03-03
[7] "Measurements of cross sections for the fusion-evaporation reactions 244Pu(48Ca,xn)292−x114 and
245
Cm(48Ca,xn)293−x116" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v69/ i5/ e054607), Oganessian et al., Phys.
Rev. C 69, 054607 (2004). Retrieved on 2008-03-03
[10] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). " Search for long lived heaviest nuclei beyond the
valley of stability (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal&
[11] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). " Nuclear half-lives for α-radioactivity of elements
with 100 ≤ Z ≤ 130 (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6WBB-4S26JRX-1&
_user=2806701& _coverDate=03/ 14/ 2008& _alid=740505626& _rdoc=6& _fmt=high& _orig=search&
_cdi=6706& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _ct=211& _acct=C000058844& _version=1& _urlVersion=0&
_userid=2806701& md5=dc85a3a8a2ac1faa38c3804f16f86c13)". At. Data & Nucl. Data Tables 94: 781–806.
doi: 10.1016/j.adt.2008.01.003 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. adt. 2008. 01. 003). .
[12] R.C.Barber; H.W.Gaeggeler;P.J.Karol;H. Nakahara; E.Verdaci; E. Vogt (2009). " Discovery of the element with
PAC-REP-08-03-05). .
[15] https:/ / www. gsi. de/ forschung/ beamtime/ Schedule/ 2009/ Month/ Mo05. pdf
[16] http:/ / www-w2k. gsi. de/ tasca/ News_Dates/ news_dates2. htm
Ununquadium 11
[17] "Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of elements 112, 114, and 116
produced in the fusion reactions 233,238U, 242Pu, and 248Cm+48Ca" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v70/
i6/ e064609), Oganessian et al., Phys. Rev. C 70, 064609 (2004). Retrieved on 2008-03-03
[18] "Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of elements 112, 114, and 116
produced in the fusion reactions 233,238U , 242Pu , and 248Cm+48Ca" (http:/ / www. jinr. ru/ publish/ Preprints/
2004/ 160(E7-2004-160). pdf), Oganessian et al., JINR preprints, 2004. Retrieved on 2008-03-03
[19] see ununhexium
[20] see ununoctium
[24] http:/ / www. chemicalforums. com/ index. php?topic=30758. 0
[25] http:/ / webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Uuq/ index. html
[26] http:/ / cerncourier. com/ main/ article/ 39/ 7/ 18
[27] http:/ / www. cerncourier. com/ main/ article/ 41/ 8/ 17

Ununquadium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308005746 Contributors: Adashiel, Ahoerstemeier, AkvoD3, Alfio, AlimanRuna,
Angstengel, Archfalhwyl, AxelBoldt, Bhangranuch, BlueEarth, Bobblewik, Bryan Derksen, Cacahueten, Carbuncle, ChemNerd, Cosmium, Dajwilkinson,
Dale101usa, Dante Alighieri, Darrien, David Shay, Devleenasamanta, Drjezza, Edgar181, El C, Emperorbma, Eric119, Erkcan, Femto, Flying Jazz, Fonzy,
Fosnez, Fvw, GDonato, Green Bush Draw, Gveret Tered, Hashar, Headbomb, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Icarus3, Jeffreymcmanus, Joanjoc, John, Jose Ramos,
Keenan Pepper, Kelovy, Kingdon, Kurt Jansson, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, MARKELLOS, Manoj C Menon, Markhurd, Mav, Nergaal, Nihiltres, Noisy,
Nozzleman, Orelstrigo, Ortolan88, Oscarcwk, Ossipewsk, Otto ter Haar, Parsa, Pascal666, Pewwer42, Pion, Polonium, Poolkris, Potatoswatter, Pt,
Qoou.Anonimu, RTC, Rathlan, Remember, Reyk, Rich Farmbrough, RickK, Rickjpelleg, Rifleman 82, Rjwilmsi, Roberta F., Roentgenium111, Romanm,
Romanskolduns, Rumping, Rursus, Saperaud, ShaunMacPherson, SimonP, Siroxo, Skatebiker, Skomorokh, Sl, Stirling Newberry, TUF-KAT, Tagishsimon,
Tetracube, Theseeker4, Timc, Timwi, Tonyrex, Trollminator, Typhoonchaser, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vuo, Wafulz, Walkerma, Warut, Zkamran53, 118
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Ununpentium 1
Ununpentium
ununquadium ← ununpentium → ununhexium

Bi
↑
Uup
↓
(Uhp)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number ununpentium, Uup, 115
Element category presumably poor metals

−1
2 3
(guess based on bismuth)
Main article: Isotopes of ununpentium

288
Uup syn 87.5 ms α 10.46 284
Uut
287
Uup syn 32 ms α 10.59 283
Uut
References
Ununpentium (pronounced /ˌjuːnənˈpɛntiəm/; officially, the two initial u's are to be

[1]
pronounced English pronunciation: /uː/ ( listen) ) is the temporary name of a synthetic
superheavy element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uup and has the
atomic number 115.
Only about 30 atoms of ununpentium have been synthesised to date and just 4 direct decays
of the parent element have been detected. Two isotopes are currently known, Uup-287 and
Uup-288.
Element 115 also falls in the center of the theoretical island of stability. The most stable
isotope of ununpentium is predicted to be Uup-299, containing the theorized "magic
number" of 184 neutrons. The most neutron rich isotope to date is Uup-288, which contains
173 neutrons.
Ununpentium 2
Discovery profile
On February 2, 2004, synthesis of ununpentium was reported in Physical Review C by a
team composed of Russian scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna,
and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.[2] [3] The team
reported that they bombarded americium-243 with calcium-48 ions to produce four atoms
of ununpentium. These atoms, they report, decayed by emission of alpha-particles to
ununtrium in approximately 100 milliseconds.
The Dubna-Livermore collaboration has strengthened their claim for the discovery of
ununpentium by conducting chemical experiments on the decay daughter 268Db. In
experiments in June 2004 and December 2005, the Dubnium isotope was successfully
identified by milking the Db fraction and measuring any SF activities.[4] [5] Both the half-life
and decay mode were confirmed for the proposed 268Db which lends support to the
assignment of Z=115 to the parent nuclei.
Theoretical calculations using a quantum-tunneling model support the experimental
alpha-decay half-lives.[6]
Official claim of discovery of element 115

Sergei Dmitriev from the Flerov laboratory of nuclear reactions (FLNR) in Dubna, Russia,
has formally put forward their claim of discovery of element 115 to the Joint Working Party
(JWP) from IUPAC and IUPAP. The JWP are expected to publish their opinions on such
claims in the near future.[7]
Naming
Current names
Ununpentium is historically known as eka-bismuth. Ununpentium is a temporary IUPAC
systematic element name. Research scientists usually refer to the element simply as
element 115.
Extrapolated chemical properties of eka-bismuth
Oxidation states
Element 115 is projected to be the third member of the 7p series of non-metals and the
heaviest member of group 15 (VA) in the Periodic Table, below bismuth. In this group, each
member is known to portray the group oxidation state of +V but with differing stability. For
nitrogen, the +V state is very difficult to achieve due to the lack of low-lying d-orbitals and
the inability of the small nitrogen atom to accommodate five ligands. The +V state is well
represented for phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony. However, for bismuth it is rare due to
the reluctance of the 6s2 electron to participate in bonding. This effect is known as the
"inert pair effect" and is commonly linked to relativistic stabilisation of the 6s-orbitals. It is
expected that element 115 will continue this trend and portray only +III and +I oxidation
states. Nitrogen(I) and bismuth(I) are known but rare and Uup(I) is likely to show some
unique properties.[8]
Ununpentium 3
Chemistry
It is expected that the chemistry of ununpentium will be related to its lighter homologue
bismuth. In this regard it is expected to undergo oxidation only as far as the trioxide
Uup2O3. Oxidation with the more reactive halogens should form the trihalides, such as
UupF3 and UupCl3. The less-oxidising, heavier halogens, may well only be able to promote
the formation of the monohalides, UupBr and UupI.

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of ununpentium by so-called "hot" fusion
238
U(51V,xn)289−xUup
There are strong indications that this reaction was performed in late 2004 as part of a
uranium(IV) fluoride target test at the GSI. No reports have been published suggesting that
no products atoms were detected, as anticipated by the team.[9]
243
Am(48Ca,xn)291−xUup (x=3,4)
This reaction was first performed by the team in Dubna in July-August 2003. In two
separate runs they were able to detect 3 atoms of 288Uup and a single atom of 287Uup. The
reaction was studied further in June 2004 in an attempt to isolate the descendant 268Db
from the 288Uup decay chain. After chemical separation of a +4/+5 fraction, 15 SF decays
were measured with a lifetime consistent with 268Db. In order to prove that the decays
were from dubnium-268, the team repeated the reaction in August 2005 and separated the
+4 and +5 fractions and further separated the +5 fractions into tantalum-like and
niobium-like ones. Five SF activities were observed, all occurring in the +5 fractions and
none in the tantalum-like fractions, proving that the product was indeed isotopes of
dubnium.

287 2003 243

Uup Am(48Ca,4n)
288 2003 243

Uup Am(48Ca,3n)
Ununpentium 4
Yields of isotopes
Hot fusion
producing ununpentium isotopes directly. Data in bold represent maxima derived from
48 243 291 3.7 pb, 39.0 MeV 0.9 pb, 44.4 MeV
Ca Am Uup

compound nuclei

208 75 283
Pb As 115
232 55 287
Th Mn 115
238 51 289
U V 115
237 50 287
Np Ti 115
244 45 289
Pu Sc 115
243 48 291
Am Ca 115
241 48 289
Am Ca 115
248 41 289
Cm V 115
249 40 289
Bk Ar 115
249 37 286
Cf Cl 115


max
243 48 291 1 pb DNS

Am Ca 115 3n (288115) [10]
242 48 290 2.5 pb DNS

Am Ca 115 3n (287115) [10]
Ununpentium 5
Future experiments
The team at RIKEN are planning to study the reaction
As a primary next-goal for the Dubna team, they are planning to examine to products of the
243
Am + 48Ca using mass spectrometry in their state-of-the-art MASHA machine. They will
attempt to isolate the dubnium products, convert them chemically into a volatile compound,
most likely 268DbCl5, and measure the mass directly.
The FLNR also have future plans to study light isotopes of element 115 using the reaction
241
Am + 48Ca.[11]
See also
• Elerium-115
External links
[12]
• Uut and Uup Add Their Atomic Mass to Periodic Table
• Apsidium: Ununpentium [13]
• Superheavy elements [14]
• History and etymology [15]
References
[1] J. Chatt (IUPAC). " Recommendations for the naming of elements of atomic number greater than 100 (http:/ /
media. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1979/ pdf/ 5102x0381. pdf)". Pure & Appi. Chem. 51: 381. .
[2] Oganessian, Yu. Ts. (2004). "Experiments on the synthesis of element 115 in the reaction
243
Am(48Ca,xn)291?x115". Physical Review C 69: 021601. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.69.021601 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 69. 021601).
[3] Oganessian et al. (2003). "[http://www.jinr.ru/publish/Preprints/2003/178(E7-2003-178).pdf Experiments on
the synthesis of element 115 in the reaction 243Am(48Ca,xn)291−x115"]]". JINR preprints. http:/ / www. jinr. ru/
publish/ Preprints/ 2003/ 178(E7-2003-178). pdf.
[4] Oganessian et al. (2004). " Results of the experiment on chemical identification of db as a decay product of
element 115 (http:/ / www. jinr. ru/ publish/ Preprints/ 2004/ 157(e12-2004-157). pdf)". JINR preprints. .
[5] Oganessian, Yu. Ts. (2005). "Synthesis of elements 115 and 113 in the reaction ^{243}Am+^{48}Ca".
Physical Review C 72: 034611. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.72.034611 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 72.
034611).
[6] C. Samanta, P. Roy Chowdhury and D.N. Basu (2007). "Predictions of alpha decay half lives of heavy and
superheavy elements". Nucl. Phys. A 789: 142–154. doi: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2007.04.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2007. 04. 001).
[7] " Project: Priority claims for the discovery of elements with atomic number greater than 111 (http:/ / www.
iupac. org/ web/ ins/ 2006-046-1-200)". IUPAC. . Retrieved 2009-07-07.
[8] Keller, O. L., Jr.; C. W. Nestor, Jr. (1974). "Predicted properties of the superheavy elements. III. Element 115,
Eka-bismuth". Journal of Physical Chemistry 78: 1945. doi: 10.1021/j100612a015 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/
j100612a015).
[9] " List of experiments 2000-2006 (http:/ / opal. dnp. fmph. uniba. sk/ ~beer/ experiments. php)". .
[11] " Study of heavy and superheavy nuclei (see experiment 1.5) (http:/ / flerovlab. jinr. ru/ flnr/ education_list.
html)". .
[12] http:/ / radiochemistry. org/ periodictable/ elements/ 115. html
[13] http:/ / apsidium. com/ elements/ 115. htm
[14] http:/ / physicsweb. org/ articles/ world/ 17/ 7/ 7
[15] http:/ / vanderkrogt. net/ elements/ elem/ uup. html

