MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANISATIONAL

BEHAVIOR

Question 1: “Halo effect and selective perception are the shortcuts in judging
others” Explain

Halo effect is a cognitive bias where the perception of a particular trait or

characteristic influences our decisions or judgment about an individual on the other
characteristics. It therefore indeed a basis for judging others as indicated in the
scenarios below.

Scenario 1:
Because an individual is often attractive and likeable we naturally assume he is also
intelligent, friendly, displays good judgment e.t.c.

Scenario 2:
Nisbett and Wilson wanted to examine the way student participants made
judgments about a lecturer (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). The students had been divided
into two groups who were going to watch two different videos of the same lecturer,
who happened to have a strong Belgian accent (this is relevant!). One group
watched the lecturer answer a series of questions in an extremely warm and
friendly manner. The second group saw exactly the same person answer exactly the
same questions in a cold and distant manner. Experimenters made sure it was
obvious which of the lecturer’s alter-egos was more likeable. In one he appeared to
like teaching and students and in the other he came across as a much more
authoritarian figure who didn't like teaching at all.
After each group of students watched the videos they were asked to rate the
lecturer on physical appearance, mannerisms and even his accent (mannerisms
were kept the same across both videos). Consistent with the halo effect, students
who saw the 'warm' incarnation of the lecturer rated him more attractive, his
mannerisms more likeable and even is accent as more appealing. This was proved
how the halo effect is used in judgment of others.

Selective perception refers to a number of cognitive biases that relate to the way
expectations, beliefs influence our judgment. This shows that we will tend to react
to something depending to what we believe or made to believe other than it really
is.

Scenario 1:
Any book which is published will have been read possibly hundreds of times,
including by professional proof readers. And yet grammatical and other errors still
get into print. Why? Because the mind is very kind and corrects the errors that our
eyes see

References
http://www.spring.org.uk/2007/10/halo-effect-when-your-own-mind-is.php
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/halo_effect.htm
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/selective_perception.htm

Question 2
Explain emotional intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence (EI) represents a person’s ability to understand their own

emotion and those of others, and act appropriately and validly reason using these
emotions.

Emotion refers to a feeling state (including physiological responses and cognitions)

or a state of consciousness having to do with the arousal of feelings (Webster’s new
world dictionary) while Intelligence refers to the capacity to reason validly about
information.

According to Professor Daniel Goleman, emotional intelligence is a total of personal

and social competence. Personal competence comprises of three dimensions of EI
such as self awareness, self regulation and self motivation while Social competence
comprises of empathy and social skills as elaborated in details below.

Personal Competence

(a)Self - Awareness

Emotional awareness: Recognizing one’s emotions and their effects.

People with this competence:
• Know which emotions they are feeling and why
• Realize the links between their feelings and what they think, do, and say
• Recognize how their feelings affect their performance
• Have a guiding awareness of their values and goals
Accurate self-assessment: Knowing one’s strengths and limits. People with
this competence are:
• Aware of their strengths and weaknesses
• Reflective, learning from experience
• Open to candid feedback, new perspectives, continuous learning, and self
development
• Able to show a sense of humor and perspective about themselves
Self-confidence: Sureness about one’s self-worth and capabilities. People
with this competence:
• Present themselves with self-assurance;
• have presence
• Can voice views that are unpopular and go out to the extreme for what is
right
• Are decisive, able to make sound decisions despite uncertainties and
pressures.

(b)Self - Regulation

Self-control: Managing disruptive emotions and impulses. People with this

competence:
• Manage their impulsive feelings and distressing emotions well
• Stay composed, positive, and unexcitable even in trying moments
• Think clearly and stay focused under pressure
Trustworthiness: Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity. People
with this competence:
• Act ethically and are above reproach
• Build trust through their reliability and realism
• Admit their own mistakes and confront unethical actions in others
• Take tough, principled stands even if they are unpopular
Conscientiousness: Taking responsibility for personal performance. People
with this competence:
• Meet commitments and keep promises
• Hold themselves accountable for meeting their objectives
• Are organized and careful in their work
Adaptability: Flexibility in handling change. People with this competence:
• Smoothly handle multiple demands, shifting priorities, and rapid change
• Adapt their responses and tactics to fit fluid circumstances
• Are flexible in how they see events
Innovativeness: Being comfortable with and open to novel ideas and new
information.
People with this competence:
• Seek out fresh ideas from a wide variety of sources
• Entertain original solutions to problems
• Generate new ideas
• Take fresh perspectives and risks in their thinking

(c) Self – Motivation

Achievement drive: Striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence.

