Structure and Function of Organelles

Cell theory: The basic unit of structure and function for all living organisms is the cell and all cells
arise from preexisting cells by cell division. Modern science has added that:
1) Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed on from cell to cell during cell
division.
2) All cells are basically the same in their chemical composition and metabolic activities.
3) All basic chemical and physiological functions are carried out inside cells.
4) Cell activity depends on the activities sub-cellular structures within the cell.
Cell biology: The branch of biology that studies the cell.
Cytology: The branch of biology that uses microscopes to study the cell.
Endosymbiont theory: Chloroplasts and mitochondria are ancient bacteria which now live inside
larger cells typically animal and plant cells.
Cytoplasm:
- Structure: An aqueous material, varying from fluid to jelly-like consistency, between the cell
surface membrane and the nucleus in which many smaller structures can be seen.
- Function: It contains all the organelles and structures within the cell.
Nucleus:
- Structure: It is a deeply staining relatively large structure. The material within it which stains so
deeply is chromatin (chromosomes in a loosely coiled state), which contains DNA. Inside the
nucleus there are nucleoli (1-5 per cell) which are even more deeply staining and made up of
loops of DNA from several chromosomes. The nucleus is also surrounded by a nuclear
envelope (two membranes) with nuclear pores.
- Function: The nucleus contains DNA which is a molecule which contains the instructions to
control cell activities
Nucleolus: makes ribosomes using the information from its own DNA.
Nuclear envelope/ pores: The envelope is partially permeable and the pores allow and
control the exchange between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
- Eg. of entering substances: proteins for making ribosomes, nucleotides, ATP, and
thyroid hormone, T3.
- Eg. of exiting substances: mRNA and ribosomes for protein synthesis
Cell surface membrane/ plasma membrane:
- Structure: It is very thin and has a trilaminar appearance, which means that at magnifications
of about x100,000 it is visible to have three layers (this consists of two dark lines on either
side of a narrow, pale interior).
- Function: It is partially permeable and controls the exchange between the cell and its
environment.
Mitochondria:
- Structure: They are sausage-shaped organelles surrounded by an envelope. The inner
membrane forms finger-like projections (cristae) which go into the interior solution, called the
matrix. The outer membrane contains a transport protein called porin which acts to make wide
aqueous channels on the outer membrane. They contain 70S ribosomes, circular DNA and
can more, self-replicate using its own DNA, and change shape.
- Function:
1. They carry out aerobic respiration. This occurs within the matrix and the cristae and the
matrix. It the matrix there is a mixture of enzymes, which are also involved in the Krebs
cycle and provide hydrogen and electrons to the reactions which occur in the cristae.
The electrons are transported across a set if precisely placed electron carriers in the
membrane. This provides the power to generate ATP from ADP molecules.
2. Synthesise lipids
Outer membrane: The wide aqueous channels in it allow easy access of small watersoluble substances into the intermembrane space.
Inner membrane: The inner membrane is much more selective then the outer one and is
a very selective barrier which controls exactly what can enter the matrix.
Golgi apparatus:

- Structure: It is a stack of flattened compartments, called sacs. There can be more than one in
a cell (these stacks are constantly broken down at one end to form Golgi vesicles and built up
by the rough endoplasmic reticulum on the other).
- Function: It collects processes and sorts molecules, such as proteins, ready fir transport to
another part of the cell our out of the cell (exocytosis).
- Eg.: Adding a sugars to a proteins in order to make glycoproteins
- Eg.: Removing the amino acid, methionine, from newly formed proteins to make
functioning proteins.
- Eg.: In plants enzymes within it change help to convert sugars into cell wall components.
Golgi vesicles are also used to make lysosomes
Ribosomes:
- Structure: They are small organelles made of RNA and protein, which are seen as black dots
on the microscope, consisting of two subunits: the smaller 70S and the larger 80S. They can
be found free in the cytoplasm or lining the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
- Function: They make proteins
Lysosomes:
- Structure: They are small organelles, containing hydrolytic enzymes, surrounded by a single
membrane.
- Function: They are responsible for the breakdown of old organelles or even whole cells.
- Eg.: They break down cells in the mammary glands after lactation
- Eg.: They are responsible for the replacement of cartilage during development (they
release enzymes outside the cell).
- Eg.: In white blood cells, they are used to digest bacteria.
- Eg.: There is a special lysosome in the head of sperm, called the acrosome, which helps
digest its way into the ovum.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum:
- Structure: It is an extensive system of flattened sacs, continuous with the nuclear envelope
and is covered in ribosomes.
- Function: It transports proteins made by the ribosomes throughout the cell: The proteins from
the ribosomes enter the sacs and move through them. Parts of the sacs begin to bud off to
make the Golgi body. They become part of a secretory pathway as proteins can be
transported out of the cell by Golgi vesicles.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:
- Structure: It has the same structure as the rough endoplasmic reticulum, but it is found free in
the cytoplasm and has no ribosomes covering it.
- Function: It makes lipids and steroids, such as cholesterol, oestrogen, and testosterone.
Microtubules:
- Structure: They are long, rigid, hollow tubules found in the cytoplasm assembled from the
protein, tubulin, in a special part of the cell called a microtubule organising centres (MTOCs).
The can also be broken down by MTOCs. They are made of -tubulin and -tubulin dimers.
These dimers join end-on to form long protofilaments by polymerisation. Thirteen
protofilaments join together to make a long cylinder called a microtubule.
- Function:
1. Together with actin filaments and intermediate filaments they make up part of the
cytoskeleton which provides mechanical support for the structure of the cell.
2. They keep membrane-bound organelles in place
3. They allow secretory vesicles and other organelles and cell components to be moved
along the outside of microtubules
4. The spindles used during the separation of chromatids or chromosomes are made from
microtubules
5. They are part of the structure of centrioles.
Centriole:
- Structure: It is seen as a small dot near the nucleus with the light microscope, but actually it is
made of two centrioles close together lying perpendicular to each other in a region called the
centrosome. The centrioles are hollow cylinders made up of nine triplets of microtubules.
- Function:

1. They are MTOC for the microtubules used to make the spindle in cell division.
2. At the bases of flagella and cilia, they are called basal bodies and act as MTOC for the
microtubules, which extend out into the flagella and cilia and are essential for their
beating movements.
Microvilli:
- Structure: They are finger-like extensions on the cell surface membrane, often found on
epithelial cells.
- Function: They greatly increase surface area on the cell surface membrane.
- Eg. This is useful for absorption in the gut.
- Eg. It is also useful for reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubules of the kidney.
Chloroplasts:
- Structure: They are large organelles, which are elongated in shape. They are surrounded by
an envelope. The inner membrane contains enzymes and pigments and forms fluid filled sacs
called thylakoids which project into the stroma, which is the inner solution of the chloroplast.
They thylakoids stack up in some regions, like a stack of coins to make grana, which are
slightly visible with the light microscope. Both the chloroplasts and tow membranes inside
them can change their orientation to get access to more light. They contain 70S ribosomes,
circular DNA and can more, self-replicate using its own DNA, and change shape (like the
mitochondria).
- Function: The main function of the chloroplasts are to carry out photosynthesis.
- During the light dependant stage, the photosynthetic pigments absorb light. Some of this
energy is used to convert ADP into ATP. During this stage, water molecules are split into
hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen is used as a fuel and oxidised. (Similarly to
mitochondria, the electrons from the reaction travel across a set of electron carriers on
the cell membrane.)This produces more energy to convert ADP into ATP.
- During the light independent stage: In this stage, the reducing power and energy made in
the first phase is used to convert CO2 into sugars, using a group of enzyme-controlled
reactions (the Calvin cycle) which occur in the stroma.
Lipid droplets for making and breaking down membranes in the chloroplasts, as well as starch
grains may be visible.
Cell wall:
- Structure: It is a relatively rigid structure, which covers the cell surface membrane. It contains
cellulose and is occasionally reenforced by more cellulose or lignin (harder than cellulose).
- Function: It prevents the cell from bursting or being damaged due to osmotic pressures.
Middle lamella:
- Structure: It is a thin layer between plant cells, made out of calcium pectate.
- Function: It holds plant cells together.
Central vacuole:
- Structure: It is a large vacuole found in plant cells, which is surrounded by a membrane called
the tonoplast (it controls the exchange between the vacuole and cytoplasm). The cell sap
(inside the vacuole) is a solution of enzymes, pigments, sugars, and other organic
compounds, mineral salts, carbon dioxide, and oxygen.
- Function:
1. It helps control the osmotic properties of cells
2. The pigments of certain petals and vegetables may be found inside them. (Eg.
Beetroot)
Plasmodesmata:
- Structure: They are thin strands of cytoplasm which pass through pore-like structures in the
cell walls to connect neighbouring plant cells. Movement through the pores is controlled by
the structure of the pores.
- Function: To connect neighbouring plant cells and facilitate the exchange of substances
between them.