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License
Ununhexium 1
Ununhexium
ununpentium ← ununhexium → ununseptium

Po
↑
Uuh
↓
(Uhh)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number ununhexium, Uuh, 116
Element category presumably poor metal

−1
2 4
(guess based on polonium)
Main article: Isotopes of ununhexium

293
Uuh syn 61 ms α 10.54 289
Uuq
292
Uuh syn 18 ms α 10.66 288
Uuq
291
Uuh syn 18 ms α 10.74 287
Uuq
290
Uuh syn 7.1 ms α 10.84 286
Uuq
References
Ununhexium (pronounced /ˌjuːnənˈhɛksiəm/;[1] officially, the two initial u's are to be

[2]
pronounced English pronunciation: /uː/ ( listen) ) is the temporary name of a synthetic
superheavy element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uuh and has the
atomic number 116.
About 30 atoms of ununhexium have been produced to date, either directly or as a decay
product of ununoctium, and are associated with decays from the four neighbouring isotopes
with masses 290-293. The most stable isotope to date is Uuh-293 with a half-life of 63 ms.
Ununhexium 2
De Facto Discovery
On July 19, 2000, scientists at Dubna (FLNR) detected a single decay from an atom of
ununhexium following the irradiation of a Cm-248 target with Ca-48 ions. The results were
published in December, 2000.[3] This 10.54 MeV alpha-emitting activity was originally
assigned to 292Uuh due to the correlation of the daughter to previously assigned 288Uuq.
However, that assignment was later altered to 289Uuq, and hence this activity was
correspondingly changed to 293Uuh. Two further atoms were reported by the institute
during their second experiment between April-May 2001.[4]
In the same experiment they also detected a decay chain which corresponded to the first
observed decay of ununquadium and assigned to 289Uuq.[4] This activity has not been
observed again in a repeat of the same reaction. However, its detection in this series of
experiments indicates the possibility of the decay of an isomer of ununhexium, namely
293b
116, or a rare decay branch of the already discovered isomer,293a116, in which the first
alpha particle was missed. Further research is required to positively assign this activity.
The team repeated the experiment in April-May 2005 and detected 8 atoms of ununhexium.
The measured decay data confirmed the assignment of the discovery isotope as 293116. In
this run, the team also observed 292116 in the 4n channel for the first time. [5]
In May 2009, the JWP reported on the discovery of element 112 (see ununbium) and
acknowledged the discovery of the isotope 283112.[6] This implies the de facto discovery of
element 116, as 291116 (see below), from the acknowledgment of the data relating to the
granddaughter 283112, although the actual discovery experiment may be determined as
that above. An impending JWP report will discuss these issues further.
Naming
The element with Z=116 is historically known as eka-polonium. Ununhexium (Uuh) is a
temporary IUPAC systematic element name. Research scientists usually refer to the
element simply as element 116 (E116).

According to IUPAC recommendations, the discoverer(s) of a new element has the right to
suggest a name.[7] The JWP has not yet officially accepted the discovery of element 116 and
so the naming process has not yet begun.
Extrapolated chemical properties of eka-polonium
Oxidation states
Element 116 is projected to be the fourth member of the 7p series of non-metals and the
heaviest member of group 16 (VIA) in the Periodic Table, below polonium. The group
oxidation state of +VI is known for all the members apart from oxygen which lacks
available d-orbitals for expansion and is limited to a maximum +II state, exhibited in the
fluoride OF2. The +IV is known for sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium, undergoing a
shift in stability from reducing for S(IV) and Se(IV) to oxidizing in Po(IV). Tellurium(IV) is
the most stable for this element. This suggests a decreasing stability for the higher
oxidation states as the group is descended and element 116 should portray an oxidizing +IV
Ununhexium 3
state and a more stable +II state. The lighter members are also known to form a −II state
as oxide, sulfide, selenide, and telluride. Polonide formation is unconfirmed or only
transient. The extrapolated electronegativity of ununhexium should eliminate this low
oxidation state.
Chemistry
The possible chemistry of element 116 can be extrapolated from that of polonium. It should
therefore undergo oxidation to a dioxide, UuhO2, although a trioxide, UuhO3 is plausible,
but unlikely. The stability of a +II state should manifest itself in the formation of a simple
monoxide, UuhO. Fluorination will likely result in a tetrafluoride, UuhF4 and/or a difluoride,
UuhF2. Chlorination and bromination may well stop at the corresponding dihalides, UuhCl2
and UuhBr2. Oxidation by iodine should certainly stop at UuhI2 and may even be inert to
this element.

208
Pb(82Se,xn)290−x116
In 1998, the team at GSI attempted the synthesis of 290116 as a radiative capture (x=0)
product. No atoms were detected providing a cross section limit of 4.8 pb.

This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of ununhexium by so-called "hot" fusion
238
U(54Cr,xn)292−x116
There are sketchy indications that this reaction was attempted by the team at GSI in 2006.
There are no published results on the outcome, presumably indicating that no atoms were
detected. This is expected from a study of the systematics of cross sections for U-238
targets.[8]
248
Cm(48Ca,xn)296−x116 (x=3,4)
The first attempt to synthesise element 116 was performed in 1977 by Ken Hulet and his
team at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). They were unable to detect
any atoms of ununhexium.[9] Yuri Oganessian and his team at the Flerov Laboratory of
Nuclear Reactions (FLNR) subsequently attempted the reaction in 1978 and were met by
failure. In 1985, a joint experiment between Berkeley and Peter Armbruster's team at GSI,
the result was again negative with a calculated cross-section limit of 10–100 pb.[10]
In 2000, Russian scientists at Dubna finally succeeded in detecting a single atom of element
116, assigned to the isotope 292116.[3] In 2001, they repeated the reaction and formed a
further 2 atoms in a confirmation of their discovery experiment. A third atom was
Ununhexium 4
tentatively assigned to 293116 on the basis of a missed parental alpha decay.[4] In April
2004, the team ran the experiment again at higher energy and were able to detect a new
decay chain, assigned to 292116. On this basis, the original data were reassigned to 293116.
The tentative chain is therefore possibly associated with a rare decay branch of this isotope.
293 [5]
In this reaction, 2 further atoms of 116 were detected.
245
Cm(48Ca,xn)293−x116 (x=2,3)
In order to assist in the assignment of isotope mass numbers for ununhexium, in
March-May 2003 the Dubna team bombarded a Cm-245 target with Ca-48 ions. They were
able to observe two new isotopes, assigned to 291116 and 290116.[11] This experiment was
successfully repeated in Feb-March 2005 where 10 atoms were created with identical decay
data to those reported in the 2003 experiment.[12]
Synthesis of ununhexium as a decay product

Ununhexium has also been observed in the decay of ununoctium. In October 2006 it was
announced that 3 atoms of ununoctium had been detected by the bombardment of
californium-249 with calcium-48 ions, which then rapidly decayed into ununhexium.[12]
The observation of 290116 allowed the assignment of the product to 294
118 and proved the
synthesis of a nucleus with Z=118 (see ununoctium).

290 2002 249 [13]

Uuh Cf(48Ca,3n)
291 2003 245 [11]

Uuh Cm(48Ca,2n)
292 2004 248 [5]

Uuh Cm(48Ca,4n)
293 2000 248 [3]

Uuh Cm(48Ca,3n)
Yields of isotopes
Hot fusion
producing ununhexium isotopes directly. Data in bold represent maxima derived from
48 248 296 [5] [5]

Ca Cm Uuh 1.1 pb, 38.9 MeV 3.3 pb, 38.9 MeV
48 245 293 [11] [11]

Ca Cm Uuh 0.9 pb, 33.0 MeV 3.7 pb, 37.9 MeV
Ununhexium 5
Retracted isotopes
289
116
In 1999, researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory announced the synthesis of
293
118 (see ununoctium), in a paper published in Physical Review Letters.[14] The claimed
isotope 289116 decayed by 11.63 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of 0.64 ms. The
following year, they published a retraction after other researchers were unable to duplicate
the results.[15] In June 2002, the director of the lab announced that the original claim of the
discovery of these two elements had been based on data fabricated by the principal author
Victor Ninov. As such, this isotope of E116 is currently unknown.

Several experiments have been performed between 2000-2006 at the Flerov laboratory of
Nuclear Reactions in Dubna studying the fission characteristics of the compound nuclei
296,294,290
116. Four nuclear reactions have been used, namely 248Cm+48Ca, 246Ca+48Ca,
244
Pu+ Ti and 232Th+58Fe. The results have revealed how nuclei such as this fission
50
predominantly by expelling closed shell nuclei such as 132Sn (Z=50, N=82). It was also
found that the yield for the fusion-fission pathway was similar between 48Ca and 58Fe
projectiles, indicating a possible future use of 58Fe projectiles in superheavy element
formation.In addition, in comparative experiments synthesizing 294116 using 48Ca and 50Ti
projectiles, the yield from fusion-fission was ~3x less for 50Ti, also suggesting a future use
in SHE production[16]
Theoretical calculations on decay characteristics

Theoretical calculation in a quantum tunneling model supports the experimental data
relating to the synthesis of 293,292116.[17] [18]

compound nuclei

208 82 290
Pb Se 116
232 58 290
Th Fe 116
238 54 292
U Cr 116
244 50 294
Pu Ti 116
248 48 296
Cm Ca 116
246 48 294
Cm Ca 116
Ununhexium 6
245 48 293
Cm Ca 116
249 40 289
Cf Ar 116