People with this competence:
• Are results-oriented, with a high drive to meet their objectives and
standards
• Set challenging goals and take calculated risks
• Pursue information to reduce uncertainty and find ways to do better
• Learn how to improve their performance
Commitment: Aligning with the goals of the group or organization. People
with this competence:
• Readily make personal or group sacrifices to meet a larger organizational
goal
• Find a sense of purpose in the larger mission
• Use the group’s core values in making decisions and clarifying choices
• Actively seek out opportunities to fulfill the group’s mission
 Initiative: Readiness to act on opportunities. People with this competence:
• Are ready to seize opportunities
• Pursue goals beyond what’s required or expected of them
• Cut through bureaucracy and bend the rules when necessary to get the
job done
• Mobilize others through unusual, enterprising efforts
Optimism: Persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks.
People with this competence:
• Persist in seeking goals despite obstacles and setbacks
• Operate from hope of success rather than fear of failure
• See setbacks as due to manageable circumstance rather than a personal
flaw

Social Competence

(a)Social Awareness

Empathy: Sensing others’ feelings and perspective, and taking an active

interest in their concerns. People with this competence:
• Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well
• Show sensitivity and understand others’ perspectives
• Help out based on understanding other people’s needs and feelings
Service orientation: Anticipating, recognizing, and meeting customers’
needs. People with this competence:
• Understand customers’ needs and match them to services or products
• Seek ways to increase customers’ satisfaction and loyalty
• Gladly offer appropriate assistance
• Grasp a customer’s perspective, acting as a trusted advisor
Developing others: Sensing what others need in order to develop, and
bolstering their abilities. People with this competence:
• Acknowledge and reward people’s strengths, accomplishments, and
development
• Offer useful feedback and identify people’s needs for development
• Mentor, give timely coaching, and offer assignments that challenge and
grow a person’s skills.
Leveraging diversity: Cultivating opportunities through diverse people.
People with this competence:
• Respect and relate well to people from varied backgrounds
• Understand diverse worldviews and are sensitive to group differences
• See diversity as opportunity, creating an environment where diverse
people can thrive
• Challenge bias and intolerance
Political awareness: Reading a group’s emotional currents and power
relationships.
People with this competence:
• Accurately read key power relationships
• Detect crucial social networks
• Understand the forces that shape views and actions of clients, customers,
or competitors
• Accurately read situations and organizational and external realities
(b)Social Skills

Influence: Wielding effective tactics for persuasion. People with this

competence:
• Are skilled at persuasion
• Fine-tune presentations to appeal to the listener
• Use complex strategies like indirect influence to build consensus and
support
• Orchestrate dramatic events to effectively make a point
Communication: Sending clear and convincing messages. People with this
competence:
• Are effective in give-and-take, registering emotional cues in attuning their
message
• Deal with difficult issues straightforwardly
• Listen well, seek mutual understanding, and welcome sharing of
information fully
• Foster open communication and stay receptive to bad news as well as
good
Leadership: Inspiring and guiding groups and people. People with this
competence:
• Articulate and arouse enthusiasm for a shared vision and mission
• Step forward to lead as needed, regardless of position
• Guide the performance of others while holding them accountable
• Lead by example
Change catalyst: Initiating or managing change. People with this
competence:
• Recognize the need for change and remove barriers
• Challenge the status quo to acknowledge the need for change
• Champion the change and enlist others in its pursuit
• Model the change expected of others
Conflict management: Negotiating and resolving disagreements. People
with this competence:
• Handle difficult people and tense situations with diplomacy and tact
• Spot potential conflict, bring disagreements into the open, and help
deescalate
• Encourage debate and open discussion
• Orchestrate win-win solutions
Building bonds: Nurturing instrumental relationships. People with this
competence:
• Cultivate and maintain extensive informal networks
• Seek out relationships that are mutually beneficial
• Build rapport and keep others in the loop
• Make and maintain personal friendships among work associates
Collaboration and cooperation: Working with others towards shared goals.
People with this competence:
• Balance a focus on task with attention to relationships
• Collaborate, sharing plans, information, and resources
• Promote a friendly, cooperative climate
• Spot and nurture opportunities for collaboration
 Team capabilities: Creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals.
People with this competence:
• Model team qualities like respect, helpfulness, and cooperation
• Draw all members into active and enthusiastic participation
• Build team identity, esprit de corps, and commitment
• Protect the group and its reputation; share credit