max
208 82 290 0.1 pb DNS

Pb Se 116 1n (289116) [19]
208 79 287 0.5 pb DNS

Pb Se 116 1n (286116) [19]
238 54 292 0.1 pb DNS

U Cr 116 2n (290116) [20]
250 48 298 5 pb DNS

Cm Ca 116 4n (294116) [20]
248 48 296 2 pb DNS

Cm Ca 116 4n (292116) [20]
247 48 295 3 pb DNS

Cm Ca 116 3n (292116) [20]
245 48 293 1.5 pb DNS

Cm Ca 116 3n (290116) [20]
Future experiments
The team at Dubna have indicated plans to synthesize element 116 using the reaction
between plutonium-244 and titanium-50. This experiment will allow them to assess the
feasibility of using projectiles with Z>20 required in the synthesis of superheavy elements
with Z>118. Although initially scheduled for 2008, the reaction looking at the synthesis of
evaporation residues has not been conducted to date.[21]
There are also plans to repeat the Cm-248 reaction at different projectile energies in order
to probe the 2n channel, leading to the new isotope 294116. In addition, they have future
plans to complete the excitation function of the 4n channel product, 292116, which will
allow them to assess the stabilizing effect of the N=184 shell on the yield of evaporation
residues.
The GSI also have plans to study the formation of 293,292116 in the 248Cm(48Ca,xn) reaction
as a first step in their future program with a 248Cm target, aiming towards a synthesis of
element 120 (see unbinilium).
Ununhexium 7
See also
External links
• WebElements.com: Uuh [22]
• Apsidium: Ununhexium 116 [23]
[24]
• Second postcard from the island of stability
References
[1] (http:/ / reference. aol. com/ columbia/ _a/ ununhexium/ 20051207161909990011)
[3] "Observation of the decay of 292116" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v63/ i1/ e011301), Oganessian et
al., Phys. Rev. C 63, 011301 (2000). Retrieved 2008-03-03
[4] "Confirmed results of the 248Cm(48Ca,4n)292116 experiment" (https:/ / e-reports-ext. llnl. gov/ pdf/ 302186.
pdf), Patin et al., LLNL report (2003). Retrieved 2008-03-03
[5] "Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of elements 112, 114, and 116 produced
in the fusion reactions 233,238U , 242Pu , and 248Cm+48Ca" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v70/ i6/
e064609), Oganessian et al., Phys. Rev. C 70, 064609 (2004). Retrieved 2008-03-03
[6] R.C.Barber; H.W.Gaeggeler;P.J.Karol;H. Nakahara; E.Verdaci; E. Vogt (2009). " Discovery of the element with
PAC-REP-08-03-05). .
[8] "List of experiments 2000-2006" (http:/ / opal. dnp. fmph. uniba. sk/ ~beer/ experiments. php)
[9] " Search for Superheavy Elements in the Bombardment of 248Cm with 48Ca (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/
PRL/ v39/ i7/ p385_1)". .
[10] " Attempts to Produce Superheavy Elements by Fusion of 48Ca with 248Cm in the Bombarding Energy Range
of 4.5-5.2 MeV/u (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v54/ i5/ p406_1)". .
[11] "Measurements of cross sections for the fusion-evaporation reactions 244Pu(48Ca,xn)292−x114 and
245
Cm(48Ca,xn)293−x116" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v69/ i5/ e054607), Oganessian et al., Phys. Rev.
C 69, 054607 (2004). Retrieved 2008-03-03
[12] "Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the 249Cf and 245Cm+48Ca fusion reactions" (http:/ /
scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=PRVCAN000074000004044602000001&
idtype=cvips& gifs=yes), Oganessian et al., Phys. Rev. C 74, 044602 (2006). Retrieved 2008-03-03
[13] see ununoctium
86 208
[14] Ninov, V.; et al. (1999). " Observation of Superheavy Nuclei Produced in the Reaction of Kr with Pb
(http:/ / link. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v83/ p1104)". Physical Review Letters 83: 1104. doi:
10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1104 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevLett. 83. 1104). .
[15] Editorial note on the preceding (http:/ / link. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v89/ e039901).
10.1103/PhysRevC.73.014612 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 73. 014612). . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[21] http:/ / flerovlab. jinr. ru/ flnr/ programme_synth_2008. html
[22] http:/ / webelements. com/ ununhexium/
[23] http:/ / apsidium. com/ elements/ 116. htm
[24] http:/ / cerncourier. com/ main/ article/ 41/ 8/ 17

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image:Uuh-TableImage.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uuh-TableImage.png License: GNU Free Documentation License
Contributors: Kwamikagami, Paddy, Saperaud, ‫רדמ לבוי‬
License
Ununseptium 1
Ununseptium
ununhexium ← Ununseptium → ununoctium

At
↑
Uus
↓
(Uhs)
Periodic Table -
Extended Periodic
Table
General
Name, symbol, number Ununseptium, Uus, 117
Element category Unknown
Appearance Unknown
Standard atomic weight Unknown g·mol

−1
Electron configuration Unknown
Electrons per shell 2,8,18,32,32,18,7
Phase Unknown
References
Ununseptium (pronounced /ˌjuːnənˈsɛptiəm/; officially, the two initial u's are to be

[1]
pronounced English pronunciation: /uː/ ( listen) ) is the temporary name of an undiscovered
chemical element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uus and the atomic
number 117. It is the only missing element in period 7 of the periodic table. Since it is
placed below the halogens it may share qualities similar to astatine or iodine. The first
attempt to synthesise this element is currently underway at the Flerov Laboratory of
Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia.
Naming
The element with Z=117 is historically known as eka-astatine (see 'eka' terminology). The
name ununseptium is a systematic element name, used as a placeholder until the element is
discovered, the discovery is acknowledged by the IUPAC, and the IUPAC decides on a
name. Usually, the name suggested by the discoverer(s) is chosen.
According to current guidelines from IUPAC, the ultimate name for element 117 must end
in -ium, not -ine, even if ununseptium turns out to be a halogen.[2]
Ununseptium 2
Current experiments
The team at the Flerov laboratory of nuclear reactions has begun an experiment to
synthesize element 117 using the reaction below:[3] [4]
The expected cross-section is of the order of ~2 pb. The expected evaporation residues,
293
117 and 294117, are predicted to decay via relatively long decay chains as far as isotopes
of dubnium or lawrencium.
293
Calculated decay chains from the parent nuclei Uus
and 294 Uus<ref name=saigadak/>
url=http:/ / 159. 93. 28. 88/ linkc/ education/

SHE_Sagaidak. pdf|accessdate=2009-07-07}}</ref>

compound nuclei

208 81 289
Pb Br 117
232 59 291
Th Co 117
238 55 293
U Mn 117
237 54 291
Np Cr 117
244 51 295
Pu V 117
243 50 293
Am Ti 117
248 45 293
Cm Sc 117
249 48 297
Bk Ca 117
Ununseptium 3
249 41 290
Cf K 117

Target Projectile CN Channel ~σ Model Ref

max
(product)
209 82 291 15 fb DNS

Bi Se 117 1n (290117) [5]
209 79 288 0.2 pb DNS

Bi Se 117 1n (287117) [5]
232 59 291 0.1 pb DNS

Th Co 117 2n (289117) [5]
238 55 293 70 fb DNS

U Mn 117 2-3n (291,290117) [5]
244 51 295 0.6 pb DNS

Pu V 117 3n (292117) [5]
248 45 293 2.9 pb DNS

Cm Sc 117 4n (289117) [5]
246 45 291 1 pb DNS

Cm Sc 117 4n (287117) [5]
249 48 297 2.1 pb ; 3 pb DNS [5] [6]

Bk Ca 117 3n (294117)
247 48 295 0.8 pb ; 0.9 pb DNS [6] [5]

Bk Ca 117 3n (292117)
Future experiments
The team at the GSI in Darmstadt, recently acknowledged as the discoverers of element
112 (see ununbium) have begun experiments aiming towards a synthesis of element 117.
The GSI have indicated that if they are unable to acquire any 249Bk from the United States,
which is likely given the situation regarding the attempt in Russia, they will study the
reaction 244Pu(51V,xn) instead, or possibly 243Am(50Ti,xn).[7]
Predicted Decay Characteristics

Theoretical calculations in a quantum tunneling model with mass estimates from a
macroscopic-microscopic model predict the alpha-decay half-lives of isotopes of the element
117 (namely, 289-303117) to be around 0.1-40 ms.[8] [9] [10]
Predicted chemical properties

Certain chemical properties, such as bond lengths, are predicted to differ from what one
would expect based on periodic trends from the lighter halogens (because of relativistic
effects).[11]
Ununseptium 4
References
[3] http:/ / rss. russiatoday. ru/ Top_News/ 2009-07-01/ New_chemical_element_to_be_synthesized_in_Russia. html
[4] http:/ / flerovlab. jinr. ru/ flnr/ experiments. html
[7] http:/ / www-win. gsi. de/ tasca08/ contributions/ TASCA08_Cont_Duellmann2b. pdf
superheavy elements". Nucl. Phys. A 789: 142. doi: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2007.04.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2007. 04. 001).
[9] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). "Search for long lived heaviest nuclei beyond the valley
of stability". Phys. Rev. C 77: 044603. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.77.044603 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/
PhysRevC. 77. 044603).
[10] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). "Nuclear half-lives for α -radioactivity of elements
with 100 ≤ Z ≤ 130". At. Data & Nucl. Data Tables 94: 781-806. doi: 10.1016/j.adt.2008.01.003 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1016/ j. adt. 2008. 01. 003).
[11] Trond Saue. " Principles and Applications of Relativistic Molecular Calculations (http:/ / dirac. chem. sdu. dk/
thesis/ 96. saue_phd. pdf)". ., page 76

Ununseptium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=307909370 Contributors: 7'ad, Ahoerstemeier, AlimanRuna, Allen3, Armando12,
Astavats, Bhangranuch, BlueEarth, Bryan Derksen, CBDunkerson, Cacahueten, Calvero JP, Camembert, Carbuncle, Cax17, ChongDae, Cosmium,
Cromwellt, Daniel Quinlan, Darrien, David Latapie, Dbeaglefan2, Discospinster, Dlohcierekim's sock, Drjezza, Edgar181, EmilJ, Emperorbma,
Encyclopedia77, Epbr123, Eric119, Femto, FoekeNoppert, Fonzy, Fvw, Giftlite, GregorB, Grika, Gveret Tered, H264, Halcatalyst, Hashar, Hugo-cs,
Isnow, Jehan60188, Jess Cully, Joanjoc, John, KarlFrei, Kay Dekker, Kelovy, Kingdon, KnightRider, Kwamikagami, Louis Waweru, Materialscientist, Mav,
Merovingian, Mike Rosoft, Mollsmolyneux, Nergaal, Newone, Oghmoir, Ortolan88, Pascal666, PeterJeremy, Pgk, Pi399, Pill, PoliteCarbide, Poolkris,
Rathlan, Remember, RickK, Rickjpelleg, Roentgenium111, Romanskolduns, Samir, Saperaud, Sengkang, SimonP, Siroxo, Skizzik, Sl, SlamDiego, Stagerj,
Super-Magician, Superheavy120, The way, the truth, and the light, TheMadBaron, Tide rolls, Trollminator, UtherSRG, Vicki Rosenzweig, Yekrats, 102
anonymous edits

Contributors
image:Uus-TableImage.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uus-TableImage.png License: GNU Free Documentation License
Image:293Uus and 294Uus calculated decay chains.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:293Uus_and_294Uus_calculated_decay_chains.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: drjezza
Image:249Bk+48Ca calculated excitation function.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:249Bk+48Ca_calculated_excitation_function.jpg License: Free Art License Contributors: drjezza
License
Ununoctium 1
Ununoctium
ununseptium ← ununoctium → ununenniumRn
↑
Uuo
↓
(Uho)

118Uuo
Periodic table
Appearance Unknown General Name, symbol, numberElement categoryGroup, period,

PhaseDensity (near r.t.) Boiling pointCritical pointHeat of fusionHeat of vaporization
Atomic properties Oxidation states Ionization energies 2nd: (extrapolated) 1450[1]
kJ·mol−1Atomic radiusCovalent radius Miscellaneous Crystal structureCAS registry number
Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of ununoctium
294 [2] syn ~0.89 ms α 11.65 ± 0.06 290

Uuo Uuh
ununoctium, Uuo, 118 Unknown18, 7, p(294) g·mol−1 [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p6[3] 2, 8, 18, 32,
32, 18, 8[3] (Image) Unknown (predicted) 13.65[4] g·cm−3 (extrapolated) 320–380[3]
K,50–110 °C,120–220 °F (extrapolated) 439[5] K, 6.8[5] MPa (extrapolated) 23.5[5] kJ·mol−1
(extrapolated) 19.4[5] kJ·mol−1 0[6] , +2[7] , +4[7] 1st: (calc.) 820–1130[3] kJ·mol−1
(predicted) 152[4] pm (extrapolated) 230[1] pm Unknown 54144-19-3[8]
Ununoctium (pronounced /ˌjuːnəˈnɒktiəm/;[9] officially, the two initial Us are to be
[10]
pronounced English pronunciation: /uː/ ( listen) ), also known as eka-radon or element
118, is the temporary IUPAC name[11] for the transactinide element having the atomic
number 118 and temporary element symbol Uuo. On the periodic table of the elements, it is
a p-block element and the last one of the 7th period. Ununoctium is currently the only
Ununoctium 2
synthetic member of group 18. It has the highest atomic number and highest atomic mass
of all discovered elements.
The radioactive ununoctium atom is very unstable, and since 2002, only three atoms
(possibly four) of the isotope 294Uuo have been detected.[12] While this allowed for very
little experimental characterization of its properties and possible compounds, theoretical
calculations have allowed for many predictions, including some very unexpected ones. For
example, although ununoctium is a member of group 18, it is probably not a noble gas like
all the other group 18 elements.[3] It was formerly thought to be a gas but is now predicted
to be a solid under normal conditions.[3]
History
Unsuccessful attempts
In late 1998, Polish physicist Robert Smolanczuk published calculations on the fusion of
atomic nuclei towards the synthesis of superheavy atoms, including element 118.[13] His
calculations suggested that it might be possible to make element 118 by fusing lead with
krypton under carefully controlled conditions.[13]
In 1999, researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory made use of these
predictions and announced the discovery of elements 116 and 118, in a paper published in
Physical Review Letters,[14] and very soon after the results were reported in Science.[15]
The researchers claimed to have performed the reaction:
8636Kr + 20882Pb → 293118Uuo +n
The following year, they published a retraction after researchers at other laboratories were
unable to duplicate the results and the Berkeley lab itself was unable to duplicate them as
well.[16] In June 2002, the director of the lab announced that the original claim of the
discovery of these two elements had been based on data fabricated by principal author
Victor Ninov.[17]
Discovery
First decay of atoms of ununoctium was observed at the JINR in Dubna in 2002.[18] On
October 9, 2006, researchers from Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) and
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory of California, USA, working at the JINR in Dubna,
Russia, announced in Physical Review C[2] that they had indirectly detected a total of three
(possibly four) nuclei of ununoctium-294 (one or two in 2002[19] and two more in 2005)
produced via collisions of californium-249 atoms and calcium-48 ions:[20] [21] [22] [23] [24]
24998Cf + 4820Ca → 294118Uuo +3n
Ununoctium 3
Because of the very small fusion reaction probability

(the fusion cross section is ~0.3-0.6 pb =
(3-6)×10−41 m2) the experiment took 4 months and
involved a beam dose of 4×1019 calcium ions that
had to be shot at the californium target to produce
the first recorded event believed to be the synthesis
of ununoctium.[8] Nevertheless, researchers are
highly confident that the results are not a false
positive, since the chance that the detections were
random events was estimated to be less than one
part in 100,000.[25]
In the experiments, the alpha-decay of three atoms

Radioactive decay pathway of isotope of ununoctium was observed. A fourth decay by
[2]
Uuo-294. The decay energy and average
direct spontaneous fission was also proposed. A
half-life is given for the parent isotope and
each daughter isotopes. The fraction of half-life of 0.89 ms was calculated: 294Uuo decays
atoms undergoing spontaneous fission (SF) into 290Uuh by alpha decay. Since there were only
is given in green. three nuclei, the halflife derived from observed
lifetimes has a large uncertainty:
0.89(+1.07|-0.31)ms.[2]
294118Uuo → 290116Uuh + 4He

The identification of the 294Uuo nuclei was verified by separately creating the putative
daughter nucleus 290Uuh by means of a bombardment of 245Cm with 48Ca ions,
24596Cm + 4820Ca → 290116Uuh +3n
and checking that the 290Uuh decay matched the decay chain of the 294Uuo nuclei.[2] The
daughter nucleus 290Uuh is very unstable, decaying with a halflife of 14 milliseconds into
286
Uuq, which may undergo spontaneous fission or alpha decay into 282Uub, which will
undergo spontaneous fission.[2]
In a quantum-tunneling model, the alpha decay half-life of 294118 was predicted to be
0.66(+0.23,-0.18)ms[26] with the experimental Q-value published in 2004.[27] Calculation
with theoretical Q-values from the macroscopic-microscopic model of
Muntian-Hofman-Patyk-Sobiczewski gives somewhat low but comparable results.[28]
Following the success in obtaining ununoctium, the discoverers have started similar
experiments in the hope of creating element 120 from 58Fe and 244Pu.[29] Isotopes of the
element 120 are predicted to have alpha decay half lives of the order of micro-seconds.[30]
[31]
Ununoctium 4
Naming
Until the 1960s ununoctium was known as eka-emanation (emanation is the old name for
radon).[32] In 1979 the IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element
was to be called ununoctium,[33] a systematic element name, as a placeholder until the
discovery of the element is confirmed and the IUPAC decides on a name.
Before the retraction in 2002, the researchers from Berkeley had intended to name the
element ghiorsium (Gh), after Albert Ghiorso (a leading member of the research team).[34]
The Russian discoverers reported their synthesis in 2006. In 2007, the head of the Russian
institute stated the team were considering two names for the new element: Flyorium in
honor of Georgy Flyorov, the founder of the research institute; and moskovium, in
recognition of the Moskovskaya Oblast where Dubna is located.[35] He also stated that
although the element was discovered as an American collaboration, who provided the
californium target, the element should rightly be named in honour of Russia since the
Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions at JINR was the only facility in the world which
could achieve this result.[36] [37]
Predicted Characteristics
Nucleus stability and isotopes

There are no elements with an atomic
number above 83 (after bismuth) that have
stable isotopes (or measurable decay
lifetimes). The stability of nuclei decreases
with the increase in atomic number, such
that all isotopes with an atomic number
above 101 decay radioactively with a
half-life under a day. Nevertheless, due to
Element 118 comes right at the end of the "island of
reasons not very well understood yet, there stability" and thus its nuclei are slightly more stable
is a slight increased nuclear stability than otherwise predicted.
around elements 110–114, which leads to
the appearance of what is known in nuclear physics as the "island of stability". This
concept, proposed by UC Berkeley professor Glenn Seaborg, explains why superheavy
elements last longer than predicted.[38] Ununoctium is radioactive and has half-life that
appears to be less than a millisecond. Nonetheless, this is still longer than some predicted
values,[26] [39] thus giving further support to the idea of this "island of stability".[40]
Calculations using a quantum-tunneling model predict the existence of several neutron-rich

isotopes of element 118 with alpha-decay half-lives close to 1 ms.[30] [31]
Theoretical calculations done on the synthetic pathways for, and the half-life of, other
isotopes have shown that some could be slightly more stable than the synthesized isotope
294
Uuo, most likely 293Uuo, 295Uuo, 296Uuo, 297Uuo, 298Uuo, 300Uuo and 302Uuo.[26] [41] Of
these, 297Uuo might provide the best chances for obtaining longer-lived nuclei,[26] [41] and
thus might become the focus of future work with this element. Some isotopes with many
more neutrons, such as some located around 313Uuo, could also provide longer-lived
nuclei.[42]
Ununoctium 5
Calculated atomic and physical properties

Ununoctium is a member of group 18, the zero-valence elements. The members of this
group are usually inert to most common chemical reactions (for example, combustion)
because the outer valence shell is completely filled with eight electrons. This produces a
stable, minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound.[43] It
is thought that similarly, ununoctium has a closed outer valence shell in which its valence
electrons are arranged in a 7s2, 7p6 configuration.[3]
Consequently, some expect ununoctium to have similar physical and chemical properties to
other members of its group, most closely resembling the noble gas above it in the periodic
table, radon.[44] Following the periodic trend, ununoctium would be expected to be slightly
more reactive than radon. However, theoretical calculations have shown that it could be
quite reactive, so that it can probably not be considered a noble gas.[7] In addition to being
far more reactive than radon, ununoctium may be even more reactive than elements 114
and 112.[3] The reason for the apparent enhancement of the chemical activity of element
118 relative to radon is an energetic destabilization and a radial expansion of the last
occupied 7p subshell.[3] [45] More precisely, considerable spin-orbit interactions between
the 7p electrons with the inert 7s2 electrons, effectively lead to a second valence shell
closing at element 114, and a significant decrease in stabilization of the closed shell of
element 118.[3] It has also been calculated that ununoctium, unlike other noble gases, binds
an electron with release of energy—or in other words, it exhibits positive electron
affinity.[46] [47] [48]
Ununoctium is expected to have by far the broadest polarizability of all elements before it
in the periodic table, and almost twofold of radon.[3] By extrapolating from the other noble
gases, it is expected that ununoctium has a boiling point between 320 and 380 K.[3] This is
very different from the previously estimated values of 263 K[1] or 247 K.[49] Even given the
large uncertainties of the calculations, it seems highly unlikely that element 118 would be a
gas under standard conditions.[3] [50] And as the liquid range of the other gases is very
narrow, between 2 and 9 kelvins, this element should be solid at standard conditions. If
ununoctium forms a gas under standard conditions nevertheless, it would be one of the
densest substances gaseous at standard conditions (even if it is monatomic like the other
noble gases).
Because of its tremendous polarizability, ununoctium is expected to have an anomalously
low ionization energy (similar to that of lead which is 70% of that of radon[51] and
significantly smaller than that of element 114[52] ) and a standard state condensed phase.[3]
Predicated compounds
No compounds of ununoctium have been synthesized yet, but
calculations on theoretical compounds have been performed
since 1964.[32] It is expected that if the ionization energy of the
element is high enough, it will be difficult to oxidize and
therefore, the most common oxidation state will be 0 (as for
other noble gases).[6]
Calculations on the dimeric molecule Uuo2 showed a bonding XeF4 and RnF4 have a
square planar configuration
interaction roughly equivalent to that calculated for Hg2, and a
Ununoctium 6
dissociation energy of 6 kJ/mol, roughly 4 times of that of Rn2.[3]

But most strikingly, it was calculated to have a bond length
shorter than in Rn2 by 0.16 Å, which would be indicative of a
significant bonding interaction.[3] On the other hand, the
compound UuoH+ exhibits a dissociation energy (in other words
proton affinity of Uuo) that is smaller than that of RnH+.[3]
The bonding between ununoctium and hydrogen in UuoH is very

weak and can be regarded as a pure van der Waals interaction
rather than a true chemical bond.[51] On the other hand, with
UuoF4 is predicted to have
highly electronegative elements, ununoctium seems to form a tetrahedral configuration
more stable compounds than for example element 112 or
element 114.[51] The stable oxidation states +2 and +4 have been predicted to exist in the
fluorinated compounds UuoF2 and UuoF4.[53] This is a result of the same spin-orbit
interactions that make ununoctium unusually reactive. For example, it was shown that the
reaction of Uuo with F2 to form the compound UuoF2, would release an energy of 106
kcal/mol of which about 46 kcal/mol come from these interactions.[51] For comparison, the
spin-orbit interaction for the similar molecule RnF2 is about 10 kcal/mol out of a formation
energy of 49 kcal/mol.[51] The same interaction stabilizes the tetrahedral Td configuration
for UuoF4, as opposed to the square planar D4h one of XeF4 and RnF4.[53] The Uuo-F bond
will most probably be ionic rather than covalent, rendering the UuoFn compounds
non-volatile.[7] [54] Unlike the other noble gases, ununoctium was predicted to be
sufficiently electropositive to form a Uuo-Cl bond with chlorine.[7]

compound nuclei

208 86 294
Pb Kr 118
232 64 296
Th Ni 118
238 58 296
U Fe 118
244 54 298
Pu Cr 118
248 50 298
Cm Ti 118
249 48 297
Cf Ca 118
Ununoctium 7