http://www.businessballs.com/eq.htm
http://www.unh.edu/emotional_intelligence

Question 3
“A group formation passes through various stages”: Explain the various stages of
group formation.

According to Dr Bruce Tuckman’s group forming model which was first published
with 4 stages in 1965 and later updated in 1970’s to include the fifth stage, group
development goes through forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.

Stage 1: Forming

In this stage, there is a high dependence on the leader for guidance and direction
and little agreement on group aims other than received from the leader. Individual
roles and responsibilities are unclear. Leaders answer lots of questions about the
group's purpose, objectives and external relationships. Processes are often ignored.
Members test tolerance of system and leader.
Team members are introduced. Members cautiously explore the boundaries of
acceptable group behavior. This is a stage of transition from individual to member
status, and of testing the leader's guidance both formally and informally.
Forming includes these feelings and behaviors:
• Excitement, anticipation, and optimism
• Pride in being chosen as a member of the group
• A tentative attachment to the group
• Suspicion and anxiety about the objective of the group and expected
accomplishment
• Concern about the similarity between the group and personal needs
• Defining the tasks and how they will be accomplished
• Determining acceptable group behavior or normative
• Deciding what information needs to be gathered
• How the group will recognize individual contribution

Activities include abstract discussions of the concepts and issues; and for some
members, impatience with these discussions. There is often difficulty in identifying
some of the relevant problems as there is so much going on that members get
distracted. The team often accomplishes little concerning its goals, which is
perfectly normal at this stage.

Stage 2: Storming

This phase is the most turbulent and difficult phase and represents the transition
from the "As-Is" to the "To-Be". All members have their own ideas as to how the
process should look, and personal agendas are often rampant. Members begin to
realize the tasks that are ahead are different and more difficult than they previously
imagined. There is impatience about the lack of progress, and often members argue
about just what actions the group should take to progress. They try to rely solely on
their personal and professional experience, and resist collaborating with most other
team members.
Storming includes these feelings and behaviors:
• Resisting the tasks
• Resisting quality improvement approaches suggested by other members
• Sharp fluctuations in attitude about the group's chance of success
• Arguing among members, even when they agree on the real issues
• Defensiveness, competition, and choosing sides or cliques and factions which
may cause power struggles.
• Clarity of purpose increases but plenty of uncertainties persist
• Identifying to their expected role requirements in relation to those of the
group.
• Questioning the wisdom of those who selected the assignment/mission/job
and appointed the members of the group.
• Establishing unrealistic goals
• Disunity, increased tension, and jealousy
These pressures mean that team members have little energy to spend on
progressing towards the intended goal. But they are beginning to understand each
another. This phase can often take 3 or 4 meetings before arriving at the next
phase. The group at this stage requires to be focused on its goals to avoid
becoming distracted by relationships and emotional issues. Compromises may be
required to enable progress.

Stage 3: Norming

This phase is when the group reaches a consensus on the "To-Be" process.
Everyone wants to share the newly found focus. Enthusiasm is high, and the group
is often tempted to go beyond the original scope of the process. During this stage,
members reconcile competing loyalties and responsibilities. They accept the group,
ground rules, roles, and the individuality of fellow members. Emotional conflict is
reduced as previously competitive relationships become more cooperative.
Norming includes these feelings and behaviors:
• An ability to express criticism constructively
• Acceptance of membership in the team
• An attempt to achieve harmony by avoiding conflict
• Friendliness, confiding in each other, and sharing of personal problems
• A sense of team cohesion, spirit, and goals
• Establishing and maintaining team ground rules and boundaries
• Roles and responsibilities are clear and accepted
• Big decisions are made by group agreement
• Smaller decisions may be delegated to individuals or small teams within the
group
• Commitment and unity is strong
• General respect for the leader and some leadership is more shared by the
group

As team members work out their differences, they have more time and energy to
spend on the project. At this stage, the team can even engage in fun and social
activities.