max
208 86 294 0.1 pb DNS

Pb Kr 118 1n (293118) [55]
208 85 293 0.18 pb DNS

Pb Kr 118 1n (292118) [55]
252 48 300 1.2 pb DNS

Cf Ca 118 3n (297118) [56]
251 48 299 1.2 pb DNS

Cf Ca 118 3n (296118) [56]
249 48 297 0.3 pb DNS

Cf Ca 118 3n (294118) [56]
Future uses
Since only four atoms of ununoctium have ever been produced, it currently has no uses
outside of basic scientific research. It would constitute a radiation hazard if enough were
ever assembled in one place.[57]
See also
• Transuranic element
• Ununhexium
External links
• ELEMENT 118: EXPERIMENTS on DISCOVERY [58], archive of discoverers' official web
page
• Chemistry-Blog: Independent analysis of 118 claim [59]
• WebElements: Ununoctium [60]
• Apsidium: Ununoctium - Moskowium [61]
• It's Elemental: Ununoctium [62]
• On the Claims for Discovery of Elements 110, 111, 112, 114, 116, and 118 (IUPAC
Technical Report) [63]
References
[1] Glenn Theodore Seaborg (1994). Modern Alchemy (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=e53sNAOXrdMC&
printsec=frontcover#PPA172,M1). World Scientific. p. 172. ISBN 9810214405. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[2] Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V.K.; Lobanov, Yu.V.; Abdullin, F.Sh.; Polyakov, A.N.; Sagaidak, R.N.;
Shirokovsky, I.V.; Tsyganov, Yu.S.; Voinov, Yu.S.; Gulbekian, G.G.; Bogomolov, S.L.; B. N. Gikal, A. N.
Mezentsev, S. Iliev; Subbotin, V.G.; Sukhov, A.M.; Subotic, K; Zagrebaev, V.I.; Vostokin, G.K.; Itkis, M. G.;
Moody, K.J; Patin, J.B.; Shaughnessy, D.A.; Stoyer, M.A.; Stoyer, N.J.; Wilk, P.A.; Kenneally, J.M.; Landrum, J.H.;
Wild, J.H.; and Lougheed, R.W. (2006-10-09). " Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the 249Cf
and 245Cm+48Ca fusion reactions (http:/ / link. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v74/ e044602)". Physical Review C 74
(4): 044602. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 74. 044602). .
Ununoctium 8
[3] Clinton S. Nash (2005). " Atomic and Molecular Properties of Elements 112, 114, and 118 (http:/ / pubs. acs.
org/ cgi-bin/ abstract. cgi/ jpcafh/ 2005/ 109/ i15/ abs/ jp050736o. html)". J. Phys. Chem. A 109 (15): 3493–3500.
. Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[4] " Moskowium (http:/ / www. apsidium. com/ elements/ 118. htm)". Apsidium. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[5] R. Eichler, B. Eichler, Thermochemical Properties of the Elements Rn, 112, 114, and 118 (http:/ / lch. web. psi.
ch/ pdf/ anrep03/ 06. pdf), Paul Scherrer Institut, , retrieved 2008-01-18
[6] " Ununoctium: Binary Compounds (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Uuo/ comp.
[7] Uzi Kaldor, Stephen Wilson (2003). Theoretical Chemistry and Physics of Heavy and Superheavy Elements
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0xcAM5BzS-wC& printsec=frontcover& dq=element+ 118+
properties#PPA105,M1). Springer. pp. 105. ISBN 140201371X. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[8] " Ununoctium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Uuo/ key. html)". WebElements
Periodic Table. . Retrieved 2007-12-09.
[9] " Ununoctium (http:/ / reference. aol. com/ columbia/ _a/ ununoctium/ 20051207161909990012)". Columbia
Encyclopedia. . Retrieved 2008-01-18. "Pronounced yoo′nənŏk′tēəm"
[10] Chatt, J. (1979). " Recommendations for the naming of elements of atomic numbers greater than 100 (http:/ /
media. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1979/ pdf/ 5102x0381. pdf)". Pure & Appl. Chem. (Pergamon Press Ltd.)
51: 381–384. . Retrieved 2009-07-03.
[11] M.E. Wieser (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied
Chemistry 78 (11): 2051–2066. doi: 10.1351/pac200678112051 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/
pac200678112051).
[12] " The Top 6 Physics Stories of 2006 (http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 2007/ jan/ physics/
article_view?b_start:int=1& -C=)". Discover Magazine. 2007-01-07. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[13] Robert Smolanczuk (May 1999). "Production mechanism of superheavy nuclei in cold fusion reactions".
59. 2634).
[14] Ninov, Viktor; K. E. Gregorich, W. Loveland, A. Ghiorso, D. C. Hoffman, D. M. Lee, H. Nitsche, W. J.
Swiatecki, U. W. Kirbach, C. A. Laue, J. L. Adams, J. B. Patin, D. A. Shaughnessy, D. A. Strellis, and P. A. Wilk
(1999). "Observation of Superheavy Nuclei Produced in the Reaction of 86Kr with 208Pb". Physical Review
Letters 83: 1104–1107. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1104 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevLett. 83.
1104).
[15] Robert F. Service (1999). "Berkeley Crew Bags Element 118". Science 284: 1751. doi:
[16] Public Affairs Department (2001-07-21). " Results of element 118 experiment retracted (http:/ / enews. lbl.
gov/ Science-Articles/ Archive/ 118-retraction. html)". Berkeley Lab. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[17] Dalton, Rex (2002). "Misconduct: The stars who fell to Earth". Nature 420: 728–729. doi: 10.1038/420728a
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ 420728a).
[18] Yu. Ts. Oganessian et al. (2002). " Results from the first 249Cf+48Ca experiment (http:/ / www. jinr. ru/
publish/ Preprints/ 2002/ 287(D7-2002-287)e. pdf)" (in Russian). JINR Communication (JINR, Dubna). .
[19] Oganessian Yu.Ts. et al. (2002). " Element 118: results from the first 249Cf + 48Ca experiment (http:/ / 159.
93. 28. 88/ linkc/ 118/ anno. html)". Communication of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. . Retrieved
2008-01-18.
[20] " Livermore scientists team with Russia to discover element 118 (https:/ / publicaffairs. llnl. gov/ news/
news_releases/ 2006/ NR-06-10-03. html)". Livermore press release. 2006-12-03. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[21] Yu. Ts. Oganessian (2006). "Synthesis and decay properties of superheavy elements". Pure Appl. Chem. 78:
889–904. doi: 10.1351/pac200678050889 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/ pac200678050889).
[22] Katharine Sanderson (2006). "Heaviest element made - again". Nature News (Nature (journal)). doi:
10.1038/news061016-4 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ news061016-4).
[23] Phil Schewe (2006-10-17). " Elements 116 and 118 Are Discovered (http:/ / www. aip. org/ pnu/ 2006/ 797.
html)". Physics News Update. American Institute of Physics. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[24] Rick Weiss (2006-10-17). " Scientists Announce Creation of Atomic Element, the Heaviest Yet (http:/ / www.
washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 10/ 16/ AR2006101601083. html)". Washington Post. .
[25] " Element 118 Detected, With Confidence (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ news/ 84/ i43/ 8443element118. html)".
Chemical and Engineering news. 2006-10-17. . Retrieved 2008-01-18. ""I would say we're very confident.""
[26] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (26 January 2006). "α decay half-lives of new superheavy
elements". Phys. Rev. C 73: 014612. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.73.014612 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/
PhysRevC. 73. 014612).
Ununoctium 9
[27] Yu. Ts. Oganessian et al. (2004). "Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of
elements 112, 114, and 116 produced in the fusion reactions 233, 238U, 242Pu, and 248Cm+48Ca". Phys. Rev.
C 70: 064609. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.70.064609 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 70. 064609).
10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2007. 04. 001).
[29] " A New Block on the Periodic Table (https:/ / www. llnl. gov/ str/ April07/ pdfs/ 04_07. 4. pdf)" (PDF).
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. April 2007. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[30] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). "Search for long lived heaviest nuclei beyond the
valley of stability". Phys. Rev. C 77: 044603. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.77.044603 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/
PhysRevC. 77. 044603).
with 100 ≤ Z ≤ 130". At. Data & Nucl. Data Tables 94: 781–806. doi: 10.1016/j.adt.2008.01.003 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1016/ j. adt. 2008. 01. 003).
[32] A. V. Grosse (1965). "Some physical and chemical properties of element 118 (Eka-Em) and element 86 (Em)".
Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry (Elsevier Science Ltd.) 27 (3): 509–19. doi:
10.1016/0022-1902(65)80255-X (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0022-1902(65)80255-X).
[33] J. Chatt (1979). "Recommendations for the Naming of Elements of Atomic Numbers Greater than 100". Pure
Appl. Chem. 51: 381–384. doi: 10.1351/pac197951020381 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/ pac197951020381).
[34] " Discovery of New Elements Makes Front Page News (http:/ / lbl. gov/ Science-Articles/ Research-Review/
Magazine/ 1999/ departments/ breaking_news. shtml)". Berkeley Lab Research Review Summer 1999. 1999. .
[35] " New chemical elements discovered in Russia`s Science City (http:/ / news. rin. ru/ eng/ news/ 9886/ 9/ 6/ )".
2007-02-12. . Retrieved 2008-02-09.
[36] NewsInfo (2006-10-17). " Periodic table has expanded (http:/ / www. rambler. ru/ news/ science/ 0/ 8914394.
html)" (in Russian). Rambler. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[37] Yemel'yanova, Asya (2006-12-17). " 118th element will be named in Russian (http:/ / www. vesti. ru/ doc.
html?id=113947)" (in Russian). vesti.ru. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[38] Glenn D Considine; Peter H Kulik (2002). Van Nostrand's scientific encyclopedia (9 ed.). Wiley-Interscience.
ISBN 9780471332305. OCLC 223349096 (http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 223349096).
[39] Yuri Oganessian (2007). "Heaviest nuclei from 48Ca-induced reactions". J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 34:
R165–R242. doi: 10.1088/0954-3899/34/4/R01 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1088/ 0954-3899/ 34/ 4/ R01).
[40] " New Element Isolated Only Briefly (http:/ / www. dailycal. org/ printable. php?id=21871)". The Daily
Californian. 2006-10-18. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[41] G. Royer, K. Zbiri, C. Bonilla (2004). "Entrance channels and alpha decay half-lives of the heaviest elements".
Nuclear Physics A 730: 355–376. doi: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.010 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j.
nuclphysa. 2003. 11. 010).
[42] S B Duarte, O A P Tavares, M Gonçalves, O Rodríguez, F Guzmán, T N Barbosa, F García and A Dimarco
(2004). "Half-life predictions for decay modes of superheavy nuclei". J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 30:
1487–1494. doi: 10.1088/0954-3899/30/10/014 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1088/ 0954-3899/ 30/ 10/ 014).
[43] Bader, Richard F.W.. " An Introduction to the Electronic Structure of Atoms and Molecules (http:/ / miranda.
[44] " Ununoctium (Uuo) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects (http:/ / lenntech. com/
Periodic-chart-elements/ Uuo-en. htm)". Lenntech. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[45] the actual quote is: "The reason for the apparent enhancement of chemical activity of element 118 relative to
radon is the energetic destabilization and radial expansion of its occupied 7p3/2 spinor shell"
[46] Igor Goidenko, Leonti Labzowsky, Ephraim Eliav, Uzi Kaldor, and Pekka Pyykko¨ (2003). "QED corrections to
the binding energy of the eka-radon (Z=118) negative ion". Physical Review A 67: 020102(R). doi:
10.1103/PhysRevA.67.020102 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevA. 67. 020102).
[47] Ephraim Eliav and Uzi Kaldor (1996). "Element 118: The First Rare Gas with an Electron Affinity". Physical
Review Letters 77 (27): 5350. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.77.5350 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevLett.
77. 5350).
[48] Nevertheless, quantum electrodynamic corrections have been shown to be quite significant in reducing this
affinity (by decreasing the binding in the anion Uuo− by 9%) thus confirming the importance of these
corrections in superheavy atoms. See Pyykko
[49] N. Takahashi (2002). "Boiling points of the superheavy elements 117 and 118". Journal of Radioanalytical and
Nuclear Chemistry 251 (2): 299–301. doi: 10.1023/A:1014880730282 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1023/
A:1014880730282).
Ununoctium 10
[50] It is debatable if the name of the group 'noble gases' will be changed if ununoctium is shown to be
non-volatile.
[51] Young-Kyu Han, Cheolbeom Bae, Sang-Kil Son, and Yoon Sup Lee (2000). "Spin–orbit effects on the
transactinide p-block element monohydrides MH (M=element 113–118)". Journal of Chemical Physics 112 (6).
[52] Clinton S. Nash (1999). "Spin-Orbit Effects, VSEPR Theory, and the Electronic Structures of Heavy and
Superheavy Group IVA Hydrides and Group VIIIA Tetrafluorides. A Partial Role Reversal for Elements 114 and
118". J. Phys. Chem. A 1999 (3): 402–410. doi: 10.1021/jp982735k (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ jp982735k).
[53] Young-Kyu Han and Yoon Sup Lee (1999). "Structures of RgFn (Rg = Xe, Rn, and Element 118. n = 2, 4.)
Calculated by Two-component Spin-Orbit Methods. A Spin-Orbit Induced Isomer of (118)F4". J. Phys. Chem. A
103 (8): 1104–1108. doi: 10.1021/jp983665k (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1021/ jp983665k).
[54] Kenneth S. Pitzer (1975). "Fluorides of radon and element 118". J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun.: 760b–761.
doi: 10.1039/C3975000760b (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1039/ C3975000760b).
[57] " Ununoctium: Biological information (http:/ / webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Uuo/ biol.
[58] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061129112314/ http:/ / flerovlab. jinr. ru/ flnr/ elm118. html
[59] http:/ / www. chemistry-blog. com/ 2006/ 10/ 16/
discovery-of-element-118-by-oganessian-dont-call-it-ununoctium/
[60] http:/ / webelements. com/ ununoctium/
[63] http:/ / iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 75/ 10/ 1601/

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Ununennium 1
Ununennium
119 ununoctium ← Ununennium → unbinilium