Stage 4: Performing

By now the team has settled its relationships and expectations. They can begin
performing complex tasks and handling internal disagreements in novel ways by
diagnosing, problem solving, and implementing changes. At last, team members
have discovered and accepted other's strengths and weakness. In addition, they
have learned what their roles are and the structure is fully functional.
Performing includes these feelings and behaviors:
• Members have insights into personal and group processes
• An understanding of each other's strengths and weakness
• Constructive self-change
• Ability to prevent or work through group problems
• Close attachment to the team
• Group has a shared vision and able to stand on its own feet with no
interference or participation from the leader.
• There is a focus on over-achieving goals
• The group requires delegated tasks and projects from the leader
 • The group does not need to be instructed or assisted
• Members might ask for assistance from the leader with personal and
interpersonal development

The group is now an effective, cohesive unit. One can easily tell when a group has
reached this stage because the group starts getting a lot of work done.

Stage 5: Adjourning

This stage is sometimes referred to as Deforming and Mourning. It views the group
from a perspective beyond the purpose of the first four stages.
Adjourning is the break-up of the group, hopefully when the task is completed
successfully, its purpose fulfilled; everyone can move on to new things, feeling good
about what's been achieved. From an organizational perspective, recognition of and
sensitivity to people's vulnerabilities in Tuckman's fifth stage is helpful, particularly
if members of the group have been closely bonded and feel a sense of insecurity or
threat from this change.
The group briefs and shares the improved processes during this phase. When the
group finally completes that last briefing, there is always a bittersweet sense of
accomplishment coupled with the reluctance to say good-bye. Many relationships
formed within these teams continue long after the team disbands.

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadtem2.html
http://www.businessballs.com/tuckmanformingstormingnormingperforming.htm

Question 4
“Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either
by self or the subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of
others”: Explain what are the various bases of power?

According to French and Raven (1962), Power bases are divided into five forms. A
lot of research has been conducted however basing on the foundation of French and
Raven’s publication.
In recent research, power has been categorized as formal power and personal
power.
Formal power is based on the position of an individual in an organization where as
personal power is inherent in the individual and is independent of the individual’s
position.

Formal power is categorized into four types

(a) Coercive power

This is the power to force someone to do something against their will. It is based on
the perceived ability to punish those one who do conform to your ideas or demands.
It is often physical although other threats may be used. It is the power of dictators,
despots and bullies. Coercion can result in physical harm, although its principal goal
is compliance. Demonstrations of harm are often used to illustrate what will happen
if compliance is not gained.
Coercion is also the ultimate power of all governments. Although it is often seen as
negative, it is also used to keep the peace.

(b) Reward power

This is based on the perceived ability to give positive consequences or remove

negative ones. One of the main reasons we work is for the money we need to
conduct our lives. There are many more forms of reward -- in fact anything we find
desirable can be a reward, from a million dollar house to promotions, compliments,
enriched jobs or a cup of coffee with your boss.
Reward power is thus the ability to give other people what they want, and hence
ask them to do things for you in exchange.
Rewards can also be used to punish, such as when they are withheld. The promise
is essentially the same: do this and you will get that.

(c) Legitimate power

Legitimate power is that which is invested in a role. Kings, policemen and managers
all have legitimate power. The legitimacy may come from a higher power, often one
with coercive power. Legitimate power can often thus be the acceptable face of raw
power.
A common trap that people in such roles can fall into is to forget that people are
obeying the position, not them. When they either fall from power or move onto
other things, it can be a puzzling surprise that people who used to fawn at your feet
no long do so.
 (d) Referent power

This is the power from another person liking you or wanting to be like you. It is the
power of charisma and fame and is wielded by all celebrities (by definition) as well
as more local social leaders. In wanting to be like these people, we stand near
them, hoping some of the charisma will rub off onto us.
Those with referent power can also use it for coercion. One of the things we fear
most is social exclusion, and all it takes is a word from a social leader for us to be
shunned by others in the group.
(e) Expert power

When I have knowledge and skill that someone else requires, then I have Expert
power. This is a very common form of power and is the basis for a very large
proportion of human collaboration, including most companies where the principle of
specialization allows large and complex enterprises to be undertaken.
Expert power is that which is used by Trades Unions when they encourage their
members to strike for better pay or working conditions. It is also the power of the
specialist R&D Engineer when they threaten to leave unless they get an exorbitant
pay rise or a seat by the window.

http://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/74017-Process-Organisational-
Development.aspx
http://www.valuebasedmanagement.net/methods_french_raven_bases_social_power
.html
http://changingminds.org/explanations/power/french_and_raven.htm
5. Explain organizational development process.

The process of Organisational Development comprises of the following steps and

they are:-

1. Problem Identification/Initial Diagnosis

2. Data Collection
3. Detailed Diagnosis/ Identification of intervention
4. Planning and Implementation
5. Evaluation and Feedback
 Problem
Evaluation
Identification
and
/ Initial
Feedback
Diagnosis

Planning and
Data
Implementat
Collection
ion

Detailed
Diagnosis/Id
entification
of
interventions

1. Initial Diagnosis: The initial diagnosis involves understanding and identification of

existing or potential inadequacies or problems within the organization.

2. Data Collection: After identifying the problems, relevant data is gathered from
various methods which include interviews, questionnaires, direct observation,
analysis of documents and reports for diagnosing the problem.

3. Detailed diagnosis: The collected data is analyzed and reviewed by various work
groups that are formed for this purpose. According to Rao and Hari Krishna (2002),

4) Selection of Interventions: The interventions can be described as the planned

activities that are introduced into the system to achieve desired changes and
improvements. The suitable interventions are to be selected and designed at this
stage.

5) Implementation of Interventions: The selected intervention should be

implemented progressively as the process is not a one shot, quick cure for
organisational problems. Consequently, it achieves real and lasting change in the
attitudes and behaviour of employees.

6) Action Planning and Problem Solving: To solve the specific and identified
problems by using the collected data, groups prepare recommendations and
specific action planning.

7) Team Building: The consultants explain the advantages of the teams in OD

process and encourage the employees throughout the process to form into groups
and teams.

8) Inter-group Development: After the formation of groups/teams, the consultants

encourage the inter-group meetings, interaction etc.

9) Evaluation and follow up: The organisation should evaluate the OD programmes
and should find out their utility, and develop the programmes further for correcting
the deviations. The consultants make great significance to the organisation in this
respect. The entire steps in the OD processes should be followed by the
organisation in order to derive full range of OD benefits.

Question 6

Write short notes on “Stress Management”

Solution
Stress can be defined as a physical, mental or emotional response to events which
cause mental or bodily tension. According to Richard S Lazarus, it is a condition or
feeling experienced when a person perceives that "demands exceed the personal
and social resources the individual is able to mobilize." In short, it's what we feel
when we think we've lost control of events.
This is definition however recognizes that there is an intertwined instinctive stress
response to unexpected events.

Stress can be classified into two types i.e. eustress (positive stres) and distress
(negative stress). Negative stress can be further sub categorized as acute stress
(very intense and quick to pass) and chronic stress which occurs when there is a
constant change of the routine for weeks after weeks.

Stress can manifest itself in either of the following effects i.e. physically,
emotionally and psychologically.

Physically: this affects the whole body some of its symptoms are headaches, illness,
nervousness, ulcers, blood pressure, sweating, and strokes e.t.c.

Emotionally: this affects the mind and some of the symptoms are apathy, anxiety,
depression, low self esteem, lack of concentration e.t.c.

Psychologically: Once stress continues for a long time, it affects the behavior and
some of the symptoms are poor interpersonal relations, negative attitudes, sleeping
problems, absenteeism e.t.c.