Fr
↑
Uue
↓
Uhe
periodic table - extended periodic
table
General
Name, Symbol, Number Ununennium, Uue, 119
Element category Unknown
Appearance Unknown

−1
Electron configuration [Uuo] 8s

1
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 8, 1
Physical properties
Phase Unknown
Miscellaneous
Main article: Isotopes of ununennium
References
Ununennium (pronounced /ˌjuːnəˈnɛniəm/; officially, the two initial u's are to be

[1]
pronounced English pronunciation: /uː/ ( listen) ), or eka-francium, is the temporary name
of a hypothetical chemical element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uue
and has the atomic number 119. Since it is below the alkali metals it might have properties
similar to those of francium or cesium. Like other alkali metals, it should be extremely
reactive with water and air.
Ununennium would be the first element in the eighth period of the periodic table and the
seventh alkali metal.
Ununennium 2
Unsuccessful attempts at synthesis

The synthesis of element 119 was attempted in 1985 by bombarding a target of
einsteinium-254 with calcium-48 ions at the superHILAC accelerator at Berkeley,
California. No atoms were identified, leading to a limiting yield of 300 nb.[2]
It is highly unlikely that this reaction will be useful given the extremely difficult task of
making sufficient amounts of Es-254 to make a large enough target to increase the
sensitivity of the experiment to the required level, due to the rarity of the element, and
extreme rarity of the isotope.
Predicted decay characteristics

The alpha-decay half-lives of 1700 nuclei with 100 ≤ Z ≤ 130 have been calculated in a
quantum tunneling model with alpha-decay Q-values from different mass estimates.[3] [4] [5]
The alpha-decay half-lives predicted for 291-307119 are of the order of micro-seconds. The
highest value of the alpha-decay half-life predicted in the quantum tunneling model with the
mass estimates from a macroscopic-microscopic model is ~485 microseconds for the
isotope 294119. For 302119 it is ~163 microseconds.

compound nuclei

208 87 295
Pb Rb 119
232 65 297
Th Cu 119
238 59 297
U Co 119
237 58 295
Np Fe 119
244 55 299
Pu Mn 119
243 54 297
Am Cr 119
248 51 299
Cm V 119
249 50 299
Bk Ti 119
249 45 294
Cf Sc 119
254 48 302
Es Ca 119
Ununennium 3


max
254 48 302 0.5 pb DNS

Es Ca 119 3n (299119) [6]
See also
• ununoctium — unbinilium
References
[2] R. W. Lougheed, J. H. Landrum, E. K. Hulet, J. F. Wild, R. J. Dougan, A. D. Dougan, H. Gäggeler, M. Schädel, K.
J. Moody, K. E. Gregorich, and G. T. Seaborg (1985). " Search for superheavy elements using 48Ca + 254Esg
reaction (http:/ / link. aps. org/ abstract/ PRC/ v32/ p1760)". Physical Reviews C 32: 1760–1763. doi:
10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2007. 04. 001).
[4] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). "Search for long lived heaviest nuclei beyond the valley
of stability". Phys. Rev. C 77: 044603. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.77.044603 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/
PhysRevC. 77. 044603).
[5] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). "Nuclear half-lives for α -radioactivity of elements with
100 ≤ Z ≤ 130". At. Data & Nucl. Data Tables 94: 781–806. doi: 10.1016/j.adt.2008.01.003 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/
10. 1016/ j. adt. 2008. 01. 003).

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Unbinilium 1
Unbinilium
120 Uue ← unbinilium → Ubu

Ra
↑
Ubn
↓
Usn
table
General
Name, Symbol, Number unbinilium, Ubn, 120
Element category Presumably Alkali earth metals
Appearance dark metallic ?
Standard atomic weight unknown g·mol

−1
Electron configuration [Uuo] 8s

2
(a guess based upon barium

and radium)
Physical properties
Oxidation states presumably 2
Miscellaneous
Main article: Isotopes of unbinilium
References
[1]
Unbinilium (pronounced /ˌuːnbaɪˈnɪliəm/ ( listen) ), also called eka-radium, is the
temporary, systematic element name of a hypothetical chemical element in the periodic
table that has the temporary symbol Ubn and has the atomic number 120. Since unbinilium
is placed below the alkaline earth metals it possibly has properties similar to those of
radium or barium.
Attempts to date to synthesize the element using fusion reactions at low excitation energy
has met with failure although there are reports that the fission of nuclei of element 120 at
very high excitation has been successfully measured, indicating a strong shell effect at
Z=120.
Unbinilium 2
Attempts at synthesis
Neutron evaporation
In March-April 2007, the synthesis of element 120 was attempted at the Flerov Laboratory
of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna by bombarding a plutonium-244 target with iron-58 ions.[2]
Initial analysis revealed that no atoms of element 120 were produced providing a limit of
400 fb for the cross section at the energy studied.[3]
The Russian team is planning to upgrade their facilities before attempting the reaction
again.
In April 2007, the team at GSI attempted to create unbinilium using uranium-238 and
nickel-64:[4]
No atoms were detected providing a limit of 1.6 pb on the cross section at the energy
provided. The GSI repeated the experiment with higher sensitivity in three separate runs
from April-May 2007, Jan- March 2008 and Sept- Oct 2008, all with negative results and
providing a cross section limit of 90 fb.[5]
Compound nucleus fission

Element 120 is of interest because it is part of the hypothesized island of stability, with the
compound nucleus 302120 being the most stable of those that can be created directly by
current methods. It has been calculated that Z=120 may in fact be the next proton magic
number, rather than at Z=114 or 126.
302
120. Two nuclear reactions have been used, namely 244Pu+58Fe and 238U+64Ni. The
results have revealed how nuclei such as this fission predominantly by expelling closed
shell nuclei such as 132Sn (Z=50, N=82). It was also found that the yield for the
fusion-fission pathway was similar between 48Ca and 58Fe projectiles, indicating a possible
future use of 58Fe projectiles in superheavy element formation.[6]
In 2008, the team at GANIL, France, described the results from a new technique which
attempts to measure the fission half-life of a compound nucleus at high excitation energy,
since the yields are significantly higher than from neutron evaporation channels. It is also a
useful method for probing the effects of shell closures on the survivability of compound
nuclei in the super-heavy region, which can indicate the exact position of the next proton
shell (Z=114, 120, 124 or 126). The team studied the nuclear fusion reaction between
uranium ions and a target of natural nickel:
The results indicated that nuclei of element 120 were produced at high (~70 MeV)
excitation energy which underwent fission with measurable half-lives > 10-18s. Although
very short, the ability to measure such a process indicates a strong shell effect at Z=120. At
lower excitation energy (see neutron evaporation), the effect of the shell will be enhanced
and ground-state nuclei can be expected to have relatively long half-lives. This result could
partially explain the relatively long half-life of 294118 measured in experiments at Dubna
(see ununoctium). Similar experiments have indicated a similar phenomenon at Z=124 (see
Unbinilium 3
unbiquadium) but not at Z = 114 (see ununquadium), suggesting that the next proton shell
does in fact lie at Z>120.[7] [8]
Future Reactions
The GSI have plans to start up a program utilizing 248Cm targets for SHE production and
will most likely attempt this reaction in 2010 or 2011.[9]
Likewise, the team at RIKEN have also begun a program utilizing 248Cm targets and have
indicated future experiments to probe the possibility of Z=120 being the next magic
number using the aforementioned nuclear reactions to form 302120.[10]
Calculated Decay Characteristics

In a quantum tunneling model with mass estimates from a macroscopic-microscopic model,
the alpha-decay half-lives of several isotopes of the element 120 (namely, 292-304120) have
been predicted to be around 1-20 microseconds. [11] [12] [13] [14]
Extrapolated Reactivity
Unbinilium should be highly reactive, according to periodic trends, as this element is a
member of alkaline earth metals. It would be much more reactive than any other lighter
elements of this group. If group reactivity is followed, this element would react violently in
air to form an oxide (UbnO) and in water to form the hydroxide, which would be a strong
base and highly explosive in terms of flammability. It is also possible that, due to relativistic
effects, the element has noble gas character, as already seen for element 114.

Compound nuclei

232 70 302
Th Zn 120
238 64 302
U Ni 120
244 58 302
Pu Fe 120
248 54 302
Cm Cr 120
249 50 299
Cf Ti 120
Unbinilium 4

DNS = dinuclear system ; AS = advanced statistical ; σ = cross section

max
208 88 296 70 fb DNS

Pb Sr 120 1n (295120) [15]
208 87 295 80 fb DNS

Pb Sr 120 1n (294120) [15]
238 64 302 0.5 fb DNS

U Ni 120 2n (300120) [16]
238 64 302 2 ab DNS - AS

U Ni 120 4n (298120) [17]
244 58 302 8 fb DNS - AS

Pu Fe 120 3n (299120) [17]
248 54 302 10 pb DNS - AS

Cm Cr 120 3n (299120) [17]
248 54 302 30 fb DNS

Cm Cr 120 4n (298120) [18]
257 48 305 70 fb DNS

Fm Ca 120 3n (302120) [16]
See also
• Island of stability: Ununquadium – Unbinilium – Unbihexium
• Radium
• Eka-francium — Eka-radium — Eka-actinium
• Ununennium – Unbiunium
External links
• WebElements.com - Unbinilium [19]
• Apsidium - Unbinilium [20]
• Theory of atomic mass calculation [21]
References
[2] THEME03-5-1004-94/2009 (http:/ / www. jinr. ru/ plan/ ptp-2007/ e751004. htm)
[3] Oganessian et al. (2009). "Attempt to produce element 120 in the 244Pu+58Fe reaction". Phys. Rev. C 79:
024603. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.73.014612 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 73. 014612).
[4] http:/ / www. gsi. de/ documents/ DOC-2007-Mar-174-1. pdf
[5] http:/ / www. gsi. de/ informationen/ wti/ library/ scientificreport2008/ PAPERS/ NUSTAR-SHE-01. pdf
[7] http:/ / physics. aps. org/ articles/ v1/ 12
[8] Phys. Rev. Lett. 101: 072701. http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal&
id=PRLTAO000101000007072701000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes.
[9] http:/ / www-aix. gsi. de/ EA/ (see U248)
[10] see slide 11 http:/ / www-win. gsi. de/ tasca07/ contributions/ TASCA07_Contribution_Morita. pdf
[11] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (26 January 2006). "α decay half-lives of new superheavy
elements". Phys. Rev. C 73: 014612. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.73.014612 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/
PhysRevC. 73. 014612).
Unbinilium 5
10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2007. 04. 001).
[13] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). "Search for long lived heaviest nuclei beyond the
valley of stability". Phys. Rev. C 77: 044603. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.77.044603 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/
PhysRevC. 77. 044603).
with 100 ≤ Z ≤ 130". At. Data & Nucl. Data Tables 94: 781–806. doi: 10.1016/j.adt.2008.01.003 (http:/ / dx. doi.
org/ 10. 1016/ j. adt. 2008. 01. 003).
[18] Zagebraev. V ; Greiner, W (2008). "Synthesis of superheavy nuclei: A search for new production reactions".
Phys. Rev. C 78: 034610. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.78.034610 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 78.
034610).
[19] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Ubn/ index. html
[21] http:/ / www. apsidium. com/ number/ amc. htm

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Eric119, Femto, Fonzy, Georgia guy, Gertlex, INVERTED, Jeronimo, John, Kate, Kelovy, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, Materialscientist, Mav, Merovingian,
Mike Rosoft, Mikya, Mycroft.Holmes, Nergaal, NetRolller 3D, Nimbulan, Ojs, OldakQuill, Olin, Oneoverzero, Ortolan88, Oscarcwk, Pakaran, PiMaster3,
Poolkris, Roo72, RoryReloaded, Skadetdom, Snagglepuss, Son, Stirling Newberry, Superheavy120, Timc, Tooto, Trixt, Van helsing, Vuo, WCFrancis, 41
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Unbiunium 1
Unbiunium
121 Ubn ← unbiunium → Ubb

↑
Ubu
↓
Usu

table
General
Name, Symbol, Number unbiunium, Ubu, 121
Element category Superactinides
Group, Period, Block g1, 8, g
Appearance unknown
Standard atomic weight [320] u (supposition) g·mol

−1
Electron configuration [Uuo] 5g 8s

1 2
Physical properties
Phase presumably solid
Miscellaneous
Main article: Isotopes of unbiunium
References
Unbiunium (pronounced /ˌuːnbaɪˈjuːniəm/) is the temporary name of a hypothetical

chemical element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Ubu and has the
atomic number 121.
Unbiunium is the first element whose ground state electron configuration contains an
electron in a g subshell, making it the first element in the g-block. However, neither
lanthanum nor actinium show such a predicted ground state for the f-block, and lie in the
transition metals, so unbiunium's third electron should also hang up. Other elements have
access to their g subshells, though not in their ground states.
As of July 2009, no attempt has ever been made to synthesis element 121.
Unbiunium 2
Naming
The name unbiunium is a systematic element name, used as a placeholder until it is
confirmed by other research groups and the IUPAC decides on a name. Usually, the name
suggested by the discoverer(s) is chosen.

compound nuclei

208 89 297
Pb Y 121
232 71 303
Th Ga 121
238 65 303
U Cu 121
237 64 301
Np Ni 121
244 59 303
Pu Co 121
243 58 301
Am Fe 121
248 55 303
Cm Mn 121
249 54 303
Bk Cr 121
249 51 300
Cf V 121
254 50 304
Es Ti 121
External links
• Likely properties of Unbiunium [1]
[2]
• Journal of Chemical Physics, 1998, V 109, N 10, 8 Sep.
See also
• Unbinilium–Unbibium
References
[2] http:/ / library. iem. ac. ru/ j-ch-ph/ 1998/ 10-10998. html

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Dhidalgo, Drjezza, Eric119, Habbit, INVERTED, Jonlys, Keenan Pepper, Kwamikagami, Merovingian, Mintleaf, Nick Y., Nimbulan, Phil Boswell, Poolkris,
Roentgenium111, Scepia, Syd Henderson, 30 anonymous edits

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Unbibium 1
Unbibium
122 Ubu ← unbibium → Ubt

↑
Ubb
↓
Usb

table
General
Name, Symbol, Number unbibium, Ubb, 122
Appearance unknown
Standard atomic weight g·mol

−1

2 2
Physical properties
Miscellaneous
Main article: Isotopes of unbibium
References
Unbibium (pronounced /uːnˈbaɪbiəm/), also referred to as eka-thorium or simply element

122, is the temporary name of a currently unknown chemical element in the periodic table
that has the temporary symbol Ubb and the atomic number 122.
In 2008, it was claimed to have been discovered in natural thorium samples[1] but that
claim has now been dismissed by recent repetitions of the experiment using more accurate
techniques.
Unbibium 2
History
Neutron Evaporation
The first attempt to synthesize element 122 was performed in 1972 by Flerov et al. at JINR,
using the hot fusion reaction:
No atoms were detected and a yield limit of 5 mb (5,000,000 pb) was measured. Current
results (see ununquadium) have shown that the sensitivity of this experiment was too low
by at least 6 orders of magnitude.
In 2000, the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung performed a very similar experiment
with much higher sensitivity:
These results indicate that the synthesis of such heavier elements remains a significant
challenge and further improvements of beam intensity and experimental efficiency is
required. The sensitivity should be increased to 1 fb.
Compound Nucleus Fission

Nuclear Reactions studying the fission characteristics of the compound nucleus 306122.
Two nuclear reactions have been used, namely 248Cm+58Fe and 242Pu+64Ni. The results
have revealed how nuclei such as this fission predominantly by expelling closed shell nuclei
such as 132Sn (Z=50, N=82). It was also found that the yield for the fusion-fission pathway
was similar between 48Ca and 58Fe projectiles, indicating a possible future use of 58Fe
projectiles in superheavy element formation.[2]

compound nuclei

208 94 302
Pb Zr 122
232 74 306
Th Ge 122
238 70 308
U Zn 122
238 66 304
U Zn 122
244 64 308
Pu Ni 122
248 58 306
Cm Fe 122
249 54 303
Cf Cr 122
Unbibium 3
Claimed discovery as a naturally-occurring element

On April 24, 2008, a group led by Amnon Marinov at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
claimed to have found single atoms of unbibium in naturally occurring thorium deposits at
an abundance of between 10-11 and 10-12, relative to thorium.[1] The claim of Marinov et al.
was criticized by a part of the scientific community, and Marinov says he has submitted the
article to the journals Nature and Nature Physics but both turned it down without sending
it for peer review.[3] .
A criticism of the technique, previously used in purportedly identifying lighter thorium
isotopes by mass spectrometry,[4] [5] was published in Physical Review C in 2008.[6] A
rebuttal by the Marinov group was published in Physical Review C after the published
comment.[7]
A repeat of the thorium-experiment using the superior method of Accelerator Mass
Spectrometry (AMS) failed to confirm the results, despite a 100x greater sensitivity.[8] This
result throws considerable doubt on the results of the Marinov collaboration with regards
to their claims of long-lived isotopes of thorium, roentgenium and unbibium.
See also
• Systematic element name
• Unbiunium – Unbitrium
External links
[9]
• Chemistry-Blog: Independent analysis of Marinov’s 122 claim
• WebElements.com - Unbibium [10]
• Likely properties of Unbibium [11]
• Marinov's Site [12]
References
[1] Marinov, A.; Rodushkin, I.; Kolb, D.; Pape, A.; Kashiv, Y.; Brandt, R.; Gentry, R. V.; Miller, H. W. (2008). "
Evidence for a long-lived superheavy nucleus with atomic mass number A=292 and atomic number Z=~122 in
natural Th (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0804. 3869)". arXiv.org. . Retrieved 2008-04-28.
[3] Royal Society of Chemistry, Chemistry World, "Heaviest element claim criticised" (http:/ / www. rsc. org/
chemistryworld/ News/ 2008/ May/ 02050802. asp)
[4] A. Marinov; I. Rodushkin; Y. Kashiv; L. Halicz; I. Segal; A. Pape; R. V. Gentry; H. W. Miller; D. Kolb; R. Brandt
(2007). " Existence of long-lived isomeric states in naturally-occurring neutron-deficient Th isotopes (http:/ /
scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=PRVCAN000076000002021303000001&
idtype=cvips& gifs=yes)". Phys. Rev. C 76: 021303(R). .
[5] http:/ / arxiv. org/ ftp/ nucl-ex/ papers/ 0605/ 0605008. pdf
[6] R. C. Barber; J. R. De Laeter (2009). " Comment on “Existence of long-lived isomeric states in
naturally-occurring neutron-deficient Th isotopes” (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/
GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=PRVCAN000079000004049801000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes)". Phys.
Rev. C 79: 049801. .
[7] A. Marinov; I. Rodushkin; Y. Kashiv; L. Halicz; I. Segal; A. Pape; R. V. Gentry; H. W. Miller; D. Kolb; R. Brandt
(2009). " Reply to “Comment on Èxistence of long-lived isomeric states in naturally-occurring neutron-deficient
Th isotopes'” (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal&
id=PRVCAN000079000004049802000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes)". Phys. Rev. C 79: 049802. .
[8] J. Lachner; I. Dillmann; T. Faestermann; G. Korschinek; M. Poutivtsev; G. Rugel (2008). " Search for long-lived
isomeric states in neutron-deficient thorium isotopes (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/
Unbibium 4
GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=PRVCAN000078000006064313000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes)". Phys.

Rev. C 78: 064313. .
[9] http:/ / www. chemistry-blog. com/ 2008/ 04/ 29/ adressing-marinovs-element-122-claim/
[10] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Ubb/ index. html
[12] http:/ / www. phys. huji. ac. il/ ~marinov/ index. htm

Unbibium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=307620342 Contributors: -Midorihana-, Allen3, Biblbroks, BlueEarth, Bogdangiusca,
Cosmium, Crakkpot, DMacks, David Latapie, Dor Cohen, Drjezza, Eric119, Femto, Frankchn, Headbomb, Jeltz, John, Jonlys, Kelovy, Kkmurray,
Kwamikagami, Michał Sobkowski, Nick Y., Nickj, Nightstallion, Nimbulan, Phil Boswell, Polonium, Poolkris, RJHall, Rursus, Ryant5000, SimonP, Siroxo,
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Unbitrium 1
Unbitrium
123 Ubb ← unbitrium → Ubq

↑
Ubt
↓
Ust

table
General
Name, Symbol, Number unbitrium, Ubt, 123
Appearance ?

−1

3 2
Physical properties
Miscellaneous
Main article: Isotopes of unbitrium
References
Unbitrium (pronounced /uːnˈbaɪtriəm/) is the temporary name of a hypothetical chemical

element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Ubt and has the atomic
number 123.
As of July 2009, no attempt has ever been made to synthesise element 123.
Unbitrium 2
Naming
The name unbitrium is a systematic element name, used as a placeholder until it is
confirmed by other research groups and the IUPAC decides on a name. Usually, the name
suggested by the discoverer(s) is chosen.
Fictional Reference to Element 123

In the fictional universe of Star Trek: The Next Generation, this element was apparently
discovered and named. The episode "Rascals" depicted a "trans-periodic table," in a
schoolroom set, which depicted element number 123 as being named jamesium, symbol Rj,
having an atomic weight of 326. The graphic was created by set artists, probably a homage
to designer Richard D. James, and listed this element in the fictional "gamma series."
External links
• WebElements.com - Unbitrium [1]
• Likely propeties of Unbitrium [2]
See also
• Unbibium – Unbiquadium
References
[1] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Ubt/ index. html

Unbitrium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=302718846 Contributors: Allen3, AxG, Biblbroks, BlueEarth, CaptainMike, Cosmium,
David Latapie, Drjezza, Epbr123, Ephraim33, Eric119, Femto, Headbomb, INVERTED, Kelovy, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, LeafGreen Ranger,
Makeemlighter, Nimbulan, Poolkris, Roentgenium111, Shanes, Tavilis, Wtmitchell, 29 anonymous edits

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Unbiquadium 1
Unbiquadium
124 Ubt ← unbiquadium → Ubp

↑
Ubq
↓
Usq

table
General
Name, Symbol, Number unbiquadium, Ubq, 124
Appearance unknown

−1

4 2
Physical properties
Phase Unknown
Miscellaneous
Main article: Isotopes of unbiquadium
References
Unbiquadium (pronounced /ˌuːnbaɪˈkwɒdiəm/) is the temporary name of a hypothetical

element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Ubq and atomic number 124.
In 2008, a team at GANIL, France, published results indicating that nuclei of element 124
had been produced at very high excitation energy, which underwent fission with
measurable lifetimes. This important results suggests a strong stabilizing effect at Z=124
and points to the next proton shell at Z>120, not at Z=114 as previously thought.
Synthesis of Z=124 Nuclei

In a series of experiments, scientists at GANIL have attempted to measure the direct and
delayed fission of compound nuclei of elements with Z=114, 120 and 124 in order to probe
shell effects in this region and to pinpoint the next spherical proton shell. In 2006, with full
results published in 2008, the team provided results from a reaction involving the
bombardment of a natural germanium target with uranium ions:
Unbiquadium 2
The team reported that they had been able to identify compound nuclei fissioning with
half-lives > 10-18s. Although very short, the ability to measure such decays indicated a
strong shell effect at Z=124. A similar phenomenon was found for Z=120 but not for
Z=114.[1]
Name
The name unbiquadium is an IUPAC systematic element name, the temporary name and
symbol assigned to newly-synthesized and not-yet-synthesized chemical elements. A
transuranic element receives a permanent name and symbol only after its synthesis has
been confirmed. Transuranic elements (those beyond uranium) are, except for microscopic
quantities and except for plutonium, always artificially produced, and usually end up being
named for a scientist or the location of a laboratory that does work in atomic physics.
See also
• Unbitrium−Unbipentium
[1] http:/ / hal. archives-ouvertes. fr/ docs/ 00/ 12/ 91/ 31/ PDF/ WAPHE06_EPJ_preprint1. pdf
External links
• Webelements.com – Unbiquadium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/
elements/ text/ Ubq/ key. html)
• Likely properties of unbiquadium (http:/ / www. apsidium. com/ elements/ 124. htm)

Unbiquadium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=305089852 Contributors: Biblbroks, BlueEarth, Bradeos Graphon, Coredesat,
Cosmium, Drbreznjev, Drjezza, Femto, Isaac123456789, Kkmurray, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, Leyo, Roentgenium111, Stirling Newberry, Tardis, Tony
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Unbipentium 1
Unbipentium
125 Ubq ← unbipentium → Ubh

↑
Ubp
↓
Ust

table
General
Name, Symbol, Number unbipentium, Ubp, 125
Appearance unknown
[[Image: |125px|]]

−1

5 2
Physical properties
Miscellaneous
Main article: Isotopes of unbipentium
References
Unbipentium (pronounced /ˌuːnbaɪˈpɛntiəm/), or eka-neptunium, is the temporary name

of a hypothetical chemical element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Ubp
and has the atomic number 125.
As of July 2009, no attempt has ever been made to synthesise element 125.
Unbipentium 2
Name
The name unbipentium is used as a placeholder, such as in scientific articles about the
search for element 125. Transuranic elements beyond plutonium are always artificially
produced, and usually end up being named for a scientist or the location of a laboratory
that does work in atomic physics.
Element 125 is of interest because it is within a range that has been predicted to be within
a range of experimentally feasible "island of stability" elements based on a mean field
theory based on a model of alpha decay.[1] The self-coupling of the ω meson could be
responsible for greater shell stability based earlier work, which suggested that
self-coupling meson effects were stronger than originally predicted.
See also
• Neptunium
• Unbiquadium – Unbihexium
External links
[2]
• Likely properties of Unbipentium
References
[1] Sharma, M. (2005). "α-decay properties of superheavy elements Z=113-125 in the relativistic mean-field
theory with vector self-coupling of ω meson". Physical Review C 71: 054310. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.71.054310
(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 71. 054310).

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Isaac123456789, Kwamikagami, Nergaal, Qurqa, Shorelander, Stirling Newberry, Tallasse, Tony Sidaway, 14 anonymous edits

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Unbihexium 1
Unbihexium
126 Ubp ← unbihexium → Ubs

↑
Ubh
↓
Ush

table
General
Name, Symbol, Number unbihexium, Ubh, 126
Appearance unknown
Standard atomic weight g·mol

−1

6 2
Physical properties
Atomic properties
Oxidation states presumably 3, 4, 6, 8
Miscellaneous
Main article: Isotopes of unbihexium
References
Unbihexium (pronounced /ˌuːnbaɪˈhɛksiəm/) is a hypothetical chemical element with

atomic number 126 and symbol Ubh. It is of interest because it is in the hypothesized island
of stability.
Unbihexium 2
History
The first attempt to synthesize element 126 was performed in 1971 by Bimbot et al. using
the hot fusion reaction:
A high energy alpha particle was observed and taken as possible evidence for the synthesis
of element 126. Recent research suggests that this is highly unlikely as the sensitivity of
experiments performed in 1971 would have been several orders of magnitude too low
according to current understanding.
Stable unbihexium
Calculations according to the Hartree-Fock-Bogoliubov Method using the non-relativistic
Skyrme interaction have proposed Z=126 as a closed proton shell. In this region of the
periodic table, N=184 and N=196 have been suggested as closed neutron shells. Therefore
the isotopes of most interest are 310126 and 322126.
Predicted chemistry
Element 126 is predicted to belong to a new block of valence g-electron atoms. The
expected electron configuration is [Uuo]5g6 8s2 although there may be a smearing out of
the energies of 5g and 7d orbitals.
Recent calculations have indicated a stable monofluoride may exist, UbhF resulting from a
bonding interaction between the 5g orbital on Ubh and the 2p orbital on fluorine.[1]
Unbihexium in popular culture

An Action Comics story by John Byrne established the fictional Kryptonite as element 126
on the periodic table of the elements.
The science fiction short story "Silence is Golden" [2] by American science fiction author
Lou Antonelli is based on the supposed discovery of Element 126 in a Texas open-pit mine.
The story, published by Revolution Science Fiction in August 2003, received an Honorable
Mention in "The Year's Best Science Fiction, 21st annual collection" (St. Martin's Press,
New York, N.Y. Gardner Dozois, ed. 2004).
In the book "Travelers Rest", by Daniel Archangel, element 126 is used by humans to send
carbon dioxide and water to aliens (Travelers) in space. Element 126 allows the spaceship,
containing water and carbon dioxide, to travel into space without radiation harming the
water and carbon dioxide.
Unbihexium 3
See also
• Island of stability : Ununquadium – Unbinilium – → Unbihexium
• Unbipentium – Unbiseptium
• Period 8 element
External links
[3]
• Likely properties of Unbihexium
References
[1] Jacoby, Mitch (2006). " As-yet-unsynthesized superheavy atom should form a stable diatomic molecule with
fluorine (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ news/ 84/ i10/ 8410notw9. html)". Chemical & Engineering News 84 (10):
19. . Retrieved 2008-01-14.
[2] http:/ / www. revolutionsf. com/ article. php?id=1959

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Biblbroks, BlueEarth, Bob Saint Clar, Calvero JP, CharlotteWebb, Complex01, Cosmium, DMacks, Dancanm, David Latapie, Dcljr, Deryck Chan, Drjezza,
Długosz, Edgar181, Emk (ja), Eric119, Headbomb, INVERTED, Ilmari Karonen, Karlchwe, Kay Dekker, Kelovy, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, Materialscientist,
Nergaal, Nimbulan, Odn2se, Oscarcwk, Poolkris, Pskykosys, RJHall, Reyk, Ruleke, Shanes, Sjlegg, Spug, Stirling Newberry, Talon Artaine, The Saad,
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Unbioctium 1
Unbioctium
128 Ubs ← unbioctium → Ube

↑
Ubo
↓
Uso

table
General
Name, Symbol, Number unbioctium, Ubo, 128
Group, Period, Block g8, 8, ?
Appearance unknown - silvery or grey in color

−1
Physical properties
Miscellaneous
Main article: Isotopes of unbioctium
References
Unbioctium (pronounced /ˌuːnbaɪˈɒktiəm/) is the temporary name of a hypothetical

undiscovered element on the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Ubo and atomic
number 128.
Stability
The element unbioctium would likely have isotopes that have a half life of only a few
milliseconds, as this element is very close to an island of stability. An estimated five
isotopes would then have half lives of over a half second while Ubo-340 would be the most
stable.
Properties
The physical properties of unbioctium, if it exists, are unknown, though this element may be
expected to be highly reactive and oxidize quickly. It would presumably be a metal and
solid. The color would probably be silvery white.
Unbioctium 2
See also
• Unbiseptium−Unbiennium
External links
[1]
• Likely properties of unbioctium
References

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Untriseptium 1
Untriseptium
137 Uth ← untriseptium → Uto

↑
Uts
↓
Uos

table
General
Name, Symbol, Number untriseptium, Uts, 137
Appearance unknown
Standard atomic weight [364] u (supposition) g·mol

−1
Electron configuration [Uuo] 5g

18
8s
1
Physical properties
Miscellaneous
Main article: Isotopes of untriseptium
References
Untriseptium (pronounced /ˌʌntraɪˈsɛptiəm/) is a hypothetical chemical element which has

not been observed to occur naturally, nor has it yet been synthesised. Due to drip
instabilities, it is not known if this element is physically possible. Its atomic number is 137
and symbol is Uts.
The name untriseptium is a temporary IUPAC systematic element name. The name
Feynmanium (symbol Fy) is also informally used, because of Feynman's presentation of the
speed of light problem described below.
Untriseptium 2
History
The name untriseptium is an IUPAC systematic element name, the temporary name and
symbol assigned to newly-synthesized and not-yet-synthesized chemical elements. A
transuranic element receives a permanent name and symbol only after its synthesis has
been confirmed. Transuranic elements (those beyond uranium) are, except for microscopic
quantities and except for plutonium, always artificially produced, and usually end up being
named for a scientist or the location of a laboratory that does work in atomic physics.
Significance
Bohr model breakdown

The Bohr model exhibits difficulty for atoms with atomic number greater than 137, for the
speed of an electron in a 1s electron orbital, v, is given by:
where Z is the atomic number, and α is the fine structure constant, a measure of the
strength of electromagnetic interactions.[1] Under this approximation, any element with an
atomic number of greater than 137 would require 1s electrons to be traveling faster than c,
the speed of light. Hence the non-relativistic Bohr model is clearly inaccurate when applied
to such an element.
The Dirac equation

The relativistic Dirac equation also has problems for Z > 137, for the ground state energy is
where m is the rest mass of the electron. For Z > 137, the wave function of the Dirac
ground state is oscillatory, rather than bound, and there is no gap between the positive and
negative energy spectra, as in the Klein paradox.[2]
More accurate calculations including the effects of the finite size of the nucleus indicate
that the binding energy first exceeds 2mc2 for Z > Zcr ≈ 137. For Z > Zcr, if the innermost
orbital is not filled, the electric field of the nucleus will pull an electron out of the vacuum,
resulting in the spontaneous emission of a positron.[3]
More complete analysis involving relativity shows that the contradiction this particle poses
may actually occur in the hypothetical 139-element (see the Wikipedia article unsolved
problems in chemistry).
Untriseptium 3
See also
• Dubnium
• Eka-Rutherfordium — Eka-Dubnium — Eka-Seaborgium
• Untrihexium – Untrioctium
• Atomic orbital, section Relativistic effects
External links
[4]
• Feynman Online
References
[1] See for example R. Eisberg and R. Resnick, Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei and Particles,
Wiley (New York: 1985).
[2] James D. Bjorken and Sidney D. Drell, Relativistic Quantum Mechanics, McGraw-Hill (New York:1964).
[3] Walter Greiner and Stefan Schramm, Am. J. Phys. 76, 509 (2008), and references therein.
[4] http:/ / www. fotuva. org/ online/ frameload. htm?/ online/ 137. htm

Untriseptium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=308834717 Contributors: ABCD, AWeishaupt, Army1987, BPinard, Bennetto,
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The Elements of Periodic Table

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The Elements of Periodic Table

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THE

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ALL

0 N/A ← neutronium → hydrogen

Name, Symbol, Number neutronium, Nt [not official], 0

Element category none

Standard atomic weight [1] g·mol

Electron configuration none

Electrons per shell 0

Main article: Isotopes of neutronium

iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP

Neutronium and neutron stars

Neutronium and the periodic table

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WARNING: Table could not be rendered - ouputting plain text.

Appearance colorless gas General Name, symbol, numberElement categoryGroup, period,

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

Atomic properties Oxidation states ElectronegativityIonization energiesCovalent radiusVan

iso N.A. half-life DM DE (MeV) DP

3 trace 12.32 y 0.01861

Electron energy levels

Elemental molecular forms

Covalent and organic compounds

hydrogen takes on a partial positive charge.[29] When bonded to fluorine, oxygen, or

Protons and acids

implication that any single protons exist freely as a species.

enriched in molecules that include deuterium instead

and 3H to be used, although 2H and 3H are preferred.[54]

Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in

Discovery and use

reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned.[63]

Role in quantum theory

undertaken to genetically modify cyanobacterial hydrogenases to efficiently synthesize H2

Safety and precautions

Even interpreting the hydrogen data (including safety

Hydrogen detonation parameters, such as critical

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Image:Emission spectrum-H.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emission_spectrum-H.png License: Public Domain

WARNING: Table could not be rendered - ouputting plain text.

Appearance colorless gas General Name, symbol, numberElement categoryGroup, period,

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

at T/K 1.23 1.67 2.48 4.21

Atomic properties ElectronegativityIonization energies 2nd: 5250.5 kJ·mol−1Covalent

iso N.A. half-life DM DE (MeV) DP

*Atmospheric value, abundance may differ elsewhere.

Extraction and use

The helium atom

spectrum, but when it came to helium, it collapsed. Werner Heisenberg developed a

Gas and plasma phases

Solid and liquid phases

Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum-mechanical

In the fountain effect, a chamber is constructed

discovered in 2000.[55] . Calculations show that two new compounds containing a

Occurrence and production

Commercial and recreational

The age of rocks and minerals that contain uranium and

through micro-cracks or micro-pores in a vessel's wall at a greater rate than helium. A

(http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1086/ 380121).

pmid=6853282)". J Appl Physiol 54 (4): 1063–70. PMID 6853282. . Retrieved on 2008-08-09.

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WARNING: Table could not be rendered - ouputting plain text.

Appearance silvery white (seen here in oil)